describe how muscles and bones work together to produce movement

Anatomical terms of movement are used to describe the actions of muscles on the skeleton. Muscles contract to produce movement at joints, and the subsequent movements can be precisely described using the terminology below.

Anatomical Terms of Movement

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As for anatomical terms of location, the terms used assume that the body starts in the anatomical position. Most movements have an opposite movement, otherwise known as an antagonistic movement. The terms are described here in antagonistic pairs for ease of understanding. By Connexions (http://cnx.org) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Fig 1.0 – Flexion and extension.

Flexion and Extension Flexion and extension are movements that occur in the sagittal plane. They refer to increasing and decreasing the angle between two body parts: Flexion refers to a movement that decreases the angle between two body parts.

Flexion at the elbow is decreasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus. When the knee flexes, the ankle moves closer to the buttock, and the angle between the femur and tibia gets smaller. Extension refers to a movement that increases the angle between two body parts. Extension at the elbow is increasing the angle between the ulna and the humerus.

Extension of the knee straightens the lower limb. Abduction and Adduction Abduction and adduction are two terms that are used to describe movements towards or away from the midline of the body.

Abduction is a movement away from the midline – just as abducting someone is to take them away. For example, abduction of the shoulder raises the arms out to the sides of the body. Adduction is a movement towards the midline. Adduction of the hip squeezes the legs together. In fingers and toes, the midline used is not the midline of the body, but of the hand and foot respectively.

Therefore, abducting the fingers spreads them out. Medial and Lateral Rotation Medial and lateral rotation describe movement of the limbs around their long axis: Medial rotation is a rotational movement towards the midline. It is sometimes referred to as internal rotation. To understand this, we have two scenarios to imagine.

Firstly, with a straight leg, rotate it to point the toes inward. This is medial rotation of the hip. Secondly, imagine you are carrying a tea tray in front of you, with elbow at 90 degrees. Now rotate the arm, bringing your hand towards your opposite hip (elbow still at 90 degrees). This is internal rotation of the shoulder. Lateral rotation is a rotating movement away from the midline.

This is in the opposite direction to the movements described above. By Connexions (http://cnx.org) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Fig 1.1 – Adduction, abduction and rotation. Elevation and Depression Elevation refers to movement in a superior direction (e.g. shoulder shrug), depression refers to movement in an inferior direction.

Pronation and Supination This is easily confused with medial and lateral rotation, but the difference is subtle. With your hand resting on a table in front of you, and keeping your shoulder and elbow still, turn your hand into its back, palm up. This is the supine position, and so this movement is supination. Again, keeping the elbow and shoulder still, flip your hand into its front, palm down.

This is the prone position, and so this movement is named pronation. These terms also apply to the whole body – when lying flat on the back, the body is supine.

When lying flat on the front, the body is prone. By Connexions (http://cnx.org) [CC-BY-3.0], via Wikimedia Commons Fig 1.2 – Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion Dorsiflexion and plantarflexion are terms used to describe movements at the ankle. They refer to the two surfaces of the foot; the dorsum (superior surface) and the plantar surface (the sole).

Dorsiflexion refers to flexion at the ankle, so that the foot points more superiorly. Dorsiflexion of the hand is a confusing term, and so is rarely used. The dorsum of the hand is the posterior surface, and so movement in that direction is extension. Therefore we can say that dorsiflexion of the wrist is the same as extension. Plantarflexion refers extension at the ankle, so that the foot points inferiorly. Similarly there is a term for the hand, which is palmarflexion.

Inversion and Eversion Inversion and eversion are movements which occur at the ankle joint, referring to the rotation of the foot around its long axis. Inversion involves the movement of the sole towards the median plane – so that the sole faces in a medial direction. Eversion involves the movement of the sole away from the median plane – so that the sole faces in a lateral direction.

Opposition and Reposition A pair of movements that are limited to humans and some great apes, these terms apply to the additional movements that the hand and thumb can perform in these species.

Opposition brings the thumb and little finger together. Reposition is a movement that moves the thumb and the little finger away from each other, effectively reversing opposition. Circumduction Circumduction can be defined as a conical movement of a limb extending from the joint at which the movement is controlled. It is sometimes talked about as a circular motion, but is more accurately conical due to the ‘cone’ formed by the moving limb. Rate This Article I'm not a robotre CAPTCHAPrivacy - Terms375Average Rating:

Together, the skeletal muscles work with your bones to give your body power and strength. In most cases, a skeletal muscle is attached to one end of a bone. It stretches all the way across a joint (the place where two bones meet) and then attaches again to another bone.

"Kids Health / For Kids / Your Muscles What's in this article? Listenen español Tus músculos Did you know you have more than 600 muscles in your body? They do everything from pumping blood throughout your body to helping you lift your heavy backpack.

You control some of your muscles, while others — like your heart — do their jobs without you thinking about them at all.1/6Muscles and Joints The human body has more than 600 muscles. They do everything from pumping blood throughout the body to helping us lift something heavy. Click through this slideshow to learn more about the muscles and joints.

Print this slide© 2018 The Nemours Foundation/Kids Health. All rights reserved. Muscles are all made of the same material, a type of elastic tissue (sort of like the material in a rubber band).

Thousands, or even tens of thousands, of small fibers make up each muscle. You have three different types of muscles in your body: smooth muscle, cardiac (say: KAR-dee-ak) muscle, and skeletal (say: SKEL-uh-tul) muscle.

Smooth Muscles Smooth muscles — sometimes also called involuntary muscles — are usually in sheets, or layers, with one layer of muscle behind the other. You can't control this type of muscle. Your brain and body tell these muscles what to do without you even thinking about it. You can't use your smooth muscles to make a muscle in your arm or jump into the air. What's your favorite muscle?

Heart Tongue Biceps Gluteus Maximus Vote View Results But smooth muscles are at work all over your body. In your stomach and digestive system, they contract (tighten up) and relax to allow food to make its journey through the body.

Your smooth muscles come in handy if you're sick and you need to throw up. The muscles push the food back out of the stomach so it comes up through the esophagus (say: ih-SAH-fuh-gus) and out of the mouth.

Smooth muscles are also found in your bladder. When they're relaxed, they allow you to hold in urine (pee) until you can get to the bathroom. Then they contract so that you can push the urine out. These muscles are also in a woman's uterus, which is where a baby develops.

There they help to push the baby out of the mother's body when it's time to be born. You'll find smooth muscles at work behind the scenes in your eyes, too. These muscles keep the eyes focused. A Hearty Muscle

The muscle that makes up the heart is called cardiac muscle. It is also known as the myocardium (say: my-uh-KAR-dee-um). The thick muscles of the heart contract to pump blood out and then relax to let blood back in after it has circulated through the body.

Just like smooth muscle, cardiac muscle works all by itself with no help from you. A special group of cells within the heart are known as the pacemaker of the heart because it controls the heartbeat.

Skeletal Muscle Now, let's talk about the kind of muscle you think of when we say ""muscle"" — the ones that show how strong you are and let you boot a soccer ball into the goal.

These are your skeletal muscles — sometimes called striated (say: STRY-ay-tud) muscle because the light and dark parts of the muscle fibers make them look striped (striated is a fancy word meaning striped).

Skeletal muscles are voluntary muscles, which means you can control what they do. Your leg won't bend to kick the soccer ball unless you want it to. These muscles help to make up the musculoskeletal (say: mus-kyuh-low-SKEL-uh-tul) system — the combination of your muscles and your skeleton, or bones.

Similar to ligaments, tendons are important skeletal system organs which join the muscles to the bones, hence they are more flexible so as to provide greater range of movement. The contraction of tendon pulls the end of bone to which it is attached and makes that bone to move during walking and running.

Organs of Skeletal System and Their Functions

Organs of Skeletal System and Their Functions The skeletal system in human is a major connective tissue system that is made up of organs, such as bones, ligaments, tendons and cartilages. The entire framework of body is made up of bones, which serves as a guarding system to protect the viscera and allows locomotion. Two bones are connected by fibrous tissues that are called ligaments; whereas the muscles are connected to the bones by tendons.

These connections provide the system with greater range of motion and strength. Soft parts such as nose and ear are made up of flexible connective tissues called cartilages which further protect the bones. These different parts make up organs of human skeletal system. The skeletal systems in male and female are a bit different in a few aspects, such as female pelvis is more flat and round so as to support the childbirth.

Similarly the pelvic angles and inlets are also different, such as angle in males is 90 degrees while that in females is 100 degrees. What Are Human Skeletal System Organs?1. Bones The most important organ of the skeletal system is the bones.

Human skeleton is made up of 206 bones that in coordination not only provides support and protection to the viscera (with the help of muscles attached to them) but also produces blood cells for the body from the bone-marrow.2. Ligaments and Joints Another important component, i.e. the ligaments are made of fibrous collagen tissue that attaches one bone to another bone.

This attachment forms into joints and allows the bone to move in a particular direction and hence enhances the movement of body parts in desired direction, such as hips, elbow, knees ad wrist etc. If the stretching of ligament occurs more than the normal levels, the person is referred to as double-jointed.3. Tendons

But this excessive flexibility of tendons make them more prone to injuries and infections. One such inflammatory conditions is known as tendonitis, in which the tendons get red, swollen and painful to move.4. Cartilage Another organ of skeletal system is the cartilage, which is soft and flexible connective tissue.

Cartilage not only plays a role in maintaining and forming the shape of human ear and nose as well as other organs, but also protects the bones against friction forces (which would otherwise corrode the bones easily).

The cartilages can also get damaged or infected, causing the joint to be swollen and tender. In advanced cases, you may require repair or replacement such as knee replacement surgery. Divisions of Human Skeletal System Human skeleton organsare divided into two types, the appendicular skeleton and the axial skeleton. The axial skeleton runs in the midline i.e. the axial plane of the body and is made up of a total of 80 bones.

The axial skeleton forms the central axis and provides protection to vital viscera, such as brain protected by skull, heart and lungs protected by the ribs cage and spinal cord protected by vertebrae. On the other side, the appendicular skeleton forms the body limbs, and is made up of 126 bones in total. The most important function of appendicular skeleton is to provide movement and locomotion. Axial Skeleton It contains the following from top to bottom respectively: Skull- it includes the cranium, face and auditory ossicles.

Hyoid - bone of neck for muscles attachment of chin and larynx. Vertebral column - consist of all spinal vertebrae. Thoracic cage - it contains ribs and sternum. Appendicular Skeleton It contains the following from top to bottom respectively: Shoulder girdle - it includes clavicle and scapula. Upper limb - it contains arm, forearm and hand’s bones. Hip girdle - it includes hip bone. Lower limb - it contains leg and feet’s bones.

Classification of Bones Based on Shape and Size The bones of human skeletal system are classified in to four distinct groups on the basis of size and shape. They are long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones. The bones of arms and legs are long in length as compared to their width.

Thus these are categorized under long bones. Similarly the bones of ankle and wrist are short and cuboidal with almost same length as compared to their width. That’s why they are called the short bones. The bones of ribs and cranium are thin, broad and curved.

They are called flat bones. All those bones which do not have a particular shape, and cannot be classified as long, short and flat are called irregular bones, such as hip bones and vertebrae.

Skeletal System Diseases Following are some major diseases of the skeletal system which affect the above mentioned skeletal system organs: Diseases Description Osteoporosis This occurs in elderly population due to loss of calcium from the bones, making them thin and easy to get fractured. Osteomalacia Deficiency of vitamin D in adults causes osteomalacia. The condition is characterized by softening of bones and easy vulnerability to fractures. Vitamin D deficiency also interferes with the bone remodeling processes. Arthritis It is the inflammation of joints, mostly the mobile joints such as neck, shoulder, knees, wrist and lower back.

It affects not only the joint spaces, but also destroys the capsule surrounding tissues and even bones. Scoliosis Occurs in adolescence. It is a condition in which there is C or S shaped bending of vertebral spine and can be seen on the x-ray.

It occurs due to multiple factors such as vitamin D deficiency and causes painful spinal movements that can be relieved by anti-steroidal drugs or topical application.

Bone Cancer Primary cancers of bone are very rare. In other words, most cases of bone cancers are secondary and are a result of metastasis from a primary cancer to the bones. Leukemia is a blood cancer that occurs typically in the marrow of bones and is characterized by uncontrolled growth of abnormal looking white blood cells.

Bursitis Inflammation of fluid filled sacs around joint space, called bursae. It usually affects the hips and shoulders. How to Keep Skeleton System Organs Healthy Take Calcium rich diet, containing 1000mg calcium per day in the form of milk, cheese, broccoli, orange and salmon etc. Take vitamin D rich diet, containing 15mcg vitamin D per day for an adult in the form of eggs, fish, orange and cereals etc. Do weight bearing exercises daily or at least 30 minutes twice a week so as to make your bones strong in the form of pushups, sit-ups and squats etc.

ed)Agonist muscle that contracts to produce a movement o Some degree of balance in strength b/w agonist & antagonist muscle groups is necessary to produce normal smooth, coordinated movement and to reduce the likelihood of muscle strain caused by muscular imbalance

Training and Conditioning Techniques

"79 terms zsmitheman Training and Conditioning Techniques The Relationship Between Athletic Trainers and Strength Coaches Learn Flashcards Write Spell Test Match Gravity Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Like this study set? Create a free account to save it. Create a free account Maybe later Sort The Relationship between Athletic Training and Strength Coaches • Improper conditioning is one of the major causes of injury - athletic trainers & strength coaches must cooperate • Role of athletic trainer: critically review the training and conditioning program designed by the strength coach and be extremely familiar with what is expected of the athletes on a daily basis o If a certain exercise or particular training session seems to be causing a large number of injuries, the athletic trainer should inform the strength coach of the problem so some alternative can be substituted • If an athlete is injured, it is the athletic trainer's responsibility to inform the strength coach about how the athlete's conditioning program should be limited and/or modified.

• In the majority of high schools, there is no strength and conditioning coach and the responsibility of getting the athlete fit lies with the athletic trainer and the team coaches; AT must supervise weight room activities closely Principles of Conditioning 1.

Warm-up/cooldown 2. Motivation (vary training program, incorporate techniques of periodization) 3. Overload (stress should not be so great as to cause injury before the body has had time to adjust) a. SAID principle: (specific adaptations to imposed demands) when the body is subjected to stresses and overloads of varying intensities, it will gradually adapt over time to overcome whatever demands are placed on it 4.

Consistency (exercise program must be completed on a regularly scheduled basis to be effective) 5. Progression (increase intensity of conditioning program gradually and within athlete's ability to adapt) 6.

Intensity (stress the intensity of the work rather than the quantity; the tired athlete is prone to injury) 7. Specificity (identify specific goals for the training program - should be relative to sport athlete plays) 8. Individuality (needs of individual athletes vary consistently 9. Minimize stress (expect that athletes will train as close to their physiological limits as they can; don't push too hard) 10.

Safety (educates athletes on proper technique and when they should push harder or back off)Warm-Up • Function: prepare the body physiologically for upcoming physical work by gradually stimulating the cardiorespiratory system to a moderate degree to increase blood flow to muscles and increase muscle temperature o ↑ muscle temperature = ↑ elasticity (degree muscle can be stretched), ↓ viscosity (rate at which muscle can change shape) • Should begin with 2-3 minutes of whole body activities that engage large muscle groups (jog, exercise bike) in order to elevate the metabolic rate and raise core temperature • Period of stretching exercises should follow (sport-specific, related to activity to be performed) • Intensity should then be increased gradually by performing sport-specific skills (i.e.

shooting layups, dribbling) • Total warm-up time should be about 10-15 minutes; activity should be started within the next 15 minutes after o Non-starters should be encouraged to stay warmed up and ready to play throughout the course of game o Continued sweating: good indication that the body has been sufficiently warmed up & ready for activity Cooldown Cooldown period enables the body to cool and return to a resting state (should last 5-10 minutes) o Persons who stretch during cooldown tend to have fewer problems with muscle soreness after strenuous activity; proper cooldown decreases blood and muscle lactic acid levels more rapidly Flexibility the ability to move a joint or series of joints smoothly and easily throughout full range of motion • Restricted ROM will result in decreased performance capability and uncoordinated or awkward movements that predispose the athlete to muscle strains (especially for gymnastics, ballet, diving, karate, and yoga) • Good flexibility will prevent injury to the musculotendinous unit Factors that Limit Flexability • Bony structure: usually bony prominences stop movements at normal endpoints (or OCD in elbow limits ROM) • Fat: fat may act as a wedge between two lever arms, restricting movement (i.e.

abdomen fat & trunk flexion) • Skin: inelastic scar tissue may form at the site of a tearing incision or laceration, which does not stretch well • Muscles and their tendons (and fascial sheaths): most often responsible for limiting ROM; over time it is possible to increase the elasticity, or the length that a given muscle can be stretched • Neural tissue tightness: morphological changes in neural tissue may result from acute compression, chronic repetitive microtrauma, muscle imbalances, joint dysfunction, or poor posture (causes irritation, inflammation) o Muscle guarding may alter normal movement patterns.

o Over time, neural fibrosis results (decreases elasticity of neural tissue and prevents normal movement of surrounding tissues) • Excessive joint motion can also predispose athlete to injury • With the exception of bony structure, age, and gender, all other limiting factors can be altered to increase ROMActive and Passive ROM • AROM/dynamic flexibility: degree to which a joint can be moved by a muscle contraction (usually midrange) • PROM/static flexibility: degree to which a joint may be passively moved to the endpoints in the ROM • AROM is important for optimal sports performance; PROM is important for injury prevention (if muscle does not have enough elasticity to compensate for additional stretch, musculotendinous unit will likely be injur

Antagonist muscle being stretched in response to contraction of agonist o Some degree of balance in strength b/w agonist & antagonist muscle groups is necessary to produce normal smooth, coordinated movement and to reduce the likelihood of muscle strain caused by muscular imbalance Dynamic (Ballistic) Stretching • Involves a bouncing movement in which repetitive contractions of the agonist muscle are used to produce quick stretches of the antagonist muscle • Possible risk for injury if forces generated by the jerks are greater than the tissues' extensibility • Ballistic stretching that is controlled usually does not cause muscle soreness; it is argued that dynamic stretching exercises are functional and closer related to athletic activities •does not allow time for GTO to have any relaxing effect Static Stretching • Passively stretching a given antagonist muscle by placing it in a maximal position of stretch and holding it there for an extended period of time (30-60 seconds, 3-4 times) • Static stretching offers less danger of exceeding extensibility limits of the involved joints due to the controlled nature of the stretch.

It is commonly used in injury rehabilitation of sore or strained muscles • Static stretching is not dynamic; warm-ups should begin with static stretching followed by ballistic stretching • does allow sufficient time (GTO overrides spindle, allowing the muscle to reflexively relax after the initial reflex resistance) - thus, lengthening muscle and maintaining for a period of time is unlikely to cause injury PNF Stretching Techniques • First used by physical therapists whose patients had various types of neuromuscular paralysis • All techniques involve some combination of alternating contraction and relaxation of both agonist & antagonist muscles and all use a 10-second push phase followed by a 10-second relax phase • Best performed with a partner, although they may also be done using a wall as resistance • takes advantage of two additional neurophysiologic phenomena o Maximal isometric contraction stimulates GTO to effect a reflex relaxation of antagonist muscle even before the muscle is placed in a position of stretch (autogenic inhibition) o During relaxing phase, as isotonic contraction of agonist pulls extremity further into agonist pattern, a reflex relaxation of the antagonist (muscle being stretched) must occur to allow for agonist movement (reciprocal inhibition)Stretching Neural Structures When athlete performs active and passive multiplanar movements, tension is created in the neural structures that exacerbates pain, limits ROM, and increases neural symptoms (i.e.

slump stretch position for sciatic nerve)Stretching Fascia • If there is damage to fascia due to injury, disease, or inflammation, it will create pain and motion restriction • Can be either done manually or using a firm foam roller Muscle Spindles sensitive to changes in muscle length; stimulation results in a reflex contraction to resist stretch Golgi Tendon Organs if a stretch is maintained for 6 seconds, GTO responds to change in length and increase in tension by causing a reflex contraction of the antagonist muscle Pilates Method • A conditioning program that improves muscle control, flexibility, coordination, strength, and tone • Basic principles: o Make people more aware of their bodies as single integrated units o Improve body alignment and breathing o Increase efficiency of movement • Each exercise is designed to stretch and strengthen specific muscles and a specific breathing pattern helps direct energy to the areas being worked while relaxing the rest of the body • Effective in working deeper muscles together, improving coordination and balance & achieving efficient motion Yoga • Basic philosophy: most illness is related to poor mental attitudes, posture, and diet; stress can be reduced through combined mental and physical approaches (uniting the body and mind to reduce stress) • Various yoga positions are intended to increase mobility and flexibility • Slow, deep, diaphragmatic breathing is important (helps lower BP & heart rate, calming, endorphins)The Relationship between Strength and Flexibility Strength training done improperly can impair movement; however, weight training (if done properly through a full range of motion) will not impair flexibility Goniometer most widely used tool to measure range of motion Muscular Strength the maximum force that can be applied by a muscle during a single maximal contraction Power large amount of force generated quickly Muscular Endurance the ability to perform repetitive muscular contractions against some resistance inc musc strength= corresponding inc in musc endurance Isometric Contraction muscle contracts to increase tension, no change in length of muscle • All functional movements involve acceleration, deceleration, and stabilization in all 3 planes simultaneously; controlled by neuromuscular mechanoreceptors located within the muscle Concentric Contraction muscle shortens in length as it contracts to overcome or move some resistance • All functional movements involve acceleration, deceleration, and stabilization in all 3 planes simultaneously; controlled by neuromuscular mechanoreceptors located within the muscle Eccentric Contraction resistance is greater than the muscular force being produced, and muscle lengthens while continuing the contract • All functional movements involve acceleration, deceleration, and stabilization in all 3 planes simultaneously; controlled by neuromuscular mechanoreceptors located within the muscle Slow Twitch/type I more resistant to fatigue; longer time to generate contraction; long-duration, aerobic activity • postural muscles have higher percentage of slow twitch muscles Fast Twitch/Type IIa moderately resistant to fatigue; short term, high intensity anaerobic activity Fast twitch/type IIb fatigue rapidly; short tern, high intensity anaerobic activity Fast twitch muscles • muscles that produce explosive, powerful, rapid strength movements have a greater percentage of fast-twitch fibers (largely determines athlete's ability) • Metabolic capabilities may be improved through specific training (almost complete change from slow-twitch to fast twitch and fast-twitch to slow-twitch in response to training)Hypertrophy enlargement of a muscle caused by an increase in the size of its cell in response to training Atrophy decrease of a muscle caused by a decrease in the size of its cells because of inactivity Size of the Muscle • Strength is a function of the number and diameter of muscle fibers • # of fibers is an inherited characteristic; an athlete with a greater # of fibers has better potential to hypertrophy Explanations for Muscle Hypertrophy • The number of muscle fibers increase because fibers split in response to training (proved in animals) o It is generally accepted that the number of biers in genetically determined & does not change • Because the muscle is working harder in weight training, more blood is required to supply the muscle with oxygen and other nutrients; thus capillaries are formed during training, but a number of dormant capillaries may become filled with blood to meet increased demand for blood supply • Myofilaments (contractile element of muscle) increase in size and number as a result of strength training, causing the individual muscle fibers themselves to increase in cross-section diameter Improved Neuromuscular Efficiency • Weight training usually results in remarkable increases in strength, even though muscle bulk does not necessarily increase - by overloading a particular muscle, the muscle is forced to work efficiently o Efficiency is achieved by getting more motor units to fire, causing a stronger contraction of muscle o Very large gains in the beginning of a program are common (improvement in neuromuscular function)Other Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Exercise • ↑ strength of contractile structures • ↑ mineral content of bone (makes bone stronger, more resistant to fx) • ↑ maximal oxygen uptake (when resistance training elicits heart rates at or above training levels) • ↑ enzymes important for aerobic and anaerobic metabolism Biomechanical Factors • Position of attachment: attachment further away from joint creates a longer lever (produce greater torque) • Length of a muscle: determines the amount of tension that can be generated o Maximum crossbridges between the actin and myosin myofilaments within the sarcomere can be achieved at the midpoint of the range of sarcomere length Overtraining • Can result in psychological breakdown (staleness) or physiological breakdown (injury, fatigue, or sickness) • Minimize negative effects by engaging in proper and efficient resistance training, eating a proper diet, and rest Reversibility • Cessation of strength training will result in muscle atrophy (↓ strength and mass) within as little as 48 hours • Consistent exercise of a muscle is essential to prevent reversal of the hypertrophy that occurs with training OVERLOAD Principle • Cessation of strength training will result in muscle atrophy (↓ strength and mass) within as little as 48 hours • Consistent exercise of a muscle is essential to prevent reversal of the hypertrophy that occurs with training Progressive Resistance Exercise • based on principles of overload and progression • Exercises that strengthen muscles through a contraction that overcomes some fixed resistance produced by equipment (dumbbells, barbell, or various weight machines)Isometric Exercise • Involves a muscle contraction in which the length of the muscle remains constant while tension develops toward a maximal force against an immovable resistance • Generate maximum force for 10 seconds at a time, repeated 5-10 times per day • Strength gains are specific to joint angle at which training is performed • Valsalva effect: tends to produce a spike in systolic blood pressure (holding breath, ↑ intrathoracic pressure)Isotonic Contractions may be either concentric (produce movement) or eccentric (control weight as it is lowered)Eccentric contraction versus concentric contraction o More possible force generation exists in eccentric contraction than concentric -eccentric contractions require a lower level of motor unit activity to achieve a certain force; because fewer motor units are firing to produce a specific force, more motor units may be recruited to increase force -eccentric contractions require less oxygen utilization -mechanical efficiency is much higher o Concentric accelerates movement, whereas eccentric decelerates motion o Due to excessive forces involved with stabilizing eccentric contractions, injury to muscle is common (eccentric exercise must be routinely incorporated to prevent injury to muscles that decelerate motion) o Eccentric muscles fatigue more rapidly concentrically than eccentrically Free weights versus machine weights o Exercise machines are relatively safe to use compared to free weights; also it is simpler to increase or decrease weight on exercise machines by moving a single weight key (larger increments, however) o Iron plates used with free weights must be added or removed from each side of the barbell or dumbbell o Spotting: stand behind lifter, monitor hand placement and speed, spot as close to dumbbells as possible above the elbow joint during dumbbell exercise Isotonic Training • PRE: essential to incorporate both concentric and eccentric contractions (to achieve greatest strength increase) • Developing muscular strength: 1-2 seconds concentric, 3-4 seconds eccentric (ratio of 1:2) • Free weights have no restricted motion and can be moved in multiple planes (the muscular control required by use of free weights will usually decrease the amount of weight that can be lifted) • Disadvantage: amount of force necessary to move a weight through a ROM changes according to angle of pull o Amount of force is greatest at 90° angle of pull o Once inertia has been overcome and momentum is established, force required to move resistance varies o Cam machine: designed to eliminate this problem (attempts to alter resistance so that the muscle can handle a greater load; when muscle is at a mechanical disadvantage, the cam decreases resistance)Repetition # times a specific movement is repeated Repetitions Maximum (RM) maximum number of repetitions at a given weight One Repetition Maximum (1RM) maximum amount of weight that can be lifted one time Set a particular number of repetitions Intensity amount of weight/resistance lifted Recovery period rest interval between sets Frequency number of times an exercise is done in a week Progressive Resistance Exercise Techniques • Overload is the single most important principle in any strength-training program • Amount of weight should be sufficient to allow 6-8 reps maximum (RM) for 3 sets with 60-90 seconds rest o Progression to heavier weight: ability to perform at least 8 RM in each set (↑ by 10%-should allow 6 RM) • Frequency should be 3-4 times per week (if every day, exercise different muscle groups on successive days)Training for Muscular Strength versus Endurance • Strength: heavier weights with lower reps (3 sets of 6-8 reps) • Endurance: lighter weights with higher reps (3 sets of 10-15 reps)Isokinetic Exercise • Involves a muscle contraction in which the length of the muscle is changing while the contraction is performed at a constant velocity; in theory, maximal resistance is provided throughout the ROM by the machine • Biodex - devices rely on various types of pressure systems to produce constant velocity of motion • Disadvantage: cost; speed of force application is constant no matter what force is generated by athlete (easy to ""cheat"" and not go through workout at a high intensity) • Best used as a rehabilitative and diagnostic tool rather than a training device Circuit Training • Employs a series of exercises that consist of various combinations of weight training, flexibility, calisthenics and brief aerobic exercises (usually 8-12 stations, repeated 3 times, with specific time periods at each station) • Theoretically, if pace between stations is rapid and workload is maintained at a high level of intensity with high heart rates, cardiorespiratory system may benefit (however, little research evidence shows effectiveness)Calisthenic Strengthening Exercises • ""free exercise"" - isotonic exercises can be graded according to using gravity as an aid, ruling gravity out, moving against gravity, or using body weight/body part as resistance • Must be performed in full ROM and good technique (10+ reps, 2-3 sets) • Some exercises use an isometric (holding) phase instead of full ROM (back extensions, sit ups) o Hold location of maximal tension for 6-10 seconds, repeated 1-3 times Plyometric Exercise • Includes specific exercises that encompass a rapid stretch of a muscle eccentrically, followed immediately by a rapid concentric contraction f that muscle (facilitates and develops a forceful explosive movement over a short period of time) • The greater the eccentric stretch, the greater the resistance that the muscle can overcome (rate of stretch is more important than the magnitude) • Advantage: can help develop eccentric control in dynamic movements • Hops, bounds, depth jumping for LE; medicine balls and other weight equipment for UEStrength Training For the Female Athlete • Significant muscle hypertrophy in the female athlete is dependent on the presence of testosterone • Both males & females experience the initial gains following the beginning of a strength program due to neuromuscular efficiency increases o Initial rapid strength gains tend to plateau after 3-4 weeks for females • Most critical difference between males and females is the different strength-to-body-weight ratio o Females' reduced strength-to-body-weight ratio results from their higher percentage of body fat Strength Training in Adolescents • Recent studies indicate that if properly supervised, young athletes can improve strength, power, endurance, balance, and proprioception; develop a positive body image; improve sport performance; & prevent injuries • Athletic trainer should provide close supervision and proper instruction and appropriately modify progression and intensity based on the extent of physical maturation of the adolescent • Calisthenic strengthening with body weight as resistance should be encouraged Cardiorespiratory endurance the ability to perform whole-body, large muscle activities for extended periods of time (cardiorespiratory system provides oxygen to the various tissues of the body)Transport and Utilization of Oxygen • Improvement of endurance results from increased capability of the heart, lungs blood vessels, and blood to provide necessary oxygen to working tissues • Maximum aerobic capacity (VO2max): greatest rate at which oxygen can be taken in and used o Greater exercise rate/intensity = greater oxygen consumption needed to perform • A person inherits a certain range of maximum aerobic capacity, and the more active that person is, the higher the existing maximum aerobic capacity will be in that range • Normal aerobic capacity for most college-age athletes is between 45-60 m L/kg/min • Factors that determine maximal oxygen consumption rate: o External respiration involving the ventilator process/pulmonary function o Gas transport (accomplished by heart, blood vessels, and blood) -Most limiting - cardiovascular system limits overall rate the most o Internal respiration (use of oxygen by cells to produce energy)Effects on the Heart • Heart must pump more oxygenated blood to meet increased demand; adaptations include: o Heart rate increases proportionally to exercise intensity; plateaus after 2-3 minutes -Oxygen consumption can be estimated by heart rate (continues to rise with intensity increase) o Increased stroke volume (volume of blood pumped with each beat) -Normal: 70m L/beat; only increases up to 40% of maximal heart rate o Increased cardiac output -At rest: 5 L/min blood pumped through heart (exercise: increases to 20-30L/min) -Cardiac output is the primary determinant of the maximal rate of oxygen consumption o Training effect: cardiac output = increased stroke volume x decreased heart rate (at given intensity)Effects on Work Ability • Fatigue is closely related to the percentage of maximum aerobic capacity that a particular workload demands o An athlete with better cardiorespiratory endurance will work at a lower percentage of their aerobic capacity at a given exercise intensity than an unfit athlete ATP: The Immediate Energy Source • ATP is produced in muscle tissue from blood glucose or glycogen • Glucose not needed immediately is stored as glycogen in resting muscle and liver (later converted back to glucose for transferring to blood to meet body's energy needs) • Once muscle & liver glycogen is depleted, body depends on fats stored in adipose tissue for energy • During rest & submaximal exertion, substrate usage is 60% fat, 40% carbohydrates Aerobic Versus Anaerobic Metabolism • Glycogen can be metabolized within muscle cells to generate ATP after ATP stores are depleted • Usually aerobic and anaerobic systems function simultaneously (degree determined by intensity & duration) o If intensity is low enough that oxygen can be supplied to meet demands - aerobic o If intensity is high enough that there is insufficient oxygen to meet demands - anaerobic -Oxygen debt is incurred that must be paid back during recovery period Continuous Training • Mode: must be aerobic (activities that elevate heart rate & maintain it at that level for extended period of time) o Jogging, walking, cycling, running, swimming, rope skipping, stair climbing, & xc skiing -Easy to regulate by speeding up or slowing down pace -Intensity elicits a heart rate - allow athletes to maintain HR at a specified or target level o Racquetball, squash, basketball, tennis - intermittent & cause HR to fluctuate considerably • Frequency: 3-5 sessions per week; everyone should take one day off per week for rest • Duration: 20-45 minutes with heart rate elevated to training levels • Intensity: *most critical.

By monitoring HR, we know whether the pace is too fast or too slow to get HR into target range o Estimate of MHR: 220 bpm (maximal HR=220 - age) o Karvonen equation: target training HR = resting HR + (0.6 x [max HR - resting HR]) o Heart rate should be elevated to at least 70% of maximal rate (up to 85%)Interval Training • Consists of alternating periods of relatively intense work and active recovery • Should work at 60-80% of maximal HR; recovery period should lower HR to 30-45% of maximum • Allows higher intensities of exercise & longer overall duration (because you get to rest between intervals) • Sport-specific for: football, basketball, soccer, tennis • Training period: amount of time that continuous activity is being performed • Recovery period: time between training periods • Set: group of combined training and recovery periods • Repetitions: the number of training and recovery periods per set Fartlek Training • Type of cross-country running; similar to interval training in that the athlete must run for a specified period of time; however, specific pace and speed are not identified • Course should be some type of varied terrain with some level running, some uphill, and some downhill, and some running through obstacles (trees and rocks) • Objective: put surges into a running workout, varying the length of surges according to individual purposes • Advantage is that the challenging course will prevent boredom and may be relaxing • May be utilized best as an off-season conditioning activity or as a change-of-pace activity to counteract the boredom of training using the same activity day after day Equipment for Improving Cardiorespiratory Endurance choose exercise machines that are adjustable, have smooth & quiet action, adjustable resistance/speed Fitness Assessment • Testing may be done in a pretest/posttest format to determine improvement from a baseline measure • Assess: o Flexibility: sit-and-reach test, trunk extension test, shoulder lift test o Muscular strength, endurance, power: one-repetition maximum tests, timed push-ups and sit-ups, chin- ups, bar dips, flexed arm hang, vertical jump o Cardiorespiratory endurance: Cooper's 12-minute walk/run, 1.5 mile run, Harvard step test o Speed: 6-second dash, 10-60 yard dash o Balance: Stork test o Agility: T-test, Edgren side step, SEMO agility test Periodization in Training and Conditioning • Periodization is an approach to conditioning that brings about peak performance while reducing injuries & overtraining through a program that is followed throughout the various seasons • Takes into account that athletes have different training/conditioning needs during different seasons Macrocycle • Macrocycle: the complete training period • Seasonal sports: macrocycle can be divided into pre-season, in-season, and off-season • Intensity, volume, and specificity of training are altered throughout the macrocycle • As competition approaches, training sessions gradually change to less intense, low volume activity Mesocycles division of macrocycle; may last for several weeks or even months Transition Period • Begins after the last competition and comprises the early part of the offseason • Generally unstructured; sport activities are encouraged on a recreational basis o Allow athlete to escape from the rigor of a highly organized training regimen Preparatory Period • During off-season when there are no upcoming competitions • Hypertrophy/endurance phase: (early in offseason) low intensity & high repetitions; goal is to develop a base of endurance on which more intense training can occur (lasts several weeks - two months) • Strength phase: (offseason) intensity and repetitions progress to moderate levels; weight-training activities become more sport-specific • Power phase: (preseason) athlete trains at a high intensity at or near level of competition.

Volume of training is decreased so that a full recovery is allowed between sessions Competition Period • May last for a week or less; for season sports, lasts for several months • High-intensity training at a low volume o As training volume decreases, increased amount of time is spent on skill training or strategy sessions • May be necessary to establish microcycles (1-7 days) o Intense training early in week o Progress to moderate and finally light training the day before competition o Goal: make sure athletes will be at peak levels of fitness and performance on competition days Cross Training • Approach to training and conditioning for a specific sport that involves substituting alternative activities that have some carryover value to that sport o Ex) swimmer could run to maintain levels of cardiorespiratory conditioning • Particularly useful in transition and early preparatory periods o Adds variety to training regimen, thus keeping off-season training more interesting and exciting • However, it is not sport specific and should not be used in the preseason "

Bones, ligaments, and muscles are the structures that form levers in the body to create human movement. In simple terms, a joint (where two or more bones join together) forms the axis (or fulcrum), and the muscles crossing the joint apply the force to move a weight or resistance.

Levers work to create movement in the human body

Levers work to create movement in the human body This is an excerpt from Kinetic Anatomy, Third Edition With Web Resource, by Robert Behnke, HSD. Learn anatomy with practical exercises and activities in Kinetic Anatomy, Third Edition With Web Resource.

Levers are typically labeled as first class, second class, or third class. All three types are found in the body, but most levers in the human body are third class.

A first-class lever has the axis (fulcrum) located between the weight (resistance) and the force (figure 1.21 a ). An example of a first-class lever is a pair of pliers or scissors. First-class levers in the human body are rare. One example is the joint between the head and the first vertebra (the atlantooccipital joint) (figure 1.21 b ).

The weight (resistance) is the head, the axis is the joint, and the muscular action (force) come from any of the posterior muscles attaching to the skull, such as the trapezius. In a second-class lever, the weight (resistance) is located between the axis (fulcrum) and the force (figure 1.22 a ). The most obvious example is a wheelbarrow, where a weight is placed in the bed of the wheelbarrow between the wheel (axis) and the hands of the person using the wheelbarrow (force).

In the human body, an example of a second-class lever is found in the lower leg when someone stands on tiptoes (figure 1.22 b ).

The axis is formed by the metatarsophalangeal joints, the resistance is the weight of the body, and the force is applied to the calcaneus bone (heel) by the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles through the Achilles tendon. In a third-class lever, the most common in the human body, force is applied between the resistance (weight) and the axis (fulcrum) (figure 1.23 a ).

Picture someone using a shovel to pick up an object. The axis is the end of the handle where the person grips with one hand.

The other hand, placed somewhere along the shaft of the handle, applies force. At the other end of the shovel (the bed), a resistance (weight) is present. There are numerous third-class levers in the human body; one example can be illustrated in the elbow joint (figure 1.23 b ).

The joint is the axis (fulcrum). The resistance (weight) is the forearm, wrist, and hand. The force is the biceps muscle when the elbow is flexed. Read more about Kinetic Anatomy, Third Edition With Web Resource. The above excerpt is from: Kinetic Anatomy With Web Resource-3rd Edition$99.00View other formats More excerpts from this book Many ligaments make up knee’s structure Peripheral nervous system works to reflexively control the body

Relationship of skeletal muscles to bones. - Muscles are attached to bones by tendons known as the origins and insertions. - Skeletal muscles produce movements by pulling on bones. - Bones serve as levers, and joints act as fulcrums for the levers. - Muscles that move a body part often do not cover the moving part.

Ch 11: Muscular System

76 terms Schik Ch 11: Muscular System Learn Flashcards Write Spell Test Match Gravity Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Like this study set?

Create a free account to save it. Create a free account Maybe later Sort Muscular system - The voluntarily controlled muscles of the body - most muscles cross at least one joint and are usually attached to the articulating bones that form the joint How do skeletal muscles produce movements?

- by exerting force on tendons, which in turn pull on bones or other structures (such as skin) - When a skeletal muscle contracts, it pulls one of the articulating bones toward the other - The two articulating bones usually do not move equally in response to contraction.

- One bone remains stationary or near its original position, either because other muscles stabilize that bone by pulling it in the opposite direction or because its structure makes it less movable.

Origin The attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone or the end opposite the insertion. - usually proximal Insertion The attachment of the muscle's other tendon to the movable bone - usually distal Belly The fleshy portion of the muscle between the tendons Lever A rigid structure that can move around a fixed point called a fulcrum Leverage When a smaller effort can move a heavier load.

Bones serve as... They serve as levers. Joints act as... ... fulcrums for levers. Prime mover aka agonist The leader in a group of muscles - contracts to cause an action Antagonist stretches and yields to the effects of the prime mover. Location of agonist and antagonist Usually on opposite sides of the bone or joint. Synergists Prevent unwanted movements at intermediate joints OR otherwise aid the movement of the prime mover - they contract and stabilize the intermediate joints.

Fixator Stabilizes the origin of the prime mover so that it can act more efficiently.3 types of levers 1. first class (scissors/seesaw) 2. second class (wheelbarrow) 3. third class (forceps)First class levers Fulcrum is between the effort and the load EFL ex: head on vertebral column Second class levers Sacrifices speed for force.

No second class levers in the body. FLEThird class levers Act like a pair of forceps. Most common lever in body. FEL - always produce a mechanical disadvantage b/c the effort is always closer to the fulcrum than the load Occipitofrontalis (frontal belly) - muscle of facial expression Location: Superficial to the frontal bone Action: Draws scalp anteriorly, raises eyebrows, and wrinkles skin of forehead horizontally as in a look of surprise.

Occipitofrontalis (occipital belly) - muscle of facial expression Location: Superficial to the occipital bone Action: Draws scalp posteriorly. Orbicularis oris - muscle of facial expression Location: Around the mouth. Action: Closes and protrudes lips, as in kissing;compresses lips against teeth;and shapes lips during speech. Zygomaticus major - muscle of facial expression Location: Superior to zygomatic bone, lateral to mouth.

Action: Draws angle of mouth superiorly and laterally, as in smiling. Buccinator - muscle of facial expression Location: Superior to cheek. Action: Presses cheeks against teeth and lips, as in whistling, blowing, and sucking;draws corner of mouth laterally;and assists in mastication (chewing) by keeping food between the teeth (and not between teeth and cheeks).

Orbicularis oculi - muscle of facial expression Location: Circles the eye Action: Closes eye. Masseter - muscles that move the mandible Location: Superior to the jaw, running downwards. Action: Elevates mandible, as in closing mouth. Origin: Maxilla and zygomatic arch. Insertion: Angle and ramus of mandible. Temporalis - muscles that move the mandible Location: Temple muscle. Action: Elevates and retracts mandible.

Origin: Temporal bone. Insertion: Coronoid process and ramus of mandible. Sternocleidomastoid - muscles that move the head Location: Large neck muscle running downwards. Action: Acting together (bilaterally), flex cervical portion of vertebral column, flex head, and elevate sternum during forced inhalation; acting singly (unilaterally), laterally extend and rotate head to side opposite contracting muscle. Origin: Sternum and clavicle. Insertion: Mastoid process of temporal bone. Rectus abdominus - muscles that act on the abdominal wall Location: Long muscle that extends length of anterior abdominal wall.

Action: Flexes vertebral column, especially lumbar portion, and compresses abdomen to aid in defecation, urination, forced exhalation, and childbirth. Origin: Pubic crest and pubic symphysis. Insertion: Cartilage of fifth to seventh ribs and xiphoid process. External oblique- muscles that act on the abdominal wall Location: superficial layer of abdominal wall.

Action: Acting together (bilaterally), compress abdomen and flex vertebral column; acting singly (unilaterally), laterally flex vertebral column, especially lumbar portion, and rotate vertebral column. Internal oblique - muscles that act on the abdominal wall Location: Middle layer of abdominal wall.

Action: Acting together, compress abdomen and flex vertebral column; acting singly, laterally flex vertebral column, especially lumbar portion, and rotate vertebral column. Transverse abdominus - muscles that act on the abdominal wall Location: Deep layer of abdominal wall. Action: Compresses abdomen. Diaphragm- muscles used in breathing Location: Separates thoracic and abdominal cavities. Dome shaped. Action: Most important muscle that powers breathing. Contraction of the diaphragm causes it to flatten and increases the vertical dimension of the thoracic cavity, resulting in inhalation;relaxation of the diaphragm causes it to move superiorly and decreases the vertical dimension of the thoracic cavity, resulting in exhalation.

External intercostal - muscles used in breathing Location: Inferior to ribs, superficial layer Action: Contraction elevates the ribs and increases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in inhalation; relaxation depresses the ribs and decreases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thoracic cavity, resulting in exhalation.

Internal intercostal - muscles used in breathing Location: Inferior to ribs, deep layer Action: Contraction draws adjacent ribs together to further decrease the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thoracic cavity during forced exhalation. Trapezius - muscles that move the pectoral (shoulder) girdle Location: Large, flat triangular sheet of muscle extending from the skull and vertebral column medially to the pectoral girdle laterally.

Action: Superior fibers elevate scapula and can help extend head; middle fibers adduct scapula; inferior fibers depress scapula; superior and inferior fibers together rotate scapula upward; stabilizes scapula Origin: Superior nuchal line of occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae and spines of seventh cervial and all thoracic vertebrae.

Insertion: Clavicle and acromion and spine of scapula. Levator scapulae - muscles that move the pectoral (shoulder) girdle Location: Top of neck down to scapulae; narrow elongated muscle in posterior portion of neck. Action: Elevates scapula and rotates it downward. Origin: Superior four or five cervical vertebrae Insertion: Superior vertebral border of scapula. Rhomboid major - muscles that move the pectoral (shoulder) girdle Location: Lie deep to the trapezius.

Parallel bands that pass inferiorly and laterally from the vertebrae to the scapula. Action: Elevates scapula and rotates it downward. Pectoralis major - muscles that move the humerus Location: Large, thick, fan-shaped muscle that covers the superior part of the thorax. Action: As a whole, adducts and medially rotates arm at shoulder joint; clavicular head flexes arm, and sternocostal head extends the flexed arm to the side of the trunk.

Origin: Clavicle (clavicular head), sternum and costal cartilages of second to sixth ribs and sometimes first to seventh ribs. Insertion: Greater tubercle and lateral lip of the intertubercular sulcus of humerus. Latissimus Dorsi - muscles that move the humerus Location: Broad, triangular muscle loacted on the interior part of the back.

Action: Extends, adducts and medically rotates arm at shoulder joint; draws arm inferiorly and posteriorly Deltoid - muscles that move the humerus Location: Thick, powerful shoulder muscle. Covers the shoulder joint and forms the rounded contour of the shoulder. Action: Lateral fibers abduct arm at shoulder joint; anterior fibers flex and medially rotate arm at shoulder joint; posterior fibers extend and laterally rotate arm at shoulder joint.

Origin: Acromial extremely of clavicle (ant fibers), acromion of scapula (lat fibers) and spine of scapula (post.

fibers) Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity of humerus. Subscapularis - muscles that move the humerus Location: large triangular muscle that fills that subscapular fossa of the scapula and forms part of the posterior wall of the axilla.

Action: Medially rotates arm at shoulder joint. Supraspinatus - muscles that move the humerus Location: A rounded muscle named for its location in the supraspinous fossa of the scapula; lies deep to the trapezius Action: Assists deltoid muscle in abducting arm at shoulder joint. Origin: Supraspinous fossa of scapula Insertion: Greater tubercle of humerus Infraspinatus - muscles that move the humerus Location: Triangular muscle, named for its location in the infraspinous fossa of the scapula.

Action: Laterally rotates and adducts arm at shoulder joint. Teres Major - muscles that move the humerus Location: Thick, flattened muscle inferior to the teres minor that helps form part of the posterior wall of the axilla.

Action: Extends arm at shoulder joint and assists in adduction and medial rotation of arm at shoulder joint. Teres Minor - muscles that move the humerus Location: Cylindrical elongate muscle, often inseparable from the infraspinatus, which lies along its superior border.

Action: Laterally rotates, extends and adducts arm at shoulder joint. Biceps brachii - muscles that move the radius and ulna Location: Large muscle located on the anterior surface of the arm.

Action: Flexes forearm at elbow joint, supinates forearm at radioulnar joints and flexes arm at shoulder joint. Origin: Two origins (hint: name 'BIceps'.) Long head originates from tubercle above glenoid cavity of scapula; short head originates from coracoid process of scapula. Insertion: Radial tuberosity of radius and bicipital aponeurosis. Brachialis - muscles that move the radius and ulna Location: Deep to the biceps brachii muscle.

Most powerful flexor of the forearm at the elbow joint. The 'workhorse; of the elbow flexors. Action: Flexes forearm at elbow joint. Brachioradialis - muscles that move the radius and ulna Location: Flexes the forearm at the elbow joint, esp. when a quick movement is required or when a weight is lifted slowly during flexion of the forearm. Action: See above. Triceps brachii - muscles that move the radius and ulna Location: Large muscle located on the posterior surface of the arm.

The more powerful of the extensors of the forearm at the elbow joint. Action: Extends forearm at elbow joint and extends arm at shoulder joint. Origin: Three origins (hint: name 'TRIceps') Long head: infraglenoid tubercle Lateral head: lateral and posterior surface of humerus superior to radial groove. Medial head: entire posterior surface of humerus inferior to a groove for the radial nerve. Insertion: Olecranon of ulna.

Pronator Teres - muscles that move the radius and ulna Function: Forearm pronator Location: Move the radius and ulna and are involved in pronation and supination at the radioulnar joints. Supinator - muscles that move the radius and ulna Location: near ulna and radius. Action: Supinates forearm at radioulnar joints.

We use the powerful action of the supinator when we twist a corkscrew or turn a screw with a screwdriver. Flexor carpi radialis - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Superficial Anterior Flexor Compartment of the forearm Action: Flexes and abducts hand (radial deviation) at wrist joint Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus Insertion: Second and third metacarpals. Palmaris longus - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Superficial anterior flexor compartment of the forearm Action: Weakly flexes hand at wrist joint.

Flexor carpi ulnaris - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Far lateral: superficial anterior flexor compartment of the forearm. Action: Flexes and adducts hand (ulnar deviation) at wrist joint. Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus and superior posterior border of ulna Insertion: Pisiform, hamate and base of fifth metacarpal.

Flexor digitorum superficialis - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Deep to the other flexor muscles on the forearm Action: Flexes middle phalanx of each finger at proximal interphalangeal joint, proximal phalanx of each finger at metacarophalangeal joint and hand at wrist joint. Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus, coronoid process of ulna and a ridge along lateral margin of anterior surface (anterior oblique line) of radius.

Insertion: Middle phalax of each finger. Extensor carpi radialis longus - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Superficial posterior (extensor) compartment of the forearm Action: Extends and abduct hand at wrist joint. Extensor digitorum - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Superficial Posterior Extensor Compartment of the forearm. Long... extends to digits. Action: Extends distal and middle phalanges of each finger at interphalangeal joints, proximal phalanx of each finger at metacarpophalangeal join and hand at wrist joint.

Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus Insertion: Distal and middle phalanges of each finger. Extensor carpi ulnaris - muscles that move the wrist, hand and digits. Location: Superficial posterior extensor compartment of forearm Action: Extends and adducts hand at wrist joint. Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus and posterior border of ulna. Insertion: Fifth metacarpal. Erector spinae - muscles that move the vertebral column Location: Largest muscle mass of the back, forming a prominent bulge on either side of the vertebral column.

Action: It is the chief extensor of the vertebral column. It is also important in controlling flexion, lateral flexion and rotation of the vertebral column and in maintaining the lumbar curve, because the main mass of the muslce is in the lumbar region.

Consists of: iliocostalis, longissimus and spinalis. Psoas major - muscles that move the femur Location: Bodies of lumbar vertebrae down into femur Action: Psoas major and iliacus muscles acting together flex thigh at hip joint, rotate thigh laterally, and flex trunk on the hip as in sitting up from the supine position.

Origin: Transverse processes and bodies of lumbar vertebrae. Insertion: With iliacus into lesser trochanter of femur. Psoas major + ilacus = Iliopsoas Iliacus - muscles that move the femur Location: Iliac fossa and sacrum to lesser trochanter of femur. Action: Psoas major and iliacus muscles acting together flex thigh at hip joint, rotate thigh laterally, and flex trunk on the hip as in sitting up from the supine position.

Gluteus maximus - muscles that move the femur Location: Bum muscle! Largest and heaviest of the gluteal muscles. One of the largest muscles in the body. Action: Extends thigh at hip joint and laterally rotates thigh.

Origin: Iliac crest, sacrum, coccyx and aponeurosis of sacrospinalis. Insertion: Iliotibial tract of fascia lata and lateral part of linea aspera under greater trochanter of femur.

Gluteus medius - muscles that move the femur Location: deep to the gluteus maximus. Action: Powerful adductor of the femur at the hip joint. Adductor longus - muscles that move the femur Location: medial aspect of the thigh. Origin: pubic bone Insertion: femur.

Action: adduct, flex and medially rotate the femur at the hip joint. Adductor magnus - muscles that move the femur Location: medial aspect of the thigh. Origin: pubic bone Insertion: femur. Action: adduct, flex and medially rotate the femur at the hip joint; posterior part extends thigh at hip joint.

Quadriceps - muscles that act on the femur and tibia and fibula Quad: largest muscles in the body - actually a composite muslce. Covers most of the anterior surface and sides of the thigh. Action of all: All 4 heads extend leg at knee joint 1.

Rectus femoris - Location: anterior aspect of the thigh Action: Flexes thigh at hip joint. Origin: Anterior inferior iliac spine. Insertion: Patella via quad tendon and then tibila tuberosity via patellar ligament 2. Vastus lateralis - Location: Lateral aspect of the high.

3. Vastus medialis - Location: Medial aspect of thigh. 4. Vastus intermedius - Location: Deep to rectus femoris and between the vastus lateralis and vastus medialis Sartorius - muscles that act on the femur and tibia and fibula Location: Long, narrow muscle that forms a band across the thigh from the ilium of the hip bone to the medial side of the tibia Action: Flexes leg at knee joint; flexes, abducts and laterally rotates thigh at hip joint. Hamstrings - muscles that act on the femur and tibia and fibula Location: posterior compartment of the thigh Action: extensors of the thigh and flexors of the leg. 1. biceps femoris - Origin: long head arises from ischial tuberosity; short head arises from linea aspera of femur.

Insertion: Head of fibula and lateral condyle of tibia. 2. semitendinosus 3. semimebranosus Tibialis anterior - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: Long thick muscle against the lateral surface of the tibia.

Action: Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and inverts food at intertarsal joints. Origin: Lateral condyle and body of tibia and interosseous membrane. Insertion: First metatarsal and first cuneiform. Extensor digitorum longus - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: lateral to tibialis anterior. Action: Dorsiflexes foot at ankle joint and extends distal and middle phalanges of each toe at interphalangeal joints and proximal phalanx of each toe at metatarsophalangeal joint.

Origin: Lateral condyle of tibia, anterior surface of ibula and interosseous membrane Insertion: Middle and distal phalanges of toes 2 - 5. Fibularis longus - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: lateral to extensor digitorum longus. Action: Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and everts foot at intertarsal joints. Gastrocnemius - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: Most superficial calf muscle; forms most of calf. Action: Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint and flexes leg at knee joint. Origin: Lateral and medial epiconyles of femur and capsule of knee. Insertion: Calcaneus by way of calcaneal (Achilles) tendon. Soleus - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: Lies deep to gastroc. Is broad and flat. Action: Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint. Flexor digitorum longus - muscles that move the foot and toes Location: Medial to tibia, deep. Action: Plantar flexes foot at ankle joint; flexes distal and middle phalanges of each toe at interphalangeal joints and proximal phalanx of each toe at metatarsophalangeal joint. Origin: Posterior surface of tibia Insertion: Distal phalanges of toes 2 - 5.

is making the world better one answer at a time. Muscles contract to move bones. Bones and muscles work like ropes and levers. The muscles can only pull against the bone not push it.

How do skeletal muscles move bones?

Answered by The Wiki Answers ®Community Answers.com ®

So to bend your arm at the elbow, the bicep pulls the lower arm up. To streighten your arm, the tricep pulls the lower arm back out. the muscles have to work in pairs opposite each other to make movement. when they contract or pull the bone I shall use the biceps brachii group as an example in order to answer this question.

When the long head of the biceps brachii contracts (in other words, when it shortens) it pulls the point of insertion towards the point of origin (in this case the biceps brachiis point of insertion is at the bicipital aponeurosis and the radial tuberosity, the point of origin is the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula (for the long head )).

This action is known as flexion, or when the angle at a joint decreases. When the angle at a joint increases it is called extension.

There are various other types of movement including rotation, abduction and adduction. In order to move any part of your body you must use several different muscles. There are around 639 skeletal muscles in the human body, so the muscles of the body are divided into 16 simple groups: Abdominals Adductors Dorsal muscles Shoulders Arm extensors Wrist extensors Gluteals Arm flexors Wrist flexors Scapulae fixers Thigh flexors Lumbar muscles Surae Pectorals Quadriceps Trapezii Each of these groups is devoted to performing movement in various joints around the body.

Since many muscles of the body have opposing actions, it would be impossible for two opposing muscles to perform their action.

The body cleverly devised a system whereby when one muscle works its opposing muscle relaxes. The muscle that contracts is called the agonist and the muscle that relaxes, yet still undergoes partial contraction, is called the antagonist.

Now, back to your original question. I shall use walking as an example of moving and then describe how the muscles function to perform this action. In order to walk we bring one of our legs in front of us and then we bring the other foot off the ground and bring that one in front of us and so forth.

Walking uses the quadriceps muscle group (the muscles on the front of your thigh), the gluteal muscle group (the muscles located around your backside) and thigh flexor muscle group (the muscles colloquially known as your hamstrings, at the back of your thigh), there are various other assisting muscles also involved in this action.

When you extend your leg out in front of you, you are contracting your quadriceps, and when you bend your knee, you are contracting your thigh flexors.

The gluteal muscles are responsible for supporting the quadriceps when the leg is straight. That is how skeletal muscles allow your body to move. As I mentioned earlier, every movement that you can do involves similar events, as described in the previous paragraph. Most muscles are attached to bones which provide the framework for the human body. When muscles contract (shorten), they pull the skeleton in the direction they shorten. You can often see them bulge when they do so.40 people found this useful Was this answer useful? Yes Somewhat No

The joints between bones allow movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones.

What is the purpose of a skeleton?

What is the purpose of a skeleton? In this enquiry we will be learning about the purpose of our skeleton.

We will be looking at animal and human skeletons, discussing what keeps our bones healthy, the different bones and muscles in our bodies and will look at how the human skeleton works. Take a look at our science display or look at some of the links below to find out more…The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body.

It is composed of 270 bones at birth – this total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches maximum density around age 30. The skeleton serves six major functions; support, movement, protection, production of blood cells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

Support The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the lungs would collapse. Movement

Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system.

Protection The skeleton helps protect our many vital internal organs from being damaged. The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears. The vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the lungs, heart and major blood vessels. The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder. The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip.

The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively. The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively. Click on the skeleton on above to find out more about the bones inside your body. Or click here to play a skeleton game!If you want to find out more information about your joints, click here Why not click here to find out how we move our bones?

After completing our bone experiment, click here to find out what happens to the bones after being soaked in vinegar. Why do you think this has happened? It's only fair to share...

In order for movement to occur, the muscles, bones, tendons and ligaments must all work together in response to signals from the brain.

A Description of Tendons, Ligaments and Muscles

A Description of Tendons, Ligaments and Musclesby LORI NEWELL Aug. 14, 2017

If there is any disease or condition that interrupts the nerves' signals or if there is any injury to any of these structures, movement can be hindered. To help keep the body healthy and active it is important to understand what tendons, ligaments and muscles are, the role they play in movement and how to prevent injury.

Video of the Day Error setting up player: Invalid license key Tendons Tendons are tough bands of connective tissue found in the joints. They connect muscles to bones. Each muscle has tendons attached at each end. Tendons are designed to only stretch a small amount.

Their job is to transmit force between the bones and the muscles. For example, when the biceps muscle on the front top of the arm contracts, the tendon attached to the biceps muscle and elbow bone helps the muscle to pull on the elbow bones so the joint can bend.

Ligaments Ligaments are made of the same material as tendons. Ligaments connect the bones to each other, and are designed to help stabilize the joints and provide a structure for the bones. Since they have limited stretching ability, they limit how far a joint moves to help protect against injury.

As the elbow joint bends, the ligaments stabilize the elbow bones so the arm can move with control. Muscles There are three main types of muscles: skeletal muscles, which can be voluntarily controlled, involuntary smooth muscles, such as those that control breathing, digestion and other functions, and involuntary cardiac muscles, which control the function of the heart.

Skeletal muscles travel across the length of joints and stretch between the bones. All muscles in the body contract or shorten when they receive nerve signals initiated by the brain. Considerations All voluntary movement starts with an electrical impulse in the brain. The brain sends signals via the nervous system that make the appropriate muscles respond.

Some muscles contract and shorten, other muscles relax and still others stabilize the movement. As a muscle contracts, the force travels through the muscle and out through the tendon, which tightens and pulls on the bones that need to move. Injuries Muscles, tendons and ligaments can all suffer injuries as the result of a direct blow or or from overuse.

Ligaments can be overstretched; this is called a strain. A strain can involve just partial tears to the ligament or a compete tear. Muscle and tendon injuries are called sprains and occur when they are overworked or stretched too far.

A strain can be either a partial or full tear. These injuries are common in high-intensity sports and require treatment to avoid chronic problems. Tendons, ligaments and muscles can all be stretched and strengthened to help avoid injuries. Lose Weight.

Feel Great!Change your life with My Plate by LIVE STRONG . COMGOALGENDER AGEWEIGHT HEIGHTGET MY CALORIE GOALYOU MIGHT ALSO LIKEA Foot and Ankle Sprain Nutrition to Strengthen Tendons & Ligaments Exercises to Strengthen Foot Ligaments and Tendons Herbs for Tendons, Ligaments & Muscles Vitamins for Ligaments & Tendons What Are the Causes of Tight Tendons?

Human Leg Muscles & Tendons Exercises to Reduce Shoulder Blade Pain Exercises to Prevent Shoulder Pain From a Backpack Forearm & Hand Pain What Are the Causes of Foot & Calf Pain? Differences Between Ligaments & Tendons Vitamin B-6 & Tendonitis Ankle Throbbing From Walking How to Strengthen Tendons and Ligaments Causes of Pain in the Arm Between the Wrist & Elbow What Are the Causes of Hip Joint Problems? How to Heal a Stretched Tendon in the Foot What Are the Causes of Pain in Shoulder When Lifting or Stretching Arm Upward? Damaged Tendons in the Thumb

′əl)A body tissue composed of elongated cells (called muscle fibers) that contract to producemovement. In vertebrate animals, voluntary movement is produced by the action of muscles on bone. Movement of the muscles of the heart and other organs is involuntary and controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

muscle

"muscle (redirected from red muscle) Also found in: Thesaurus, Medical, Encyclopedia. Related to red muscle: skeletal muscle, Muscle tissue, visceral musclemus·cle (mŭs′əl)n.1. A tissue composed of fibers capable of contracting to effect bodily movement.2. A contractile organ consisting of a special bundle of muscle tissue, which moves a particular bone, part, or substance of the body: the heart muscle; the muscles of the arm.3.

Muscular strength: enough muscle to be a high jumper.4. Informal Power or authority: put some muscle into law enforcement.v. mus·cled, mus·cling, mus·clesv. intr. To make one's way by or as if by force: muscled into the conversation.v. tr. To move or force with strength: muscled legislation through Congress. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin mūsculus, diminutive of mūs, mouse; see mūs- in Indo-European roots .

]mus′cly adj. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.muscle ( ˈmʌsəl) n1. (Anatomy) a tissue composed of bundles of elongated cells capable of contraction andrelaxation to produce movement in an organ or part2.

(Anatomy) an organ composed of muscle tissue3. strength or forcevb ( intr; often foll by in, on, etc) informal to force one's way (in) [C16: from medical Latin musculus little mouse, from the imagined resemblance of some muscles to mice, from Latin mūs mouse]ˈmuscly, ˈmuscley adj Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © Harper Collins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014mus•cle (ˈmʌs əl)n., v. -cled, -cling.

n.1. a tissue composed of elongated cells, the contraction of which produces movement in thebody.2. a specific bundle of such tissue.3. muscular strength; brawn.4. power or force, esp. of a coercive nature: They put muscle into their policy and sent themarines.v.i.5.

Informal. to make one's way by force or fraud (often fol. by in or into ).v.t.6. Informal. to push or move by force or strength: to muscle a bill through Congress. [1525–35; < Latin mūsculus literally, little mouse (from resemblance to some muscles) = mūsmouse + -culus -cle 1]mus′cly, adj. Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.mus·cle (mŭs

muscular adjective The American Heritage® Student Science Dictionary, Second Edition. Copyright © 2014 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.muscle- Comes from Latin musculus, ""little mouse,"" as the ancient Romans thought theirmuscles wriggled like mice.

See also related terms for mice. Farlex Trivia Dictionary. © 2012 Farlex, Inc. All rights reserved.

Muscle See Also: STRENGTHThe great muscles of his torso flickered and ran like the flank of a horse —Du Bose Heyward Heavily defined pectoral muscles, on which the nipples stood out like pennies —Francis King Muscled like a water buffalo —Gerald Kersh Muscles [of leg] as big as a hill —Dylan Thomas Muscles … hard and ropy like the ones on the fantastic coursing dogs in the sad stonefriezes of ancient Persia —Beryl Markham Muscles … hard as iron —Jack London The muscles in his face seemed to pull together like a drawstring purse —Sue Grafton The muscles in their arms bulge out like India rubber balls —Joanna M. Glass Muscles in their backs rippled … like fretted water over a stony bed —Beryl Markham Muscles like armor plates pasted on his body —John Rechy Muscles … like blown-up balloons —François Camoin In his short story, A Hunk of Burning Love, Camoin completes the simile as follows: “Put a pipe in his mouth and he’d look like Popeye.”Muscles like marshmallows —Carlos Baker The muscles of his arms and back stood out beneath his fair skin like the muscles of one of Rodin’s bronze men —Louis Bromfield Muscles of his forearms … moved in ridges and hollows from a knot above his elbow, likepistons working from a cylinder —L.

P. Hartley Muscles of strength rose like a collar from his neck —Arthur A. Cohen Muscles … polished like metal, pure sculpture —Vita Sackville-West Muscles pulled like cold rubber —Tony Ardizzone See Also: PAINMuscles rippled like stretching cats —Stephen Vincent Benét Muscles stretched taut as cowhide stretched over a baseball —W.

P. Kinsella Muscles that flow like a mountain stream —Ogden Nash Muscles twitching like the flesh of a horse stung by many flies —Ralph Ellison Remember … the rippling of bright muscles like a sea —Edith Sitwell The ripple of muscles goes along him, like a cat’s back arching —Margaret Atwood Wore faded denims through which his clumsy muscles bulged like animals in a sack —Ross Macdonald Similes Dictionary, 1st Edition.

© 1988 The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.muscle Past participle: muscled Gerund: muscling Imperativemusclemuscle Collins English Verb Tables © Harper Collins Publishers 2011muscle Tissue that shortens to make part of the body move. Most striated muscle is voluntary (under conscious control). Smooth muscle is involuntary (under automatic control).

Seecardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, striated muscle. Dictionary of Unfamiliar Words by Diagram Group Copyright © 2008 by Diagram Visual Information Limited Thesaurus Antonyms Related Words Synonyms Legend: Switch to new thesaurus Noun 1. muscle - one of the contractile organs of the bodymusculuscontractile organ, contractor - a bodily organ that contractsskeletal muscle, striated muscle - a muscle that is connected at either or bothends to a bone and so move parts of the skeleton; a muscle that is characterized by transverse stripespronator - a muscle that produces or assists in pronationsupinator - a muscle (especially in the forearm) that produces or assists in supinationlevator - a muscle that serves to lift some body part (as the eyelid or lip)antagonistic muscle - (physiology) a muscle that opposes the action of another;""the biceps and triceps are antagonistic muscles""eye muscle, ocular muscle - one of the small muscles of the eye that serve to rotate the eyeballrectus - any of various straight musclesmuscle cell, muscle fiber, muscle fibre - an elongated contractile cell that formsthe muscles of the bodyinvoluntary muscle, smooth muscle - a muscle that contracts without consciouscontrol and found in walls of internal organs such as stomach and intestine and bladderand blood vessels (excluding the heart)anatomical sphincter, sphincter, sphincter muscle - a ring of muscle thatcontracts to close an openingtensor - any of several muscles that cause an attached structure to become tense or firm2.

muscle - animal tissue consisting predominantly of contractilecellsmuscular tissueanimal tissue - the tissue in the bodies of animalsstriated muscle tissue - muscle tissue characterized by transverse stripescardiac muscle, heart muscle - the muscle tissue of the heart; adapted to continued rhythmic contractionsmooth muscle - muscle tissue that does not appear striated under the microscope;has the form of thin layers or sheetsmuscle system, muscular structure, musculature - the muscular system of an organismtonicity, tonus, tone - the elastic tension of living muscles, arteries, etc.

thatfacilitate response to stimuli; ""the doctor tested my tonicity""3. muscle - a bully employed as a thug or bodyguard; ""the drug lord had hismuscleman to protect him""musclemanbully, hooligan, roughneck, rowdy, ruffian, yob, yobbo, yobo, tough - a crueland brutal fellow4.

muscle - authority or power or force (especially when used in a coercive way); ""thesenators used their muscle to get the party leader to resign""authority, potency, authorization, authorisation, say-so, dominance - the power or right to give orders or make decisions; ""he has the authority to issue warrants"";""deputies are given authorization to make arrests""; ""a place of potency in the state""5. muscle - possessing muscular strengthbrawn, brawniness, heftiness, muscularity, sinewstrength - the property of being physically or mentally strong; ""fatigue sapped hisstrength""Verb 1. muscle - make one's way by force; ""He muscled his way into the office""go across, pass, go through - go across or through; ""We passed the point wherethe police car had parked""; ""A terrible thought went through his mind""Based on Word Net 3.0, Farlex clipart collection.

© 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.musclenoun1. tendon, sinew, muscle tissue, thew He has a strained thigh muscle.2.

strength, might, force, power, weight, stamina, potency, brawn, sturdiness Theteam showed more muscle than mental application.3. power, weight, clout (informal), potency, pull (informal), forcefulness He used hismuscle to persuade Congress to change the law.muscle in (Informal) impose yourself, encroach, butt in, force your way in, elbow yourway in He complained that they were muscling in on his deal.

Musclesaccelerator, accessorius, adductor, agonist, antagonist, arytenoid, biceps, buccinator, compressor,constrictor, contractor, corrugator, deltoid, depressor, digrastic, dilator, elevator, erector, evertor,extensor, flexor, gastrocnemius, gluteus or glutaeus, levator, lumbricalis, masseter, opponent,pectoral, peroneal muscle, pronator, psoas, quadriceps, rectus, retractor, rhomboideus, rotator,sartorius, scalenus, soleus, sphincter, supinator, suspensory or suspensor, tensor, trapezius,triceps Collins Thesaurus of the English Language – Complete and Unabridged 2nd Edition. 2002 © Harper Collins Publishers 1995, 2002musclenoun1. The state or quality of being physically strong:brawn, might, potence, potency, power, powerfulness, puissance, sinew, strength, thew (often used in plural).2.

Informal. Effective means of influencing, compelling, or punishing:force, power, weight. Informal: clout.verb Informal. To force one's way into a place or situation:push, shove. The American Heritage® Roget's Thesaurus. Copyright © 2013, 2014 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.

All rights reserved. Translations Select a language:músculomuscle [ˈmʌsl] N1. ( Anat) → músculo mto flex one's muscles → tensar los músculoshe never moved a muscle → ni se inmutó2. ( fig) → fuerza fpolitical muscle → poder m políticomuscle in VI + ADV to muscle in (on sth) → meterse por la fuerza (en algo)Collins Spanish Dictionary - Complete and Unabridged 8th Edition 2005 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1971, 1988 © Harper Collins Publishers 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2005muscle ( ˈmasl) nounany of the bundles of fibres in the body which, by contracting or relaxing, cause movement of the body.

He has well-developed muscles in his arms. músculomuscular ( ˈmaskjulə) adjective1. of, or relating to, muscle (s). great muscular strength. muscular2. having well-developed muscles; strong. She is tall and muscular.

musculosomuscle in ( often with on)to gain entry, or gain a share of something by force. The large firms have muscled in on all the important contracts. entrometerse, inmiscuirse Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary © 2006-2013 K Dictionaries Ltd.muscle→ músculo Multilingual Translator © Harper Collins Publishers 2009mus·clen.

músculo, tipo de tejido fibroso capaz de contraerse y que permite el movimiento de las partes y los órganos del cuerpo; cardiac ___ → ___ cardíaco;flexor ___ → ___ flexor;involuntary, visceral ___ → ___ involuntario, visceral;loss of ___ tone → pérdida de la tonicidad muscular;___ building → desarrollo muscular;___ relaxants → relajadores musculares, medicamentos para aliviar espasmos musculares;___ strain → distensión muscular;___ toning → tonicidad muscular;striated, voluntary ___ → ___ estriado, voluntario. English-Spanish Medical Dictionary © Farlex 2012musclen músculo; biceps — músculo bíceps, bíceps m; deltoid — músculo deltoides, deltoides m; gastrocnemius — músculo gastrocnemio, gastrocnemio; gluteus — músculo glúteo, glúteo; pectoral — músculo pectoral, pectoral m; psoas — músculo psoas, psoas m; quadriceps — músculo cuádriceps, cuádriceps m; skeletal — músculo esquelético; smooth — músculo liso; soleus — músculo sóleo, sóleo; trapezius — músculo trapecio, trapecio; triceps — músculo tríceps, tríceps m English-Spanish/Spanish-English Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2006 by The Mc Graw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us, add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Facebook Twitter "

MUSCULAR SYSTEM The function of a muscle is to contract and to produce movement. A muscle is made up of bundles of fibers held together. These are the red flesh of the body. There are three types of muscles:1) Voluntary muscles:- These are connected with the skeletal system, causing the joints to move.

5.

5. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF HUMAN BODY 5.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY Anatomy – The Structure of the body Physiology – Function of the body The body as a whole The body is wonderfully made, like a complex, perfect machine.

Each part is specially constructed to carry out its own function, and to work as a whole with the other parts. Look at a person standing with arms at the sides, palms turning forward, this is called the ‘ anatomical position’ .

The body is seen to consist of the head, neck, trunk, upper limbs (the arms) and lower limbs (the legs). The following terms are used in anatomy 1. SUPERIOR – higher 2. INFERIOR – lower 3. ANTERIOR – nearer the front of the body 4.

POSTERIOR – nearer the back of the body 5. MEDIAL – nearer to the mid-line 6. LATERAL – to the side 7. PROXIMAL – nearer to the head or source 8. DISTAL – distant from the head or source 9. EXTERNAL – outside, or away from the trunk centre 10.

INTERNAL – inside, or nearer to the trunk centre 11. SUPERFICIAL – nearer the body surface 12. DEEP – inside, away from the body surface 111 The body has a strong frame work of bones called the skeleton.

The skeleton is covered by muscles and other soft tissues, and by skin on the outside. Cavities of the body and their contents Some body parts form spaces called cavities, in which important internal organs are protected.

1. The cranial cavity or skull – contains the brain 2. The thoracic cavity or chest contains:Ø the lungs Ø the air passages – trachea and bronchial tubes Ø the oesophagus or food pipe, which lies behind the trachea Ø the heart Ø the great blood vessels, and the thoracic duct (the largest Ø lymphatic vessel) 3.

The abdominal cavity, which is separated from the thoracic cavity by a dome-shaped muscle called the diaphragm. It contains:Ø the stomach Ø the small intestines Ø the large intestine or bowel Ø the liver Ø the spleen Ø the kidneys Ø the ureters Ø the pancreas 4.

The Pelvic cavity which contains:Ø the reproductive organs Ø the bladder when empty (when full it rises into the Ø abdominal cavity) Ø the rectum 112 Cells and Tissues All living things, including the human body, are made up of living cells. The cell is the structural and the functional unit with which the human body is built. Just as many kinds of materials may be used in the construction of a large building, in the same way many different kinds of cells are found in the body.

Structure of a Cell A cell has the following parts: 1. Cell membrane, the outer covering 2. Protoplasm, the main substance of the cell 3.

Nucleus, which controls activities of the cell Fig 5.1- Structure of the cell 1.nuclear envelope 2.nucleolus 3.chromatin 113 4.centrioles 5.micro filament 7.lysosome 8.secretory vesicle 10.plasma membrane 11.peroxisome 13.granular endoplasmic reticulum 14.agranular endoplasmic reticulum 16.bound ribosome 17.mitochondria6.microtubule 9.free ribosome 12.golgi apparatus 15.nuclear pore Functions of Cells By functions we mean the activities 1. Digestion – intake of the nutrients 2. Excretion – eliminating of wastes 3. Respiration – taking and using oxygen, and giving out carbon- di-oxide 4.

Growth and repair 5. Some cells move about, and some have special functions 6. Reproduction is by each cell simply dividing into two. Tissues Tissues are materials made up of groups of similar cells. Cells are of various types, and tissues vary according to the types of cells in their structure.

There are four main types of tissue in the human body: 1. Epithelial, which forms coverings like the skin, lining membranes and glands connective, which helps to support and bind parts together, holding them in place.

2. There are several types of connective tissue including bone, cartilage, ligaments, fatty and elastic tissue, also blood and lymph (the fluid tissues) 3. Muscular – this tissue has the power of contraction, which causes movement 4. Nervous – conducts nerve impulses 114 Fig 5.2.

Various kinds of cells 1). Epithelium 2). Connective 3) Fat 4) Cartilage Organs and Systems Tissues are jointed into larger units called organs, such as the heart, lungs, brain, liver. Each organ is made up of types of tissue, which enable it to do its special work. A system is a group of organs, which together carry out one of the essential functions of the body. There are nine systems, listed below. All of these systems work harmoniously together in a healthy body.

Systems of the body Functions 1 Skeletal System Support, movement and protection 2 Muscular System Movements and production of heat 3 Nervous System Control of body activities 4 Circular System Transport of food and oxygen, waste products, etc 5 Respiratory System Taking in of oxygen and giving off carbon-di-oxide 6 Digestive System Taking in food, breaking it down into nutrients for use by body cells 115 7 Excretory System 8 Endocrine (glandular) System 9 Reproductive System Removal of waste matter from the body Production of hormones, which influence the activity of cells Enables new individuals to be born.

I - Skeletal System The skeleton is the bony framework of the body. The human skeleton is wonderfully made in such a way, that it can support the body in the erect position and enable the body to move freely.

Structure and Functions of the Skeleton The skeleton is composed of 206 separate bones in the adult, and the cartilages and ligaments, which help to unite the bones at the joints. The Parts of the Skeleton are: 1 Skull, made up of 29 bones in all (including middle ear bones and the hyoid 2 Spine or 26 separate bones Vertebral column 3 Thorax or Chest 25 (12 pairs of ribs and the breastbone) 4 Upper limbs, 64 each 32 bones– 5 Lower each 31 Total limbs, 62 206Types of Bones Ø Long bones – These are in the arms, legs and fingers.

They act as levers to move parts. 116 1) Hyaline Cartilage, 2) Periosteum, 3) Compact Bone, 4) Medullary Cavity, 5) Cancellous Bone 6) Hyaline Cartilage A). Femur B). Vertical section Fig. 5.3 Diagram of Long BoneØ Short bones – As in the wrists and ankles.

Leg born The foot bone Fig.5.4. Short Bones I. Tarsal Bones 7; 1. Tibia II. Metatarsal bones 5; 2. Fibula III. Phalanges 14. 117 Ø Flat bones – These includes the ribs, shoulder blades, and bones of the cranium. Ø Irregular bones – Such as the bones of the face and of the spine. Functions of the Skeleton 1) Supports and gives shape to the body 2) Protects internal organs 3) Movements with the help of muscles 4) Forms blood cells.

Fig 5.5. The Skull 1) Frontal Bone 2) Parietal Bone 3) Occipital 4) Lacrimal Bone 5) Nasal Bone 6)Ethmoid Bone 7) Sphenoid Bone 8) Malar Bone 9) Temporal Bone 10) Maxillary Bone 12) Mandible Bone 118 Structure of Skeletal Tissue 1) Periostium-This is the outer covering of bones. It carries blood vessels and nerves. 2) Compact Bone-Mainly composed of calcium and phosphorus, is the hard outer layer of bone tissue. 3) Cancellous Bone, inside is a porous type of bone with many tiny spaces. It helps to make the bones light.

a) Red Marrow: This fills the spaces in calcellous bone. Red bone marrow produces red blood cells and some white blood cells.

b) Yellow Marrow: This is mainly composed of fat cells. Yellow bone marrow fills the shaft of the long bone making them light. c) Cartilage: A strong plain tissue like hard rubbers is attached to some bones. eg The end of the nose, and of its ribs). In babies and children’ s bone consists of more cartilage, which is replaced by hard bone as the child grow.

In children an injured bones bends instead of breaking, and this is called a “Greenstick fracture” Ligaments are made of strong fibrous tissue and they hold bones together at the joints, allowing some movement when ligaments around a joint are stretched and torn without injury to bone this is called a “sprain” The skull consists of two parts 1) The cranium, which is like a box in which the brain is well protected.

2) The bones of the face The cranium is made up of eight bones as follows. 1) Frontal bone-Which forms the forehead and helps to protect the eyes. 2) Parietal bone one at ach side of the top of the skull, joined in to the middle. 3) Temporal bones, one on each side below the parietals bones.

These protect the inner parts of the ears. 119 4) One occipital bone: This forms the back of the head and part of the base of the skull.

It has a large opening for the spinal cord to pass through. 5) One sphenoid, a hat shaped bone, which also forms part of the base of the skull. It has a little seat for the pituitary gland, and some holes for blood vessels and cranial nerves pass through. 6) One ethmoid, which forms the roof of the nose and in between the eyes. It has many small holes for the nerves of small to pass through the brain. The face has the following fourteen bones: Ø Two nasal bones, which form the bridge of the nose. Ø Two lacrimal bones, near the eyes, which contain the rear ducts.

Ø Two cheek bones Ø Two upper jawbones, with upper teeth. Ø Two palate bones which join with the upper jaw bones in forming the hard palate. Ø Two curled bone, one in each side of wall of the nose. Ø Two vomer bones, which rests on the palate and helps to form the nasal septum.

Ø One lower jaw bone, which consists of the horizontal part on which are the lower teeth, and two vertical parts ,which meet the temporal bones. The “angle of the jaw” on each side is important. All the bones of the skull except the lower jaw are joined firmly together by fixed joints called “Sutures” Ø Sinuses.

Some skull bones have hallow spaces called “Sinuses” which connect with the nose and are filled with air. Sinuses make the skull lighter, and help in the sound of the voice ‘ Sinusitis” is infection in these spaces.

The main sinuses are the frontal ones above the eyes, and large antrum sinuses, one in each of the upper jawbones.

120 Ø Hyoid Bones, this is a horse shaped little bone in the upper part of the neck. The tongue muscle is attached to this bone. The Vertebral Column Spine or backbone is the central part of the skeleton. It supports the head and encloses the spinal cord. It consists of 33 irregular bones called “Vertebrae” but some are fused together and so these are actually 26 separate bones forming the spine.

The parts of the vertebral column are as follows: Ø cervical vertebral column in the neck region. The first two, called atlas and axis are important for nodding and turning the head. Ø 12 dorsal or thoracic vertebrae at the back of the chest. The ribs are joined to these vertebrate. Ø 5 lumber vertebrae in the waist region. These are big and strong for giving support. Ø 5 sacral vertebrae are fused together to form the sacrum, a triangular shaped bone with a hollow anteriorly.

The sacrum helps to form the pelvis. Ø 4 small vertebrae in the tail region are fused to form a small triangular bone called the coccyx.

It is attached to the lower part of the sacrum.121 Fig 5.6 Vertebral Column The Thorax: The Thorax or chest is formed by the sternum (Breastbone) and costal cartilages in front, the ribs at the sides, and the twelve dorsal vertebral bones at the back. The sternum is a flat bone, shaped like a dagger pointing downwards. The tip consists of a cartilage known as the xiphisternum.

The upper part, like the handle is joined to the two collar bones. The costal cartilages are joined to the sides of the sternum and to the true ribs.

The ribs are twelve pairs of the long curved bones. The upper seven pairs are called true ribs. These are each attached to the sternum by its costal cartilages. The next five pairs of ribs are called false ribs because they are joined by their cartilages to those of the ribs above and 122 not directly to the sternum. The last two pairs are not connected to the sternum at all, and are called floating ribs.13 1415Fig 5.7 The Thorax 1-7.

True ribs. 8-10. False ribs. 11. and 12. Floating ribs 13. Sternum. 14. Costal cartilages 15. Xiphisternum Functions of the Thorax 1) Protection for the heart ,lungs,liver,stomach and spleen. 2) Support for the bones of the shoulder girdle and for the breast.

3) Important in respiration. Bones of the upper limbs Each upper limb consists of thirty two bones.

123 Ø One collar bone : These together with those of the other side form the shoulder bone Ø Shoulder girdle Ø One humerus, the bone of the upper arm Ø One radius, the outer bone of the fore arm Ø One ulnar, the inner bone of the forearm. Ø Eight carpal bones of the wrist. Ø Fourteen phalanges of the fingers. Ø The collarbone (clavicle) on each side is a long bone with two curves.

Its inner end is attached to the sternum, and outer end with the shoulder blade. The collarbone is easily felt at the lower and front part of the neck.

It keeps the shoulder blade in place. When it is broken the shoulder drops forward and downwards. Ø The shoulder blade (scapula) on each side is at the upper and outer part of the back of the thorax. It is a large flat, triangular shaped bone with a ridge or spine at the back. It takes part in the shoulder joint. Ø The humerus is a long bone with a rounded head at the shoulders and a broad lower end at the elbow joint.

Ø The radius and ulnar bones of the forearm reach from the elbow joint to the wrist. Ø The wrist consists of eight carpal bones. These short bones are arranged in two rows, proximal and distal, with four bones in each row. Ø The palm consists of five long bones called metacarpal, which articulate with the distal row of carpal bones and with the proximal row of phalanges.

The phalanges are long bones. The thumb has only two phalanges while the fingers have three each 124 Fig 5.8. The Humerus The Ulna and Radius 1. The attachment of biceps1. The Attachment of Pectoralis 2. The Attachment of Deltoid Fig.5.9 The Hand 125 I. II.

III. The carpal bones 8 Metacapal bones 5 Phalanges bones 14Fig 5.10 The Innominate bone 1. Ilium 2.

Sacro- iliac Joint 4. Symbhysis Pubis 5. Ischium3. Pubis Bones of the lower limbs: Each lower limb consists of thirty one bones:Ø One innominate or hip bone, Ø One femur, the thigh bone, Ø One patella or knee cap, Ø One tibia Ø One fibula the lower leg bones Ø Seven tarsal bones of the ankle, Ø Five metatarsal bones of the foot, Ø Fourteen phalanges of the toes.

1) The innominate bones, one on each side, join with the sacrum to form the pelvis. Besides protecting the pelvic organs, the pelvis supports the abdomen and provides the deep sockets for the hip joints. In the female, the true pelvis (lower part) is round so that the head, of the baby can pass through during 126 delivery.

In the male the true pelvis is long, narrow and heart – shaped. The innominate bone in a child is separated into three bones, which are fused together in the adult. Therefore the bone has three parts as follows: (1) Ilium, the upper flat part, forms the false pelvis. Its upper ridge is called the iliac crest. (2) Ischium, the heavy lower part, which supports the body when sitting.

(3) Pubis, the front part. The pubic bones from the joint called symphysis pubis. Ø The femur (thigh bone) is the longest and strongest bone in the body.

Ø The patella (kneecap) is a small bone at the front of the knee joint. Ø The tibia is the long bone on the inner side of the lower 1eg Ø The fibula is a long thin bone on the outer side of the leg. Ø The tarsal bones of the ankle. These are seven short bones. The largest is the heel bone (calcanium). The upper bone takes part in the ankle joint. Ø The metatarsal bones are five long bones in front of the feet. They support the toes. Ø The toe bones (phalanges) are fourteen in number. Like the finger bones, they are small long bones, two in the big toe and three in each of the other toes. JOINTS A joint is the point at which two or more bones meet. Bones are held together at the joints by other connective tissue such as fibrous tissue, cartilage, ligaments and tendons. Muscles are the means by which all movement in the body takes place, including the movement of bones at some of the joints. 127 Fig.5.11. Joints Types of Joints 1) Fibrous joints - in which there is no movement. eg. the ‘ sutures’ of the skull. The bones are joined together closely as though they were stitched (sutured) together. 2) Cartilaginous joints – in which two bones are joined by a pad of fibrous cartilage, which allows slight movement. They are found in the vertebral column and pelvis. 3) Synovial joints – which are freely movable, are found in the limbs and jaw. 4) Ball and Socket joints – the round head of one bone fits into the cavity of another bone : eg., shoulder and hip joints. 5) Hinge joint – the only movements are flexion and extension. eg., elbow, knee. 6) Gliding joint – the bones glide on one another and allow fairly free movements. eg., wrist and ankle joint. 7) Pivot joint – turning is the only movement. eg. The movement between the atlas and axis for turning the head. 128

MUSCULAR SYSTEM The function of a muscle is to contract and to produce movement. A muscle is made up of bundles of fibers held together. These are the red flesh of the body. There are three types of muscles:1) Voluntary muscles:- These are connected with the skeletal system, causing the joints to move.

They are called voluntary because their action can be controlled by the will. 2) Involuntary muscle:- Work without conscious control by the individual and are found in the internal organs. 3) Cardiac muscle:- A special type found only in the heart. The fibres are striped but the muscle is not under control of the will.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Sterno-mastoid Deltoid Pectoralis Biceps Quadriceps Trapezius Teres major External oblique Rectus abdominus 10. Ilio-psoas 11. Sartorius Fig. 5.12 Muscles of the body (Anterior) 129 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9. 10. 11. Sternomastoid Trapezius Deltoid Triceps Biceps Hamstrings Gastronemus Achilles tendon Gluteus maximus External oblique Latissimus Fig 5.13 Muscles to the body (Posterior)NERVOUS SYSTEM This functions like a telephone system. With the brain as the head office, and nerves like the telephone wires communication takes place with all parts of the body. By means of numerous messages sent and received, the various tissues and organs of the body work in harmony.

The nervous system has two parts:1) Central nervous system – made up of the brain and cranial nerves, spinal cord, and spinal nerves.

a. It controls the voluntary muscles of the head, trunk and limbs. b. It receives messages from sense organs such as skin, eyes and ears. 2) The Autonomic nervous system – this is made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. It controls involuntary (internal) muscles and glandular secretions.

130 The Brain This is the most important part of the central nervous system. It is well protected in the cranial cavity and has the following parts.

1) The cerebrum or forebrain 2) The cerebellum or hindbrain 3) The midbrain 4) The brain stem - consisting of pons and medulla Functions of Cerebrum 1) Frontal lobe :Ø motor centres controlling voluntary muscles. Ø speech centre Ø mental powers such as memory, intelligence and will 2) Parietal lobe :- The sensory centres for sensations of touch, pain, heat, cold and pressure 3) Temporal lobe :- For hearing 4) Occipital lobe :- For vision (sight)Fig.

5.14 The Brain and the Spinal Cord 131 1. Bone 2. Dura mater 3. Arachnoid 4. Theca 5. Pia mater 6. Cerebrum 7. Cerebellum. 8. Mid-brain 9. Pons varolii 10. Medulla oblongata 11. Spinal Cord 12. Vertebrae Fig. 5.15 The Meninges 1. Bone 2. Dura mater 3. Arachnoid 4. Theca 5. Pia mater 6.

Cerebrum 7. Fissure Functions of the cerebellum 1. Helps to maintain balance 2. Helps to maintain muscle tone 3. Co-ordinates the work of muscles Functions of the mid-brain 1) Acts as a pathway for messages to and from the cerebrum 2) Contains reflex centres for vision and hearing 3) Contains centres for controlling body temperature (hypothalamus), the emotions and sexual responses 132 Functions of the medulla 1) Connects the brain with the spinal cord and conveys messages.

It is in the medulla that cerebral nerve fibres cross over to the opposite side. 2) Contain nerves centres, which control the vital functions of circulation and respiration.

3) Contain reflex centres of swallowing, vomiting and coughing. Cranial Nerves There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves which come out from the brain and brain-stem. They pass through holes in the skull to the eyes, ears, face, tongue, throat, etc. The tenth cranial nerve called vagus, give branches to the larynx, lungs, heart and digestive organs. The vagus nerve function as part of the autonomic nervous system. The Spinal Cord The spinal cord is a cord of nervous tissue, the thickness of a little finger and about 12cm long.

It lies inside a canal formed by the vertebrae. It connects above with the medulla where the back of the neck joins the skull and extends to the level of the first lumbar vertebrae.

Functions of the Spinal Cord 1) Receives motor impulses from the frontal lobe of the cerebrum, and passes them on to muscles via the spinal nerves. 2) Receives sensations from the skin and other tissues and relays the message to the brain. 3) Reflex action.

This is the quick response in the spinal cord itself. eg., if you touch something hot, the message received in the spinal cord is immediately flashed to the muscles of the arm, and before the news reaches the brain you have taken your hand away.

133 The meninges and cerebro spinal fluid (C. S. F) The brain and spinal cord are covered by three membranes called meninges. 1) Durameter is the outer, thick elastic cover. It lines the skull and spinal cord. 2) Arachonoid, a thin middle membrane.

It is a loose covering and under is a space called ‘ theca’ (sub arachonoid space) containing cerebro spinal fluid (C. S. F.) 3) Piameter is closest to the nerve tissue and carries blood vessels. When these membranes get infected, the condition is known as meningitis. Cerebro spinal fluid (C. S. F) This is a clear fluid, which circulates both inside and outside the brain and spinal cord.

A little cerebrospinal fluid is sometimes removed by ‘ lumbar puncture’ to help in diagnosing disease of the nervous system. Functions of cerebrospinal fluid 1) It acts as a water cushion to protect the brain and spinal cord from shocks and jarring.

2) It nourishes and cleanses, washing away water and toxins. THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM The cardiovascular system is the transport system of the body. It is the means by which food, Oxygen, water and other requirements are conveyed to the tissue calls, and their waste products are carried away. The heart is important organ of the circulatory system it is placed behind breastbone and within the thoracic cage.

It is hollow muscular organ. It is enclosed in a sac known as the pericardium. It is about the size of a person’ s clenched fist and weighs around 300gm in a man and 250 gm in a woman.

The heart has four chambers, two atria (upper) and two ventricles lower. Valves connect the upper and lower chambers. 134 The right and left sides of the heart are totally separated by a muscular wall and there is no communication between them.

The right side of the heart receives the oxygenated (impure) blood collected from the different parts of the body through small and big veins, which enters the lungs. In the lungs the blood is oxygenated and carbon-di-oxide and metabolic waste are removed. The left side of the heart receives (pure) blood from the lungs and supplies it to the entire body through the major blood vessel (aorta) and its numerable branches (arteries and capillaries).

The left ventricle generates greater pressure than the right ventricle to enable the blood to be pumped throughout the body. Hence the left ventricle is more thicker and more muscular. The coronary arteries branch out (left and right coronary artries) from the root of the aorta near its origin from the left ventricle.

Both the coronary arteries branch into smaller vessels, which are distributed all over the surface of the heart. For efficient pumping, it is necessary for the heart to beat at a reasonable rate of 60 –90 beats per minute, which is achieved through controlled electrical impulses (conductive system)Fig.5.16.

Heart and blood Circulation 135 Functions of Heart 1) It draws blood back from the capillaries and veins. 2) It sends blood into the lungs where it is oxygenated. 3) It sends blood through the aorta to all the parts of the body. Fig 5.17 A Diagram Showing the systemic circulation 1. Head,neck and upper limbs 2. Lungs 3. Heart 4.

Liver 5. Portal vein 6. Digestive organs 7. Lower parts of the body 136 Fig 5.18 Major blood vessels in the body 1. L. External jugular vein. 2. L. Internal jugular vein 3. L. Brachiocephalic vein. 4. Superior venacava. 5. Inferior venacava. 6. L. Common iliac vein 7. L. Internal iliac vein. 8. L. Long Saphenous vein 9. L. Long saphenous vein. 10. L. Short saphenous vein. 11. R. Posterior tibial vein. 12. L. External iliac vein. 13. R. Anterior tibial vein. 14. R. Popliteal vein. 15. R. Femoral vein. 16. R. Cephalic vein.

17. R. Ulnar vein. 18. R. Median vein 19. R. Radial vein. 20. R. Median cubital vein. 21. R. Basalic vein. 22. R. Brachial artery 23. R. Cephalic vein. 24. R. Axillary vein. 25. R. Brachiocephalic vein R. Subclavian vein 137 The parts of the circulatory systems are 1) Blood 2) The heart, which is the pump forcing blood into circulation.

3) The blood vessels in which the blood travels. 4) The lymphatic system is closely connected, and can be considered a part of the circulatory system.

Functions of Blood 1) Carries oxygen to the tissues by means of red blood cells. 2) Carries food to the tissues. 3) Carries away waste products from the tissues to the excretory organ. 4) Carries hormones from the glands to the target tissues.

5) Fights germ infection by means of the white cells and antibodies. 6) Distributes heat and helps to maintain body temperature. 7) Helps to maintain water balance in the body. The Lymphatic System and Spleen The lymphatic system is a special type of circulatory system. It is composed of 1) The lymph 2) The lymphatic vessels 3) The lymph glands or nodes Ø Lymph is a fluid like plasma and the tissue fluid but in cases of infection it may contain bacteria.

Lymph is really the tissue fluid, which finds it way into the lymphatic vessels. Ø Lymphatic Vessels : Lymphatics start in tissue spaces between the cells and start like the veins. Inside them are the valves which help the flow of lymph towards the two largest lymphatic vessels.

Ø Lymph glands are small bean – shaped structures, situated along the course of the lymphatics. They are found mainly 138 grouped together in the neck, axilla, groins and in the pelvic and abdominal cavities. Lymphoid tissue is also found in the tonsils, pharynx and intestines. Functions of Lymph. Lymph glands help to protect the body from infection by 1) Filtering the lymph to prevent germs from getting into the blood stream, and fighting to overcome them.

2) Producing new lymphocytes for the blood. The spleen This is a dark purple organ situated in the left side of the upper abdomen, behind the stomach.

Functions of the Spleen are 1) It produces new lymphocytes for the blood. 2) It helps to fight infection. 3) It destroys worn out red blood cells and removes the iron from them to be re-used. 4) It acts as a reservoir for Red Blood Cells, which it releases in time of need, such as a sudden haemorrhage.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Digestion is the process by which the complex forms of food materials are broken down into simpler form of food materials suitable for absorption. Once the food is digested, it must be transferred to the blood stream and the process by which this transfer occurs is called absorption. Digestion, and absorption are two chief functions of the digestive system. The Alimentary Canal The alimentary canal is a long muscular digestive tube extending through the body.

It is about 750cm in length. It consists of the following parts: 1) The mouth 2) Oesophagus 139 3) Stomach 4) Small intestine 5) Large intestine 6) Rectum 7) Anal canal The gastro intestinal tract consists a tube composed of four principal layers.

From outside inwards – 1. Tunica adventitia or serous coat 2. Tunica media or the muscular coat 3. Tunica intima or the inner lining of the blood vessel 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Mouth Salivary Glands Submandibular gland Parotid salivary gland pharynx Oesophagus.

Stomach Pylorus Liver Gall bladder Pancreas Duodenum Ascending colon Transverse colon Descending colon Jejunum Ileum Caecum Vermiform Appendix Rectum Fig 5.19 Digestive System 140 Functions of Digestive System 1) Break down the food substances into small particles.

2) Digestion of food substances. 3) Absorption of food substances. 4) Excretion of undigested food and toxic substances. The digestive system may be divided into two group of organs The alimentary canal, which is a continuous, passage way beginning at the mouth, where the food is taken in and terminating at the anus where the solid products of digestion, which are not absorbed, are expelled from the body.

The accessory organs – which are vitally necessary for the digestive process, do not happen to be the part of the alimentary canal. Physiology of Digestion Digestion takes place is three parts of the alimentary canal. They are 1) Mouth – with the help of saliva from three pairs of salivary glands. 2) Stomach – with the help of gastric juice from the stomach wall and 3) Small intestine – with the help of pancreatic juice from the pancreas, bile juice from the liver and the intestinal juice from the small intestine.

Most of the digestive juices contain the chemicals known as enzymes. The Mouth The mouth is also called the oral cavity.

In the mouth there are about 32 teeth. They are Molars – 12 Pre molars – 8 Canines – 4 Incisors – 8 141 The teeth help to break down the food substances into small particles.

Into this space there projects a muscular organ called the tongue. It helps in chewing and swallowing and is one of the principal organs of speech. The tongue has on its surface a number of taste buds by means of which we can differentiate sensation of taste. (bitter, sweet, sour and salty). In chewing, the teeth grind the food into pieces while the secretion of saliva moistens and lubricates the food.

Saliva is a juice secreted by three pairs of salivary glands in the mouth. They are 1) The parotid 2) The sub – maxillary and 3) The sub – lingual gland • The parotid – located in front and below each external ear. • The sub–maxillary – located between the mandible and the muscle of the floor of the mouth. • Sublingual – located in floor of the mouth.

Salivary secretion is a reflex process, both conditioned and unconditioned reflexes are involved. A new born infant salivates when food is placed in its mouth. But the sight and smell of food does not produce any reaction. Later by associating the sight and smell of food with its taste, the child learns that the food has certain qualities and these every qualities are afterwards capable of eliciting salivary secretion.

Functions of Saliva 1. It keeps the mouth moist and helps in speech. 2. It helps in the process of mastication of the foodstuff and in preparing it into a bolus suitable for digestion. 3. It dilutes hot, irritant substances and thus prevents injury to the mucous membrane. 4. Saliva contains two enzymes.

Ptyalin and maltase, which converts starchy food into sugars. 142 5. Saliva helps in the sensation of taste. 6. It helps heat loss. This is mainly found in animals. When they become hot, more saliva is secreted causing greater heat loss. 7. It helps in the excretion of certain substances like drugs containing mercury, lead and iodine.

Digestion in the mouth The food is chewed; and saliva the first of the digestive juices acts on it, softens it so that it can be easily swallowed. Saliva contains two enzymes (1) Ptyalin (2) Maltase. Ptyalin splits starch into maltose and maltase converts maltose into glucose. Oesophagus The oesophagus is a tube connecting the pharynx and the stomach. It conveys the food from the mouth to the stomach.

Stomach The stomach is an enlarged section of alimentary tube. Both ends of the stomach are guarded by valves which normally permit the passage of substances in only one direction. The proximal end is guarded by cardiac sphincter and the distal end of the stomach is guarded by pyloric sphincter.

Stomach acts as a pouch for holding large quantities of food so that frequent feeding can be avoided. The stomach mixes up the food thoroughly by its movements. It also destroys the bacteria by the high acidity.

Digestion in the Stomach The food material after being broken down by mechanical grinding and having been converted into a bolus with the saliva reaches the stomach, which pours a large quantity of gastric juice everyday.

143 The mechanism of production of gastric juice is a chemical or hormonal in nature. When the digested food is in contact with the gastric mucosa, a chemical extract is formed. It is named as gastrin, and belongs to the group of gastro intestinal hormones. This causes the discharge of gastric juice.

The gastric juice contain mainly hydrochloric acid and enzymes 1) Pepsin 2) Renin 3) Lipase. Functions of hydrochloric acid 1) Kills bacteria present in the food 2) Softens the connective tissues of meat 3) Converts inactive form of pepsinogen into active form of pepsin. Functions of enzymes 1) Pepsin - converts protein into peptones. 2) Rennin - converts the undigestible protein of milk into easily digestible one.

3) Lipase … converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. Liver The liver is one of the largest and important organ situated on the right side of the abdomen. Bile is secreted by the liver. Functions of Liver 1) The production of bile from the pigment of broken down red blood cells.

2) The removal of toxins that have been absorbed from the intestine. 3) The storage of simple sugar in the form of glycogen which is released as needed in the form of glucose 4) The storage of fat soluble vitamins including A, D, E and K. 5) The manufacture of heparin, which prevents clotting of the blood in the blood vessels.

144 6) The formation of antibodies which acts against disease producing organisms. 7) The production of certain blood plasma proteins such as fibrinogen and albumin.

8) The removal of a waste product called urea from amino acids. Bile juice Ø In the absence of bile, fats are not digested properly which results in fatty diarrhoea.

Thus bile is essential for digestion though it does not contain any digestive enzymes. Ø The bile is taken by the hepatic duct and is stored in the gall bladder, which is situated on the lower surface of the liver. The bile is concentrated and sent to the duodenum through the cystic duct when chyme from the stomach enters the duodenum.

Ø Bile contains bile salt, bile pigment, mucin and water. The two pigments present in the bile are called i. bilirubin and ii. bili verdin. These pigments give colour to the faeces and urine. Ø Due to liver damage or obstruction of the bile duct, bilirubin collects in excess quantities in blood and changes the colour of the skin and the eyes.

There may be changes in the colour of the urine also. This is called jaundice. Functions of Bile Juice 1) It stimulates the functions of the proteolytic enzymes and the amylase. 2) It dissolves fatty acid and glycerol. 3) It coordinates with lipase to convert the fat into fatty acids. 4) It helps in the absorption of the fatty acid and glycerol. 145 5) With the help of other digestive juices it neutralizes the acidic nature of food.

Pancreas Pancreas an elongated structure lying across the posterior wall of the abdomen. It is an exocrine as well as an endocrine gland. The pancreas not only produces the pancreatic juice but also secretes hormones eg. Insulin and glucogon.

It is released directly in the blood which regulates the blood glucose level. The pancreatic juice contains three enzymes. They are 1) Trypsin 2) Amylase and 3) Lipase. Besides these enzymes pancreatic juice contains large quantities of sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the hydrochloric acid present in the gastric juice secreted by the stomach. Large intestine The large intestine is as the name implies has the larger diameter than the small intestine.

It is about 150cm in length. The small intestine opens into the large intestine. There is a small pouch at the beginning part of the large intestine. This pouch is called the caecum. Large intestine consists of ascending colon, transverse colon and descending colon Rectum and anal canal The descending colon of large intestine opens into last part, the rectum and anal canal.

It is about 15cm to 20cm long. The rectum serves as a temporary storage area for the indigestible and non-absorbable substances. The narrow portion of the distal part of the large intestine is called the anal canal, which leads to the outside through an opening called the anus. 146 Small intestine The small intestine is about 600cm long in adult extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to intestine.

The first 25cm or 30cm of the small intestine is called the duodenum followed by the jejunum and the remainder is the ileum. Digestion in the Small Intestine The food in the stomach is partially digested by the gastric juice, but the small intestine is the organ in which the completion of the digestion and absorption occurs.

In the duodenum there is an opening into which lead two ducts carrying digestive juices i.e., pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct from the pancreas and the other, bile, via bile duct from the liver. Bile is not primarily a digestive juice because it contains no enzyme but it helps in the digestion of fats. The bile salts emulsifies fats and helps the pancreatic lipase to act and digest it easily. The pancreatic juice contain three powerful enzymes.

They are: 1) Pancreatic: Converts carbohydrates into simple sugars like amylase glucose, fructose and galactose. 2) Trypsin : Converts peptones into poly peptides. In the beginning trypsin is present in the form of inactive trypsinogen.

This trypsinogen is converted into active trypsin by the action of enterokinase which is secreted in the small intestine. 3) Pancreatic lipase: Converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol. After pancreatic digestion, the food which is now called chyme proceeds further in the intestine.

Here it comes into contact with succus entericus which is a juice produced by the 147 small intestine. Succus entericus contains three enzymes. They are : 1) Pepsin : It converts poly peptides into amino acids. 2) Nucleotidase : Converts Nucleotide, into necleoside. 3) Nucleosidase : Converts nucleosides into pentose, purine and pyramidin. It also contains three sugar-splitting enzymes called lactase, maltase and sucrase converting the respective sugars into simple sugars, mostly glucose.

It also has lypase, which acts on fats and converts them into fatty acids and glycerol. The final product of digestion of the carbohydrates is glucose while the proteins are amino acids and fats are fatty acids and glycerol.

ABSORPTION OF FOOD Absorption is the process by which water, minerals, vitamins and end products of digestion are absorbed through the mucosa of alimentary canal (especially the small intestines) into blood stream either directly or via lymphatic vessels. In the stomach there is little absorption. Water, alcohol, glucose and simple salts are absorbed to a certain degree. The main absorption occurs in small intestines especially in the lower (ileum) part, the upper part of the small intestine is mainly associated with the process of digestion.

The mucous membrane of small intestine is covered with minute finger like projections known as villi. Each villus contains arteriole, a venule, a capillary network and a lacteal (lymphatic vessel). Nutrients that diffuse through the epithelial cells which covers the villus are able to pass through the capillary walls and the lacteal enters the blood.

About 90% of all absorption takes place throughout the length of the small intestine. The other 10% occurs in the stomach and large intestine. 148 Both monosaccharides and amino acids are absorbed by a positive pressure gradient between the intestinal content and the blood as well as by an active process involving enzymatic reactions and transported in the blood stream to the liver via the hepatic portal system.

The excess amount of glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver, when need arises glycogen is converted into glucose and is utilized by the body.

Fig 5.20 Structure of Villus 1. Epithelial cells. 2. Blood Vessel 3. Lacteal Vitamin K which are synthesized by the bacteria in the colon are absorbed from the large intestine. Large quantities of water are however absorbed from the large intestine and the fluid content of the small intestine are converted into the pasty consistency and ejected through the opening called the anus.

Movements of the gastro intestinal tract Deglutition is the process by which the masticated food is transported across the pharynx and reaches the stomach. Due 149 to contractile movements of the stomach, the food is well mixed up with gastric juice. After being in the stomach for 3 or 4 hours the pyloric sphincter opens pushing the food into the duodenum.

The intestine shows three important types of movements. They are: 1) Pendular movement These movements are induced by contraction of the circular and longitudinal muscles of the intestine. This movement contributes to the thorough mixing of chyme with the digestive juice. Segmental movement: This movement occurs by the 2) contraction of the circular muscles, which produces transverse folds, dividing the intestine into short segment.

3) Peristaltic Movement: It is the wave like contraction of the alimentary canal, which propels the food through the gastro intestinal tract. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Respiration is the process of gaseous exchange between an organism and its environment. In the higher animals, and man the gaseous exchange between the tissues and environment is termed as internal or tissue respiration.

The exchange of gases between the body and the environment-taking place in the lungs is termed as external respiration. The external respiration constitutes processes of inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is an active muscular contraction while expiration is merely a passive act of the relaxation of respiratory muscles. Structure of respiratory system The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and giving off carbon-di-oxide and water.

It is divided into the upper respiratory tract and lower respiratory tract. 150 The upper respiratory tract : Nose, Mouth, the throat, pharynx, the larynx, and numerous sinus cavities in the head. § The lower respiratory tract : The trachea, the bronchi and the lungs, which contain bronchial tube bronchioles and alveoli or air sac. The two lungs, which are the principal organs of the respiratory system are situated in the upper part of the thoracic cage.

They are inert organs, i.e. they do not work by themselves, but function with the help of a muscular wall known as the diaphragm. The pharynx is a tube approximately 12cm in length, which is a common opening for both digestive and respiratory system.

It connects the oral cavity to the oesophagus (food tube) and the nasal cavity to the larynx and wind pipe. The opening into the larynx is oval in shape and guarded by the leaf like epiglottis. The epiglottis folds down over the opening like a trap door while food or liquid is being swallowed, it prevents the entry of foreign substances into the respiratory passage ways.

The closure of the epiglottis, when we swallow, is a reflex action and can be interfered with, if one attempts to talk and swallow at the same time.

If this happens one may choke to death in the absence of immediate assistance. From the pharynx, air passes through the trachea, which is 12cm long and 1.5cm in diameter. The tract, consists of a large number of C shaped cartilage rings. The larynx or the voice box is at the top of the trachea.

It is the vocal cords inside the box, which by its coming together and going away from one another produces different sounds.

The trachea branches at its lower end into the right and left bronchi which enters the lungs. Within the lungs these 151§ passageways repeatedly divide, forming microscopic tubes called bronchioles. Each bronchiole ends with several clusters of microscopic elastic air sacs called alveoli, which are the functional units of lungs. This resembles bunch of grapes. Fig 5.21 Structure of lungs 1. Nasal cavity 2. Throat 3. Larynx (Voice box) 4.

Trachea (wind pipe) 5. Lung 6. Bronchi 7. Bronchial tubes 8. Pleura 9. Alveoli (air sacs) 10. Diaphragm The paired lungs lie within the large cavity of the chest, the thoracic cavity. The lungs are grayish colour and are spongy in appearance.

The right lungs has three lobes – upper, middle and lower, and the left lung has two lobes – upper and lower.

The floor of the thoracic cavity is formed by a dome like muscular structure called diaphragm. Each lung is enclosed by two layers of membrane called the pleural membranes. The chest cavity is also lined with this membrane. This layer being known as the parietal pleura, while visceral pleura lines the lung parenchyma.

152 Respiration We breathe continuously from birth to death, day and night, in health and disease. Respiration may be defined as the mechanical process of breathing in and out, a function which involves both the respiratory system and muscles of the respiration.

The 2 phases of breathing are 1) Inhalation – during which the air is drawn into the lungs 2) Exhalation – which refers to the expulsion of air from the alveoli. Inhalation The diaphragm when relaxed is a flattened dome shape structure pointing upwards to the lungs.

During the process of inhalation it contracts. It flattens, pulls down the thorax, increases the volume of the thorax, and thus decreases the atmospheric pressure in the lungs. This causes air to rush in during inspiration. Exhalation During the process of exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes, the thorax is pushed up, the volume decreases and the atmospheric pressure increases and air rushes out of the lungs.

The inspired air, which contains oxygen, passes down into the billions of minute air chambers or air cells known as alveoli, which have very thin walls.

Around these walls are the capillaries of the pulmonary system. It is at this point that the fresh air gives off its oxygen to the blood and takes carbon di oxide from the blood by diffusion, which is then expelled with the expired air.

Physiology of Respiration The respiratory center of the brain is located in the medulla, immediately above the spinal cord. From this center nerve fibers extend down into the spinal cord. From the neck 153 part of the cord, these nerve fibers continue through the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.

The diaphragm does not continue to work if it is cut off from its nerve supply. If one nerve is cut, the diaphragm of that side is paralysed. This center is governed by variation in the chemistry of the blood. If there is an increase in CO2 in the blood, the cells of the respiratory center are stimulated and they in term send impulses down the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.

Respiratory rate In adults, the respiratory rate is 14 to 18 times per minute. Children breath more superficially, and therefore have a higher respiratory rate.

Importance of respiration 1) It supplies oxygen and eliminates carbon di oxide. 2) It excretes volatile substances like ammonia, ketone bodies, essential oils, alcohol and water vapour, etc., 3) By adjusting the amount of carbon-di-oxide elimination, it helps to maintain the acid base balance. 4) It helps to maintain the normal body temperature. 5) It is necessary for the maintenance of optimal oxidation-reduction process in the body.

EXCRETORY SYSTEM During the vital activity of the human and animal body, significant amounts of organic degradation products are produced, a proportion of which is not utilized by cells.

These degradation products must be eliminated from the body. The end products of metabolism which have to be removed from the body are called excreta, and the organs that remove them are called excretory organs.

The lungs eliminate carbon-di-oxide and water vapour into the environment. The gastrointestinal tract excretes a small 154 amount of water, bile acids, pigments, cholesterol, certain drugs (when administered into the body) salts of heavy metals (cadmium, iron, manganese) and indigestible food residues (faeces). The skin performs its excretory function by sweat and sebaceous glands. Sweat glands excrete sweat, which contains water, salts urea, uric acid, creatinine and other compounds. The main excretory organs are the kidneys which eliminate in the urine most of metobolites primarily those containing nitrogen. (urea, ammonia, creatinine). Kidneys The kidney is a bean shaped organ about 5cm long, 3cm wide and 2cm thick.

They are situated at both sides of the lumbar area. The weight of the kidney is about 200–250gms. On the inner or medial border there is a notch called the hilum at which region the artery, the vein and the ureter connect with the kidney.

Each kidney has a pelvis, where the urine collects. The urine is drained off from the pelvis by the ureters. The ureters end in the urinary bladder, which can hold about 800ml of urine. The urethra carries the urine from the bladder and voids it at convenient intervals. In a longitudinal section, the kidney is seen to consist of outer cortex and inner medulla. The medulla consists of 10 – 18 conical or pyramidal shaped structures, known as the renal pyramids.

The base of a renal pyramid faces towards the cortex. The pelvis is the funnel shaped upper end of the ureter. Microscopic examination of mammalian kidneys reveals that each kidney consists of about a million nephron, which are the functional unit of the kidney.155 The number of nephrons varies depending on species. The nephron consists of the glamerulus, the renal tubules, the collecting tubules and the associated blood vessels.

Fig 5.22 The Urinary System 1. Kidney 2. Ureters 3. Bladder 4. Aorta 5. Inferior Vena cava1. Cortex 5. Pelvix Fig 5.23 Diagrammatic section of the Kidney 2. Medulla 3. Pyramid 4. Apex of pyramid 6. Ureter 156 The glomerulus is a tuft of capillary vessels, which is invaginated into an epithelial cup shaped lining called the Bowman’ s capsule.

The renal artery divides into innumerable branches and the ultimate divisions of the artery form a tuft of capillaries called glomerulus. The blood pressure inside the glomerulus drives out the fluid though it is opposed by the osmotic pressure. This fluid thus driven out is collected in the Bowman’ s capsule. The filtrate in the capsule consists of all the constituents of blood, except the plasma proteins and the formed elements of blood.

This process is known as ultra filtration. Fig 5.24 Nephron 1. Convoluted tubule 2. Distal convoluted tubule 3. Collecting tubules 4. Loop of henles 5. Vein 6. Glomerulus 7. Artery 157 The filtrate then passes to the descending ascending portion of loop (Henles loop) and then to the convoluted tubules (proximal and distal) and finally reaches the collecting duct.

A large number of substances are reabsorbed (reabsorbtion) by the tubules, a few substance added (secretion) to the filterate and the final urine is formed. For example, water, glucose, some salts and a small fraction of urea are reabsorbed from the primary urine into the blood.

Usually about 200 litres of filterate is formed per day of which one and a half litres is sent out as urine. Therefore, nearly 198½ litres of water has to be reabsorbed every day by the kidney tubules. About 80% of this re-absorption takes place in the proximal tubules and the rest is absorbed in the distal tubules, and sent back to the blood stream.

Re-absorption is carried out with the help of antidiuretic hormone which is secreted in the posterior pituitary gland.

Thus each nephron is able to ‘ clean’ or filter a very large volume of blood without causing the body to lose much of its water or other essential materials. The composition of final urine radically differs from that of the primary urine. It is devoid of glucose, amino acids, certain salts (phosphates and sodium) and has a very high urea concentration.

Fig 5.25 Diagram of the Glomerulus and its capsule 1. Glomerular capsule 2. Glomerulus 3. Afferent arteriole 4. Efferent arterioale 5. Renal tubule 158 The urine thus formed collects into the bladder through the ureters which are long, slender, muscular tube that extend from the kidney to the lower part of the urinary bladder.

The bladder is a muscular bag which collects the urine and voids it at intervals through the urethra. When the bladder is empty, the muscular wall becomes thick and the entire organ feels firm. The organ may increase from the length of 2 or 3 inches to 5 inches or more inches.

A moderately full bladder holds about 800ml of urine. When 400ml of urine is collected in the bladder, the normal desire for micturition is felt. The process of expelling urine through the urethra is called urination or micturition. The act of micturition is a reflex action. It is controlled by the action of circular muscles, continuous with those in the walls of the bladder and in the urethra.

Skin The skin forms a protective outer covering around the entire body. It consists of an outer thin layer called the epidermis and an inner thick layer called the dermis.

Numerous structures such as glands, sense organs and appendages such as hair nails are embedded in the skin. Epidermis This is the outermost thin portion of the skin. No blood vessels are found in this layer. It derives its nutrition from lymph. Nerves are found in this layer. The epidermis consists of four layers of cells. They are: 1) The Stratum Corneum 2) The Stratum Lucidum 3) Stratum Granulosum and 4) The Stratum Malphigi 159 Fig 5.26 Diagramatic section of the skin.

1. Epidermis 2. Corneum 3. Subcutaneous 4. Hair Shaft 5. Papilla 6. Tactile corpuscle 7. Hair root 8. Sebaceous gland 9. Errector Muscle 10. Nerve 11. Duct of sweat gland 12. Blood vessel 13. Papilla of the hair 14.

Adipose tissue (i) The Stratum Corneum : The cells in this layer are thin, scale like, dead, and cornified. The corneous layer is thickened in those parts of the body such as the palm and sole of the foot. It is thinner in the lips. Hoofs, horns, nails, feathers, the scales of the fishes are all special outgrowths of this layer. (ii) The Stratum Lucidum : This is a thin more or less transparent layer, in which the cells are indistinct.

(iii) The Stratum Granulosum : It consists of three to five layers of flattened cells, containing dark granules of irregular shape. 160 (iv) The Stratum Malphigi : This layer is the lowermost and broadest layer of the epidermis. It is capable of active multiplication.

This layer is made up of polyhedral cells. These cells are called prickle cells. The innermost cells of this layer contains pigment granules called melanin which give the skin its colour.

Dermis Situated below the epidermis is the most thickest dermis formed mostly of connective tissue which is richly supplied with blood vessels and nerves. The boundary line between the dermis and epidermis is neither smooth nor straight; it is rather zig zag because of the conical projection of the dermis into the epidermis.

These projections are called dermal papillae. This layer is tough, flexible and highly elastic. It contains the following : 1) Fine elastic fibres 2) Capillary blood vessels and lymphatics 3) Sensory nerve endings of various types 4) Hair roots or hair follicles 5) Sweat glands 6) Sebaceous glands and 7) Involuntary muscle fibres. These muscle fibre, called errectores pilorum are attached to the hair follicle and when these muscles contract, the hairs become vertical and ‘ goose-skin’ is brought about.

Glands : There are two sets of glands in the skin. They are 1. The sweat glands and 2. The sebaceous glands. 161 Each sweat gland consists of a long tube, which at one end opens on to the surface through the sweat pore. At the other end, in the deeper part of the dermis, the tube forms a coiled mass with a blind end.

In the coiled portion of the sweat gland there and glandular cells, which separate water and small quantities of metabolic waste products from the blood that circulates through the capillary network associated with the gland.

The sweat passes through the sweat pore and evaporates from the surface by taking heat from the skin. The sweat glands are present in large amounts on the palms, soles, forehead and in the armpits. The sebaceous glands are irregularly shaped sac – like glands that open into the hair follicles.

The oily secretions (sebum) of these glands make the hair, water proof and protect the skin from drying effects of the atmosphere due to high temperatures and low humidity. Sensory Nerve Endings Numerous sensory nerves specialized to pick up stimuli that cause; sensations of touch, pressure, pain, heat and cold are scattered in the skin.

They are connected to the brain by nerve fibres. Stimuli picked up by the sense organs are transmitted to the brain where they are interpreted to give the correct information. Appendages Hair and nails are appendages of the skin formed as a result of the out growth or thickening of the epidermis.

Functions of the skin The skin is not merely an outer covering for the body but it serves a variety of functions. 1. Protection: The skin protects the inner parts of the body from mechanical injuries. A healthy skin also protects the body from the invasion of disease causing germs.

162 2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9. The nails, hoofs, and horns are also defensive appendages of the skin. Excretion: Like kidneys, the skin through its sweat glands, eliminates salts, and metabolic waste products in the form of sweat.

Sensory function: The numerous sense organs and nerve endings hidden in the skin make it an important sensory structure that picks up different stimuli and informs the brain of such changes in the environment. Production of vitamin D : The skin contains a substance called 7–de–hydro cholesterol which is coverted into vitamin D by ultra – violet rays of the sun.

Regulation of body temperature: - By conduction, convection and radiation – a large amount of heat is lost from the body. The subcutaneous fat and hairs act as non – conductors of heat. Evaporation of sweat takes away a large amount of heat from the body.

Water balance: Formation and evaporation of sweat is an important factor in the regulation of water balance of the body. Acid - base equilibrium: Sweat being acid in reaction a good amount of acid is excreted through it. In acidosis, it becomes more acid and in this way helps to maintain a constant reaction in the body.

Secretion: -Sebum which is secreted by the sebaceous glands helps to keep the skin greasy and prevents drying. Sweat is secreted by sweat gland. Milk is secreted by mammary gland. The mammary glands are the skin structures. They are the modified sebaceous glands. Storage function: The subcutaneous tissue can store – (a) Fat (b) Water (c) Salts (d) Glucose and such other substances.

163 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The glands of the body may be divided into those with and external secretion (exocrine glands) and those with Internal secretion (endocrine glands).

Example of exocrine glands are the sweat, lachrymal and mammary glands which pass their secretion along the ducts to the external surface of the body and the glands of the mouth, stomach, and intestine which pass their secretions along ducts into the alimentary tract.

The endocrine or ductless gland on the other hand have no ducts or openings to the exterior. Their secretions are passed directly into the blood stream and transmitted to the tissues. A hormone is a chemical substance produced by the endocrine glands and their overall function is to regulate the activities of various body organs and their functions.

The first hormone was discovered by Bayliss in 1903. The main endocrine glands in the body are 1) Thyroid 2) Parathyroid 3) Islets of Langerhans 4) Adrenal gland 5) Pituitary and 6) sex glands.

Ø Thyroid Gland The largest of the endocrine glands is the thyroid which is located in the neck region. The thyroid gland weighs 25gms in a healthy adult. It has two oval parts called the lateral lobes on either side of the trachea. These two lobes are connected by a narrow band called isthmus. The entire gland is enclosed by a connective tissue capsule.

This gland produces hormone, thyroxine rich in iodine. Thyroid gets iodine from the blood stream. It is then fixed with the amino acids thyroxine compounds. 164 Two molecules of di io do – thyroxine combine to form thyroxine.

By eating vegetables grown in iodine – containing soils or by eating sea – foods and iodised salt the body gets sufficient amount of iodine for the production of thyroxine. Fig 5.27 Thyroid gland 1. Thyroid Cartilage 2. Thyroid gland 3. Trachea Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) produced by the Anterior pituitary lobe increases the activity of thyroid gland.

Whenever, the thyroxin level falls below a particular level TSH is stimulated. Functions of Thyroxin 1) Helps to regulate tissue growth and development 2) Increases the BMR and thus raises the body temperature. 3) It controls the metabolism by regulating the anabolic and 4) catabolic process. 5) Stimulates the cells to break down the proteins for energy.

165 6) Decreases the break down of fats 7) Increases the break down of body glucose and enhances the glucose absorption. 8) Calcium and phosphorus are removed from the bones and excreted in increased amounts. 9) Helps in the conversion of beta – carotene into vitamin A. Ø Parathyroid Gland These are two tiny oval pair (6mm x 2mm) of glands situated at upper and lower poles of lateral lobes of thyroid gland.

It secretes the hormone parathyroxine. Functions of parathyroxine 1) Increases the concentration of organic acid in the bone. 2) Increases the calcium and phosphorus solubility 3) Increases the reabsorption of calcium from the bones resulting 4) in increased serum calcium level.

5) Increases phosphate excretion in the urine. 6) Increases the reabsorption of calcium from the renal tubules. 7) Promotes the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the 8) intestine. 9) Stimulates the process of lactation in mammary gland.

166 Fig 5.28 Parathyroid gland 1. Right Parathyroid gland 2. Left parathyroid gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Alimentary canal 5.wind pipe Ø Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas The pancreas is both an exocrine gland secreting digestive juice through a duct into the duodenum and an endocrine gland secreting hormone into the blood stream. It consists of head, body and tail. The head fit into the curve of duodenum. Then body and tail are directed towards the left.

The pancreatic islets represents the endocrine part of the pancreas. Most of the islets are located in the tail and only a small number in the head of the pancreas. There are two different types of cells in the islets of Langerhans. The alpha cells and beta cells are very important. The alpha cells secrete a harmone Glucogan where as the beta cells secrete insulin. 167 Functions of Glucogan 1) Increases the blood glucose level 2) Break down the liver glycogen into glucose.

3) Stimulates the break down of lipid in adipose tissue. Functions of Insulin 1) Converts glucose into glycogen and accelerates the transport of glucose from the blood into the cells. 2) Decreases the blood sugar level 3) Builds up the glycogen store in the liver. Ø Adrenal Gland The adrenal or supra renals are two small glands each one situated above a kidney.

Adrenal gland consists of two different parts each of which acts as a separate gland. The inner area is called medulla which is brown in colour while the outer area is called the cortex which is lighter in colour. Adrenal cortex It is composed of three layers. They are 1) Zona glomerulosa (outer layer) 2) Zona Faciculate (middle layer) 3) Zona reticularis (inner layer). The adrenal cortex secretes three hormones. They are 1) Glucocorticoids: Acts as antagonists to insulin and cause increase in blood sugar. 2) Minerlo corticoids: Acts on sodium and potassium and help in the conservation of sodium in the body.

3) Sex steroids : Stimulates the development of the reproductive organs in child hood. It is responsible for development of secondary sex characteristics and reproductive function. 168 Adrenal Medulla Adrenal Medulla secretes adrenaline and nor – adrenaline.hormones. Theyare Functions of medullary hormones 1) Dilation of the pupils and improves visual acuity.

2) Increases both rate and amplitude of contraction of heart and raises the cardiac out put. 3) Increases both rate and amplitude of respiratory movements and causes dilation of the bronchioles.

4) Raises the blood sugar level by means of glycogenolysis. 5) Increases the basal metabolic rate. 6) Dilation of the walls of intestine and the urinary bladder. The functions of adrenaline are similar to that of nor – adrenaline except in a few instances.

For example. Adrenalin increases the heart rate whereas nor – adrenalin decreases heart rate. Ø Pituitary Gland The pituitary is a small gland about the size of a cherry. It is situated at the base of the brain. It plays a peculiar role in the system of endocrine glands. It is referred to as the master gland of internal secretion because it control the activities of other endocrine glands.

The pituitary gland is divided into two main parts 1) Anterior pituitary and 2) Posterior pituitary.169 Fig 5.29 Pituitary gland 1. Anterior lobe 2. Posterior lobe Ø The Anterior Pituitary This part secretes a large number of hormones. Many of them stimulate other glands. Its main hormones are: 1) Growth Hormone: It facilitates the growth of the bone and cartilage tissue. Over activity of the anterior pituitary lobe in childhood results in excessive growth and height. This condition is known an gigantism.

A decreased activity of the anterior pituitary causes a severe growth retardation leading to dwarfism. Excessive production of growth hormone in an adult leads to excessive development of certain regions such as fingers and toes, feet, hands, nose, lower jaw, tongue, thoracic and abdominal organs.

This condition is known as acromegaly. 2) Thyrotropic strimulating hormone (TSH): This hormone stimulates the activity of the thyroid 170 3)4)5)6)gland. Administration of this hormone causes over growth of thyroid tissue. Adrenocorticotropic hormone: (ACTH): This hormone stimulates the cortex of the adrenal gland and increases the production of the hormones of adrenal cortex. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): This hormone influences the growth, development and maturation and of the ovarian follicles.

In males, the hormone stimulates the formation of sperm in the testes. Prolactin hormone: It acts on the mammary gland and helps in the formation and flow of milk during lactation. Luteinising hormone: It is required for the growth of follicle in the ovary and stimulates ovulation.

In the absence of the hormone, no ovulation and production of the corpus luteum can occur. In males it stimulates the interstitial cells of testes to secrete testosterone. Posterior lobe of the pituitary This lobe is just behind the anterior lobe. It produces two hormones. oxytocin and vasopressin. Oxytocin acts on the smooth muscles especially that of the uterus and produces powerful contractions of the uterus and helps in parturition.171 Fig 5.30 Pituitary gigantism (Right) in man compared with normal stature Vasopressin acts on the smooth muscle of the arterial system and increases the blood pressure.

This hormone helps in the reabsorption of water from the distal convoluted tubule. Vasopressin deficiency is the cause of diabetes insipidus in which water is not 172 reabsorbed.

So great amounts of urine are excreted with no sugar in it. such patients feel constantly thirsty. Ø The sex glands The sex glands including the ovaries of the female and the testis of the male are important endocrine structures. The secretion of this glands play an important part in the development of the sexual characteristics.

The male sex gland secretes hormone called testosterone and is responsible for secondary sex characteristics. The female sex gland secretes a hormone called estrogen and it stimulates the development and functioning of the female reproductive organs. There is one other hormone produced by female sex gland and it is called progesterone. This hormone assists in the normal development of the pregnancy.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM The reproductive system consists of those organs whose function is to produce a new individual. Male And Female Sexual Reproductive Organs: The sex organs in the male and females can be divided as 1) Primary sex organs i.e.

those producing male and female gametes. 2) Secondary (or accessory) sex organs i.e. those concerned with carriage of gamete and other functions. Primary sex organs in male and female There are a pair of testes producing spermatozoa (male gametes) while in females are a pair of ovaries producing ovum (female gamete). These primary sex organs in addition to producing male and female gametes secrete male and female sex hormones as well.

173 Accessory sex organs in the male 1) Epididymis gland 2) vas deferens 3) seminal vesicles 4) prostate gland 5) urethra 6) penis Accessory sex organs in the female 1) fallopian tubes 2) uterus 3) vagina 4) clitoris Male reproductive system There is one pair of testes lying one in each scrotal sac. The scrotum is a bag of skin having two separate compartments. One for each testis lying at the root of the penis.

Each testes is oval shaped measures. 5 x 3 x 2 cm and weighs about 15gm. Each testes is covered with a layer of fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.

Many septae from this layer divide the testes into pyramidal lobules in which lie seminiferous tubules and the interstitial cells. The seminiferous tubules are concerned with process of spermatogenesis. The interstitial cells called Ludwig cells lie between the tubules and secrete the testosterone (male sex hormone). From the lining of these tubules spermatozoa are produced by the process of cell division. The epididymis is a very fine convoluted tube, being 4 – 6 meters long and joins the posterior part of the testes and vas deferens.

It stores the spermatozoa. The spermatozoa remain inactive in epididymis and are capable of surviving for months.

174 Fig 5.31 Male reproductive System Vas deferens is a fibro – elastic duct 30 – 40 cm in length and extends from epididymis to end in ejaculatory duct which is joined by seminal duct and opens in prostatic urethra. The prostate gland lies at the base of the urinary bladder and is covered with fibrous capsule which by a number of septa divides into many follicles.

The ejaculatory ducts lead from the seminal vesicle through the prostate gland to the urethra. In males the urethra is about 20 – 22 cm in length and serves the purpose of urination as well as ejaculation of semen.

Functions of the testes 1) They produce and mature the male reproductive cells called spermatozoa 175 2) Secrete seminal fluid. 3) Secrete hormone testosterone directly into the blood. Functions of Hormone 1) Androgen: Maintains spermatogenesis and sexual activity 2) Testosterone: stimulates the development of the secondary sexual characteristics of the male such as the growth of beard, the deepening of the voice, the growth and the distribution of hair on the body, the growth and development of the accessory sex organs.

Stimulate the production of sperms at puberty. Ovary The gonads of the female are called ovaries and the cells that they produce are known as ova or egg – cells.

each female has a pair of oval shaped structure, about the size of a almond. Each ovary measures 3.5 x 2.5 x 11.5 cm and weigh 8 – 10 gms.

They are situated at the back of the abdominal cavity at the hip level. An ovary consists of the following 1) The germinal epithelium: I is the outer part of the ovaries from which the primitive graafian follicles develop. 2) Tunica Albuginea: This is made up of connective tissues found under the germinal epithelium. 3) Stroma: It is a connective tissue network continuous with Tunica albuginea and containing involuntary muscle fibres. It supports the ovarian tissues and carries blood vessels, lymhpatics and nerves. 4) Graafian Follicles: These are small islands of cells found at the peripheral part of the ovary.

The female gametes called ova are produced in the graffian follicles. 176 When an ovum matures, the follicle in which it develops bursts.

The follicle usually takes 10 – 14 days. This process of rupture of graffian follicle is called the “ovulation”. 5) Corpus – luteum: when the follicle ruptures corpus luteum develops. In the absence of pregnancy, it persists upto 27th day and degenerates on the 28th day. If pregnancy occurs it persists to about 4 to 5 months. It secretes progesterone which is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy. 6) Intersttial cells: - There are polyhedral cells found in between follicles. These cells secrete oestrogen.

Functions 1) Produce ova and expel one at approximately 28 days interval during the reproductive life. 2) Secretes hormones (oestrogen and progesterone). Oestrogen influence secondary sex characteristics and is responsible for the changes in the accessory organs of reproduction. The progesterone prepares the uterus, for the reception of the fertilized ovum, implantation, the development of the placenta, development of the mammary glands, and inducing multiplication of the uterine muscle fibres.

Fallopian Tubes Close to each ovary there is a narrow tube about 10 cm long with an open end which looks like a fringe of petals.

These tubes are called the fallopian tubes. These are attached to the uterus at its upper outer angles. Functions These tubes act as ducts for the female gametes although they are not connected to the ovaries. Fertilization of the male and female gametes normally occurs in the tubes at the ampullary portion. 177 Uterus Uterus is a pear shaped muscular organ. The inside of which is hollow. It measures about 7.5 x 5 x 2.5 cm.

Consists of an upper portion called the body and a lower portion called the cervix. The uterus is lined by a mucous membrane, known as endometrium. Fig 5.32 Female reproductive system 1. Fallopian tube 2. Ovary 3. Vagina 4. Uterus Functions The uterus plays an important role in maintaining growth and development of the embryo. The ovum is discharged from the ovary. It is then transported to the uterus through the fallopian tubes.

The fertilized ovum is embedded in the endomentrium of the uterus. Placenta is then formed from the embroyonic and endometrium tissues. This maintains the nutrition, respiration and excretion of embryo until parturition. 178 Vagina The female external organs and its parts.

The external organs together form the vulva. They are as follows: 1) Mons veneris, or Pubic mont. It lies over the symphysis pubis, and is covered with hair after puberty. 2) Labia majora, or the outer lips, form the sides of the vulva.

3) Labia minora, or small lips, are within the labia majora. They are kept moist by gland secretions. 4) Clitoris a small sensitive organ with erectile tissue similar to the male penis. 5) Vestibule, a triangular part between the labia minora.

The urethral opening is in the vestibule, in front of the vaginal opening. Summary: • The body is made, like a complex perfect machine. • Each part is specially constructed to carry out its own function. • The body consists of the head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs.

• The body has a strong frame work of bones called the skeleton. • There are spaces called cavities in which important internal organs are protected. Eg. The cranial cavity contains the brain. • The human body is made up of living cells. • Each has cell membrane, protoplasm and nucleus. • The functions of the cells are digestion , excretion, respiration, growth and repair and reproduction. • Tissues are made up of groups of similar cells. • Tissues are joined into larger units called organs. • A system is a group of organs. 179 ••• • • • • • •Skeletal system, muscular system, nervous system, circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system, endocrine system and reproductive system are the systems of our body. Nervous system has two parts central nervous system and autonomic nervous system. The central nervous system is made up of the brain and cranial nerves, spinal card and spinal nerves. The main function of circulatory system in transportation of oxygen, nutrients to tissues and carries away metabolic waste products to the excretory organs. The lymph glands help to protect the body from infection. The function of digestive system are digestion, absorption of nutrients and excretion of undigested food. Respiration is the process of gaseous exchange between an organism and its environment. The lungs, kidney and skin are the important excretory organs in our body. The main endocrine glands in the body are thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal and pituitary glands. The endocrine glands produce a chemical substance, hormone which regulates the activities of various organs and their functions. Questions Part – AFill up the blanks 1) ___________is the important part of the central nervous system. 2) The bigger part of the brain is __________ 3) Brain and spinal cord is covered by ___________that is called______. It is a clear fluid _________ . 180 4) Function of the front lobe of the brain ______ _______ ________ . 5) The end products of protein digestion is _____________ 6) Bile is stored and concentrated in ___________ 7) The process by which the masticated food is transported across the pharynx to reach the stomach is ____________ 8) The opening of the larynx is guided by __________. 9) The nerve that controls the diaphragm is _________ nerve. 10) The __________ is a tuft of capillary vessels present in the Bowman’ s capsule. Name of the following: 1) Process by which complex form of food is converted into simple nutrient. 2) Which neutralise the acid content of the gastric juice. 3) The finger like projections found in the mucous membrane of the intestine. 4) The chemicals present in most of the digestive juices, 5) The condition in which the skin, nails, and eyes become yellow. 6) The process of gaseous exchange between an organism and its environment 7) The functional and structural unit of the respiratory system. 8) The outer thin layer of the skin 9) The pigment granules which give the skin its colour. State where following statements are true or false 1) The fatty acid and glycerol directly absorbed into the blood stream from the small intestine. 2) From pharynx air passess through trachea. 3) Each lung is enclosed in two membraneous layers known as meninges. 4) The conical projections of the boundary line between the dermis and epidermis is known as dermal papillae. 181 5) The secretions of the sebaceous glands are known as sebum. 6) Glucagon decreases the blood glucose level. Match the following a. Wind pipe a. Larynx b. Saliva b. Sucrase c. Pancreatic juice c. Bilirubin d. Food pipe d. Oesophagus e. Gastric juice e. Trypsin f. Succuss entericus f. Ptyalin g. Bile g. Pepsin h. Voice box h. Trachea Part - B 1) What do you mean by nervous system? 2) What is the function of the cerebrum? 3) What is cerebrospinal fluid? 4) Define anatomy and physiology 5) Define metabolism? Part- C 1) Enumerate the functions of blood. 2) What are the function of the heart? 3) What are the function of the liver? 4) What are the types of blood vessels? Part- D 1) Draw the structure of the alimentary tract 2) Write in detail about endocrine glands 3) Define joints Explain the various types of joints in our body. 4) Write in detail about circulatory system 5) Structure and function of kidney. 6) Structure and function of the skin. 7) Define respiration and explain physiology of respiration. 182

Bodily movement is made possible by the interaction of the muscular and skeletal systems. For this reason, they are often grouped together as the musculoskeletal system. Muscles are connected to bones by tendons. Bones are connected to each other by ligaments. Where bones meet one another is called a joint.

Musculoskeletal problems

General Information Symptoms and Causes Prevention and Treatment References Musculoskeletal problemsbackground The musculoskeletal system is a type of organ system that allows for movement and stability of the body and consists of bones, muscles, joints, tendons, cartilage, ligaments, bursae (fluid-filled sacs), and other connective tissue.

Complications arising when individual parts of this bodily system are injured can range from minor discomfort to serious medical conditions. Symptoms of musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) can be acute or chronic and may include inflammation, swelling, pain, fatigue, weakness, joint noises and stiffness, limited range of motion, and lack of coordination.

The skeletal system serves many important functions, including providing structure, shape, form, support, and protection for the body. The skeletal system also allows for bodily movement, produces blood for the body, and stores minerals. The skeletal system consists of 206 bones that form a rigid framework as well as protect soft tissues and vital organs of the body.

For example, the brain is protected by the skull which surrounds it and the heart and lungs are enclosed in the sternum and rib cage.

Muscles that cause movement of a joint are connected to two different bones. The muscles contract and relax to cause movement. An example would be the contraction of the biceps and a relaxation of the triceps. This produces a bend at the elbow. The contraction of the triceps and relaxation of the biceps produces the effect of straightening the arm.

Muscles are very specialized tissues that have the ability to contract and to conduct electrical impulses. Muscles are classified functionally as either voluntary or involuntary and structurally as either striated or smooth.

From this organization, there are three types of muscles: smooth (involuntary) muscles, striated voluntary (skeletal) muscles, and striated involuntary (cardiac) muscles. Red blood cells are produced by the red marrow located in certain bones, including flat bones such as the hip bone, skull, and breastbone. An average of 2.6 million red blood cells is produced each second by the bone marrow to replace those damaged and destroyed by the liver.

Bones also serve as a storage area for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. When an excess of these minerals is present in the blood, a buildup of the mineral will occur within the bones. When the supply of these minerals within the blood is low, it will be withdrawn from the bones to replenish the supply.

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More than 100 different diseases fall under the general category of arthritis. Arthritis conditions affect the joints, the tissues surrounding the affected joints, and other connective tissues.

Common forms of arthritis include rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, and periarthritis. Muscular dystrophy: Muscular dystrophy (MD) is a group of rare inherited autoimmune muscle diseases in which muscle fibers are unusually susceptible to damage. Muscles, including primarily voluntary muscles, become progressively weaker due to muscle damage. In some types of muscular dystrophy, heart muscles, other involuntary muscles, and other organs are affected. The most common types of muscular dystrophy have been found to be due to a genetic deficiency of the muscle protein dystrophin.

A cure for muscular dystrophy has not been found, but medications and therapy can slow the course of the disease. Fibromyalgia: Fibromyalgia, also known as fibromyositis or fibrositis, is a chronic (long-term) condition characterized by widespread, long-term pain in the muscles, ligaments, and tendons, as well as fatigue and multiple tender points (places on the body where slight pressure causes pain). In addition to muscular pain and fatigue, fibromyalgia can also cause sleep problems, depression, and an inability to think clearly. Although fibromyalgia affects about four million Americans, the vast majority of them are women in their mid-30s to late-50s.

An estimate of the prevalence of fibromyalgia is as high as 3-5% of the population in the United States, or approximately six million people. Fibromyalgia symptoms may never completely resolve, and their intensity can vary. Although the symptoms of fibromyalgia may be hard to live with, the condition is not considered progressive or life-threatening.

Joint stiffness: Joint stiffness is the feeling that motion of a joint is limited or difficult. Some people with joint stiffness are capable of moving the joint through its full range of motion, but some individuals cannot move the joint due to the pain they are experiencing.

Joint stiffness is common with arthritis and usually occurs immediately when rising after lying or sitting still. Joint noises: Joint noises, such as creaks and clicks, are common and harmless in many individuals, but they can also occur with specific problems of the joints.

For example, the base of the knee cap may creak when it is damaged by osteoarthritis. Temporomandibular joint disorder: Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD, TMJ, or TMD), or TMJ syndrome, is an umbrella term covering acute or chronic inflammation of the temporomandibular joint, which connects the lower jaw to the skull. TMJ can result in significant pain and impairment. TMJ may require surgical repair.

Bones can move because of the way they are joined together. The place where two or more bones come together is called a joint. The bones at a joint are held together by strong bands of tissue called ligaments which allow the bones to move.

Orthopedics: Bones, Joints, Ligaments & Tendons

A - A +Orthopedics: Bones, Joints, Ligaments & Tendons Synopsis: Last Revised/Updated: 2015-11-04 - Orthopedic Information on the human musculoskeletal system including bones joints and tendons.

Jump to: Definition Facts Publications Bones & Joints Bursa - A small fluid-filled sac made of white fibrous tissue and lined with synovial membrane. It provides a cushion between bones and tendons and/or muscles around a joint Ligament - A small band of dense, white, fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments connect the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Tendon - A tough, flexible band of fibrous connective tissue that connects muscles to bones.

Joints - Structures that connect individual bones and may allow bones to move against each other to cause movement. There are two divisions of joints, diarthroses which allow extensive mobility between two or more articular heads, and false joints or synarthroses, joints that are immovable, that allow little or no movement and are predominantly fibrous.

Main Document Orthopedics is the study of the musculoskeletal system. Orthopedic doctors specialize in diagnosis and treatment of problems of the musculoskeletal system.

Over the years, the field has expanded to encompass many sub-specialties and the treatment of a wide variety of musculoskeletal disorders in patients of all ages. Orthopedic surgeons use both surgical and non-surgical means to treat musculoskeletal trauma, sports injuries, degenerative diseases, infections, tumors, and congenital conditions.

The musculoskeletal system provides form, stability, and movement to the human body. It is made up of the body's bones (the skeleton), muscles, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, joints, and other connective tissue. There are two main parts to your skeleton:the bones of your head and torsothe bones in the arms and legs Bones are made up of two types of bone: Compact bone is the solid, hard, outside part of the bone,Cancellous bone, which looks like a sponge, is inside the compact bone.

There are five general classifications of bones: Long bones Short bones Flat bones Irregular bones Sesamoid bones The human skeleton is composed of both fused and individual bones supported by ligaments, tendons, muscles and cartilage.

Bones are made up of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, and other minerals, as well as the protein collagen.

Calcium is needed to make bones hard, which allows them to support body weight. The soft bone marrow inside many of the bones is where most of the blood cells are made. The bone marrow contains stem cells, which produce the body's red blood cells and platelets. Conditions that can affect the bones, muscles, and joints include: Osteomyelitis Arthritis Strains and sprains Fracture Osteoporosis Muscular dystrophy Osgood-Schlatter disease (OSD)Repetitive stress injuries Scoliosis Tendonitis Quick Facts: Joint Type A joint that permits no movement is known as a synarthrosis.

The sutures of the skull and the gomphoses that connect the teeth to the skull are examples of synarthroses.

An amphiarthrosis allows a slight amount of movement at the joint. Examples of amphiarthroses include the intervertebral disks of the spine and the pubic symphysis of the hips. The third functional class of joints is the freely movable diarthrosis joints. Diarthroses have the highest range of motion of any joint and include the elbow, knee, shoulder, and wrist.

Latest Bones & Joints - Conditions Publications1 : Research Helps Explain Why People Experience Muscle Loss in Old Age : The Physiological Society.2 : Tendinitis and Bursitis - Staying Active While Healing : Melissa Chefec.3 : Hip Impingement: Symptoms, Causes & Treatment : Thomas C. Weiss.4 : Difference Between Carpal Tunnel Syndrome & Tarsal Tunnel Syndrome : Disabled World.5 : Degenerative Joint Disease: Climbing & Descending Stairs : Thomas C. Weiss.6 : New Treatment for Muscle Cramps and Spasms : American Academy of Neurology.7 : Tendon and Ligaments: Injuries and Healing : Disabled World.8 : Open Bone Breaks in Children Can Heal Without Surgery : Johns Hopkins Medicine.

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The skeletal and muscular systems work together to produce movement and maintain posture. Muscles attach at various points on the bones and work to change the bones' orientation relative to one another at the joints. Stress placed on the skeletal system by the muscular system influences its growth and development. Exercise causes the skeletal system to become denser and stronger.

What Systems Work With the Skeletal System?

Science Human Anatomy Q: What Systems Work With the Skeletal System? A: Quick Answer The skeletal system works constantly with the muscular system, and the circulatory system, endocrine system and integumentary system also have interactions with it.

The skeletal system provides vital support and protection for all the other systems of the human body. Continue Reading Keep Learning What Topics Are Covered When You Study Anatomy and Physiology? What Are the Names of Each Major Human Body Part? How Do the Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Work Together? Full Answer

The marrow inside bones is critical to the circulatory system, and the cells in the marrow generate both red and white blood cells. The endocrine system produces hormones that affect the way the bones grow. The bone cells also produce hormones themselves; osteoclasts are bone cells that help regulate both blood sugar and fat deposition.

The bones are reliant on the integumentary system, or skin, for the production of vitamin D. Vitamin D is required for calcium absorption by the bones.

Without vitamin D, bones can lose calcium until they become soft and brittle. The skin creates vitamin D during exposure to sunlight. Learn more about Human Anatomy Sources: wps.aw.com en.wikipedia.org Related Questions Q: What Do Collegiate-Level Anatomical Posters Include? A: Anatomical posters can depict various parts of the human body, and can include both the muscular system and the skeletal system. These posters are typicall... Full Answer >Filed Under: Graphic Design Q: What Is a Tortuous Artery?

A: According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information, tortuous arteries are blood vessels that twist and turn throughout the circulatory system. ... Full Answer >Filed Under: Human Anatomy Q: What Is the Structure of the Circulatory System? A: The basic circulatory system of vertebrate animals, which are those with a backbone, consists of a heart, the blood and the arteries and system of blood ve... Full Answer >Filed Under: Human Anatomy Q: What Did William Harvey Discover?

A: The English physician William Harvey forever changed the course of anatomical science in the first half of the 17th century by discovering that blood flows... Full Answer >Filed Under: Human Anatomy You May Also Like Q: How Does Sweating Help You Regulate Your Body Temperature? Q: What Is a Mature Placenta? Q: Do Hiccups Mean You Are Growing? Q: What Are the Five Lobes of the Liver? Q: How Is Female Anatomy Different From Male Anatomy? Q: Why Do Joints Pop?

The combined action of joints, bones, and muscles make up movements such as walking and talking. In addition to movement, muscle contraction also produces some other important functions in the body, such as posture. Posture is contolled by our skeletal muscles. Muscle diseases are also a type of failure.

What Happens If the Muscular System Fails

What Happens If the Muscular System Fails Below are some things that the muscular system does. Without muscles or if our muscles failed then we could not do these things: You have over 30 facial muscles which create looks like smiling and frowning.

Some muscles are known as voluntary. This means that we can control the actions of our muscles. Voluntary movements are such things as typing, kicking, and walking. Others, like the your heart beating, the movement of your diaphragm so that you can breathe, or blinking your eyes to keep out particles are not controlled by us.

They are something called involuntary movements. This means they are automatically moved by the brain. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement, both voluntary and involuntary. Almost all movement in the body is the result of our muscles contricting.

Muscle diseases, like any other kind of disease and infection, can affect anybody. It can even make a person physically disabled. The Muscle disease that the patient has can often make the person weak. The person suffering from a muscle diseases is under constant pain and feels weakness in the muscles.

He or she finds it difficult to walk, sit and get up, run, stand, or move in harse jerks. In most cases, growing muscle wasting followed by contriction of muscles takes place. Muscle weakness experienced during even regular physical activity can in fact be caused by a lack of physical conditioning, but the human body is a wonderful machine that, when working properly, responds rapidly and efficiently to changing demands.

When muscle weakness is acute and to the point of failure however, it is time to find medical help. Stay Fit By running your system will most likely not fail. Just exercising will help keep you healthy and fit.