what is the un fao

FAO's Food Price Index rose one percent to 234 points in June 2011 - 39 percent higher than in June 2010 but four percent below its all-time high of 238 points in February of this year. A strong rise in international sugar prices was behind much of the increase. The FAO Cereal Price index averaged 259 points in June, down one percent from May but 71 percent higher than in June 2010.

FAO Food Outlook

FAO Food Outlook Print Email Monday, 01 August 2011 00:00

Improved weather conditions in Europe and the announced lifting of the Russian Federation's export ban contributed to the price drop. However the maize market remained tight because of low 2010 supplies and continued wet conditions in the United States. Prices of rice were mostly up in June, reflecting strong import demand and uncertainty over export prices in Thailand, the world's largest rice exporter. The FAO Sugar Price Index rose 14 percent from May to June, reaching 359 points, 15 percent below its January record.

Production in Brazil, the world's biggest sugar producer, is forecast to fall below last year's level. The FAO Dairy price Index averaged 232 points in June, virtually unchanged from 231 points in May. The FAO Meat Price Index averaged 180, marginally up from May with poultry meat rising three percent and climbing to a new record, while pig meat prices declined somewhat.

Following two consecutive revisions to the US crops and planting prospects for 2011, FAO's latest forecast for world cereal production in 2011/2012 stands at nearly 2,313 million tonnes, 3.3 percent higher than last year and 11 million tonnes above FAO's last forecast on 22 June.

World cereal utilization in 2011/2012 is forecast to grow 1.4 per cent from 2010/2011, reaching 2,307 million tonnes, just five million tonnes under forecast production. World cereal stocks at the close of the crop season in 2012 are now expected to stand six million tonnes above their opening levels.

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Philip Ward, the United Nations World Food Program (WFP) Deputy Regional Director for the Middle East, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe, was in Yemen for the first time earlier this month to meet with senior government officials, donors, and partners, including the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Drought and floods in Yemen affect food security

"26 Aug 2009Drought and floods in Yemen affect food security Report from Yemen Times Published on 26 Aug 2009 — View Original By: Salma Ismail SANA'A, Aug 26 - Extreme weather conditions and environmental changes are confusing farmers and threatening livelihoods, further aggravating Yemen's already fragile food security.

These new threats come as aid runs dangerously low and authorities ponder solutions. The Middle East in general is suffering from drought and the effects of climate change. Iraq, Turkey, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Cyprus, Iran, Yemen and other areas have each been dealing with decreased rainfall, reduced water storage, and in some cases, declared drought, leaving many countries dangerously dependant on food aid.

During his stay he visited a number of agricultural centers in Dhamar and Hodeida and spoke to farmers about the impact of this year's drought on agriculture. He also discussed the way ahead towards ensuring the country's food security. ""Globally the issue of food security is more important than ever. It's being discussed at the highest levels,"" Ward said. Currently, Yemen imports 90 percent of its food. Farmers grow weary Due to lack of research, there are no numbers that accurately describe how drought is affecting Yemenis.

However, one thing is clear; Yemeni farmers' attitudes towards planting have changed. ""The Ministry of Agriculture has a project together with the FAO to provide subsidized crop seeds such as sorghum and barley to farmers. A good indicator of drought is that farmers aren't even coming to buy the seeds,"" Ward said. ""The farmers weren't coming to buy the seeds because they didn't feel that it's worth the investment,"" he noted, explaining that sorghum and barley are the types of crops looked at to provide food security.

""The huge concern is that the rain this year is too little too late,"" Ward continued. ""Farmers are worried that rains at this point will not sustain their crops. ""In Hodeida, Ward met with farmers at the Tihama Development Authority. ""The farmers that we are worried about the most are those that are completely dependent on rain fed agriculture,"" he said.

""One such farmer that we met lived with his brother, but the total extended family was 22 people. He is entirely dependent on rain and he said he didn't anticipate any problem this year. Now he has to sell off livestock to feed his family,"" related Ward.

""That worries us because when farmers start doing that, the very things that should protect and help them next year are now lost.

These are the people we are trying to support the most. ""Some families in various governorates including Dhamar, Al-Mahwit, Hajja, Taiz, Lahj and Dhal'e have already left their homes in search of greener pastures and wetter lands. ""It's a concern when people start moving off the land to urban centers or where water is available,"" Ward said.

""We are concerned about the social tension and fragmentation that could happen as a result. ""Following a year with no rainfall in 2008, thousands of residents in Mahwit governorate, some 113 km northwest of the capital Sana'a, have been displaced after they were forced to abandon their mountainous villages and move to cities.

Deadly clashes over water sources have also been reported this year. Food running out In July, a shortage of funds forced the WFP to halve its rations to 95,000 war-affected people in Yemen, many of whom depend entirely on food assistance. The WFP's resources are running dangerously low. Overall, the program is facing a shortfall of US 20 million or 36 percent of its total needs for 2009.

In June 2009, the WFP had to suspend food assistance programs linked to health and education which had benefited 815,000 of the most vulnerable Yemenis. ""Our programs are designed to support a developmental process rather than a dependency on food aid,"" Ward said.

He related a success story of the Food for Education program. ""Our deputy country director in Yemen went to a health clinic. The nurse that treated him had been a recipient of the food for education program. A few years ago, she might not have had that opportunity that she did. ""Unfortunately, in June the WFP was forced to temporarily halt its Food for Education programs due to a lack of funds.

During his visit to Dhamar and Hodeida, Ward went with representatives from the FAO and the Ministry of Agriculture. The Yemeni Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation arranged this mission that was led by Dr. Mansoor Al-Hoshabi, the Minister of Agriculture and Irrigation, as well as Ibrahim Thabet, an assistant representative of the FAO.

Beneficial allocation of resources Yemen is getting hotter by the year. According to the National Council for Climate, there has been an increase in average temperatures in the capital Sana'a over the last 20 years, though they do not have an exact percentage due to a lack of research.

Yemen is under ""serious water stress"" according to a report by the UN Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UN-ESCWA).

Former Prime Minister Abdul-Karim Al-Iryani has warned that the country could face famine as soon as next year, calling upon the international community to support Yemen. Climate change during the last few years and especially in 2009 is a real concern for Yemen, particularly if the frequency of precipitation events continues to diminish, putting agriculture in peril and potentially leading to a catastrophic drought. Agriculture accounts for about 90 percent of Yemen's groundwater consumption, and up to 40 percent of it is used just for growing qat.

Dr. Naef Abu Lohom, Head of the Research and Studies Department at the Water and Environment Center with the University of Sana'a, explained that there are two main water seasons in Yemen and that rainfall patterns are changing.

""The rainy season in Yemen is usually from March to May and July to September,"" he said, ""but rains are now starting in August. ""We are noticing the late onset of the rains, but we still need research to determine if this is due to climate change,"" Lohom said.

""We do not have statistics from before and so we cannot compare. ""However, he explained that there are some rainfall areas that are currently being monitored. ""In the future we can fully assess the changes. There's certainly been a change in agricultural seasons, but we cannot attribute this to climate change due to lack of scientific research,"" he noted.

Much like the rest of the region, the climate change impacts facing Yemen are drought and desertification on the one hand and torrential downpours on the other, rains that are useless because they are not harvested or channeled in any way.

If these rains are taken advantage of they would help to ease drought. ""The concept of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is still new to Yemen and needs to be applied by the water sector here in order to strike a balance between water replenishment and usage,"" Lohom said.

""Our geographical location in an arid area makes it especially difficult for Yemen. It rains four months in a year, if we are optimistic. The rest of the year is dry. The population increase, especially in the mountainous area where up to 90 percent of the population density distribution is located, further aggravates the issue,"" he added. ""Most of the population is also concentrated in the major cities. This puts pressure on ground water. That's why we have an annual drop of four to six meters in most of our groundwater resources,"" Lohom explained.

""We are in urgent need for applying the concept of IWRM, in all its aspects,"" he stressed. ""This cannot be solved by the government itself,"" he noted, adding that the community needs to play a larger role.

Lohom cited some examples where communities in Dhamar, Hadramout and Taiz have been empowered in water management and monitoring through establishing associations. The October 2008 flooding disaster which centered on the Hadramout governorate affected about a third of the country and triggered a major international response. Many residents there still depend on aid. ""The WFP has provided assistance to 43,000 people affected by floods in Hadramout and Al-Mahra,"" according to WFP Yemen.

Assessing the drought The WFP discussed water management systems at length with the Tihama Development Authority and the Ministry of Agriculture. ""There's been a lot of investment in irrigation and water systems. The problem is that even with that very good investment, if there's not enough water it doesn't matter how much you've invested in it,"" Ward said, explaining that this is part of the problem and that investment isn't enough.

""With the irrigation systems that exist, there will be farming in areas where people have access to irrigation canals and pumps where the infrastructure is already set up,"" he said. The WFP focus is always on the poor and the vulnerable who live away from such systems and are completely dependent on rain fed agriculture, according to Ward.

""We need to look at the issue in more depth,"" he admitted. ""At this point we consider it a very serious issue.

Given that, we have decided that there is a need to conduct a full food supply assessment mission through the WFP and the FAO. The Ministry of Agriculture has now officially requested us to conduct it. ""A clearer picture of the situation is expected to emerge as a result of that assessment. ""The mission will look at the level of harvests that come in, the amount of food Yemen imports and consumption levels,"" Ward said. ""They will then make recommendations. ""The assessment is expected to be carried out next month. "

. According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), soy was Brazil’s main agricultural crop by harvested area in 2004, with more than 21 million ha under cultivation. Another crop of concern is cocoa, which has been blamed for widespread deforestation in Brazil.

Environmental problems in Brazil

Environmental problems in Brazil© WWF / Mark EDWARDSLosing nature at its most extraordinary A glimpse at the threats facing Brazil's remarkable nature.

The ongoing expansion of agriculture in Brazil is seriously threatening rare and vulnerable habitats such as the Atlantic Forest, the Cerrado, and the Amazon. The major threat for these vast – but not infinite – natural areas is the often destructive expansion of a vegetable, more precisely a bean: soy

During the cocoa economic boom of the 1970s, expansion of this crop was a leading cause of the decline of Brazil’s endangered Atlantic Forest ecosystem, of which only about 10% persists - barely.

The cattle problem The Cerrado, an extensive woodland savanna ecosystem in Brazil, is threatened by cattle ranching. The expansion of cattle ranching is closely linked to the increased soy cultivation - which poses serious concerns about the impact of this industry on sensitive ecosystems.

There are also concerns about the expansion of chicken and pork production moving into the Cerrado. 1© WWFFind out more More on soy cultivation and its impacts The link between cattle-ranching, soy and deforestation What is WWF doing about the environmental impacts of agriculture globally?

The paper pulp problem In the Atlantic forests of Brazil, some of the world's most diverse ecosystems have been converted to fast growing plantations. Brazil has millions of hectares of exotic plantations, made up mainly of eucalyptus, a non-native species. Although some plantations are certified with the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) label, in others there have been repeated conflicts with indigenous peoples about land rights.

Forty per cent of Brazil's bleached pulp is exported to Europe. Sources1 Carey C., Oettli D. 2006. Determining the links between agricultural crop expansion and deforestation. A report prepared for the WWF Forest Conversion Initiative. 71 pp.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)WHO/K. Petersen JECFA is an international scientific expert committee administered jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and WHO.

Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA)

It has been meeting since 1956, to evaluate the safety of food additives, contaminants, naturally occurring toxicants and residues of veterinary drugs in food.

JECFA serves as an independent scientific expert committee which performs risk assessments and provides advice to FAO, WHO and the member countries of both organizations, as well as to the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC).

JECFA Members are prominent scientists from across the world, of recognised scientific excellence with competences spreading across disciplines within JECFA remit: Risk assessment practice – human health risk assessment, food consumption and exposure assessment, toxicology, epidemiology, veterinary medicine, chemistry, biology, biochemistry, life sciences. Cross-cutting scientific issues – statistical approaches in risk assessment, the preparation of guidance for risk assessment in the area of food and feed.

What is JECFA? pdf, 155kb Roster of experts Both FAO and WHO establish listings of experts, called rosters; appointments are for a period of five years following an open call for application from scientific experts specialised in the fields within the remit of JECFA.

Experts are selected from those rosters by the Secretariat for each meeting, considering the expertise needed and a balance of scientific views and other experience that are essential for the evaluation of the items on the agenda of the meeting. Final appointment for the meeting and assignment of tasks occurs only after careful evaluation of Declarations of Interests submitted by each expert.

FAO and WHO meet the costs of experts’ attendance at JECFA meetings. WHO roster of toxicological and epidemiological experts (2016-2020) pdf, 212kb FAO/WHO roster of experts for exposure assessment of chemicals in food (2017-2021) pdf, 202kb Pending requests for evaluation Pending request for the evaluation of contaminants and naturally occurring toxicants by JECFA pdf, 12kb Pending requests for the evaluation of food additives by JECFA (updated May 2017) pdf, 200kb

ks. The International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) was developed by WHO and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to rapidly share information during food safety emergencies;promoting safe food handling through systematic disease prevention and awareness programmes, through the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food message and training materials; and

Food safety

"Food safety Fact sheet Reviewed October 2017Key facts Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health.

Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances, causes more than 200 diseases – ranging from diarrhoea to cancers. An estimated 600 million – almost 1 in 10 people in the world – fall ill after eating contaminated food and 420 000 die every year, resulting in the loss of 33 million healthy life years (DALYs).

Children under 5 years of age carry 40% of the foodborne disease burden, with 125 000 deaths every year. Diarrhoeal diseases are the most common illnesses resulting from the consumption of contaminated food, causing 550 million people to fall ill and 230 000 deaths every year.

Food safety, nutrition and food security are inextricably linked. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of disease and malnutrition, particularly affecting infants, young children, elderly and the sick. Foodborne diseases impede socioeconomic development by straining health care systems, and harming national economies, tourism and trade. Food supply chains now cross multiple national borders. Good collaboration between governments, producers and consumers helps ensure food safety. Major foodborne illnesses and causes

Foodborne illnesses are usually infectious or toxic in nature and caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances entering the body through contaminated food or water. Foodborne pathogens can cause severe diarrhoea or debilitating infections including meningitis.

Chemical contamination can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as cancer. Foodborne diseases may lead to long-lasting disability and death. Examples of unsafe food include uncooked foods of animal origin, fruits and vegetables contaminated with faeces, and raw shellfish containing marine biotoxins. Bacteria: Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli are among the most common foodborne pathogens that affect millions of people annually – sometimes with severe and fatal outcomes.

Symptoms are fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain and diarrhoea. Examples of foods involved in outbreaks of salmonellosis are eggs, poultry and other products of animal origin. Foodborne cases with Campylobacter are mainly caused by raw milk, raw or undercooked poultry and drinking water. Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli is associated with unpasteurized milk, undercooked meat and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Listeria infection leads to unplanned abortions in pregnant women or death of newborn babies. Although disease occurrence is relatively low, listeria’s severe and sometimes fatal health consequences, particularly among infants, children and the elderly, count them among the most serious foodborne infections. Listeria is found in unpasteurised dairy products and various ready-to-eat foods and can grow at refrigeration temperatures.

Vibrio cholerae infects people through contaminated water or food. Symptoms include abdominal pain, vomiting and profuse watery diarrhoea, which may lead to severe dehydration and possibly death.

Rice, vegetables, millet gruel and various types of seafood have been implicated in cholera outbreaks. Antimicrobials, such as antibiotics, are essential to treat infections caused by bacteria. However, their overuse and misuse in veterinary and human medicine has been linked to the emergence and spread of resistant bacteria, rendering the treatment of infectious diseases ineffective in animals and humans. Resistant bacteria enter the food chain through the animals (e.g. Salmonella through chickens). Antimicrobial resistance is one of the main threats to modern medicine.

Viruses: Norovirus infections are characterized by nausea, explosive vomiting, watery diarrhoea and abdominal pain. Hepatitis A virus can cause long-lasting liver disease and spreads typically through raw or undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce. Infected food handlers are often the source of food contamination. Parasites: Some parasites, such as fish-borne trematodes, are only transmitted through food. Others, for example tapeworms like Echinococcus spp, or Taenia solium, may infect people through food or direct contact with animals. Other parasites, such as Ascaris, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica or Giardia, enter the food chain via water or soil and can contaminate fresh produce.

Prions: Prions, infectious agents composed of protein, are unique in that they are associated with specific forms of neurodegenerative disease. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, or ""mad cow disease"") is a prion disease in cattle, associated with the variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (v CJD) in humans.

Consuming bovine products containing specified risk material, e.g. brain tissue, is the most likely route of transmission of the prion agent to humans. Chemicals: Of most concern for health are naturally occurring toxins and environmental pollutants. Naturally occurring toxins include mycotoxins, marine biotoxins, cyanogenic glycosides and toxins occurring in poisonous mushrooms.

Staple foods like corn or cereals can contain high levels of mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin, produced by mould on grain. A long-term exposure can affect the immune system and normal development, or cause cancer. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are compounds that accumulate in the environment and human body.

Known examples are dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which are unwanted by-products of industrial processes and waste incineration.

They are found worldwide in the environment and accumulate in animal food chains. Dioxins are highly toxic and can cause reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune system, interfere with hormones and cause cancer. Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury cause neurological and kidney damage. Contamination by heavy metal in food occurs mainly through pollution of air, water and soil.

The burden of foodborne diseases The burden of foodborne diseases to public health and welfare and to economy has often been underestimated due to underreporting and difficulty to establish causal relationships between food contamination and resulting illness or death.

The 2015 WHO report on the estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases presented the first-ever estimates of disease burden caused by 31 foodborne agents (bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins and chemicals) at global and regional level. WHO estimates of the global burden of foodborne diseases The evolving world and food safety Safe food supplies support national economies, trade and tourism, contribute to food and nutrition security, and underpin sustainable development.

Urbanization and changes in consumer habits, including travel, have increased the number of people buying and eating food prepared in public places.

Globalization has triggered growing consumer demand for a wider variety of foods, resulting in an increasingly complex and longer global food chain. As the world’s population grows, the intensification and industrialization of agriculture and animal production to meet increasing demand for food creates both opportunities and challenges for food safety.

Climate change is also predicted to impact food safety, where temperature changes modify food safety risks associated with food production, storage and distribution. These challenges put greater responsibility on food producers and handlers to ensure food safety. Local incidents can quickly evolve into international emergencies due to the speed and range of product distribution. Serious foodborne disease outbreaks have occurred on every continent in the past decade, often amplified by globalized trade.

Examples include the contamination of infant formula with melamine in 2008 (affecting 300 000 infants and young children, 6 of whom died, in China alone), and the 2011 Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli outbreak in Germany linked to contaminated fenugreek sprouts, where cases were reported in 8 countries in Europe and North America, leading to 53 deaths and significant economic losses.

Food safety: a public health priority Unsafe food poses global health threats, endangering everyone.

Infants, young children, pregnant women, the elderly and those with an underlying illness are particularly vulnerable. Every year 220 million children contract diarrhoeal diseases and 96 000 die. Unsafe food creates a vicious cycle of diarrhoea and malnutrition, threatening the nutritional status of the most vulnerable.

Where food supplies are insecure, people tend to shift to less healthy diets and consume more “unsafe foods” – in which chemical, microbiological and other hazards pose health risks. The Second International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2), held in Rome in November 2014, reiterated the importance of food safety in achieving better human nutrition through healthy nutritious diets.

Improving food safety is thus a key in achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Governments should make food safety a public health priority, as they play a pivotal role in developing policies and regulatory frameworks, establishing and implementing effective food safety systems that ensure that food producers and suppliers along the whole food chain operate responsibly and supply safe food to consumers. Food can become contaminated at any point of production and distribution, and the primary responsibility lies with food producers.

Yet a large proportion of foodborne disease incidents are caused by foods improperly prepared or mishandled at home, in food service establishments or markets.

Not all food handlers and consumers understand the roles they must play, such as adopting basic hygienic practices when buying, selling and preparing food to protect their health and that of the wider community. Everyone can contribute to making food safe. Here are some examples of effective actions: Policy-makers can:build and maintain adequate food systems and infrastructures (e.g.

laboratories) to respond to and manage food safety risks along the entire food chain, including during emergencies;foster multi-sectoral collaboration among public health, animal health, agriculture and other sectors for better communication and joint action;integrate food safety into broader food policies and programmes (e.g. nutrition and food security);think globally and act locally to ensure the food produce domestically be safe internationally.

Food handlers and consumers can:know the food they use (read labels on food package, make an informed choice, become familiar with common food hazards);handle and prepare food safely, practicing the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food at home, or when selling at restaurants or at local markets;grow fruits and vegetables using the WHO Five Keys to Growing Safer Fruits and Vegetables to decrease microbial contamination.

WHO response WHO aims to facilitate global prevention, detection and response to public health threats associated with unsafe food. Ensuring consumer trust in their authorities, and confidence in the safe food supply, is an outcome that WHO works to achieve.

To do this, WHO helps Member States build capacity to prevent, detect and manage foodborne risks by:providing independent scientific assessments on microbiological and chemical hazards that form the basis for international food standards, guidelines and recommendations, known as the Codex Alimentarius, to ensure food is safe wherever it originates;assessing the safety of new technologies used in food production, such as genetic modification and nanotechnology;helping improve national food systems and legal frameworks, and implement adequate infrastructure to manage food safety ris

ks. The International Food Safety Authorities Network (INFOSAN) was developed by WHO and the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to rapidly share information during food safety emergencies;promoting safe food handling through systematic disease prevention and awareness programmes, through the WHO Five Keys to Safer Food message and training materials; and

AGP:1970/M/12/1 WHO/FOOD ADD/71.42 1970 EVALUATIONS OF SOME PESTICIDE RESIDUES IN FOOD THE MONOGRAPHS Issued jointly by FAO and WHO The content of this document is the result of the deliberations of the Joint Meeting of the FAO Working Party of Experts and the WHO Expert Group on Pesticide Residues, which met in Rome, 9-16 November, 1970.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION Rome, 1971 CHLORDANE Explanation This pesticide was first evaluated by the WHO Expert Committee on Pesticide Residues at the 1963 and 1965 Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues (FAO/WHO, 1964, 1965). A completely revised monograph on chlordane was produced after the 1967 Joint Meeting (FAO/WHO, 1968). Since that time additional data, particularly on the metabolism of chlordane, have become available and these and pertinent older data are summarized in this monograph addendum.

IDENTITY The chemical name and structure of chlordane is given in the previous monograph (FAO/WHO, 1968). The configuration of the two isomers is shown in Fig. 1. Nomenclature of chlordane isomers Three systems are now used in the literature to name the principal isomers of chlordane.

The oldest has been used since about 1947 by Velsicol Chemical Corporation, in whose laboratories chlordane was discovered. This nomenclature (hereinafter called System 1) was employed in technical literature in documents considered by regulatory agencies and in the identification of Reference Analytical Standards which were freely distributed to researchers, regulatory laboratories and quality control analysts.

System 2 appeared in the technical literature in the early 1950's: System 3 was first used in 1969. The three systems are correlated in Table I, to which is appended some references employing each. Unequivocal bases for experimental distinction of the two isomers are chromatographic relative retention times and accompanying infra-red spectra and NMR spectra (Velsicol, 1970).

TABLE I Chlordane isomers Correlation of nomenclature systems System 1 System 2 System 3 Alpha-chlordane Beta-chlordane cis -chlordane Gamma-chlordane Alpha-chlordane trans -chlordane Examples of use of nomenclatures: System 1. Velsicol Chemical Corp., technical documents for regulatory agencies, publications and correspondence, Reference Analytical Standards, since 1947; FAO/WHO, 1968; IUPAC, 1968, 1969.

2. March, 1952; Büchel et al., 1966; IUPAC 1967; Riemschneider, 1969. 3. Chau and Cochrane, 1969. Designation of salient chromatographic peaks In the analytical reports on constituents of residue, certain minor components of chlordane are named by letters.

The designations usually correspond to those marked on a chromatogram presented to IUPAC Commission on Terminal Pesticide Residues (Polen, 1966) or another set used in the USFDA ""Pesticide Analytical Manual, Vol.

I"" (1968). The letter designations are compared in Table II, and the relevant chromatograms of technical chlordane are given in Figure 2. EVALUATION FOR ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS The current knowledge concerning the metabolism of chlordane in mammals is shown in Figure 1. Work in rats and rabbits leading to the identification of the hydrophilic metabolites has already been reviewed in the previous monograph (Poonawalla and Korte, 1964; Ludwig, 1966; Korte, 1967a, 1967b). The metabolism of chlordane has also been the subject of a general review of the metabolism of the cyclodiene insecticides (Brooks, 1969).

Recently, another metabolite termed ""oxychlordane"" has been isolated from the fat and milk of several animal species which had been fed chlordane. Details of the levels found in the tissues are given in the section entitled, ""Fate of residues in animals"".

The structure (see Figure 1) has been determined spectrographically and by chemical synthesis by workers in two independent laboratories (Schwemmer et al., 1970; Lawrence et al., 1970). ""Oxychlordane"" has not been detected as a plant metabolite. Heptachlor and its metabolites may occur as residues from the use of chlordane; although it is uncertain if they are derived from the metabolism of chlordane or from the presence of impurities of heptachlor in the chlordane used (Calo, 1970).

(See also the monograph on heptachlor) Chromatograms of technical chlordane using, above, the letter designation of Velsicol (Polen, 1966) and below, that of USFDA (US Dept.

of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, 1968). TABLE II Chlordane chromatographic peaks: correlation of letter designations Velsicol 1 / USFDA 2 / C A D B E C F D H 3 / E 3 / I 4 / F 4 / K G 1 / Polen, 1966 2 / US Dept.

of Health, Education and Welfare, Food and Drug Administration, 1968 3 / Peak for trans -chlordane 4 / Peak for cis -chlordane No further experimental information is available to enable complete elucidation of the significance of liver hypertrophy or the stimulation of liver microsomal activity following administration of chlordane. The significance of these changes was discussed in the previous monograph on chlordane (FAO/WHO, 1968). TOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES Special studies on carcinogenicity Rat In the 78-weeks feeding study in rats reviewed under ""Long-term studies"", no tumours were evident when dietary levels up to 35 ppm of the cis - or 75 ppm of the trans -isomer were fed (Ingle 1969).

There is no report that tumours have been looked for in any other species fed chlordane. Special studies on the metabolite ""oxychlordane"" Rat A group comprising two male and two female rats was fed a level of the chlordane metabolite ""oxychlordane"" in their diet, sufficient to maintain a daily intake of 2.0 mg/kg body-weight. The compound was fed for 90 days, after which time the surviving animals were sacrificed for autopsy.

Body-weight increase, food consumption, mortality, organ-weights and organ to body-weight ratios, behaviour, haematology and blood chemistry and urologic studies were all considered to be within the normal range for the strain of rat used. No gross pathological abnormalities were evident, and no histopathological lesions could be attributed to ""oxychlordane"".

A parallel control Group of rats fed a normal diet does not appear to have been examined in this experiment (Plant et al., 1970). Feeding studies with ""oxychlordane"" utilizing a larger number of animals are reported to be in progress (Calo, 1970).

Special studies on the possible metabolite 1-hydroxychlordene Rat Groups of 25 males and 25 females were fed dietary levels of 0, 100, 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 ppm of 1-hydroxychlordene for up to 224 days.

After 110 days, three females from each feeding level were mated with males at all levels. Mortality in all groups was low, and no real differences existed. At 224 days, autopsy revealed no gross abnormality. Histopathology of all visceral organs was negative, except for the slight to moderate cytoplasmic margination of a few liver cells at 1000 and 2000 ppm (Ingle, 1965).

Special studies on photodecomposition Rat No information is available on the mammalian toxicity of the photoisomer of chlordane. Acute toxicity The acute toxicity of the two isomers of chlordane and some metabolites is summarized in Table III.

Rats were fed for 28 days from weaning on either (a) a diet containing 3.5 percent protein as casein; (b) a diet containing a normal amount of protein as casein or (c) a standard laboratory diet.

A single oral TABLE III Acute toxicity of chlordane isomers and metabolites LD 50 mg/kg Compound Animal body weight Reference (oral) cis -chlordane Rat (M) 392 Wazeter et al., 1968 trans -chlordane Rat (M) 327 Wazeter et al,, 1963 cis - trans -chlordane Rat (M) 371 Wazeter et al., 1968 (1:1 by weight) oxychlordane Rat (M,F) 19.1 Kastri et al., 1969 a chlordane Rat (M,F) >4600 Nastri et al., 1969 b 3-chlorochlordene Rat (M,F) >4600 Mastri et al., 1969 b 1-hydroxychlordene Rat (M,F) >4600 Mastri et al., 1969 b chlordene epoxide Rat (M,F) >4600 Mastri et al., 1969 b 1-hydroxy 2,3-epoxy Rat (F) >4600 and Mastri et al., 1969 c chlordene <10200 2 chlorochlordene Rat (F) >10200 Mastri et al., 1969 c dose of chlordane was administered after the feeding period.

The LD 50 values for the three groups were 137, 267, or 311 mg/kg body-weight, respectively. Clinical symptoms and pathology were the same in all groups (Boyd and Taylor, 1969).

Long-term studies Rat Groups, each of 20 male and 20 female rats were fed dietary levels of 0, 5, 15, 25 or 35 ppm of cis -chlordane or 15, 25, 35 or 75 ppm of trans -chlordane or 5, 15, 25, 35 or 50 ppm of a 1 : 1 mixture of cis and trans -chlordane.

In the group fed cis -chlordane, growth retardation became apparent in the group fed 35 ppm after four months in the males and after five months in the females; with trans -chlordane, the 75 ppm group of males only displayed growth retardation after eight months. With the mixture, growth retardation was evident in both sexes fed 50 ppm, beginning early in the males and later in the females. Growth retardation was not evident in any groups fed lower doses of either isomer. Food consumption bore a relationship to growth. Increased mortality for both sexes became significant in the groups fed 35 ppm of cis -chlordane, 75 ppm of trans -chlordane or 50 ppm of the cis - trans mixture.

Haematocrit was normal for all test groups. Autopsy revealed no gross pathological lesion, in particular there was no evidence of tumours. Histological examination of all organs showed no changes from feeding chlordane at any level, except in the case of the liver. Compression of sinusoids due to slight hepatic cell hypertrophy in the centrolobular region and minimal bile duct proliferation were evident at 35 ppm of cis -chlordane.

The above were noted, but were minimal, at 25 ppm of the same isomer. Slight to moderate cytoplasmic homogeneity of the hepatic cells in the centrolobular region, minimal perinuclear vacuolation and minimal cell hypertrophy with constriction of sinusoids were noted at 75 ppm of the trans -chlordane.

Slight cytoplasmic homogeneity of hepatic cells in the centrolobular region and occasional cytoplasmic margination were observed at 50 ppm of the cis - trans mixture.

The above alterations were minimal at 35 ppm of the same mixture. No liver abnormalities were evident after feeding lower levels of the chlordane isomers (Ingle, 1969) COMMENT The study on cis and trans -isomers of chlordane, which was considered desirable at the 1967 Joint Meeting, has now been completed and indicates that the no-effect levels of the two isomers and of the technical product are all within the same range, The toxic metabolite, oxychlordane, which becomes stored in the fat or excreted in the milk of lactating animals fed high doses of chlordane, does not appear to be a residue in plants.

For this reason, the toxicity of oxychlordane was not considered to be a matter of concern. No information is available on the mammalian toxicity of the photoisomer of chlordane. A satisfactory reproduction study in one species has been previously reported and is considered adequate. However, in view of the observations from other organochlorine compounds, an adequate carcinogenicity study in another species is needed.

TOXICOLOGICAL EVALUATION Level causing no toxicological effect Rat: 20 ppm of technical chlordane in the diet, equivalent to 1 mg/kg body-weight/day Dog: 3 ppm of technical chlordane in the diet, equivalent to 0.075 mg/kg body-weight/day ESTIMATE OF ACCEPTABLE DAILY INTAKE FOR MAN 0-0.001 mg/kg body-weight RESIDUES IN FOOD AND THEIR EVALUATION USE PATTERN Several million pounds of chlordane have been used annually in a broad spectrum of applications in the U. S. A. for nearly 25 years.

Outside the U. S. A. its use is somewhat less, but comparable. Velsicol (1970) has presented the approximate distribution of use of chlordane outside of the continental United States of America as follows: Area Percentage Europe 55 North America (excludes U. S.

A.) 15 South America 15 Asia 10 Africa 5 Total 100 In the U. S. A. about half and outside the U. S. A. about 10 percent of chlordane usage is estimated to be non-agricultural (household pest control, lawn protection, etc.)

Chlordane is used in protection of the following crops: Europe: Potatoes, vegetables, small grains, sugar beets and sugar cane. Western hemisphere: Sugar cane, maize, small grains, potatoes and vegetables. Asia: Rice, cotton and jute. Other uses of chlordane are in the protection of fruits, nuts and oil seed crops. RESIDUES RESULTING FROM SUPERVISED TRIALS A substantial amount of new information on the residues resulting from supervised trials is made available to the Working Party.

Present application of electron capture gas chromatography on chlordane residues has allowed fairly detailed evaluation of several constituents of the residues.

The available new information is summarized in Table IV. The data are based on the records of Velsicol Chemical Corporation (1970). Evidence of residues in food in commerce or at consumption In a series of papers (Duggan et al., 1966, 1967; Duggan and Weatherwax, 1967; Duggan and Lipscomb, 1969) the pesticide residue levels have been reported in 11 food and feed categories, as raw agricultural products or ready-to-eat foods, domestic and imported, and they have assessed the dietary intake during 1964 to 1968 in the United States.

The observations on chlordane levels are summarized in Table V. Chlordane was undetected in all but three categories of raw agricultural products where levels were <0.005 ppm and at maximum incidence of 3.3 percent in imported grain. Ready-to-eat foods in these three categories contained less (in one category) or undetected residues.

Chlordane residues found in vegetable oil seeds, oils and byproducts are summarized in Table VI. The traces of chlordane were reported in less than 1 percent of the sample of soybeans, but none appeared in the finished oil. Chlordane residues were reported in 3.7 per cent of the crude maize oil samples, but were not found in the finished oil. A small number of samples of crude cottonseed oil showed occasional residues of chlordane, but the concentration in finished oil was lower by about 59 percent. No chlordane residues were observed in oleomargarine or in the total diet composites consisting of salad dressings, salad oils, mayonnaise, shortenings and peanut butter (Duggan, 1968 a, 1968 b).

These empirical observations corroborate the evidence that commercial processing removes chlordane residues, if present, from edible vegetable oils and oil products.

From 750 meal cake samples (Table VI), chlordane was detected in 0.7 percent of the soybean cakes and in 6.5 percent of the cottonseed TABLE IV Summary of maximum observed chlordane residues 1,2 Treatment maximum rate Root vegetables lb/acre ppm Parsnip 10 0.07 Potato 10 0.23 Rutabaga 10 0.5 Sugar beets (root) 10 0.11 (wet pulp) 10 0.15 (dried pulp) 10 0.3 (juice) 10 0.06 3 Sweet potato 10 0.04 Leafy and stalk vegetables Asparagus 4 4 0.07 Broccoli 4 4 0.06 3 Brussel sprouts 4 4 o.36 Cabbage 4 4 0.09 Celery 12 4 0.06 3 Cauliflower 4 4 (foliar) 0.06 Mustard greens 10 0.07 Spinach 10 0.10 Swiss chard 10 0.07 Other vegetables Snap beans 10 0.01 Grains Barley (Grain) 10 4 (foliar and soil) 0.06 3 "" (straw) 10 4 0.42 Oats (grain) 10 0.06 3 "" (straw) 10 0.10 Rye (grain) 10 0:06 3 "" (straw) 10 0 07 Wheat (grain) 4 (foliar) 0:06 3 "" (straw) 4 ( "" ) 0.38 "" (grain) 10 0:06 3 "" (straw) 10 0.10 Rice (grain) 10 (soil or seed dressing) 0.03 3 "" (straw) 10 0.03 3 TABLE IV (cont'd) Treatment maximum rate lb/acre ppm Grains Maize and ""popcorn"" (seed) 10 0.06 3 "" "" "" (stalks and leaves) 10 0.03 3 Sorghum (grain) 12 (soil or seed dressing) 0.06 3 "" (stalks) 12 ( "" ) 0.07 Cucurbits Cantaloupe 3 4 (foliar) 0.1 Cucumber 3 4 ( "" ) 0.06 3 Pumpkins (pulp) 4 4 ( "" ) 0.06 3 "" (rind) 4 4 ( "" ) 0.10 "" (pulp) 10 0.08 "" (rind) 10 0.15 Squash 3 4 (foliar) 0.09 Watermelons 3 4 ( "" ) 0.06 3Fruits and nuts Almonds 10 0.006 3 Figs 10 0.003 3 5 Filberts 10 0.003 3 Olives 10 0.006 3 Pecans 10 0.048 Pomegranate 10 0.006 3 5 Walnuts 10 03 3 5 Bananas 10 0.03 3 Guavas 10 0 036 Mangoes 10 0:01 3 5 Passion fruit 10 0.035 Papayas 5 0.01 Oil seed crops Cotton (seed) 1-2 (foliar, up 12 0.22 applications (meal) 1-2 ( "" ) 0.07 (crude oil) 1-2 ( "" ) 0.11 (soap stock) 1-2 ( "" ) 0.06 3 (stalks) 1-2 ( "" ) 0.29 TABLE IV (cont'd) Treatment maximum rate lb/acre ppm Oil seed crops Linseed (seed) 3 4 (foliar) 0.22 (meal) 3 4 ( "" ) 0.09 (crude oil) 3 4 ( "" ) 0.24 Soybeans (beans) 12 4 0.38 (crude oil) 12 4 0.42; 0.72 Rape (whole plants) 3 (foliar) 0.35 1 From soil treatment except where indicated; data not previously published.

2 Sum of six constituents of technical chlordane. 3 Negative reading - value shown is sum of estimated lower limits of sensitivity components. 4 Exceeds maximum rate permitted in U. S. A. 5 Shell or meat analyzed separately. TABLE V Chlordane residues in food and feed.

1 Raw agricultural product Food category Domestic Import Ready-to-eat food Incidence Average Incidence Average Incidence Average percent ppm percent ppm percent ppm Large fruit N2 - N - N - Small fruit N - N - N - Grain & cereals For human use 0.7 <0.005 3.3 <0.005 N - For animal use N - N - - - Vegetables Leaf and stem N - N - N - Vine and ear 2.0 <0.005 0.3 <0.005 2.7 <0.001 Root 1.9 <0.005 0.3 <0.005 N - Potatoes - - - - N - Beans N - N - N - Eggs N - N - N - Nuts N - N - N - Processed meat (canned frozen, etc.)

Domestic N - Imported N - TABLE V Chlordane residues in food and feed. 1 Raw agricultural product Food category Domestic Import Ready-to-eat food Incidence Average Incidence Average Incidence Average percent ppm percent ppm percent ppm Fluid milk (fat basis) N - Dairy products (fat basis) N - N - 1 Extracted from USA-FDA surveillances programme report (Duggan, 1968b) 2 Not tabulated in reference, presumably because of insignificant frequency of incidence TABLE VI Chlordane residues in vegetable oil seeds, oils and byproducts 1 Crude oil Meal (cake) Edible oil Product Number of Raw product samples Incidence Average Incident Average Incident Average Incident Average analysed percent ppm percent ppm percent ppm percent ppm Soybeans 550 0.9 <0.001 - 2 - 2 0.7 <0.001 - 2 - 2 Groundnuts 177 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 - 2 Cottonseed 23 8.7 0.004 2.2 0.017 6.5 0.012 2.4 0.007 Maize 819 - 2 - 2 3.7 0.080 - 2 - 2 Total and weighted 1569 0.4 <0.001 2.0 0.042 0.9 3 <0.001 3 0.04 <0.001 averages 1 Extracted from USA-FDA surveillance programne reports (Duggan, 1968a) 2 Not detected 3 Estimates based upon 750 samples for which cake data are given cakes at average levels less than 0.001 and 0.012 ppm, respectively.

Of all the samples, 0.9 percent contained a detectable level (<0.001 ppm) of chlordane. Dietary intake (milligrammes/day) generally appeared to be too low to quantitate.

Except for <0.001 mg/day (<1.7 percent of the ADI for a 60 kg man) from legumes during June 1966 to April 1967, no other figures are listed for chlordane intake by Duggan and Lipscomb (1969). The total diet studies in England and Wales (Abbott et al., 1969) reveal no residues of chlordane.

FATE OF RESIDUES In animals An animal metabolite of chlordane, ""oxychlordane"", first reported in 1968 to the IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues as an analytical manifestation (IUPAC, 1969) has been isolated from pigs (Schwemmer et al., 1970) and from milk and cheese (Lawrence et al., 1970).

The metabolite has been characterized with respect to analytical parameters, propensity for occurrence in milk and storage in the fat of dogs, cattle (beef and dairy) pigs and rats (Polen, 1970). ""Oxychlordane"" levels in milk and some tissues of cows and goats, following termination of ingestion of 10 ppm doses of chlordane isomers for ten days, has been studied (Velsicol, 1970).

Maximum residues of ""oxychlordane"" found in milk were as follows: Isomer fed Cow Goat cis -chlordane 0.011 ppm 0.029 ppm trans -chlordane 0.049 ppm 0.067 ppm cis -+ trans -chlordane 1:1 0.048 ppm 0.040 ppm Highest milk level vs. feed level: goat 0.7 percent; cow 0.5 percent. The residue levels in milk following termination of feeding of chlordane declined to half in 10 to 12 days in cows and in 8 to 15 days in goats.

Fifty days after chlordane withdrawal, the fat tissue of cows contained up to 0.25 ppm and (2.5 percent of feeding level), that of goats up to 0.4 ppm (4 percent of the feeding level) of ""oxychlordane"".

Some of this metabolite was occasionally found in liver, but none in brain. The parent chlordane isomers could sometimes be found in milk on the tenth day of feeding, but later none was detected either in milk or in tissues (Singh et al., 1970 a, 1970 b).

At feeding levels of chlordane corresponding to proposed international tolerances, oxychlordane is not detected in milk (sensitivity 0.005 ppm) but may be found in the fat of cattle at or below 0.03 ppm (Polen, 1970).

When calves were fed for one month, one sixth of their ration, sugar beet pulp derived from chlordane treated soil (Velsicol, 1970), the maximum total residues found in the fat were, when fed with pulp from the chlordane treatment year, up to 0.62 ppm and, when fed with pulp from a treatment done a year prior to harvest, up to 0.06 ppm.

Rates of chlordane applications were 6-10 lb active ingredient per acre. The total residue of the dry pulp varied from 0.05 to 0.30 ppm. The residues found in liver were much less than those in fat, and none was found in muscle (sensitivity 0.01 ppm).

When cows were fed with rations containing potato and alfalfa grown in chlordane treated soil (Velsicol, 1970), no detectable residues were found. Residue of heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, compounds C and E (minor components of technical chlordane), cis -chlordane and trans -chlordane were all less than 0.01 ppm. Hens fed 0.08 ppm of chlordane in their ration produced eggs with no detectable residues (Herrick et al., 1969).

In plants Korte and Porter (1970) reported on the metabolism of trans -chlordane in white cabbage and carrots.

Tests were under glasshouse conditions and are difficult to relate to practical conditions. White cabbage leaves, four weeks after foliar application of 14 C labelled trans -chlordane, contained less than 1 percent of the radioactivity on the surface; 90 percent was in the leaves as three conversion products, in addition to the parent compound. At ten weeks, 20 percent of the applied radioactivity remained, 80 percent of which was from metabolites.

Soil treatment of carrots with 14 C-labelled trans -chlordane resulted in 0.01 ppm in carrots (mainly metabolites) and 0.06 ppm in leaves (two thirds of the parent compound) 12 weeks after treatment.

Polen (1970 a, 1970 b) reports that all the evidence accumulated thus indicates that ""oxychlordane"" is not normally present in the terminal residues of chlordane in plants. In soils Miles at al. (1969) found in their study on metabolism of heptachlor by soil micro-organisms that heptachlor epoxide, 1-hydroxychlordene, 1-hydroxy- 2,3-epoxychlordane and possibly 1-keto-2,3-epoxychlordane are formed, but their importance under field conditions after chlordane treatment has not been established.

Onsager et al. (1970) did not detect heptachlor epoxide in chlordane-treated soil (or in sugar beets grown therein).

The biological half life of chlordane was estimated to be 14.3 months, in good agreement with other published data. Lichtenstein at al. (1970) reported that soils treated for five years annually with technical heptachlor (25 lb heptachlor and about 7.5 lb chlordane as an impurity - cumulative basis) contained 0.019 ppm of chlordane isomers (in addition to heptachlor derivatives) ten years after the first treatment.

Polen (1970 a, 1970 b) reports that ""oxychlordane"" has not been found in the terminal residues of chlordane in soils. Photochemical transformations The possibility of conversion of constituents of residues from technical chlordane by ultraviolet light in vitro has been demonstrated by several workers (Fischler and Korte, 1969; Vollner et al., 1969; Benson et al., 1969; Rosen et al., 1969; Mc Guire et al., 1970). Present evidence indicates that the photochemical transformation compounds do not contribute significantly, if at all, to terminal chlordane residues under agricultural conditions.

Observations of the IUPAC Chlordane Working Party (IUPAC 1969) on gas liquid chromatograms from foliar applications on beans and cabbage revealed no new peaks during the ageing of the residues and hence gave no indication of photolytic products. A more recent investigation directed specifically toward evaluation of the effects, if any, of sunlight on chlordane residues also found no significant indications of the production of photolytic products under typical field conditions (Polen, 1970).

Pure preparations of compounds which are possible constituents of chlordane terminal residues ( cis - and trans -chlordanes, chlordene, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide and nonachlor) wore exposed to sunlight as films on glass, on wheat and on soil surfaces. On glass after 235 hours of exposure, only heptachlor epoxide and cis -chlordane were converted, constituting respectively 54 and 1.6 percent of the terminal residues.

After 39 days of exposure, no photoreaction products were detected on soil; on wheat (2 lb chlordane per acre, foliar application) only photo- cis -chlordane was detected as 2 percent of the terminal residue. In another set of observations, 30 randomly-selected crop and soil samples from supervised field trials throughout the U. S. A. were examined for presence of photo products in chlordane residues.

Application rates ranged from four to ten lb of technical chlordane per acre, soil or foliar applications; sampling intervals were from 15 to 303 days after application.

Samples were: grass; straw of rice and rye; seeds of rice and cotton; potato culls; soil from chlordane treatments on which was grown barley or rice; sugar beets; whole and spent cossettes; spinach; cauliflower and broccoli. Generally, no photo products were detected at a sensitivity level of 0.01 ppm. It was concluded that typically photo products are not produced in chlordane soil treatments and that, if present at all in terminal residues from foliar treatment, the contribution to the terminal residue is less than 2 percent.

In storage and processing With a few exceptions, accumulated evidence indicates that normal food processing tends to reduce or eliminate chlordane residue. The lower incidence and levels of residues in ready-to-eat foods compared to raw agricultural products is evident in US Total Diet Studies, and was commented on above. In root crops, consistent evidence shows that chlordane residues from treatments with either technical chlordane or technical heptachlor, in which chlordane is a minor component, are concentrated in the peel, and that peeling and/or cooking reduces or eliminates the residue.

In potatoes, peeling removes virtually the entire residue from chlordane treatments up to 10 lb/acre. Without peeling, baking removed about 80 percent of the residue and boiling up to 30 percent. (Saha et al., 1968).

The residue of trans -chlordane from technical heptachlor treatments of rutabagas was concentrated in the peel, and about half of that residue was removed by boiling. The pulp was free of chlordane residue before and after cooking (Saha and Stewart, 1967). Similar patterns are observed in processing carrots, turnips and beets. No residues of chlordane are detected in boiled pulp of turnips or beets. In carrots, a 98 percent reduction resulted from peeling only and 63 percent from boiling alone (Saha, 1970).

In commercial canning, washing, peeling (potatoes, tomatoes, etc.) and abrasive peeling (used, for example, in preparing carrots) have been demonstrated to reduce surface-concentrated pesticide residues (Farrow at al., 1969). No doubt the surface-bound residues of chlordane would respond in a similar way. Chlordane residues on cabbage or beans are not changed in level or composition by simple ten minute cooking (Polen, 1968).

The lack of the loss of chlordane residues were due to the fact that chlordane is chemically relatively stable, co-distillation did not occur and the cooking water containing extractable residue was included in the sample extracted for residue analysis.

Commercial processing of edible vegetable oil produces finished oil practically free of residues of chlordane, as well as other organochlorine pesticides (Gooding, 1966; IUPAC, 1970; Smith at al., 1968).

Samples of milk containing chlordane manufactured into condensed, dried whole and evaporated milk were reduced in chlordane content. The following figures are the percentage reduction in chlordane content (fat basis) of processed fractions: condensed milk 11 percent; spray dried milk 25 percent; evaporated milk 45 percent and drum dried milk 55 percent (Liska and Stadelman, 1969). Wheat flour and rice, each contaminated by exposure to chlordane vapours, were processed to produce two cooked products: a baked cookie and boiled rice.

The baked wheat flour cookie contained an average of 50 percent less residue than the wheat and the cooked rice about 73 percent less than the raw product (Bevenue and Yeo, 1969).

METHODS OF RESIDUE ANALYSIS Analytical methods 1 / Prior to about 1961, residues from application of technical chlordane were determined by total organochlorine, colorimetric or bioassay techniques. The information derived was limited by lack of specificity and sensitivity. At the present time, procedures based on the use of electron capture gas chromatography are recommended.

Four specific analytical methods for the multi-component residues of chlordane are available (Velsicol, 1970). The methodology is that adopted for organochlorine pesticides by the IUPAC Commission on Pesticide Residue Analysis and incorporates procedures which favour analysis of chlordane residues in several substrates. Detection limits are 0.002-0.02, depending on the nature of the sample. Analytical method AM 0506 (Velsicol, 1970) is used for soil in order to determine residue as chlordane, which is defined as the sum of residues (ppm) of unchanged compounds from technical chlordane plus residues of their conversion products, if present in minor proportions.

Conversion products are estimated separately if they are present in significant amounts. Analytical method AM 0507 (Velsicol, 1970) is applicable to plant tissues and crops such as, fruits, vegetables, grains, etc. The residue is obtained as a sum of residues (ppm) of unchanged compounds from technical chlordane plus residues of their conversion products, photolytic and metabolic, if present in minor proportions.

Conversion products are estimated separately if they are present in significant amounts. Analytical method AM 0509 (Velsicol, 1970) is applicable to milk, milk products (e.g. butter and cheese), animal tissues and various animal food products. Residue of chlordane is the sum of residues (ppm) of unchanged compounds from technical chlordane plus possible residues of their metabolites, oxychlordane and heptachlor epoxide.

Method AM 0508 (Velsicol, 1970) is a supplementary method to describe modifications to existing analytical methods in order to identify and quantitate 1 / Copies of the analytical methods and reference analytical grade samples of the compounds are available from Velsicol Chemical Corp., 341 E. Ohio Street, Chicago, Illinois 60611, U. S. A. minor components of technical chlordane or of possible conversion products (metabolic, photolytic or others).

This method applies the procedures of the other methods referred; e.g. the following compounds can be determined: photo- cis -chlordane, photo-heptachlor epoxide, heptachlor epoxide, ""oxychlordane"", photo-heptachlor and photo-chlordane. Quantitation of residues in plant and animal products Several procedures have been used under various circumstances to quantitate the gas-chromatographic responses of chlordane residues. In most instances, the values calculated are good approximations of total residues, but fail to distinguish conversion products from unchanged components of technical chlordane.

The methods AM 0506 to 0509 inclusive allow for quantitation of conversion products if present. A method used prior to about 1968 relied upon calibration of the principal peak ( trans -chlordane) in reference technical chlordane and estimation of the total residue by assuming constancy of the proportions of the components in the course of ""weathering"".

This technique overstated the residue of chlordane by about 20-70 percent for foliar treatments and by roughly half that amount for residues from soil treatment in which conversion compounds may be in somewhat greater concentration (Velsicol, 1970). These factors should be given consideration in evaluating residue data generated before about 1968. The estimation of chlordane residues in plants and soils as the sum of cis -and trans -isomers (FAO/WHO, 1968) gives values roughly equal to a minimum of 70-80 percent of the total terminal residues of chlordane.

In animal products, the sum of ""oxychlordane"" plus cis -and trans -chlordane comprises generally more than 90 percent of the residues in the lipoid phase.

APPRAISAL A comprehensive set of new data for evaluation of chlordane residues was provided to answer the questions raised by the 1967 Joint Meeting, to add new information to the Monograph, to review the temporary tolerances recommended in 1967 and to make new recommendations. Technical chlordane continues to be a standardized product produced by a single manufacturer. One of the characteristics of the technical chlordane for which the recommendations are made is its content of heptachlor (10 ± 2 percent).

Chlordane is used, in addition to the U. S. A., especially in Europe and to a smaller extent in other American countries, Asia and Africa.

Soil treatments represent the main usage of chlordane. Foliar applications, with exception of cotton, are not considered to be recommended usages any more. The use to forage crops has been discontinued, e.g. in the U. S. A. Thorough studies on the chlordane residues in foodstuffs and in meal cakes are conducted in the U. S. A. Residues were found, but in three categories of raw agricultural products levels were less than 0.005 ppm.

Oil seed cakes from soybeans and cotton seeds contained in 0.7 and 6.5 percent of the samples had residues with average levels of less than 0.001 and 0.012 ppm, respectively. Dietary intakes of chlordane in the U. S. A., England and Wales have proved to be negligible. In most cases, the residues in the diet composites were less than the analytical detection limits. Due to this, it has not been possible to make reliable estimates of daily chlordane intake. Food processing tends to reduce or eliminate chlordane residues; especially those processes which include removal of the treated crop surface, disposal of cooking water, vacuum distillation or other type of dehydration processes are able to remove a substantial part of the residues.

Residues resulting from growing crops in land treated in previous years with chlordane has been studied. It was found that the residues in sugar beets, grown in the same land in several subsequent years, were proportional (about 10 percent) to the residues in the soil at the time of planting.

Thus the chlordane level left in the soil seems to determine the residue level found in crops. Stability of chlordane in soil is well studied. An animal metabolite of chlordane, oxychlordane, has been found in fat of animals ingesting chlordane, but at significantly lower levels than the level of chlordane in feed.

Information for recommending practical residue limits for meat, milk, poultry and eggs is available. So far there is no evidence that oxychlordane is a component of terminal chlordane residues in plants or in soils. Photochemical transformation products of chlordane, which are reported to be formed in vitro, are most evidently not formed in soils.

In foliar treated plants, if at all present, they are estimated to contribute to the terminal residue less than 2 percent. Hydrophilic metabolites of chlordane are formed in plants; their significance is under investigation. Analytical methods, based on the methodology generally adopted for organochlorine pesticides, have been developed to determine the multi-component residues of chlordane as well as their metabolites with detection limits of 0.02-0.002 ppm.

Clarification of the nomenclature of chlordane isomers and the letter designations of chlordane chromatographic peaks have been made. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TOLERANCES AND PRACTICAL RESIDUE LIMITS The recommendations made now are for the residues which result from pre-plant soil applications at a maximum level of 10 lb /acre or from seed dressing, except for cotton which may require multiple foliar applications, before the bolls open, at 1-2 lb /acre.

Good agricultural practice for sugar beets would require that the soil would not contain, from the treatments of the planting and previous years, more than 2.5-5.0 lb /acre.

In cool climates, the application rates should be established to lower levels to compensate the greater stability of the residues. For regulatory purposes, the chlordane residues in plant products should be determined as the sum of cis - and trans -chlordane and in animal products as the sum of cis -chlordane, trans -chlordane and ""oxychlordane"".

In view of the new data for evaluating chlordane residues, the recommendations made by the 1967 Joint Meeting for temporary tolerances and practical residue limits are replaced by new recommendations for tolerances and practical residue limits.

TOLERANCES ppm Root vegetables (practically soil-free) 0.3 Potatoes, sweet potatoes, rutabagas, turnips, parsnips, sugar beets and radishes Leafy and stalk vegetables 0.2 Asparagus, broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage, celery, cauliflower, mustard greens, spinach, Swiss chard and lettuce Other vegetables 0.02 Beans, peas, eggplants, tomatoes and collards (= cole-worts) Grains 0.05 Wheat, rye, oats, rice (polished), maize, sorghum and popcorn Cucurbits 0.1 Cantaloupes, cucumbers, pumpkins, squash and watermelons Fruits and nuts 0.1 Almonds, bananas, figs, filberts, guavas, mangoes, olives, passion fruit, papayas, pecans, pomegranates, pineapple, strawberries and walnuts TOLERANCES (cont'd) ppm Citrus, pome and stone fruits 0.02 Not specified above Vegetable oils Crude soybean and linseed oils 0.5 Crude cottonseed oil 0.1 Edible cottonseed and soybean oils 0.02 PRACTICAL RESIDUE LIMITS Milk and milk products (fat basis) 0.05 Fat of meat 0.05 Fat of poultry 0.05 Eggs (shell free) 0.02 FURTHER WORK OR INFORMATION REQUIRED (before June 1972) Further information on chlordane residues in carrots resulting from soil and seed treatments and from crop rotation on soils having been treated with chlordane in previous years.

DESIRABLE 1. An adequate carcinogenicity study in a second species of animal. 2. Results of the investigation of the hydrophilic plant metabolites of chlordane.

REFERENCES Abbott, D. C., Holmes, D. C. and Tatton, J. O'G. (1969) Pesticide residues in the total diet in England and Wales, 1966-1967.

J. Sci. Fd. Agr., 20: 245-249 Benson, W. R., Lombardo, R., Barron, R., Lustig, E., Mastbrook, D. and Ross, R. (1969) Paper at American Chemical Society Meeting, New York, N. Y., Sept. 1969 Bevenue, A., and Yeo, C. Y. (1969) Effects of the cooking process on the removal of chlordane residues from wheat flour and rice. Bull. Environm. Contamination Toxic., 4: 370-374 Boyd, E. M., and Taylor, F. I. (1969) The acute oral toxicity of chlordane in albino rats fed for 28 days from weaning on a protein-deficient diet.

Industr. Med., 38 (12): 42-49 Brooks, G. T. (1969) The metabolism of diene-organochlorine (cyclodiene) insecticides. Residue Reviews, 27: 81-138 Büchel, K. H., Ginsberg, A. E. and Fischer, R. (1966) Cyclodin-Insektizid IV.

Synthese und Struktur von Isomeren des Chlordans. Chem. Ber., 99: 421-430 Calo, D. (1970) Chlordane. Section I. Related toxicology. Unpublished summary prepared by Velsicol Chemical Corporation. Chau, A. S. and Cochraney W. P. (1969) Cyclodiene chemistry.

I Derivative formation for the identification of heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, cis -chlordane, trans -chlordane and aldrin pesticide residues by gas chromatography. J. ass. off. anal. Chem., 52: 1092-1100 Corneliussen, P. E. (1969) Residues in food and feed. Pesticide Monit. J., 2: 140-152 Duggan, R. E., Barry, H. C. and Johnson, L. Y. (1966) Pesticide Residues in total-diet samples.

Science, 151: 101-104 Duggan, R. E., Barry, H. C. and Johnson, L. Y. (1967) Residues in food and feed. Pesticide Monit. J., 1,2: 2-12 Duggan, R. E. and Weatherwax, J. R. (1967) Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals. Science, 157: 1006-1010 Duggan, R. E. (1968a) Residues in food and feed. Pesticide Monit. J., 1,4: 2-7 Duggan, R. E.

(Ed.) (1968b) Residues in food and feed. Pesticide Monit. J., 2: 2-46 Duggan, R. E. and Lipscomb, G. Q. (1969) Dietary intake of pesticide chemicals in the United States (II), June 1966-April 1968. Pesticide Monit. J., 2: 153-162 FAO/WHO (1964) Evaluation of the toxicity of pesticide residues in food. FAO Meeting Report No.

PL/1963/13; WHO/Food Add./23 (1964) FAO/WHO (1965) Evaluation of the toxicity of pesticide residues in food. FAO Meeting Report No. PL/1965/10/1: WHO/Food Add./27.65 FAO/WHO (1968) 1967 Evaluations of some pesticide residues in food.

FAO/PL: 1967/M/11/1; WHO/Food Add./68.30 Farrow, R. P., Elkins, E. R., Rose, W. W., Lamb, F. C., Ralls, J. W. and Mercer, W. A. (1969) Canning operations that reduce insecticide levels in prepared foods and in solid food wastes.

Residue Reviews, 29 : 73-87 Fischler, H. M., and Korte, F. (1969) Sensibilisierte und unsensibilisierte Photoisomerisierung von Cyclodien-Insektizide. Tetrahedron Rett. 32: 2793-2796 Gooding, C. M. B. (1966) Fate of chlorinated organic pesticide residues in the production of edible vegetable oils. Chem. Ind., 1966: 344 Herrick, G. M., Fry, J. I., Fong, W. G., Golden, D. C. (1969) Insecticide residues in eggs resulting from the dusting and short-term feeding of low levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides to hens.

J. Agr. Fd. Chem., 17: 291-295 Ingle, L. (1965) Effects of 1-hydroxychlordene when incorporated into the diets of rats for 224 days. Dept. of Zoology, Univ. of Illinois, 18 Oct. 1965, submitted by Velsicol Chemical Corporation Ingle, L. (1969) Albino rats subjected to alpha and gamma chlordane incorporated into the daily diet for 78 weeks.

Unpublished report from the University of Illinois IUPAC. (1967) Commission on Terminal Residues. 1st Meeting. J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chemists, 50: 1071-1088 IUPAC. (1968) Commission on Terminal Residues.

2nd Meeting. J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chemists, 51: 372-378 IUPAC. (1969) Commission on Terminal Residues. Terminal chlordane residues. 3rd. Meeting. J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chemists, 52: 300 IUPAC. (1970) Commission on Terminal Pesticide Residues.

4th Meeting. Fate of organochlorine pesticides in vegetable oil processing. Comptes Rendus-XXV Conference IUPAC p. 187-189. Also J. Assoc. Offic. Anal. Chemists, 53: 987-1003, 1970 Korte, F. (1967a) Metabolism of 14 C-labelled insecticides in micro-organisms, insects and mammals.

Botyukaguku, 32: 46-59 Korte, F. (1967b) Metabolism of chlorinated insecticides. Paper submitted to IUPAC Commission on Terminal Pesticide Residues. Appendix VI of the proceedings of the Commission, Vienna Korte, F. and Porters P. E. (1970) Terminal residues of cyclodiene insecticides. Meeting of IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues Erbach/Rheingau, 14-18 Sept. 1970 Lawrence, J. H., Barron, R. P., Chen, J-Y. T., Lombardo, P. and Benson, W. R. (1970) Note of identification of a chlordane metabolite found in milk and cheese.

J. Ass. off. anal. Chem., 53: 261-262 Lichtenstein, E. P., Schultz, K. R., Fuhremann, T. W. and Liang, T. T. (1970) Degradation of aldrin and heptachlor in field soils during a ten-year period, translocation into crops. J. Agr. Fd. Chem., 18 : 100-106 Liska, B. J., Stadelman, W. J. (1969) Effects of processing on pesticides in foods. Residue Reviews 29: 61-72 Ludwig, G. (1966) Isolation and identification of metabolites of some chlorinated insecticides and their detection by analytical methods. Radioisotopes in the detection of pesticide residues. Int. Atomic Energy Agency Vienna p. 49-58 March, R. B. (1952) The resolution and chemical and biological characterization of some constituents of technical chlordane. J. Econ. Entomol., 45: 452-456 Martin, R. J. and Duggan, R. E. (1968) Pesticide residues in total diet samples (III) Pesticide Monit. J., 1, 4: 11-20 Mastri, C., Keplinger, M. L. and Fancher, O. E. (1969a) Acute oral toxicity study on synthetic (X) in male and female albino rats. Unpublished report from Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories submitted to Velsicol Chemical Corporation Mastri, C., Keplinger, M. L. and Fancher, O. E. (1969a) Acute oral toxicity study on four chlordenes in albino rats. Unpublished report from Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories submitted by Velsicol Chemical Corporation. (IBT no. A7367), 23 June 1969 Mastri, C., Keplinger, M. L. and Fancher, O. E. (1969c) Acute oral toxicity study on two chlordenes in female albino rats. Unpublished report from Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories submitted by Velsicol Chemical Corporation (IBT no. A7518) 21 August 1969 Mc Guire, R. R., Zabrik, M. J., Schuetz, R. D. and Flotard, R. D. (1970) Photochemistry of bioactive compounds. J. Agr. Fd. Chem., 18 : 319-321 Miles J. R. W., Tu, C. M. and Harris, C. R. (1969) Metabolism of heptachlor and its degradation products by soil micro-organisms. J. Econ. Entomol., 62: 1334-1338 Onsager, J. A., Rusk, H. W. and Butler, L. I. (1970) Residues of aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane and DDT in soil and sugar beets. J. Econ. Entomol., 63: 1143-1146 Plank, J., Keplinger, M. L., Fancher, O. E. and Richter, W. R. (1970) 90-day subacute oral toxicity of synthetic ""X"" (oxychlordane) in albino rats. Unpublished report from Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories submitted to Velsicol Chemical Corporation Polen, P. B. (1966) Chlordane: composition, analytical consideration and terminal residues. IUPAC Commission on Terminal Pesticide Residues, Geneva Polen, P. B. (1968) Terminal residues in chlordane. Status Rept. 2. Chlordane Working Party. IUPAC Commission on Terminal Pesticide Residues Polen, P. B. (1969) Report of chlordane working party to the third meeting of the IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues. J. Ass. Offic. Anal. Chem., 52: 300 Polen, P. B., Hester, M. and Benziger, J. (1970a) Characterization of oxychlordane, animal metabolite of chlordane. Bull. environm. Contam. Toxicol., 5: (3) Polen, P. B. (1970b) Terminal residues of chlordane. Meeting of IUPAC Commission on Terminal Residues, Erbach/Rheingau, 14-18 Sept. Poonawalla, N. H. and Korte, F. (1964) Metabolism of insecticides VIII. Excretion, distribution and metabolism of -chlordane- 14 C by rats. Life Sci., 3: 1497-1500 Riemschneider, R. (1969) The chemistry of the Insecticides of the Diene Group. World Rev. Pest Control Part 2 4: 29-61 Rosen, J. D., Sutherland, D. J. and Khan, M. A. Q. (1969) Properties of photo-isomers of heptachlor and isodrin. J. Agr. Fd. Chem., 17 : 404-405 Saha, J. G. and Stewart, W. W. A. (1967) Heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide and trans -chlordane residues in soil and rutabaga after soil and surface treatments with heptachlor. Can. J. Plant Sci., 47: 79-88 Saha, J. G., Burrage, R. H., Nielson, H. A. and Simpson, E. C. R. (1968) Chlordane: composition of commercial formulation residues in potatoes grown in treated soil and their reduction by home processing. Pesticide Progress Reports from Research Branch Establishments (Canada), 6 (5): 117-121 Saha, J. G. (1970) Unpublished data Schwemmer, B., Cochrane, W. P. and Polen, P. B. (1970) Oxychlordane, animal metabolite of chlordane: isolation and synthesis. Science, 169: 1087 Singh, V. K., Perkins, C. T. and Koch, D. A. (1970a) Alpha-gamma chlordane milk residue study in cows. Unpublished report from the Bio-Toxicological Research Associates, 31 March 1970, submitted by Velsicol Chemical Corporation Singh, V. K., Perkins, C. T. and Koch, D. A. (1970b) -1970- Alpha-gamma chlordane milk residue study in goats. Unpublished report from the Bio-Toxicological Research Associates, 31 March 1970, submitted by Velsicol Chemical Corporation Smith, K. J., Polen, P. B., de Vries, D. M. and Coon, F. B. (1968) Removal of chlorinated pesticides from crude vegetable oils by simulated commercial processing procedures. J. Amer. Oil Chemists Assoc. 45 : 866-869 US Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare Food and Drug Administration. (1968) Pesticide analytical manual Vol. I, Washington D. C. Velsicol. (ed. P. B. Polen) (1970) Chlordane: agricultural residues and related toxicology prepared for the 1970 Joint FAO/WHO Meeting on Pesticide Residues by Velsicol Chemical Corporation Vollner, L., Klein, W. and Korte, F. (1969) Beiträge zur ökologischen Chemie, Photoumlagerung der Komponenten des technischen Chlordans. Tetrahedron Lett., 34: 2967-2970 Wazeter, F. X., Butler, R. H., Geil, R. G. and Rehkamper J. A. (1968) Alpha chlordane, gamma chlordane, alpha-gamma chlordane. Comparative acute oral toxicity (LD 50) in male albino rats. Unpublished report from International Research and Development Corporation for Velsicol Chemical Corporation See Also: Toxicological Abbreviations Chlordane (EHC 34, 1984)Chlordane (HSG 13, 1988)Chlordane (PIM 574)Chlordane (FAO Meeting Report PL/1965/10/1)Chlordane (FAO/PL:1967/M/11/1)Chlordane (FAO/PL:1969/M/17/1)Chlordane (WHO Pesticide Residues Series 2)Chlordane (WHO Pesticide Residues Series 4)Chlordane (Pesticide residues in food: 1977 evaluations)Chlordane (Pesticide residues in food: 1982 evaluations)Chlordane (Pesticide residues in food: 1984 evaluations)Chlordane (Pesticide residues in food: 1986 evaluations Part II Toxicology) "

D. Bap Reddy – Deputy Regional Representative (diplomatic status level position) of Asia and Pacific for the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1978-1982; FAO Representative in Indonesia, 1982-1986; FAO Representative in Nepal, 1987N

List of people from Andhra Pradesh

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2017) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries. This is a list of notable people from Andhra Pradesh, India, throughout history.

Contents [ hide ]1 Independence advocates2 Reserve Bank of India Governors3 Chief Ministers4 Military Chiefs5 Government officials6 Education7 Business and industry8 Science9 Artists10 Musicians and dancers11 Literature12 Philosophers13 Award winners13.1 Bharat Ratna13.2 Padma Vibhushan13.3 Padma Bhushan13.4 Padma Shree13.5 Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna13.6 Arjuna Award13.7 Dronacharya Award13.8 Member of the Order of the British Empire14 Judges, advocates and lawyers15 Sports16 Music17 Dance18 Cinema19 Religion20 Others21 See also22 References Independence advocates Uyyalawada Narasimha Reddy – freedom fighter, early opponent of British rule Alluri Sitarama Raju – revolutionary, freedom fighter, led the Rampa Rebellion of 1922-1924Vedre Ramachandra Reddy Bhoodhan – social reformer, Satyagraha Movement leader Gottipati Brahmaiah – freedom fighter Puchalapalli Sundaraiah – founding member of Communist Party in India Kalluri Chandramouli – freedom fighter Vavilala Gopalakrishnaya – freedom fighter Kaneganti Hanumanthu – freedom fighter Veerapandiya Kattabomman – Palaiyakkarar, early opponent of British rule Chandra Pulla Reddy – Communist Leader Gouthu Latchanna – freedom fighter Makineni Basavapunnaiah – Indian Communist leader Sarojini Naidu – freedom fighter and poet; Bengali, married to a Telugu person Tanguturi Prakasam – known as ""Andhra Kesari""Raja Sri V R G K M Prasad – Member of Legislative Assembly, infrastructure creation in India N. G. Ranga – freedom fighter Kasinadhuni Nageswara Rao – politician Koratala Satyanarayana – Communist politician Potti Sreeramulu – revolutionary, fasted to death in protest for separate Andhra Pradesh Swami Ramanand Tirtha – educator and social activist Pingali Venkayya – designed the Indian national flag Reserve Bank of India Governors Y. Venugopal Reddy – Governor of Reserve Bank of India, 2003–2008Duvvuri Subbarao – Governor of Reserve Bank of India, 2008–2012Chief Ministers Neelam Sanjiva Reddy – later the President of India Tanguturi Prakasam Burgula Ramakrishna Rao Bezawada Gopala Reddy Bhavanam Venkataram Reddy Kasu Brahmananda Reddy Damodaram Sanjivayya Kotla Vijaya Bhaskara Reddy Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao Nadendla Bhaskara Rao Nedurumalli Janardhana Reddy Nara Chandrababu Naidu Y. S. Rajasekhara Reddy Konijeti Rosaiah Nallari Kiran Kumar Reddy Military Chiefs Air Chief Marshal Denis La Fontaine – Chief of Staff, Indian Air Force, 1985–88Air Chief Marshal Idris Hasan Latif – Chief of Staff, Indian Air Force, 1978–81Air Chief Marshal Fali Homi Major – Chief of Staff, Indian Air Force, 2007–09General K. V. Krishna Rao, Chief of the Army Staff (India), 1981–83Government officials G. Raghava Reddy – IPS, known for innovative farming Education Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan – vice-chancellor of Andhra University Arjula Ramachandra Reddy – biologist, first vice-chancellor of Yogi Vemana University Cattamanchi Ramalinga Reddy – founder and vice-chancellor of Andhra University; Vice-chancellor of Mysore University G. Ram Reddy – former University Grants Commission chairman Vasireddy Sri Krishna – former vice-chancellor of Andhra University Business and industry Kallam Anji Reddy – founder of Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Prathap C. Reddy – founder of Apollo Hospitals, India G. Pulla Reddy – businessman, philanthropist, educationist Gunupati Venkata Krishna Reddy – founder of GVKP Obul Reddy – founder of Nippo batteries Prem Reddy – founder of Prime Healthcare Services, which owns several hospitals in the United States Ramesh Gelli – founder and chairperson of the erstwhile and now defunct Global Trust Bank Mullapudi Harishchandra Prasad – founder of Andhra Sugars Byrraju Ramalinga Raju – founder of Satyam Computers T. Subbarami Reddy – founder of Gayatri group; philanthropist S. P. Y. Reddy – Chairman of Nandi Pipes, Panyam Cements and S. P. Y. Agro Industries Nimmagadda Prasad – founder of Chairman of Matrix Laboratories Lagadapati Rajagopal – founder and Chairman of Lanco Group Grandhi Mallikarjuna Rao – Chairman, GMR Group; first Telugu person on Forbes magazine's billionaires list Ramoji Rao – Head of Eenadu Group, Ramoji Film city Rayapati Sambasiva Rao – Jayalaxmi Group of companies Galla Ramachandra Naidu – founder of Amar Raja Group Science Raj Reddy – scientist in artificial intelligence U. Aswathanarayana – Honorary Director of the Mahadevan International Centre for Water Resources Management, Hyderabad

N Murthy – quality and environment expert Yelavarthy Nayudamma – chemical engineer Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya – engineer Yellapragada Subbarow – cancer researcher A. S. Rao – scientist, founder of the Electronics Corporation of India Limited C. R. Rao – statistician and professor emeritus at Penn State University K. L. Rao – civil engineer, irrigation expert and political leader Prof. Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao – physicist (spectroscopy)Praveen Kumar Gorakavi - Chemical Engineer Artists Krishna Reddy – printmaker and sculptor Vempati Chinna Satyam – exponent of Kuchipudi dance Eelapata Raghuramaiah – stage and cinema actor in Andhra Pradesh Raja and Radha Reddy – Kuchipudi Shobha Naidu – Kuchipudi Yamini Reddy – Kuchipudi Musicians and dancers Mangalampalli Balamuralikrishna – Carnatic singer and musician Nataraja Ramakrishna – dance guru; revived ancient Andhra Natyam and Perini styles of dance; Chairman of Andhra Pradesh Sangeeta Nataka Academy Ghantasala Venkateswara Rao – playback singer of old classical Indian movies, predominantly Telugu Emani Sankara Sastry – Veena player of Carnatic music Vempati Chinna Satyam – dance guru of the Kuchipudi dance form S. P. Balasubrahmanyam – male singer Raja and Radha Reddy – Kuchipudi dancers Shobha Naidu – Kuchipudi dancer S. Janaki – female playback singer M. M. Keeravani – music director Yamini Krishnamurthy – Kuchipudi and Bharathanatyam dancer Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu – violinist P. B. Sreenivas – playback singer P. Susheela – playback singer Literature Gona Budda Reddy – 13th-century poet Vemana – Telugu poet Nannaya – first Telugu writer (Adi kavi), Mahabharatam in Telugu started by him, out of 18 parvas 3.5 parvas written by him Potana – Mahabhagavatam, Bhogini Dandakam Tikkana – Mahabharatam last 14 parvas written by him Gurazada Apparao – Telugu poet Gudipati Venkata Chalam – novelist Gurram Jashuva – Telugu poet, author, Telugu and Sanskrit scholar Tirupati Venkata Kavulu – two Telugu poets Devulapalli Krishnasastri – Telugu poet Tummala Seetharama Murthy – Telugu poet Chilakamarthi Lakshmi Narasimham – writer Kethu Viswanatha Reddy – poet from Rayalaseema D. V. Narasa Raju – Telugu writer, novelist Kavisekhara Dr Umar Alisha – Telugu poet Tripuraneni Ramaswamy – playwright Garikapati Narasimha Rao – Avadhani Keshava Reddy – Telugu movelist M. S. Reddy – writer Madhunapantula Satyanarayana Sastry – Telugu poet Viswanatha Satyanarayana – Telugu poet Vasireddy Seethadevi – novelist Paravastu Chinnayya Soori – Telugu scholar Tripuraneni Gopichand – author Srirangam Srinivasarao – Telugu poet Ushasri – writer Philosophers Jiddu Krishnamurti – philosopher Sri Potuluri Virabrahmendra Swami – mystic Award winners Bharat Ratna Varahagiri Venkata Giri – former President of India Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan – 1954, second president of India Padma Vibhushan Cingireddy Narayana Reddy Akkineni Nageswara Rao Ravi Narayana Reddy Prathap C. Reddy Y. Venugopal Reddy Sarvepalli Gopal Kotha Satchidanda Murthy Padmaja Naidu M. Narasimham N. G. Ranga Sri Prakasa C. R. Rao Palle Rama Rao Kaloji Narayana Rao V. Kasturi Ranga Varadarja Rao – Telugu origin, born in Tamil Nadu Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah P. Venugopal Mehdi Nawaz Jung Ali Yavar Jung Hafiz Mohamad Ibrahim C. D. Deshmukh Ramoji Rao Padma Bhushan B. N. Reddy Kongara Jaggayya Vempati Chinna Satyam Raj Reddy Akkineni Nageshwara Rao Konidela Chiranjeevi Perugu Siva Reddy Daggubati Ramanaidu P. Susheela G. V. K. Reddy Raja and Radha Reddy Krishna Ghattamaneni K. Srinath Reddy Satya N. Atluri C. K. Nayudu A. S. Rao Padma Shree Chitturi Nagaiah Cingireddy Narayana Reddy Eelapata Raghuramaiah Akkineni Nageswara Rao Ghantasala Venkateswar Rao D. Nageshwar Reddy K. C. Reddy Kallam Anji Reddy Perugu Siva Reddy S. P. Balasubrahmanyam Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu Shobha Naidu Sayyid Ahmedullah Qadri D. V. S. Raju Brahmanandam V. V. S. Laxman Shobha Raju Nataraja Ramakrishna Allu Ramalingaiah Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao Raja and Radha Reddy Nerella Venumadhav K. Viswanath Srikanth Kidambi Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Pullela Gopichand – badminton (2000–2001)Karnam Malleswari – weightlifting (1995–1996)Saina Nehwal – badminton (2009–10)Arjuna Award Koneru Humpy – chess Achanta Sharath Kamal – table tennis Yousuf Khan – football Mukesh Kumar – hockey Karnam Malleswari – weightlifting A. Ramana Rao – volleyball J. J. Shobha – track and field Dronacharya Award Pullela Gopichand – badminton, 2009Member of the Order of the British Empire Sekhar Tam Tam – for service as District Medical Officer in the British Caribbean island of Grenada [1] [2] [3] [4]Judges, advocates and lawyers K. Jayachandra Reddy L. Narasimha Reddy Subodh Markandeya Konda Madhava Reddy Sports Cricket Buchi Babu Naidu C. K. Nayudu M. S. K. Prasad Bharath Reddy Venkatapathy Raju Yalaka Venugopal Rao Cota Ramaswami Ambati Rayudu Athletics Kodi Rammurthy Naidu Neelapu Rami Reddy – former sprinter and athletics champion Chess Dronavalli Harika Pendyala Harikrishna Koneru Humpy Weightlifting Karnam Malleswari – Olympic bronze medallist Hockey Mukesh Kumar Badminton Chetan Anand Pullela Gopichand Other sports Achanta Sharath Kamal – table tennis A. Ramana Rao – volleyball Music Traditional Kshetrayya Tallapaka Annamacharya Bhadradri Ramadasu Tyagaraja – of the trinity of Carnatic music Classical Mangalampalli Balamuralikrishna Nedunuri Krishnamurthy Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu Sripada Pinakapani Emani Sankara Sastry Nookala Chinna Satyanarayana U. Srinivas Film score Saluri Rajeswara Rao – composer Ghantasala Venkateswara Rao – singer, composer S P Balasubrahmanyam – singer K. Chakravarthy – composer Jikki – singer S. Janaki – singer Koti – composer Nagur Babu (Mano) – singer Veturi Sundararama Murthy – lyricist M. M. Keeravani – composer, lyricist, singer Ramana Gogula – composer Ramesh Naidu – composer Devi Sri Prasad – composer, singer S V Krishna Reddy – composer Satyam – composer Mani Sharma – composer Sirivennela Sitaramasastri – lyricist P. B. Sreenivas – singer Sunitha – singer Usha – singer P. Susheela – singer Master Venu – composer Dance Vempati Chinna Satyam Sidhendra Yogi – originator of the Kuchipudi dance style Raja and Radha Reddy – Kuchipudi, Padma Bhushan awardees Shobha Naidu – Kuchipudi, Padma Sri awardee Jayapa Nayudu Cinema Raghupathi Venkaiah H. M. Reddy Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy B. Nagi Reddy Chilakalapudi Seeta Rama Anjaneyulu Bapu K Vishwanath Shyam Benegal L. V. Prasad Dasari Narayana Rao A. Kodandarami Reddy K. Raghavendra Rao S. V. Krishna Reddy V. N. Reddy E V V Satyanarayana S. S. Rajamouli Kodi Ramakrishna Puri Jagannadh Jandhyala Sekhar Kammula Deva Katta Radhakrishna Jagarlamudi (Krish)N. Shankar Trivikram Srinivas Sukumar Srinu Vaitla Krishna Vamsi Ram Gopal Varma V. V. Vinayak Surender Reddy Producers Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu Bommireddy Narasimha Reddy B. Nagi Reddy L V Prasad Allu Aravind Vikram Krishna Murali Mohan M S Raju D. Ramanaidu M. S. Reddy Shyam Prasad Reddy Dil Raju Gopichand Lagadapati Writers Aathreya Gopimohan Paruchuri Brothers Mullapudi Venkata Ramana Pingali Nagendra Rao Abburi Ravi B. V. S. Ravi Ajay Sastry Guna Sekhar Trivikram Srinivas Sukumar Kona Venkat Chandra Sekhar Yeleti Actors Sobhan Babu Naga Chaitanya Chiranjeevi Gopichand Kongara Jaggayya Pawan Kalyan Chittor V. Nagaiah S. V. Ranga Rao Ramana Reddy Kaikala Satyanarayana Nagarjuna Prabhakar Rajanala Krishnam Raju Ghattamaneni Krishna Vishal Krishna Mohan Babu Tarun Kumar Gopichand Lagadapati Allu Rama Lingaiah Murali Mohan Relangi Venkata Ramaiah Ranganath Akkineni Nageswara Rao Dasari Narayana Rao Gummadi Venkateswara Rao N. T. Rama Rao Jr. NTRPrabhas Gadde Rajendra Prasad J. V. Somayajulu Balakrishna Allu Arjun Nithiin Jagapathi Babu Mahesh Babu Raja Babu Srihari Ram Charan Teja Ravi Teja Venkatesh Venu Actresses Bhanupriya Anjali Devi Devika Diana Hayden – former Miss world Jamuna Sowcar Janaki Jayaprada Jayasudha Pasupuleti Kannamba Kavitha Krishnaveni Laya Bindu Madhavi Bhanumathi Ramakrishna Sameera Reddy Santhakumari Savitri Sarada Sushmita Sen – Bollywood actress born in Hyderabad Suryakantham Tabu Vanisri G. Varalakshmi S. Varalakshmi Music directors K. Chakravarthy Chakri S P Balasubramanyam Ghantasala Ramana Gogula M. M. Keeravani K M Radha Krishnan Ramesh Naidu Devi Sri Prasad Saluri Koteswara Rao Saluri Rajeshwara Rao Chellapilla Satyam Mani Sharma Vandemataram Srinivas Vamsi Master Venu Vidyasagar Journalists Manikonda Chalapathi Rau Religion Sanatana Dharma / Hinduism Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams (TTD)Buddhism Acharya Nagarjuna Secular Sathya Sai Baba Others Vijaya Lakshmi Emani (1958–2009) – social activist Aruna Miller – Maryland State Representative Laxman Reddy – bodybuilder, Mr. World 2010See also Index of Andhra Pradesh-related articles Lists of Indians by state Telugu people List of Telugu people References^ 2006 Birthday Honours List Archived 2007-06-11 at the Wayback Machine.^ ""Archived copy"" (PDF).

Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-11. Retrieved 2007-11-12.^ Dr. Sekhar Tam Tam MB BS, MBE 2006 Investiture Ceremony at Buckingham Palace, London^ ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 2006-09-04. Retrieved 2006-08-07. Categories: Lists of people by state or union territory in India Telugu people People from Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh-related lists "

The FAO/UNESCO Water Balance of Africa is an effort undertaken jointly by the Center for Research in Water Resources (CRWR) of the University of Texas at Austin, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and UNESCO, for the purpose of better assessment and planning of the water resources of Africa.

Water Balance of the Niger River Basin in West Africa

"Water Balance of the Niger River Basin in West Africaby David R. Maidment, Francisco Olivera, Seann Reed, Zichuan Ye, Sandra Akmansoy and Daene C. Mc Kinney Center for Research in Water Resources University of Texas at Austin Introduction Terrain Analysis and Watershed Delineation Identifying Inland Catchments Streams and Watersheds of the Niger River Basin Soil Water Balance Climate and Terrain Data Soil Water Budget Methodology Map-based Surface Water Simulation Overland Flow Within the Subwatersheds Stream Flow in the River Network Results Conclusions Acknowledgements References1. Introduction

The Water Balance of the Niger River Basin is a pilot study for which the map-based methodology of soil-water, surface-water and groundwater balance has been developed. The Niger basin was studied because the basin is not providing enough food for its population, and water resources development programs are being considered as a means of improving the availability of water for food production. Evaluating such programs requires assessment of the amount and spatial pattern of available water resources, and the impact of development projects upon them.

The water balance model is developed to help with these tasks. Data files for application of this model at any location of the earth have been compiled into a Digital Atlas of the World Water Balance, presently being prepared in CD-ROM format. Monthly soil water surplus is calculated using the Thornthwaite soil water balance model in which the evaporation computation has been modified to include a spatial database of net radiation obtained from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment.

These water surpluses are transferred onto subwatersheds and routed using a subwatershed response function for the flow within a subwatershed, and the Muskingum method for the river flow downstream of the subwatersheds. The flow from the subwatershed to the river moves partly by subsurface flow, and partly by surface flow, each flow being delayed in time by a differing amount depending on whether it is surface or subsurface flow.

The Niger River basin is a 2.3 million square kilometer area located between 5° N and 23° N of latitude, and 12° W and 17° E of longitude. The Niger River rises in Guinea and flows for about 4,200 Km through Mali, Niger and Nigeria before reaching the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of Guinea.

Its main tributary, the Benue river, flows west from Cameroon and joins the Niger at the city of Lokoja, Nigeria. The basin landscape shows great variability, with desert areas in the northern part and tropical areas in the southern part.

Precipitation ranges from 2,700 mm/yr close to the river mouth to almost nothing in the desert, and most precipitation occurs during an annual monsoon period between July in September, which results in an annual flood that takes several months to propagate down through the river network.

Just upstream of the city of Tombouctou in Mali, the Inner Delta of the Niger River is located, a huge shallow depression which fills and empties each year as the annual flood passes through, and results in about half the inflow being lost to evaporation.2. Terrain Analysis and Watershed Delineation Stream-watershed delineation is the process of identifying the flow elements (streams) and contributing areas (watersheds) of a hydrologic system. It is assumed that the flow is essentially channel flow in the streams and overland flow in the watersheds.

A stream is initiated on the DEM where the upstream drainage area exceeds a user-defined threshold value, and watershed boundaries are delineated from outlets at each stream junction, which produces a drainage network with a single stream for each watershed.2.1.

Identifying Inland Catchments The procedure for delineating streams and watersheds from DEM's requires a depressionless DEM. Satisfying this requirement guarantees that the water flows along the landscape without being trapped in depressions.

The existence of DEM depressions is explained by inland catchments, but also by DEM errors or pits (which might be small for most practical purposes but critical for hydrologic modeling) . Inland catchments are hydrologic systems that drain towards an inland pour point located within the basin, and not on the basin border as usually occurs.

Thus, inland catchments do not drain towards the oceans as most systems do. On the other hand, pits produce unreal termination of drainage paths and alter substantially the stream network. Therefore, it is essential to correct the DEM errors by filling the pits prior to delineating the streams and watersheds.

Arc/Info-Grid includes the FILL function which can be used to fill the DEM depressions up to a level in which they can drain towards the main stream network. However, this procedure makes no difference between actual and fictitious terrain depressions, and fills them all without discerning between DEM errors and inland catchments. Actual terrain depressions should be kept in the DEM as part of the terrain definition. In brief, correcting the DEM consists of (1) defining the internal pour points of the inland catchments ( i.e., assigning NODATA value to the lowest cell of each depression), and (2) filling the pits with the FILL function, so that the water can flow towards the stream network or pour points without being trapped in the depressions.

The DEM correction required a criterion to distinguish between DEM errors and actual terrain depressions.

The criterion adopted was that a sink is an actual terrain depression if its filled areas is greater than a threshold area and and its filled depth is greater than a threshold depth defined by the user.

For this purpose, an Arc Macro Language (aml) that applies this criterion automatically and corrects the DEM was developed. The methodology used by the program to identify inland catchments consists in filling the DEM and comparing the area and depth of the filled zones with certain user-defined threshold values.

All filled zones that satisfy the criterion are treated as inland catchments and NODATA is assigned to their lowest cell (pour point) in the original DEM. Once all the pour points have been assigned NODATA, the DEM is filled with the FILL function to correct the pits.

After the DEM is corrected, the standard stream and watershed delineation process can be used. The North-Western part of the African continent embodies two large terrain depressions: one is the Lake Chad basin, and the other comprises primarily the Algerian Sahara. Much attention has been paid to the Lake Chad basin because of its distinct hydrologic characteristics (i.e., the lake does not have an outlet river); on the contrary, the Algerian Sahara depression is essentially a dry region.

The following figure shows the watersheds that drain more than 1,000,000 Km 2 of Africa delineated before identifying the inland-catchment pour points. In this map, the yellow area corresponds to the Nile River basin, the red to the Congo River basin, the orange to the Zambezi River basin, and the light blue area to the Niger River basin (including the actual Lake Chad basin and part of the Sahara desert).

The delineation of these watersheds was based on the DEM prepared by M. F. Hutchinson of the Center for Resource and Environmental Studies (CRES) of the Australian National University.

This DEM, originally in Geographic Projection with cell size of 3 arc-minutes, was projected into Flat Polar Quartic (FPQ) Projection with cell size 5000 m. After correcting the DEM for inland cathments, a new watershed delineation was done which solved the problem of areas draining towards the Niger river. The border of the actual Niger River basin is outlined in dark blue in the map below.2.2. Streams and Watersheds of the Niger River Basin The stream-watershed delineation of the Niger River basin was based on the DEM of the African continent developed by the EROS Center of United States Geological Survey (USGS) in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, with the cooperation of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP).

This DEM is part of a global DEM file called GTOPO30 . This DEM grid, originally in Geographic Projection with a cell size of 30 arc-seconds, was projected into FPQ Projection with cell size 1000 m. Next, a smaller area that comprised North West Africa (approximately 12.3 million Km 2) was clipped out and taken as the study area.

It was found that the Niger River basin has an area of approximately 2.3 million square kilometers. Using a threshold drainage area of 10,000 Km 2 for the delineation of the sub-watersheds, a total of 142 stream-watershed units were identified. The threshold drainage area of 10,000 Km 2 was chosen in order to obtain a number of stream-watershed units large enough to preserve the spatial variability of the system, and small enough not to complicate the calculations.

Additionally, in order to avoid extremely long subwatersheds, watershed outlets were also placed each 250 Km along the main stem of long rivers within a single subwatershed, which added 25 new stream-watershed units. The resulting stream lengths ranged from 1 Km to 250 Km with an average value of 117 Km, and the watershed areas ranged from 16 Km 2 to 66,430 Km 2 with an average value of 14,000 Km 2.

The following figure shows the stream-watershed units of the Niger River hydrologic system.3. Soil Water Balance3.1. Climate and Terrain Data Temperature and Precipitation Mean monthly temperature and precipitation estimates interpolated onto a 0.5 by 0.5 mesh were obtained from Cort Willmott at the University of Delaware.

These data come from the Global Air Temperature and Precipitation Data Archive compiled by D. Legates and C. Willmott.

The monthly precipitation estimates used in this study were corrected for gage bias. Data from 24,635 terrestrial stations and 2,223 oceanic grid points were used to estimate the global precipitation field. The climatology is largely representative of the years 1920 to 1980 with more weight given to recent (""data-rich"") years (Legates and Willmott, 1990). The raw data obtained from the University of Delaware were downloaded via ftp in formatted text files. FORTRAN programs and AML's were used to generate the polygon coverages of these data, shown here below.

Net Radiation Global mean monthly net radiation data generated as part of the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) are now available for a 96 month period extending from July 1983 to June 1991. The data are given on the ISSCP equal-area grid which has a spatial resolution of 2.5 degrees at the equator.

Monthly average, mean annual and mean monthly values of net radiation were computed for this 8 year period. To make computations consistent, the radiation data were resampled to the same resolution as the climate and soils data (0.5 degree cells).

Potential Evaporation The formula used for computing the potential evaporation is the Priestley-Taylor equation:where E is the potential evaporation rate in mm/month, D is the gradient of the saturated vapor pressure curve in k Pa/°C at the prevailing temperature, g is the psychrometric constant in k Pa/°C, and E r is the water evaporation equivalent of the net radiation in mm/day.

The values of D and g as a function of temperature are given in Table 4.2.1 p. 4.4 of the Handbook of Hydrology, (Mc Graw-Hill, 1993, ed.

by D. R. Maidment). The value of E r is given by:where R n is the net radiation in W/m 2, L is the latent heat of vaporization of water in J/kg, and 86,400 is the number of seconds in a day.

The value of L is given by:where T is the prevailing temperature. Soil Water Holding Capacity Global estimates of ""plant-extractable"" water capacity - also called soil water-holding capacity - on a 0.5° grid estimates were obtained via anonymous ftp from the USGS Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.

Information about sand, clay, organic content, plant rooting depth, and horizon thickness was used to estimate the water-holding capacity. An important source of data used in this analysis was FAO's Digitized Soil Map of the World (FAO, UNESCO, 1974-1981).

As a reference, the global average soil water-holding capacity estimate is 86 mm.3.2. Soil Water Budget Methodology The soil-water balance model uses a simple accounting scheme to predict soil-water storage, evaporation, and water surplus.

Surplus is precipitation which does not evaporate or remain in soil storage and includes both surface and sub-surface runoff. The conservation of mass equation for soil-water can be written as follows (Thornthwaite 1948):where w is soil moisture, t is time, P is the precipitation, E is the actual evaporation, and S is the water surplus. An Avenue script (Reed 1996), based on WATBUG (Willmott 1977), is used to calculate the soil water budget.

The actual calculations are done on a daily basis in the program. Values of the monthly precipitation and potential evaporation are divided by the number of days in the month to give average daily values. The runoff or water surplus in each day is found as the product of the precipitation and the ratio of the actual soil moisture level to the soil moisture capacity.

The evaporation in each day is found as the product of the potential evaporation and the ratio of actual soil moisture level to the soil moisture capacity.

A trial calculation is done to find the end of day storage and if this exceeds the soil moisture capacity, the excess soil moisture is added to the water surplus and the storage is reset to the soil moisture capacity before the next day's computations are done.

This algorithm is limited by the fact that it assumes that a month's rain falls as a gentle mist instead of in concentrated daily amounts with zero rainfall in between. This simplification is offset by allowing a small amount of runoff or water surplus in each day, as occurs with a soil slowly draining to a stream.

The algorithm used here can also be applied with daily data files when such data are available and then its daily results are more realistic. The climate data used are mean monthly values for the period of record. The computations are done for the12-month representative period several times in sequence, until the computed soil moisture levels in each month stabilize to constant values. These values represent expected monthly soil moisture levels. The annual water surplus for each 0.5° by 0.5° cell are shown in the figure:4.

Map-Based Surface Water Simulation Avenue scripts are also used to run a map-based surface water simulation model of the Niger River basin. After delineating the stream-watershed network, so that a one-to-one relation between stream and corresponding drainage area is established, water is routed to each subwatershed outlet assuming overland flow and next it is routed through the stream system.

Overland flow within the subwatersheds is modeled with a response function, equivalent to the instantaneous unit hydrograph.

Stream flow in the river network is modeled with the Muskingum method or a response function.4.1. Overland Flow Within the Subwatershed Water Losses in the Overland Flow Water losses in the overland flow are assumed to be proportional to the flow distance from each specific elementary area (grid cell) to the subwatershed outlet.

The constant of proportionality is found by calibration, by comparing mean annual predicted flows with observed flows at eleven flow gauging stations distributed over the watershed, and is given bywhere a is the constant of proportionality, Q obs is the observed flow, S is the spatially distributed mean annual surplus, L is the distance to the subwatershed outlet, and A is the station drainage area.

In Arc/Info-Grid, the flow length grid L was determined with the FLOWLENGTH function; and the terms and were calculated with the ZONALSTATS function applied to the S (mean annual surplus) and S L (product of mean annual surplus and flow length) grids. The calculated values of a (one per station) varied from 0.0010/Km to 0.0035/Km, with an average value of 0.0028/Km and standard deviation of 0.0009/Km. From the physical point of view this implies that, as an average, 0.28% of the surplus is lost per kilometer of overland flow.

This water losses parameter is applied uniformly over the entire watershed. Concluding, net surplus S' i (t) (i.e. the fraction of surplus that is not lost) in subwatershed i is given bywhere L o i is the average overland flow length to the subwatershed outlet. Subwatershed Response Function Inputs to the surface and shallow subsurface water systems of subwatershed i are fractions of the net surplus S' i (t).

Splitting the net surplus into surface and subsurface surplus is made by a uniformly distributed factor a. Spatial variability of this factor is a matter of further research. Two impulse response functions are defined, one for the surface system u i (t) and another for the subsurface system v i (t).

Each of them is used to route the fraction of the surplus that feds each system. Surface System: A smoothed time-area diagram of the subwatershed is used as the impulse response function.

For calculating the flow time, a spatially distributed velocity field in which the local velocities are proportional to the square root of the terrain slope and the drainage areas is assumed. The proportionality factor a i becomes a calibration parameter. However, since getting the time-area diagram for each of the subwatersheds would be tedious specially if a large number of subwatersheds are considered, the diagram is represented by two numbers: (1) average flow time T i; and (2) standard deviation s i.

Based on these two numbers, an impulse response function u i (t) in the form of a first passage times distribution is assumedwhere D i plays the role of a diffusion number.

Using this flow-time distribution has the following advantages: (1) the flow is represented in a form that has been used previously in the literature for modeling water flow; (2) a smooth response instead of an irregular curve is obtained; (3) the response is defined by two numbers and one formula, instead of a list of values.

Shallow Subsurface System: The watershed response function is assumed to be an exponential distributionwhere k i is the distribution parameter. The physical meaning of this assumption is that underlying each subwatershed, a linear reservoir is located. This reservoir stores the water for a relatively long time before releasing it to the subwatershed outlet.

The linear reservoir is defined by it residence time k i, which is the only calibration parameter of the shallow subsurface system response.

The reservoir residence time is taken as a function of the subwatershed area. Overall Subwatershed Response: The flow at the subwatershed outlet is calculated as the sum of the surface and the shallow subsurface system responses. Each response is the result of the convolution of its corresponding surplus fraction and its impulse response functionwhere a is the surface/subsurface spliting factor.

After reaching the subwatershed outlet the flow is routed in the stream network4.2. Stream Flow Depending on the flow time in the stream, flow is modeled by either method: (1) Muskingum method; or (2) response function. In order to reduce the number of model parameters, stream flow velocity is taken constant as v =0.3 m/s.

Moreover, losses are represented by a loss coefficient that is the flow lost per unit flow per unit length. The loss coefficient is taken equal to 0.114*10 -6 /m everywhere but in the Inner Delta where it is 1.41*10 -6 /m.

For the Muskingum method, the parameters K (flow time in the reach) is taken equal to L / (1.67 v) where L is the reach length and X is taken equal to 0.1.

For the response function method, a response has to be defined by the user for the reach as a series of values. For short streams in which the flow-time in the reach is in the order of magnitude of the time-step, a 2-time-step response function method is suggested. The 2-time-step response function is based on the fraction of the flow that reaches the downstream edge of the stream before one time step, the remaining being the value of the response function for the first time step.

The 2-time-step model is the default model, and is implemented when a user-defined response function is not available or when the Muskingum method is not computationally efficient.5. Results The graphics attached depict the simulated and observed flow for the Niger river at Koulikoro, one of the principal gaging stations on the Niger river above its Inner Delta.

The results are obtained by clipping out a portion of the main basin model to form the Koulikoro submodel, including just those subwatersheds whose drainage passes through the gage at Koulikoro. Next, the model parameters are optimized so that the predicted discharge at the station matches observed values. The simulations carried out are for a 90 month period from July 1983 to December 1990. In the attached chart, the horizontal axis is the time in months from July 1983, the vertical axis is the Niger River discharge in cubic meters per second, the green lines are the calculated flows and the red lines are the observed flows at Koulikoro.

The observed flow data were obtained from the Global Runoff Data Center in Koblenz, Germany.6. Conclusions The Water Balance of the Niger Basin project accomplished several goals:a soil water balance was constructed using Arcview Avenue programs, monthly climate data and 0.5 degree spatial cells for West Africa, and more generally for the whole earth. The inputs to the soil water balance are monthly precipitation, air temperature and net radiation.

The outputs are monthly water surplus (runoff or recharge), evaporation and soil moisture level.watershed runoff model was constructed which successfully took the results of the soil water balance model and routed them down to the outlet of each subwatershed.

A cell to watershed flux converter transformed the water surplus time series from the soil water balance model defined on 0.5 degee cells to the runoff model defined on subwatersheds.

The input to the runoff model is the soil water surplus, the output is the time series of overland flow and subsurface flow contributions to the watershed runoff, called Pflow, for polygon flow.a river routing model was constructed which took the results of the runoff model and routed them down through the river system using the Muskingum-Cunge routing method, or variants of that method for special cases like short reaches.

The input to this model is the Pflow from watershed runoff and the output is the flow at each node on the river network (called Fflow or Tflow, depending on whether the node is a from node or a to node of a river reach).

This routing takes account of losses in the river channel defined as a percent of flow lost per unit of distance travelled, and the presence of diversions and resevoirs on the river reaches. The values of these parameters where found by an internal optimization routine written in Avenue so as to minimise the error in timing and volume of flow.

The project demonstrated the flexibility of the Avenue programming language but we also learned that Avenue programs are not suited to computationally intensive tasks because they take too long to execute.7.

Acknowledgements We wish to acknowledge the support and cooperation of the Land and Water Development Division of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (Jean-Marc Faures and Philippe Pallas) and the Division of Water Sciences of UNESCO (Alice Aureli) in the conduct of this study.8. References Legates, D. R., and C. J. Willmott (1990), ""Mean Seasonal and Spatial Variability in Gauge-Corrected Global Precipitation"", International Journal of Climatology, 10, 111-127. Reed S. (1996), ""Soil-Water Budget. Part I: Methodology and Results"", http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/maidment/GISHydro/seann/explsoil/method.htm Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948), ""An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate"", Geographical Review, 38, 55-94. Willmott, C. J. (1977), ""WATBUG: AFORTRAN IV Algorithm for Calculating the Climatic Water Budget"", Publications in Climatology, 30, 2. United Nations - Food and Agriculture Organization (1994), ""Digitized Soil map of the World"", Version 3.0. "

FAO contributes to international policy through the work of its Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

Genetic resources

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Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video. Video: Irene Hoffmann, Secretary of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, discusses the new guidelines Infographic: Biodiversity for food security and nutrition FAO's role in genetic resources The diversity of genetic resources for food and agriculture (i.e. plants/crops, animals, aquatic resources, forests, micro-organisms and invertebrates) plays a crucial role in meeting basic human food and nutritional needs.

It is essential for maintaining and enhancing the efficiency and the resilience of production systems, as well as contributing to sustainable diets and to the delivery of ecosystem services, such as pest and disease regulation.

The Commission, which is the only intergovernmental forum specifically dealing with all components of biodiversity for food and agriculture, oversees and guides the preparation of periodic global assessments as well as negotiates global action plans, codes of conduct and other instruments relevant to conservation and sustainable use.

Through the International Treaty, which is the only international legal and operational instrument covering all plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, countries and users get access to genetic resources for research, training and breeding and participate in the benefits derived from their use.

From assessments to policy The Commission’s global assessments are country-driven and based on national assessments of the state of the genetic resources, their use, the drivers of genetic erosion and the challenges and opportunities involved in conserving and using them in a sustainable manner to contribute to food security and nutrition.

To address the main gaps and challenges identified in the assessments, the Commission negotiates Global Plans of Action, policy instruments providing a framework to guide the implementation of actions at community, national, regional and international levels for the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources for food and agriculture. Exchange of genetic resources All countries depend on genetic diversity from other countries and regions. International cooperation and open exchange of genetic resources are therefore crucial for food security.

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Food consumption refers to the amount of food available for human consumption as estimated by the FAO Food Balance Sheets.

List of countries by food energy intake

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Map of average daily dietary energy availability per capita in 2006–2008.

[1]no data<1,600 kcal (6,700 k J)1,600–1,800 kcal (6,700–7,500 k J)1,800–2,000 kcal (7,500–8,400 k J)2,000–2,200 kcal (8,400–9,200 k J)2,200–2,400 kcal (9,200–10,000 k J)2,400–2,600 kcal (10,000–11,000 k J)2,600–2,800 kcal (11,000–12,000 k J)2,800–3,000 kcal (12,000–13,000 k J)3,000–3,200 kcal (13,000–13,000 k J)3,200–3,400 kcal (13,000–14,000 k J)3,400–3,600 kcal (14,000–15,000 k J)>3,600 kcal (15,000 k J)

However the actual food consumption may be lower than the quantity shown as food availability depending on the magnitude of wastage and losses of food in the household, e.g. during storage, in preparation and cooking, as plate-waste or quantities fed to domestic animals and pets, thrown or given away.

[2]According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the average minimum daily energy requirement is about 1,800 kilocalories (7,500 k J) per person.

[3]Rank Country Average daily dietary energy consumption per capita (2006-08) [4]kilocalories kilojoules1 Austria 3,800 15,9002 United States 3,750 15,6903 Greece 3,710 15,5204 Belgium 3,690 15,4405 Luxembourg 3,680 15,4006 Italy 3,650 15,2707 Malta 3,600 15,0608 Ireland 3,590 15,0209 Portugal 3,580 14,98010 Germany 3,540 14,81011 Canada 3,530 14,77012 France 3,530 14,77013 Israel 3,530 14,77014 Kazakhstan 3,510 14,69015 Turkey 3,500 14,64016 Romania 3,490 14,60017 Hungary 3,470 14,52018 Norway 3,450 14,43019 Switzerland 3,450 14,43020 United Kingdom 3,450 14,43021 Lithuania 3,430 14,35022 Cuba 3,420 14,31023 Denmark 3,410 14,27024 Poland 3,410 14,27025 Tunisia 3,330 13,93026 Russia 3,320 13,89027 Ukraine 3,290 13,77028 Czech Republic 3,280 13,72029 Iceland 3,260 13,64030 Mexico 3,260 13,64031 Morocco 3,260 13,640— Netherlands Antilles 3,260 13,64032 Spain 3,260 13,64033 Australia 3,220 13,47034 Finland 3,220 13,47035 Slovenia 3,220 13,47036 Cyprus 3,190 13,35037 United Arab Emirates 3,170 13,26038 Egypt 3,160 13,22039 Belarus 3,150 13,18040 Libya 3,150 13,180— New Caledonia 3,150 13,18041 Estonia 3,140 13,14042 Brazil 3,120 13,05043 Saudi Arabia 3,120 13,05044 Sweden 3,110 13,01045 Algeria 3,090 12,93046 Dominica 3,090 12,93047 Lebanon 3,090 12,93048 Bosnia and Herzegovina 3,080 12,89049 Macedonia 3,060 12,80050 Iran 3,050 12,76051 South Korea 3,040 12,72052 Syria 3,040 12,72053 Argentina 3,030 12,68054 Kuwait 3,030 12,68055 Azerbaijan 3,020 12,64056 Barbados 3,020 12,64057 Fiji 3,000 12,55058 Jordan 3,000 12,55059 Netherlands 3,000 12,55060 South Africa 3,000 12,55061 China 2,990 12,51062 Croatia 2,990 12,51063 Latvia 2,990 12,51064 Brunei 2,980 12,47065 Chile 2,960 12,38066 Vanuatu 2,950 12,34067 Mauritius 2,930 12,26068 Ghana 2,900 12,13069 Slovakia 2,900 12,13070 Albania 2,890 12,09071 Malaysia 2,890 12,09072 Samoa 2,890 12,090— French Polynesia 2,880 12,05073 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 2,860 11,97074 Moldova 2,850 11,92075 Jamaica 2,840 11,88076 Uruguay 2,840 11,88077 Costa Rica 2,820 11,80078 Kiribati 2,820 11,80079 Mauritania 2,810 11,76080 New Zealand 2,810 11,76081 Japan 2,800 11,72082 Vietnam 2,780 11,63083 Bulgaria 2,760 11,55084 Guyana 2,740 11,46085 Turkmenistan 2,740 11,46086 Georgia 2,730 11,42087 Bahamas 2,710 11,34088 Belize 2,710 11,34089 Gabon 2,710 11,34090 Nigeria 2,710 11,34091 Saint Lucia 2,710 11,34092 Serbia 2,700 11,30093 Montenegro 2,700 11,30094 Trinidad and Tobago 2,700 11,30095 Burkina Faso 2,690 11,25096 Colombia 2,690 11,25097 Kyrgyzstan 2,660 11,13098 Paraguay 2,660 11,13099 Sao Tome and Principe 2,660 11,130100 Bermuda 2,650 11,090101 Venezuela 2,650 11,090102 Honduras 2,610 10,920103 Mali 2,590 10,840104 El Salvador 2,580 10,790105 Philippines 2,580 10,790106 Congo 2,570 10,750107 Uzbekistan 2,560 10,710108 Guinea 2,550 10,670109 Indonesia 2,550 10,670110 Maldives 2,550 10,670111 Thailand 2,540 10,630112 Cape Verde 2,530 10,590113 Benin 2,510 10,500114 Côte d'Ivoire 2,500 10,460115 Lesotho 2,460 10,290116 Saint Kitts and Nevis 2,460 10,290117 Suriname 2,460 10,290118 Panama 2,450 10,250119 Nicaragua 2,420 10,130120 Peru 2,410 10,080121 Grenada 2,400 10,040122 Seychelles 2,400 10,040123 Solomon Islands 2,400 10,040124 Niger 2,390 10,000125 Sri Lanka 2,370 9,920126 India 2,360 9,870127 Namibia 2,360 9,870128 Nepal 2,340 9,790129 Antigua and Barbuda 2,330 9,750130 Gambia 2,330 9,750131 Djibouti 2,300 9,620132 Ecuador 2,300 9,620133 Swaziland 2,290 9,580134 Pakistan 2,280 9,540135 Senegal 2,280 9,540136 Sudan 2,280 9,540137 Bangladesh 2,270 9,500138 Dominican Republic 2,270 9,500139 Guinea-Bissau 2,270 9,500140 Armenia 2,260 9,460141 Cameroon 2,240 9,370142 Laos 2,240 9,370143 Mongolia 2,240 9,370144 Botswana 2,230 9,330145 Uganda 2,220 9,290146 Zimbabwe 2,210 9,250147 Liberia 2,200 9,200148 Tajikistan 2,190 9,160149 Cambodia 2,180 9,120150 Guatemala 2,150 9,000151 Malawi 2,150 9,000152 Togo 2,150 9,000153 Madagascar 2,130 8,910154 Sierra Leone 2,120 8,870155 North Korea 2,110 8,830156 Bolivia 2,100 8,790157 Rwanda 2,090 8,740158 Palestine 2,080 8,700159 Mozambique 2,070 8,660160 Yemen 2,050 8,580161 Kenya 2,030 8,490162 Timor-Leste 2,020 8,450163 Tanzania 2,020 8,450164 Chad 2,010 8,410165 Angola 1,960 8,200166 Central African Republic 1,960 8,200167 Ethiopia 1,950 8,160168 Zambia 1,880 7,870169 Haiti 1,850 7,740170 Comoros 1,840 7,700171 Burundi 1,680 7,030172 Eritrea 1,590 6,650See also [ edit]Food power Food politics References [ edit]^ ""FAO Food Consumption Nutrients spreadsheet - 2008"". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved February 18, 2009.^ http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/food-security-statistics/food-security-statistics-metadata/en/^ ""Hunger Portal"". FAO. Retrieved 2012-09-28.^ http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/ess/documents/food_security_statistics/Food Consumption Nutrients_en.xls Categories: Diets Lists of countries by consumption Malnutrition Lists of countries by population-related issue "

By Catherine Brahic Livestock facts and figures (Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization)Cows, pigs, sheep and poultry have been awarded the dubious honour of being among the world’s greatest environmental threats, according to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO).

Cows, pigs and sheep: Environmentâs greatest threats?

The report, entitled Livestock’s long shadow, says the livestock industry is degrading land, contributing to the greenhouse effect, polluting water resources, and destroying biodiversity. In summary, the sector is “one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems at every scale”. The authors say the demand for meat is expected to more than double by 2050 and therefore the environmental impact of production must be halved in order to avoid worsening the harmful impacts of the industry.

Perhaps the report’s most striking finding is that the livestock sector accounts for 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions – more than transport, which emits 13.5%. Entire cycle The FAO’s estimate of livestock emissions surpasses previous ones because this time researchers looked at the entire production cycle.

This includes emissions generated by fertiliser and feed production, deforestation to open up pastures, manure management, and emissions from the livestock themselves and from transporting them and their feed.

Livestock require a lot of land, occupying 26% of Earth’s ice-free land. Their pastures account for 70% of deforested areas in the Amazon, and their feed occupies one-third of global cropland.

Not only does deforestation increase greenhouse gas emissions by releasing carbon previously stored in trees, it is also a major driver in the loss of biodiversity. The report goes so far as to say that the livestock sector, which accounts for about 20% of terrestrial animal biomass, “may be a leading player in the reduction of biodiversity”. Livelihoods in livestock Encouraging the global population to become vegans is not a viable solution, however.

For starters, says the lead author of the FAO report, Henning Steinfeld, it is quite simply not an option for many of the one billion people whose livelihoods rely on livestock production. Moreover, vegetable production is not devoid of environmental problems either. And recent studies have shown that global fish stocks are not sustainable at current levels of exploitation (see No more seafood by 2050?

). Steinfeld says the crux of the livestock problem is the sheer bulk of land the sector occupies: “We need to discourage indiscriminate deforestation for pasture, a large part of which takes place because of land speculation.”Convenient occupation In the Amazon, where governments struggle to enforce legal systems, settlers occupy swathes of “no-man’s land” and wait 15 years, after which time practice, though not law, dictates that they own the land.

Using the land for pasture is simply a convenient tool to occupy the land, explains Steinfeld. Ultimately, the authors argue, environmental services such as sustainably managed land and clean water, need to be given a price.“Most frequently, natural resources are free or underpriced, which leads to overexploitation and pollution,” write the authors, concluding that “a top priority is to achieve prices and fees that reflect the full economic and environmental costs”. Steinfeld says negotiations of the next step of the Kyoto Protocol might be a good opportunity to do this. Advertisement

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports (2005) that the Earth's total forest area continues to decrease at about 35 714 hectares (89 000 acres) per day. Or 1488 hectares (3720 acres) an hour. Or 25 hectares (62 acres) a minute.

How many trees get cut down each day?

"Education & Reference Trivia How many trees get cut down each day?2 following 5 answers Answers Relevance Rating Newest Oldest Best Answer: Twenty nine million, eight hundred thousand trees (29,800,000) are cut down every day in the world.

Or 0.4 hectares (1 acre) every second. An American Football field measures 0.53 ha (1.32 acres). Many people think the actual figure is much higher, because these figures were provided by each country, and may not include illegal logging.

In 1927, scientists of the United States Forest Service Allegheny Experiment Station did a survey of the Allegheny State Forest. They found an average of 335 trees per acre. Using that number the number of acres above would translate to 29,800,000 (Twenty-nine million, eight hundred thousand) trees cut down every day in the world!

(That number is really just a guess. Twenty years after the first survey, they were finding 497 trees per acre. By 1972 they had 997 trees per acre. In 1998, the latest survey, they were back to 346 trees per acre.) Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_trees... Have a pleasant day. Source (s):http://wiki.answers.com/Q/How_many_trees...titacabreros · 6 years ago1 1 Comment This Site Might Help You.

RE: How many trees get cut down each day? Source (s):trees cut day: https://shortly.im/W8t H7Anonymous · 3 years ago0 0 Comment For the best answers, search on this site https://shorturl.im/av B7w Iin the United states 6 trees are planted every year for every tree that is harvested. 80% of these are planted by the lumber industry. See the web page below to read facts for yourself.

I am sure this is not true in less developed countries. See the second web site for worldwide info.

Especially, see the section on ""Deforestation Today. ""Beverly · 2 years ago0 0 Comment A loottt !Veton · 6 years ago0 1 Comment Not really sure, but you can check this: Source (s):http://true-green-living.com Empire · 6 years ago0 1 Comment Maybe you would like to learn more about one of these? Look For Franchises For Sale Considering an online college? Masters of marketing online Explore Digital Home Security "

The FAO Food Price Index is a measure of the monthly change in international prices of a basket of food commodities. It consists of the average of five commodity group price indices, weighted with the average export shares of each of the groups for 2002-2004.

FAO Food Price Index

FAO Food Price Index

For more detailed information (in all languages) please see the special feature article of the November 2013 issue of the Food Outlook. An expanded version of the article, which contains more technical background is available in English only.

Monthly release dates for 2018: 11 January, 1 February, 1 March, 5 April, 3 May, 7 June, 5 July, 2 August, 6 September, 4 October, 1 November, 6 December. The FAO Food Price Index rises for the second consecutive month Release date: 05/04/2018» The FAO Food Price Index * (FFPI) averaged 172.8 points in March 2018, up 1.1 percent (1.8 points) from February, marking the second month of consecutive increase. At this level, the FFPI stood at 0.7 percent above its value of the corresponding month last year.

As in February, the month-on-month increase in March was driven primarily by stronger international prices of cereals and dairy; whereas the prices of sugar and vegetable oils fell further and those of meat rose slightly.» The FAO Cereal Price Index averaged 165.6 points in March, 2.7 percent (4.3 points) higher than in February and as much as 12.1 percent above its value in March 2017. The Index has been climbing continuously in recent months, reflecting firmer international prices of nearly all major cereals.

In recent weeks, weather concerns, in particular prolonged dryness in the United States and cold wet conditions in parts of Europe, lifted wheat price quotations. However, the increase in maize prices proved even more pronounced, supported by deteriorating crop prospects, especially in Argentina, as well as continued robust world demand.

Asian purchases kept international rice prices also generally firm.» The FAO Vegetable Oil Price Index averaged 156.8 points in March, falling marginally from February’s multi-month low. Modest price drops for soy, rape and sunflower oils were largely offset by higher prices of palm oil – the most widely traded vegetable oil in the world.

Despite expectations of seasonal production gains, palm oil prices firmed in March on the back of robust international demand and consequent inventory drawdowns in Malaysia and Indonesia.

The EU’s prospective resumption of imports of palm oil-based biodiesel from Indonesia and renewed strength in mineral oil prices also lent support to palm oil values.» The FAO Dairy Price Index averaged 197.4 points in March, up 6.2 points (3.3 percent) from February and slightly above its level in the corresponding period last year.

During the month, international price quotations for butter, Whole Milk Powder (WMP) and cheese rose, while those of SMP declined, reversing the gains recorded in the two preceding months. Lower than anticipated milk production in New Zealand and continued strong global import demand led to higher butter, cheese and WMP prices, while continued pressure from global stocks and higher production pushed down SMP prices.» The FAO Meat Price Index averaged 169.8 points in March, almost unchanged from February.

At this level, the index is 3 percent above the corresponding month last year but still almost 20 percent below the peak reached in August 2014. Across the various meat categories that constitute the index, price quotations for ovine meat increased, pig meat gained slightly, poultry meat remained stable, while those for bovine meat eased.

Strong import demand, especially by China, strengthened ovine meat prices. Somewhat tight supplies in Europe underpinned a small increase in pigmeat prices, while subdued demand and expectations for supplies from New Zealand to increase in the coming months weighed on bovine meat values.» The FAO Sugar Price Index averaged nearly 186 points in March, down 6.5 points (3.4 percent) from February and as much as 27.5 percent below its level the same month last year.

Sugar prices continued to fall on account of large export availabilities. A weaker Brazilian Real and relaxed export rules from India, allowing millers to sell overseas until end of the current season, were seen as factors boosting sugar shipments from both countries and resulting in more subdued international price quotations.

* Unlike for other commodity groups, most prices utilized in the calculation of the FAO Meat Price Index are not available when the FAO Food Price Index is computed and published; therefore, the value of the Meat Price Index for the most recent months is derived from a mixture of projected and observed prices. This can, at times, require significant revisions in the final value of the FAO Meat Price Index which could in turn influence the value of the FAO Food Price Index. Download full dataset: Excel, CSV| For more information contact us.

The Food Price Index, published by the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), averaged 150.4 points in January, down 16 percent from a year earlier and registering its lowest level since April 2009.

World food prices tumble near 7-year low

"Commodities Commodities Oil Gold Agriculture Livestock Currencies Index Interest Rates World food prices tumble near 7-year low Holly Ellyatt | @Holly Ellyatt Published 6:29 AM ET Thu, 4 Feb 2016 Updated 9:28 AM ET Thu, 4 Feb 2016CNBC.com World food prices slip to near 7-year low 9:15 AM ET Thu, 4 Feb 2016World food prices fell to almost a seven-year low at the start of the year on the back of sharp declines in commodities, particularly sugar, according to the latest data from the United Nations (UN).

The trade-weighted index tracks international market prices for five key commodity groups -- major cereals, vegetable oils, dairy, meat and sugar – on a monthly basis. In January, the Sugar Price Index showed the largest declines having fallen 4.1 percent from December, its first drop in four months. The FAO said the drop was down to improved crop conditions in Brazil, the world's leading sugar producer and exporter.

The second largest declines were seen in the FAO's Dairy Price Index which dropped by 3.0 percent in the same time period ""on the back of large supplies, in both the EU and New Zealand, and torpid world import demand,"" the FAO noted.

The Cereals and Vegetable Oils indices both saw declines of 1.7 percent in January from the previous month and the Meat Price Index fell 1.1 percent.

The main factors underlying the lingering decline in basic food commodity prices are ""the generally ample agricultural supply conditions, a slowing global economy, and the strengthening of the U. S. dollar,"" the FAO noted. Food commodities are not the only ones suffering from demand failing to keep up with a glut in supply with oil prices suffering a similar fate with a steady decline since mid-2014.

Signaling no let-up in production, the food agency raised its forecasts for worldwide cereal crops in 2016.

""As a result of the upgraded production and downgraded consumption forecasts, world cereal stocks are set to end the 2016 seasons at 642 million tons, higher than they began,"" the agency noted. Mixed harvests Looking ahead to commodity prices in 2016, the FAO said that there were mixed early prospects for 2016 harvests with potential disruption from erratic weather systems.

In particular, the weather pattern known as El Niño was ""sending mixed signals about the early prospects for cereal crops in 2016, especially in the Southern Hemisphere.

""2016 crop prospects have been ""severely weakened"" in Southern Africa, and a 25 percent cut in wheat production in South Africa now appears likely, the FAO said. Conditions for the crop are generally favorable in the Russian Federation and the European Union, but winter plantings declined in the United States and Ukraine.

The area under wheat is also expected to be cut in India, following a poor monsoon and below average rains since October. The 2016 outlook for rice along and south of the Equator is ""dim"" due, at times, to insufficient water and, at others, to excessive rains, the FAO noted, showing how hard it will be for farmers to get a perfect balance.- By CNBC's Holly Ellyatt, follow her on Twitter @Holly Ellyatt. Follow CNBC Internationalon Twitter and Facebook. Holly Ellyatt Correspondent, CNBC.com "

g The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (or UN-REDD Programme) is a collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), created in 2008 in response to the UNF

United Nations REDD Programme

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search See also: Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation UN-REDD National Programmes UN-REDD Partner Countries Established September 24, 2008; 9 years ago Headquarters Geneva, Switzerland Membership 64 Partner Countries Head, UN-REDD Programme Secretariat Mario Boccucci Parent organization Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)Website www .un-redd .or

CCC decisions on the Bali Action Plan and REDD at COP-13. [1] It should not be confused with ""REDD+"", a voluntary climate change mitigation approach that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC (see below ""Difference between REDD+ and the UN-REDD Programme""). The overall development goal of the Programme is ""to reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development"". [2]The UN-REDD Programme supports nationally led REDD+ processes and promotes the informed and meaningful involvement of all stakeholders, including indigenous peoples and other forest-dependent communities, in national and international REDD+ implementation.

[1]The Programme has expanded steadily since its establishment and now has over 60 official Partner Countries spanning Africa, Asia-Pacific and Latin America-Caribbean. [3]In addition to the UN-REDD Programme, other initiatives assisting countries that are engaged in REDD+ include the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, Norway’s International Climate and Forest Initiative, the Global Environment Facility, Australia’s International Forest Carbon Initiative, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, and the Green Climate Fund.

The UN-REDD Programme publicly releases each year an Annual Programme Progress Report and a Semi-Annual Report.

[3]Contents [ hide ]1 Support to Partner Countries2 Governance2.1 Executive Board2.2 Assembly2.3 National Steering Committees2.4 Multi-Party Trust Fund Office3 2016-2020 Strategic Framework4 Donors5 Transparency6 Difference between REDD+ and the UN-REDD Programme7 See also8 References9 External links Support to Partner Countries [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme supports its Partner Countries through: [1]Direct funding and technical support to the design and implementation of National REDD+ Programmes;Complementary tailored funding and technical support to national REDD+ actions; and Technical country capacity enhancing support through sharing of expertise, common approaches, analyses, methodologies, tools, data, best practices and facilitated South-South knowledge sharing.

Governance [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme's 2016-2020 governance arrangements allow for the full and effective participation of all UN-REDD Programme stakeholders – partner countries, donors, indigenous peoples, civil society organizations, participating UN agencies – while ensuring streamlined decision-making processes and clear lines of accountability.

[2]The governance arrangements are built on and informed by five principles: inclusiveness, transparency, accountability, consensus-based decisions and participation. [2]UN-REDD Programme 2016-2020 governance arrangements include: Executive Board [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme Executive Board has general oversight for the Programme, taking decisions on the allocation of the UN-REDD Programme fund resources. It meets bi-annually, or more frequently as required to efficiently carry out its roles and responsibilities.

[2]Assembly [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme Assembly is a broad multi-stakeholder forum with the role to foster consultation, dialogue and knowledge exchange among UN-REDD Programme stakeholders.

[2]National Steering Committees [ edit]National Steering Committees facilitate strong country ownership and shared/common decision-making for National REDD+ Programmes, and include representatives of civil society and indigenous peoples. Each National Steering Committee provides oversight for National Programmes, addressing any delays, changes or reorientation of a programme and ensuring alignment with and delivery of results as expected and approved by the Executive Board.

[2]Multi-Party Trust Fund Office [ edit]The Multi-Party Trust Fund Office provides real-time funding administration to the UN-REDD Programme.

[2]2016-2020 Strategic Framework [ edit]The work of the UN-REDD Programme is guided by its 2016-2020 Strategic Framework, with the goal to: Reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development.

[2]In order to realize its goal and target impacts, the Programme has set three outcomes and supporting outputs for its 2016-2020 work programme: [2]Contributions of REDD+ to the mitigation of climate change as well as to the provision of additional benefits have been designed. Country contributions to the mitigation of climate change though REDD+ are measured, reported and verified and necessary institutional arrangements are in place. REDD+ contributions to the mitigation of climate change are implemented and safeguarded with policies and measures that constitute results-based actions, including the development of appropriate and effective institutional arrangements.

Additionally, the Programme has identified four important cross-cutting themes as being particularly significant in order to ensure that the outcomes and outputs of the Programme will achieve results as desired: Stakeholder Engagement, Forest Governance, Tenure Security and Gender Equality.

[2]Donors [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme depends entirely on voluntary funds. Donors to the UN-REDD Programme have included the European Commission and governments of Denmark, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland—with Norway providing a significant portion of the funds.

[1]Transparency [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme adheres to the belief that information is fundamental to the effective participation of all stakeholders, including the public, in the advancement of REDD+ efforts around the world. Information sharing promotes transparency and accountability and enables public participation in REDD+ activities.

[1]The collaborating UN agencies of the UN-REDD Programme – FAO, UNEP and UNDP – are committed to making information about the Programme and its operations available to the public in the interest of transparency. [1] As part of this commitment, the Programme publishes annual and semi-annual programme progress reports and provides online public access to real-time funding administration. [1]Difference between REDD+ and the UN-REDD Programme [ edit]REDD+ is a voluntary climate change mitigation approach that has been developed by Parties to the UNFCCC.

It aims to incentivize developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks. The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries – or UN-REDD Programme – is a multilateral body.

It partners with developing countries to support them in establishing the technical capacities needed to implement REDD+ and meet UNFCCC requirements for REDD+ results-based payments. It does so through a country-based approach that provides advisory and technical support services tailored to national circumstances and needs.

The UN-REDD Programme is a collaborative programme of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and harnesses the technical expertise of these UN agencies.

United Nations REDD Programme

g The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (or UN-REDD Programme) is a collaborative programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), created in 2008 in response to the UNF

The UN-REDD Programme publicly releases each year an Annual Programme Progress Report and a Semi-Annual Report.

Governance [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme's 2016-2020 governance arrangements allow for the full and effective participation of all UN-REDD Programme stakeholders – partner countries, donors, indigenous peoples, civil society organizations, participating UN agencies – while ensuring streamlined decision-making processes and clear lines of accountability.

[2]The governance arrangements are built on and informed by five principles: inclusiveness, transparency, accountability, consensus-based decisions and participation. [2]UN-REDD Programme 2016-2020 governance arrangements include: Executive Board [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme Executive Board has general oversight for the Programme, taking decisions on the allocation of the UN-REDD Programme fund resources. It meets bi-annually, or more frequently as required to efficiently carry out its roles and responsibilities.

[2]Assembly [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme Assembly is a broad multi-stakeholder forum with the role to foster consultation, dialogue and knowledge exchange among UN-REDD Programme stakeholders.

[2]National Steering Committees [ edit]National Steering Committees facilitate strong country ownership and shared/common decision-making for National REDD+ Programmes, and include representatives of civil society and indigenous peoples. Each National Steering Committee provides oversight for National Programmes, addressing any delays, changes or reorientation of a programme and ensuring alignment with and delivery of results as expected and approved by the Executive Board.

[2]Multi-Party Trust Fund Office [ edit]The Multi-Party Trust Fund Office provides real-time funding administration to the UN-REDD Programme.

[2]2016-2020 Strategic Framework [ edit]The work of the UN-REDD Programme is guided by its 2016-2020 Strategic Framework, with the goal to: Reduce forest emissions and enhance carbon stocks in forests while contributing to national sustainable development.

Additionally, the Programme has identified four important cross-cutting themes as being particularly significant in order to ensure that the outcomes and outputs of the Programme will achieve results as desired: Stakeholder Engagement, Forest Governance, Tenure Security and Gender Equality.

[2]Donors [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme depends entirely on voluntary funds. Donors to the UN-REDD Programme have included the European Commission and governments of Denmark, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway, Spain and Switzerland—with Norway providing a significant portion of the funds.

[1]Transparency [ edit]The UN-REDD Programme adheres to the belief that information is fundamental to the effective participation of all stakeholders, including the public, in the advancement of REDD+ efforts around the world. Information sharing promotes transparency and accountability and enables public participation in REDD+ activities.

It aims to incentivize developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks. The United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries – or UN-REDD Programme – is a multilateral body.

It partners with developing countries to support them in establishing the technical capacities needed to implement REDD+ and meet UNFCCC requirements for REDD+ results-based payments. It does so through a country-based approach that provides advisory and technical support services tailored to national circumstances and needs.

The UN-REDD Programme is a collaborative programme of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), and harnesses the technical expertise of these UN agencies.

Decreasing fish stocks Increased human demand for fish and subsidies for fishing fleets have resulted in too many boats chasing too few fish. Two-thirds of the world's fish stocks are either fished at their limit or over fished. The UN food and agriculture organisation (FAO) has estimated that 70 percent of the fish population is fully used, overused or in crisis. Plummeting numbers of fish have led some fisheries organisations, and some countries, to see whales as competitors for dwindling fish stocks.

Decreasing fish stocks

Some cetacean species, such as minke whales, dolphins and porpoises, do indeed feed on commercially important fish species such as herring, cod and mackerel, as well as on other species without commercial value.

However, research concludes that whales are not responsible for degraded state of world's fisheries Research by the Pew Foundation and WWF demonstrates that no scientific evidence currently exists that the culling of marine mammals will aid in the recovery of commercial fisheries, and that in some cases culling of marine mammals could actually be detrimental to fishing interests.

The best solution to the problem of declining fisheries is to rebuild overexploited stocks and ecosystems through relieving fishing pressure, improving gear selectivity and fishing exploitation patterns, protecting habitat and making a wise and generous use of protected areas and no-take zones.

Download the report: Who’s Eating All the Fish? [pdf, 1.2 MB]Downloads Scientific critique of the 'whales eat fish' issue PDF 216 KBWho's eating all the fish: the Food Security Rationale for Culling Cetaceans PDF 1.20 MB© WWF / Ogilvy Indonesia Together we can make the world's oceans safe for whales.

Learn more about WWF's work to protect whales. Fisheries Governments need to focus on the real reason for fisheries decline – unsustainable fishing operations As fishing nations increase their efforts to pursue fewer fish, their impact on all marine life and habitats also increases.

Trawl fisheries, particularly in coastal areas, damage the seabed. In many cases, the area is trawled repeatedly before the ocean floor has been given enough time to recover. Scallop dredging also degrades cetacean habitats. The dredging process is so destructive to the ocean floor that it may be several years before there is any recovery.

The noise of the dredging process can carry for many miles, and may disturb the whales and dolphins that depend upon sound to navigate, communicate and find prey. Read the WWF report: Hard Facts, Hidden Problems: A Review of Current Data on Fishing Subsidies

r. Role of the FAOThe Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. Serving both developed and developing countries, FAO acts as a neutral forum where all nations meet as equals to negotiate agreements and debate policy.

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations is an agency that leads international efforts to defeat hunge

FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernise and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.

Importance to the Egg Industry The IEC and FAO work together on the common issues of poultry egg production, poultry health and animal welfare, development and promotion of appropriate codes and best practices for responsible poultry production.

They work to support less developed countries and countries with emerging economies in improving and expanding egg production to feed a constantly growing population. The IEC also supports policy development at FAO in areas that impact the international egg industry. IEC looks to support FAO technical activities to ensure the safety of egg and egg products There is a formally recognised partnership between the FAO and IEC, with IEC working together with FAO on the following specific initiatives: Member of UN FAO Livestock Environmental Assessment and Performance partnership.

Member of FAO’s multi-stakeholder initiative named “Global agenda of action in support of sustainable livestock sector development”. Joint FAO-IEC editing of a book reviewing the role and impact of eggs in society (nutrition, poverty alleviation, cultural and societal aspects).http://www.fao.org/

Food fortification was identified as the second strategy of four by the WHO and FAO to begin decreasing the incidence of nutrient deficiencies at the global level. [2] As outlined by the FAO, the most common fortified foods are

Food fortification

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Food fortification or enrichment is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food.

Sometimes it's a purely commercial choice to provide extra nutrients in a food, while other times it is a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population. Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases.

[1]As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to ""the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, ie.

vitamins and minerals (including trace elements) in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health"", whereas enrichment is defined as ""synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing"". [2]

Food fortification

Natural disasters caused a total of $1.5 trillion in damage worldwide between 2003 and 2013, according to a study by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), which finds they caused more than 1.1 million deaths and affected the lives of more than two billion people. Source: FAOR

How much do natural disasters cost the world?

esearchers also found an increase in the frequency and severity of natural disasters over the past three decades, with a corresponding rise in economic losses. Source: FAOThe study is based on a sample of 78 needs assessments undertaken in the aftermath of disasters between 2003 and 2013.

It covered 48 countries in Africa, Asia-Pacific, and Latin America and the Caribbean. Developing countries are disproportionately affected by natural disasters, which often undermine overall economic growth and development and hit the agriculture sector particularly hard. Source: FAOThe study examined the impact of natural disasters on the agriculture sector and global food security. It showed that at least 22% of the damage caused in developing countries between 2003 and 2013 was in the agriculture sector.

The most devastating natural disaster for the agricultural sector was the 2008-2011 Kenya drought, which caused damage worth 10.5 billion US dollars to the country’s agriculture. Next worst was the 2010 flooding in Pakistan which cost 5.3 billion dollars. To keep up with the Agenda subscribe to our weekly newsletter.

Author: Emma Luxton is a Junior Content Producer at Formative Content. Image: A palm tree is damaged on a beach near Port Vila, the capital city of the Pacific island nation of Vanuatu March 14, 2015. REUTERS/Kris Paras