What is the longest highway in the U.S.?

U.S. Route 20 is the longest numbered highway in the entire country and also holds the distinction of being the longest numbered highway in the state, edging out Route 28 by merely a mile (Route 28 is long).

U.S. Route 20 in Massachusetts

The cross-country U.S. Route 20 runs its easternmost in the U.S. state of Massachusetts. The highway crosses the state border from New Lebanon, New York, into Hancock, Massachusetts, and runs eastward into Boston, where it ends at Route 2 in Kenmore Square. It spends the vast majority of its journey paralleling the Massachusetts Turnpike, which has largely superseded US-20 for through travel. Still, US-20 directly serves many towns and local business areas which the Turnpike bypasses.

Parts of US 20 between the Worcester and Boston areas were also an alignment of the Boston Post Road, an early colonial highway designated in 1673 for carrying mail between New York City and Boston. US 20 is still locally known as the "Boston Post Road" in the towns of Marlborough, Sudbury, Wayland, and Weston.

U.S. Route 20 begins its eastward trek crossing the New York state border into Hancock, Massachusetts, passing through the southern edge of the Pittsfield State Forest before entering Pittsfield and meeting the northern end of Route 41. The highway enters town and meets U.S. Route 7, near the western end of the cross-state Route 9. US-20 turns south along US-7, and the two routes form a concurrency into the town of Lenox. In Lenox, Route 7A splits off to serve the center of town, and US-20 splits from US-7 shortly thereafter to serve the town of Lee to the southeast. The highway passes through town and interchanges with the Mass Pike at Exit 2 south of town, near the eastern end of Route 102. US-20 turns to the east at this point, and closely parallels the Mass Pike for several miles, before entering the town of Becket and meeting Route 8. Route 8 northbound joins US-20 east to directly serve the town, while the Mass Pike passes south of Becket. Upon crossing through the town center, Route 8 splits from US-20, and the federal highway continues eastbound, passing into the town of Chester in Hampden County.

US-20 passes through the small town of Chester, and clips the southern portion of Huntington in Hampshire County before re-entering Hampden County and the town of Russell. US-20 passes through Russell, passes under the Mass Pike and meets the eastern end of Route 23, and continues into Westfield. US-20 crosses the U.S. Route 202/Route 10 concurrency in the center of the town, and intersects the northern end of Route 187 just to the east. US-20 begins to enter urban landscape as it crosses into West Springfield, making its way through the streets, intersecting U.S. Route 5, and crossing the Connecticut River into the city of Springfield. Immediately upon entering the city, US-20 interchanges with Interstate 91 at Exit 8, where it leaves the surface street (which is picked up by Route 20A, to join Interstate 291, which begins just to the south. "(Note: Route 20A is NOT a former alignment of US-20. Before the construction of I-291, US-20 followed Main, State Streets, and Boston Road)". US-20 is overlapped over most of I-291, running on the Interstate for about, and leaving via Exit 5, where it meets the eastern end of Route 20A and resumes its surface alignment on Page Boulevard in Springfield, rejoining its original alignment in Springfield on Boston Road. US-20, as Boston Road, crosses Route 21 and proceeds east into the town of Wilbraham, where it goes back to paralleling the Mass Pike for several more miles, until entering Palmer. In Palmer, US-20 meets the southern end of Route 181 and then intersects Route 32, which provides close access to the Mass Pike at Exit 8. US-20 and Route 32 share a short concurrency in Palmer, before US-20 splits east. Before leaving Palmer, Route 67 meets its southern end at US-20. Brimfield is the last town US-20 passes through in Hampden County; it enters from the west, crosses Route 19 in the center of town, and proceeds out of town to the east.

US-20 crosses into Worcester County and the town of Sturbridge, immediately meeting the southern end of Route 148. The route continues east where it meets the western end of Route 131 before interchanging with Interstate 84 at Exit 3. I-84 is another quick route to the Mass Pike, as it ends there less than a mile to the northeast. Route 49, a short connector to Route 9 in Spencer, has its southern terminus at US-20 east of the I-84 interchange. US-20 enters the town of Charlton at this point, passing through Charlton City where it meets the northern end of Route 169 and crosses over Route 31. Continuing east, US-20 enters the city of Auburn, south of Worcester, where it briefly overlaps Route 12. Route 12 provides direct access to the Mass Pike at Exit 10, while US-20 directly interchanges with Interstate 395, which becomes Interstate 290 north of the Mass Pike interchange. US-20 continues to the northeast, entering Millbury after briefly crossing into Worcester, where it interchanges with the Mass Pike at Exit 10A, as well as with Route 146 (which at this point is overlapped by Route 122A). The route re-enters Worcester, crossing over Route 122, which provides access to the Mass Pike at Exit 11. Leaving Worcester, US-20 enters the town of Shrewsbury, interchanging with Route 140 south of town. The highway continues to the northeast, passing southwest of Shrewsbury, and interchanging with Route 9. Heading almost due north at this point, US-20 crosses into Northborough, and turns back eastward, intersecting the western end of Route 135 in the town center. Two local roads, Church Street and Hudson Street, provide access to nearby I-290, which runs to the north. US-20 proceeds out of Northborough to the northeast, crossing into Marlborough and Middlesex County.

US-20 enters Marlborough and interchanges with Interstate 495 (also referred to as the Outer Circumferential Highway) at Exit 24 west of town, effectively crossing into Boston's western suburbs. The route directly serves the center of town, crossing Route 85 in the process. It is in eastern Marlborough where US-20 begins to be famously referred to as Boston Post Road, and the road continues eastward into the town of Sudbury. US-20 passes through the southern part of the town, crossing over the Route 27/Route 126 concurrency in Wayland, and continues into Weston. US-20 does not intersect any major roads or numbered highways in Weston, but does follow an approximately mile-long bypass of the Boston Post Road (appropriately named Boston Post Road Bypass) between Highland Street and Wellesley Street, where US-20 rejoins the road and continues east into Waltham. The entire length of US-20 in Weston is designated as the Boston Post Road Historic District, since it retains much of its rural 18th-century character. Immediately upon crossing into Waltham, US-20 enters a rotary interchange with Interstate 95 (Route 128) at Exit 26, marking the change from suburban landscape to the urban landscape of metro Boston and having access to the Mass Pike. US-20 meets the eastern end of Route 117 and cuts through the center of Waltham, serving as Main Street east of Route 117. US-20 also meets the western end of Route 60, an urban highway serving Boston's northern suburbs, in Waltham. The highway continues into the city of Watertown serving as its Main Street to Watertown Square, where it has a major junction with Route 16, which passes west and north of Boston via various parkways on the edges of the city, through Cambridge and Malden. US-20 becomes North Beacon Street at this point and continues southeast as it crosses into the city of Boston over the North Beacon Street Bridge.

US-20 briefly continues as Leo F. Birmingham Parkway upon crossing into the Boston neighborhood of Brighton, immediately intersecting the western end of Soldiers Field Road Extension, before it turns right and continues as North Beacon Street again, and crosses under the Mass Pike (no interchange). US-20 continues towards downtown, passing through the Allston neighborhood of Boston. Upon crossing Cambridge Street, US-20 becomes Brighton Ave for a short distance. US-20 soon reaches Commonwealth Ave, and takes the eastbound routing over for Route 30, which ends at the intersection. At this point, the Brookline/Norfolk County border lies just feet south of the road, and US-20 passes through Boston University. US-20 crosses Route 2 at the southern end of the Boston University Bridge, crossing over the Mass Pike for the final time. Route 2, via Mountfort Street, Park Drive, and Beacon Street, turns from south to east to meet US-20 at Kenmore Square. Upon meeting Route 2 again, US-20 meets its eastern terminus, with Route 2 taking Commonwealth Ave its final stretch to the Boston Public Garden and Route 28, where Route 2 meets its own end.

U.S. Route 20's official eastern terminus is in Kenmore Square at the intersection of Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, and Brookline Avenue.

Route 20A is a state highway located entirely within Springfield, Massachusetts, United States. The route, an alternate route of U.S. Route 20, parallels the section of US 20 concurrent with Interstate 291. The western terminus is at US 20 and Interstate 91 in downtown Springfield east of where US 20 crosses the Connecticut River on the North End Bridge. The eastern terminus is at US 20 and I-291 northeast of the city.

This alignment provides an alternate to Interstate 291, which overlaps US 20 for much of its length, but was originally an alternate to old US 20, which ran down State Street and Boston Road. This route was therefore never part of US 20, but has served as an alternate to two separate routes.

U.S. Highway 20 (US 20) is an east–west United States highway that stretches from the Pacific Northwest all the way to New England. The "0" in its route number indicates that US 20 is a coast-to-coast route. Spanning, it is the longest road in the United States, and particularly from Newport, Oregon to Boston, Massachusetts, the route is roughly parallel to that of the newer Interstate 90 (I-90), which is in turn the longest Interstate Highway in the U.S. There is a discontinuity in the official designation of US 20 through Yellowstone National Park, with unnumbered roads used to traverse the park.

U.S. Route 20

It and US 30 break the general U.S. Route numbering rules in Oregon, since US 30 actually starts north of US 20 and runs parallel to the north throughout the state. The two run concurrently and continue in the correct positioning near Caldwell, Idaho. This is because US 20 was not a planned coast-to-coast route while US 30 was. US 20 originally ended at the eastern entrance of Yellowstone Park; it was extended in 1940.

The highway's eastern terminus is in Boston, Massachusetts, at Kenmore Square, where it meets Route 2. Its western terminus is in Newport, Oregon, at an intersection with US 101, within a mile of the Pacific Ocean.

The highway passes through the following states:

US 20 begins at an intersection with US 101 in Newport, Oregon, and runs generally eastward towards Idaho. On the way it goes over the Central Oregon Coast Range, through several Willamette Valley cities including Corvallis and Albany, climbs the Cascade Mountains over Santiam Pass, goes through Bend, and traverses the Oregon High Desert passing through Burns. It eventually overlaps with US 26 in Vale, and the two roads continue concurrently to the Idaho border.

US 20 crosses into Idaho from Oregon northwest of Parma. It runs concurrently with US 26 and joins US 95 through Parma. US 20/US 26 leaves US 95 southeast of Parma and runs to Caldwell where US 20/US 26 joins with I-84 and US 30 for a short time. These four highways parallel each other (on two roadways) to Boise where US 20/US 26 runs through downtown before joining with I-84 and US 30 again to Mountain Home, where it departs at exit 95 to head east, past Rattlesnake Station, Anderson Ranch Dam road, and cresting at Cat Creek summit at above mean sea level. It continues into and across Camas County through Fairfield to Timmerman Junction, the intersection in Blaine County with State Highway 75, the route to Sun Valley, Galena Summit, and Stanley. US 20 continues east through Picabo and Carey, joined with US 26 and US 93, to Craters of the Moon and Arco, where US 93 splits off and turns north-northwest to climb the Big Lost River valley. US 20/US 26 continues on through the Idaho National Laboratory, where the highways split just west of Atomic City; US 26 heads to Blackfoot and US 20 to Idaho Falls, where it turns north-northeast to pass near Rexburg as a freeway. US 20 then climbs through the communities of St. Anthony, Ashton, and Island Park, and crosses the Continental Divide at Targhee Pass at, entering Montana west of West Yellowstone.

In the state of Montana, US 20 runs for less than. It runs from the Idaho state line to West Yellowstone, Montana, the western entrance to Yellowstone National Park. US 20 is known as the Targhee Pass Highway in Montana.

In the state of Wyoming, the eastern segment of US 20 starts at the eastern entrance to Yellowstone National Park along with the western termini of US 14 and US 16. These three routes run east to Greybull, where US 14 continues east and US 16/US 20 turns south; at Worland, US 16 turns east while US 20 continues south, passing through Wind River Canyon south of Thermopolis. US 20 joins US 26 in Shoshoni, where it turns east. In Casper it joins I-25 and US 87. These four routes stay combined to Orin, where US 20 turns east. At its intersection with I-25, US 18 begins. US 18 and US 20 are concurrent from Orin to Lusk. US 18 separates there and US 20 runs east into Nebraska.

In the state of Nebraska, US 20 runs from west of Harrison to South Sioux City on the Missouri River. Portions overlap US 385, US 83, US 183, US 275, I-129, and US 75.

US 20 enters Iowa at Sioux City via the Missouri River crossing with I-129 and US 75. After skirting the southeast side of Sioux City as a freeway with US 75, US 20 continues east as an expressway to Moville. From Moville through north of Early at the junction with U.S. Route 71 and Iowa Highway 471, US 20 was reconstructed from a rural two-lane highway to a four-lane road. This segment re-opened October 19, 2018 and made it so that US 20 is a continuous four-lane highway during its entire time in Iowa. Passing north of Early, Iowa and Sac City, where it has another interchange with the realigned U.S. Route 71, then passing to the south of Fort Dodge and Webster City before intersecting I-35 near Williams.

A new segment of freeway between US 65 south of Iowa Falls and Iowa Highway 14 opened in 2003 creating a continuous four-lane route from Moorland to Dubuque. The new segment shaved off US 20's length in Iowa. In the Waterloo/Cedar Falls area, the segment of US 20 overlapped by the Avenue of the Saints, which is also designated as Iowa Highway 27. US 20 passes Independence, Manchester, and Dyersville before reaching Dubuque. At Dubuque, US 20 crosses into Illinois over the Julien Dubuque Bridge.

In the state of Illinois, US 20 begins in East Dubuque, following southeastward along the Mississippi River, and continues into the very hilly Driftless Area of northwest Illinois through Galena and Elizabeth. The highway then transitions eastward from the Driftless Area to the Interior Plains near Stockton. The road continues as a bypass north of Freeport, and then runs as a freeway along the southern fringe of Rockford. From Rockford to Chicago, Illinois, US 20 is a mixture of four-lane expressway, four-lane limited access freeway, and winding two-lane surface road. It is signed as "General U.S. Grant Highway" after Ulysses S. Grant. U.S. 20 runs through the south side of Chicago as 95th Street. US 20 exits Illinois along with US 12 and US 41 as Indianapolis Boulevard south of the Chicago Skyway.

In the state of Indiana, US 20 enters from the west beneath the Chicago Skyway with US 12 and US 41. US 20 passes through heavily industrialized northwestern Indiana and is the main east–west artery through Gary. It then parallels US 12 to just west of Michigan City before running due east to South Bend. US 20 travels around South Bend and Elkhart on the St. Joseph Valley Parkway, a four-lane limited access freeway, then returns to surface road east of Elkhart. US 20 then passes through LaGrange and Angola, intersecting with I-69 before leaving Indiana just north of the eastern terminus of the Indiana Toll Road.

From Gary to South Bend, US 20 was built as the Dunes Relief Road. During the 1930s and 1940s the Dunes Highway, US 12, was becoming more crowded as housing lots and communities developed in the Indiana Dunes. Today, there are numerous communities along US 20 and the lakefront, including Gary, Portage, Burns Harbor, Porter, Chesterton, Pines, and Michigan City.

Most notably, the route is one of the main access roads to the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore.

US 20 enters Ohio from Indiana just west of Columbia and traverses east through Pioneer and Alvordton to Fayette. It continues east through Oakshade, Assumption and becomes five-lane, non-limited access roadway into Sylvania to Toledo, and then turns south until into the Toledo suburb of Maumee. After Maumee, US 20 crosses Maumee River curving back east becoming 2 lanes through Perrysburg to Woodville, where it becomes a four-lane, non-limited access highway. It bypasses Fremont while concurrent with US 6, State Route 53, and State Route 19, and then travels through the northern edge of Clyde and the downtown area of Bellevue, where it is joined by State Route 18. From there the four-lane highway continues through Monroeville and bypasses Norwalk, then becomes a two-lane highway from there to Oberlin. Continuing east, US 20 traverses through Elyria, North Ridgeville, Westlake, Rocky River, Lakewood and Cleveland, where it goes right through Public Square. East of Cleveland US 20 follows the southern shore of Lake Erie, following Euclid Avenue from Public Square, and traverses Euclid, Wickliffe, where it intersects with I-90, Mentor, Painesville, Madison, Geneva, Ashtabula and crosses into Pennsylvania just east of Conneaut.

US 20 runs for nearly across Erie County, Pennsylvania, most of that time just south of the CSX Amtrak railroad tracks. US 20 appears as West Ridge Road eastward from the Ohio border through Springfield, Girard, Fairview and Millcreek townships. At the intersection with Pennsylvania Route 832, just outside the Erie city limits, it becomes West 26th Street. After it reaches city center at the intersection with State Street, it becomes East 26th Street. It turns sharply northward as Broad Street at the Bayfront Connector, then turns east again as Buffalo Road through Wesleyville and Harborcreek Township. Buffalo Road turns sharply northward at the town of Harborcreek. US 20 intersects with Pennsylvania Route 955 and resumes its eastward journey. At North East Township, US 20 becomes West Main Road. Within the town limits, it becomes West Main Street until it reaches the town center at its intersection with Pennsylvania Route 89, where it becomes East Main Street. Outside the town limits it becomes East Main Road until it reaches Pennsylvania's border with New York.

In New York, US 20 runs roughly parallel to the New York State Thruway (I-90) throughout the state. The route runs concurrently with New York State Route 5 twice, with the second overlap extending across Western and Central New York from Avon to Auburn. US 20 runs across the rural Cherry Valley Turnpike between Skaneateles and Albany. US 20 was also known as the Boston-Buffalo highway prior to the construction of the New York Thruway and Massachusetts Turnpike.

In Massachusetts, US 20 runs near I-90 Mass Pike, intersecting it at exits 2 and 10A.

In part of Berkshire County, US 20 runs north–south as it shares the roadway with US 7. It is known as "Jacob's Ladder" as it crosses the Berkshire Hills between Lee in Berkshire County and Chester in Hampden County. From Chester to Westfield, US 20 and the Boston and Albany Railroad follow the Westfield River down to the broad valley of the Connecticut River.

In Shrewsbury, US 20 is called "Hartford Turnpike." In Northborough, and Worcester it is called "Southwest Cutoff", until it merges with the original Boston Post Road in Northborough (Southwest Cutoff and West Main Street). Southwest Cutoff was created at the turn of the century to bypass truck traffic around Shrewsbury center as well as connecting to the Boston and Worcester Turnpike.

In parts of eastern Massachusetts, US 20 follows the route of the old Boston Post Road and passes by Longfellow's Wayside Inn, in Sudbury, the oldest continually operated Inn in America. In 1926, after engineers determined that heavy truck traffic on the Boston Post Road was damaging the foundations of the Inn, Henry Ford, then owner & proprietor, ordered the construction of the mile-and-a-half-long Route 20 bypass. Upon its completion on December 11, 1928, he sold it to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for $1 and never cashed the check. According to the Boston Herald the by-pass cost Ford $288,000. The original route of US 20 is now called Wayside Inn Road.

US 20 continues from Sudbury through Wayland, Weston, Waltham, Watertown and then into Boston through Allston and Fenway–Kenmore. U.S. Route 20's official eastern terminus is in Kenmore Square at the intersection of Commonwealth Avenue, Beacon Street, and Brookline Avenue, where the alignment becomes Massachusetts Route 2. Route 2 continues for a short distance where it terminates at U.S. Route 3.
 Before the U.S. Highway System, the route in New England and New York was designated as New England Interstate Route 5 (NE-5), part of the New England Interstate Route system that existed between 1922 and 1927. Around 1923, from Springfield to Pittsfield, NE-5 was known as "Jacob's Ladder", and from Boston to Albany, the "Hubway". When US 20 was first commissioned, it took over the entirety of NE-5.

Until 1940, the western endpoint of US 20 was the east entrance to Yellowstone National Park.

Between Fort Dodge, Iowa, and Dubuque, Iowa, the route has been upgraded to four lanes, the last link of this completed in 2003. Much of the old route is a few miles north of the present route except between I-35 and Waterloo. There, the old route is farther north, going through Iowa Falls, Aplington, and the north side of Cedar Falls along what is now Iowa Highway 57.

From just west of South Bend, Indiana, to the St. Joseph – Elkhart county line, the old route of US 20 through St. Joseph County is now Business US 20. In Elkhart County, its old route is now classified as a county road and is simply called Old US 20. The St. Joseph Valley Parkway is the present route of US 20 in the South Bend – Elkhart Area.

From 1930 to 1933, US 20 followed what are now Massachusetts Route 67 and Massachusetts Route 9 from Worcester to Palmer via Shrewsbury and Northborough.

The 1953 Massachusetts Department of Public Works Master Plan would have relocated US 20 between Palmer, Massachusetts and either West Springfield, Massachusetts or Westfield, Massachusetts along the right-of-way now used by the Massachusetts Turnpike, but this was never implemented.

Until 1970–72, US 20 followed an old route through downtown Springfield—Boston Road and State Street—crossing the Connecticut River via the older Memorial Bridge (now Massachusetts Route 147). The construction of I-291 prompted a change. US 20 now crosses from West Springfield at the North End Bridge, and is co-signed with I-291 until Page Boulevard, where it heads back to Boston Road via the former route of 20A.
In 2012, the Historic US Route 20 Association was formed to identify, promote and preserve the history of the route and original alignments that were once signed "Route 20" from Boston to Newport.


When was Major General Douglas born?

General Sir Howard Douglas, 3rd Baronet (23 January 1776 – 9 November 1861) was a British military officer born in Gosport, England, the younger son of Admiral Sir Charles Douglas, and a descendant of the Earls of Morton. He was an English army general, author, colonial administrator and Member of Parliament for Liverpool.

Howard Douglas

Following the death of his mother, Sarah Wood Douglas, in 1779, Howard was raised by his aunt, Helena Baillie, near Edinburgh. As a boy, he wanted to join the Royal Navy and follow in the footsteps of his father and older brother. His father agreed to take him to sea when he was 13, but Sir Charles died of apoplexy while in Edinburgh just after he arrived to collect Howard in 1789. Howard's guardians thought it better that he serve in the Army instead, and he entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1790. He was commissioned Second Lieutenant in the Royal Artillery in 1794, becoming Lieutenant a few months later.

In 1795 he was shipwrecked while in charge of a draft for Canada, and lived with his men for a whole winter on the Labrador coast. Soon after his return to England in 1799 he was made a Captain-Lieutenant. In his regimental service during the next few years, he was attached to all branches of the artillery in succession, becoming Captain in 1804, after which he was placed on half-pay to serve at the Royal Military College (RMC), then located at High Wycombe. He taught military strategy and was an authority on military and naval engineering. He served intermittently as commandant of the senior department and as inspector general of instructions at the RMC. In 1804, Douglas was appointed to a majority in the York Rangers, a corps immediately afterwards reduced. He remained on the roll of its officers until promoted Major-General. The senior department of the RMC at High Wycombe, of which he was in charge, was the forerunner of the Staff College. Douglas was promoted brevet Lieutenant-Colonel in 1806. He served in 1808–09 in the Peninsular War and was present at the Battle of Corunna, after which he took part in the Walcheren Campaign.

On the death of his half-brother, Vice-Admiral Sir William Douglas in 1809, he succeeded to the baronetcy. In 1812 he was employed in special missions in the north of Spain, and took part in numerous minor operations in that region, but he was soon recalled, the Home Government deeming his services indispensable to the Royal Military College. He became brevet Colonel in 1814 and CB in 1815. He became a fellow of the Royal Society on 25 January 1816.

In 1816 appeared his "Essay on the Principles and Construction of Military Bridges", in 1819, "Observations on the Motives, Errors and Tendency of M. Carnots System of Defence", and in the following year his "A Treatise on Naval Gunnery" (of which numerous editions and translations appeared up to the general introduction of rifled ordnance). In 1821 he was promoted Major-General. Douglas's criticisms of Carnot led to an important experiment being carried out at Woolwich in 1822, and his "Naval Gunnery" became a standard text-book, and indeed first drew attention to the subject of which it treated.

Sir Howard Douglas became Governor of New Brunswick (1823–31). He had to deal with the Maine boundary dispute with the United States of 1828. He also founded Fredericton College (King's College), now known as the University of New Brunswick, of which he was the first Chancellor. He was governor during the Miramichi fire of 1825, and his actions during that crisis increased his popularity with the people of the province. He secured a charter for King's College at Fredericton (later the University of New Brunswick). Some subsequent light is shed on local society in his period of office in the novel "Lady Rosamond's Secret. A Romance of Fredericton" (1878) by the Rebecca Agatha Armour.

On his return to Europe he was employed in various missions, and he published about this time "Naval Evolutions", a controversial work dealing with the question of breaking the line. From 1835 to 1840 Douglas, now a GCMG, was Lord High Commissioner of the Ionian Islands, where, amongst other reforms, he introduced a new code of laws. In 1837 he became a Lieutenant-General, in 1840 a KCB, in 1841 a civil GCB, and in 1851 a full general. He was given the colonelcy of the 99th (Lanarkshire) Regiment of Foot from 1841 to 1851 when he transferred as colonel to the 15th (the Yorkshire East Riding) Regiment of Foot, a position he held until his death in 1861.

From 1842 to 1847 Douglas sat as a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP) for Liverpool, where he took a prominent part in debates on military and naval matters and on the corn laws. He was frequently consulted on important military questions.

His later works included "Observations on the Modern System of Fortification". and "On Naval Warfare With Steam"

Sir Howard Douglas died in Tunbridge Wells. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, and one of the founders of the Royal Geographical Society. He was awarded an honorary Doctor of Civil Law from Oxford University. Shortly before his death he declined the offer of a military GCB.

In 1797, while in Quebec City, Douglas fathered a daughter, Margaret (or Marguerite), but did not marry the mother, Catherine Normandeau. In 1799, he returned to England, and in July of that year he married Anne Dundas, daughter of James Dundas. They had ten children, Major Charles Douglas, James Dundas Douglas, Howard Douglas, General Sir Robert Percy Douglas, 4th Baronet of Carr, Reverend William Frederick Douglas, Ann Douglas, Christina Douglas, Lucy Douglas, Sarah Mary Harcourt Douglas, and Mary Douglas.

Notes

Citations

Douglas was born on March 26, 1892 in Salem, Massachusetts, the son of Annie (Smith) and James Howard Douglas. When he was four, his mother died of natural causes and his father remarried. His father was an abusive husband and his stepmother, unable to obtain a divorce, left her husband and took Douglas and his older brother to Onawa, Maine in Piscataquis County, where her brother and uncle had built a resort in the woods.

Paul Douglas

Paul Howard Douglas (March 26, 1892 – September 24, 1976) was an American politician and Georgist economist. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a U.S. Senator from Illinois for eighteen years, from 1949 to 1967. During his Senate career, he was a prominent member of the liberal coalition.

Born in Massachusetts and raised in Maine, Douglas graduated from Bowdoin College and Columbia University. He served as a professor of economics at several schools, most notably the University of Chicago, and earned a reputation as a reformer while a member of the Chicago City Council (1939–1942). During World War II, he served in the U.S. Marine Corps, rising to the rank of lieutenant colonel and becoming known as a war hero.

He was married to Emily Taft Douglas, a U.S. Representative from Illinois's At-large district (1945–1947).

Douglas graduated from Bowdoin College with a Phi Beta Kappa key in 1913. He then moved on to Columbia University, where he earned a master's degree in 1915 and a Ph.D. in economics in 1921. In 1915, he married Dorothy Wolff, a graduate of Bryn Mawr College who also earned a Ph.D. at Columbia University.

From 1915 to 1920, the Douglases moved six times. Paul studied at Harvard University; taught at the University of Illinois and at Oregon's Reed College, served as a mediator of labor disputes for the Emergency Fleet Corporation of Pennsylvania and taught at the University of Washington. When working for the Emergency Fleet Corporation, he read John Woolman's journals. When teaching in Seattle, he joined the Religious Society of Friends.

In 1919, Douglas took a job teaching economics at the University of Chicago. Although Douglas enjoyed his job, his wife was unable to obtain a job at the university due to anti-nepotism rules. When she obtained a job at Smith College, in Massachusetts, she persuaded her husband to move the family there. He would then start teaching at Amherst College. Douglas soon decided that the marriage situation was untenable and, in 1930, the couple divorced, with Dorothy taking custody of their four children and Douglas returning to Chicago. The following year, Douglas met and married Emily Taft Douglas, daughter of sculptor Lorado Taft and distant cousin of former President William Howard Taft. Emily was a political activist, former actress, and subsequent one-term congresswoman at-large from Illinois (1945–47).

Douglas was listed as a supporter of banking reforms suggested by University of Chicago economists in 1933 that were later referred to as the "Chicago plan." In 1939, he coauthored with five other notable economists a draft proposal titled "A Program for Monetary Reform". The Chicago plan and "A Program for Monetary Reform" generated much interest and discussion among lawmakers, but the suggested reforms did not result in any new legislation.

Douglas is probably best-known to economics students as the co-author of the 1928 article with Charles Cobb that first laid out the Cobb-Douglas production function.

As the 1920s drew to a close, Douglas got more involved in politics. He served as an economic advisor to Republican Governor Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania and Democratic Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt of New York. Along with Chicago lawyer Harold L. Ickes, he launched a campaign against public utility tycoon Samuel Insull's stock market manipulations. Working with the state legislature, he helped draft laws regulating utilities and establishing old-age pensions and unemployment insurance. By the early 1930s, he was vice chairman of the League for Independent Political Action, a member of the Farmer-Labor Party's national committee, and treasurer of the American Commonwealth Political Federation.

A registered Independent, Douglas felt that the Democratic Party was too corrupt and the Republican Party was too reactionary, views that he expressed in a 1932 book, "The Coming of a New Party", in which he supported the creation of a party similar to the British Labour Party. That year, he supported Socialist candidate Norman Thomas for President of the United States.

After Roosevelt's victory in the election, Douglas, at the recommendation of his friend Harold Ickes, was appointed to serve on the Consumers' Advisory Board of the National Recovery Administration. In 1935, however, the Supreme Court ruled that the Administration was unconstitutional, and it was abolished.

That year, Douglas made his first foray into electoral politics, campaigning for the endorsement of the local Republican Party for mayor of Chicago. Although the party endorsed someone else, Douglas continued to work with them to get their candidate elected to the city council from the 5th Ward. A strong Socialist candidate split the reform vote, however, and Democratic Party candidate James Cusack was elected.

Four years later, in 1939, Cusack came up for re-election, and Douglas joined a group of reform-minded Independents that drafted Douglas. During the municipal election cycle, Mayor Edward Joseph Kelly was challenged for re-election and attempted to shore up his reputation by lending his support to Douglas' campaign. With Kelly's help and his own dogged campaigning, Douglas managed a narrow victory over Cusack in a runoff election.

Douglas usually found himself in the minority in the Chicago City Council. His attempts to reform the public education system and lower public transportation fares were met with derision and he typically ended up on the losing end of 49-1 votes. "I have three degrees," Douglas once said after a particularly hard-fought rout. "I have been associated with intelligent and intellectual people for many years. Some of these aldermen haven't gone through the fifth grade. But they're the smartest bunch of bastards I ever saw grouped together."

In 1942, Douglas joined the Democratic Party and ran for its nomination for the United States Senate. He had the support of a cadre of left-wing activists, but the machine supported the state's at-large Congressman Raymond S. McKeough for the nomination. On the day of the primary, Douglas carried 99 of the state's 102 counties, but McKeough's strong support in Cook County allowed him to win a slim majority. He would go on to lose in the general election to incumbent Republican Senator C. Wayland Brooks.

As alderman, Douglas had worked with "Chicago Daily News" publisher Frank Knox in fighting corruption in Chicago. Knox, who had been Republican vice-presidential nominee in 1936, had become Secretary of the Navy, thus responsible for both the Navy and the Marine Corps.

Shortly after losing the primary, Douglas resigned from the Chicago City Council and, with the aid of Knox, enlisted in the United States Marine Corps as a private at the age of 50, one of the oldest men in Marine Corps history to do so. As a member of the 57th Street Meeting of the Quakers, Douglas recognized that joining the Marines was contrary to the traditional testimony of that group against war and offered to resign his membership; the meeting refused to release him. Promoted to corporal, then to sergeant, Douglas was kept stateside, writing training manuals, and giving inspirational speeches to troops. He was told he was "too old to go overseas 'as an enlisted man.'" With the aid of Knox, and of Knox assistant Adlai Stevenson, Douglas was commissioned as an officer, and was subsequently sent to the Pacific theater of operations with the 1st Marine Division.

On the second day of the Battle of Peleliu, Captain Douglas finally saw action when his unit waded into the fray. He earned a Bronze Star for carrying ammunition to the front lines under enemy fire and earned his first Purple Heart when he was grazed by shrapnel while carrying flamethrower ammunition to the front lines. In that six-week battle, while investigating some random fire shootings, Douglas was shot at as he uncovered a two-foot-wide cave. He then killed the Japanese soldier inside at which point he wondered whether his enemy might be an economics professor from the University of Tokyo.

A few months later, during the Battle of Okinawa, Douglas earned his second Purple Heart. A volunteer rifleman in an infantry platoon, he was helping to carry wounded from 3rd Battalion 5th Marines along the Naha-Shuri line when a burst of machine gun fire tore through his left arm, severing the main nerve and leaving it permanently disabled.

After a thirteen-month stay in the National Naval Medical Center at Bethesda, Maryland, Douglas was given an honorable discharge as a lieutenant colonel with full disability pay.

After Douglas left the service he returned to teach at the University of Chicago around 1946. In 1947 he was awarded the highest honor in the economics profession when he was elected president of the American Economic Association. But soon Douglas found himself at odds with the faculty at Chicago, stating, "... I was disconcerted to find that the economic and political conservatives had acquired almost complete dominance over my department and taught that market decisions were always right and profit values the supreme ones... If I stayed, it would be in an unfriendly environment." Unhappy with the situation at the university, Paul turned his attention to Illinois politics.

While Douglas had been serving in the Marines, his wife, Emily, had been nominated to run against isolationist Republican Congressman Stephen A. Day, who had succeeded McKeough. Although she had defeated Day in the 1944 election, a Republican upsurge had unseated her in 1946, the same year that Douglas left the Marines.

Deciding to enter politics once again, Douglas let it be generally known that he wished to seek the office of Governor of Illinois in 1948. Cook County machine boss Jacob Arvey, however, had a different plan. At the time, several scandals had broken out over the machine's activities, and Arvey decided that Douglas, a scholar and war hero with a reputation for incorruptibility, would be the perfect nominee to run against Senator Brooks. Since Brooks was hugely popular in the state and had a large campaign warchest, Arvey decided that there was no danger of Douglas winning. The top two thirds of the Illinois Democratic slate for the 1948 election then became Paul Douglas for senator and Adlai Stevenson for governor.

At the outset of the campaign, Douglas' chances looked slim. As a delegate to the 1948 Democratic National Convention, he had tried to draft General Dwight D. Eisenhower for president, calling President Harry S. Truman "incompetent."

Douglas, however, proved to be a tenacious campaigner. He stumped across the state in a Jeep station wagon for the Marshall Plan, civil rights, repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, more public housing, and more social security programs. During six months of non-stop campaigning, he traveled more than around the state and delivered more than 1,100 speeches. When Senator Brooks refused to debate him, Douglas debated an empty chair, switching from seat to seat as he provided both his and Brooks' answers.

On Election Day, Douglas won an upset victory, taking 55 percent of the vote and defeating the incumbent by a margin of more than 407,000 votes. Stevenson won the race for governor by a wide margin, but there was no coattails effect from president to senator to governor, as President Truman, campaigning for re-election, won the state by a slim 33,600 votes.

As senator, Douglas soon earned a reputation as an unconventional liberal, concerned as much with fiscal discipline as with passing the Fair Deal. He was also a passionate crusader for civil rights (Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. described him as "the greatest of all the Senators"). At the opening of the Senate 1957 sessions he was the only Senator to vote to defy custom and vote against the confirmation of racist James Eastland as the chairman of the Judiciary Committee

Douglas also earned fame as an opponent of pork barrel spending. Early in his first term, he grabbed headlines when, magnifying glass and atlas in hand, he strode to the Senate floor and, referring to a pork barrel project for the dredging of the Josias river in Maine, defied anyone to find the river in the atlas. When Maine's Owen Brewster objected and pointed out the millions of dollars in pork going to Illinois, Douglas offered to cut his state's share by 40%.

Appointed to chair the Joint Economic Committee, Douglas led a series of hard-hitting investigations into fiscal mismanagement in government and appeared on the cover of "Time" for January 22, 1951. A profile of him in that issue was entitled "The Making of a Maverick."
In 1952 he was elected as a Fellow of the American Statistical Association.

As the 1952 presidential election approached, a groundswell of support arose for a Douglas candidacy for president. The National Editorial Association ranked him the second-most-qualified man, after Truman, to receive the Democratic presidential nomination, and a poll of 46 Democratic insiders revealed him to be a favorite for the nomination if Truman stepped aside.

Douglas, however, refused to be considered as a candidate for president, instead backing the candidacy of Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee, a folksy, coonskin cap-wearing populist who had become famous for his televised investigations into organized crime. Douglas stumped across the country for Kefauver and stood next to him at the 1952 Democratic National Convention when Kefauver was defeated by Illinois Governor Adlai Stevenson II. Four years later, in 1956, he remained publicly neutral, feeling that openly opposing Stevenson's drive for the nomination and supporting Kefauver would damage his standing with his state party.

In addition to his battles for equal rights for African Americans and less pork barrel spending, Douglas was also known for his fights for environmental protection, public housing, and truth in lending laws. He opposed real estate redlining but was forced to allow a 1949 provision in a public housing bill making it possible for suburbs to reject low-income housing. He also authored the Consumer Credit Protection Act, a bill that forced lenders to state the terms of a loan in plain language and restricted the ability of lenders to discriminate on the basis of gender, race, or income. Although the bill was not passed during his term of office, it became law in 1968.

As a believer in Georgist economics, Douglas regretting not being able to do more to advance land value tax while in the Senate. Douglas told Mason Gaffney that he even regretted leaving local politics, where he saw more opportunity to implement Georgist ideas. In his memoirs, Douglas perhaps jokingly asked Saint Paul to forgive him for his silence in the Senate on what he considered to be the important land values problem.

Douglas was an ardent supporter of the disproven cancer drug Krebiozen, and in the early 1960s sponsored senate hearings in support of the discredited treatment.

During the 1966 election, Douglas, then 74, ran for a fourth term in office against Republican Charles H. Percy, a wealthy businessman and former student of his. A confluence of events, including Douglas' age, unhappiness within his party over his support for the Vietnam War and open housing laws, as well as sympathy for Percy over the then-recent and presently still unsolved murder of his daughter, Valerie, caused Douglas to lose the election in an upset.

After losing his seat in the Senate, Douglas taught at the New School, chaired a commission on housing, and wrote books, including an autobiography, "In the Fullness of Time".

In the early 1970s, he suffered a stroke and withdrew from public life. On September 24, 1976, he died at his home. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered in Jackson Park near the University of Chicago.

A memorial marker at the Marine Corps training base at Parris Island reads:

DOUGLAS VISITORS CENTER
in Memory of
SENATOR PAUL H. DOUGLAS
1892 ~ 1976
Graduating from Parris Island in 1942 as a 50-year-old Private, Mr. Douglas was an inspiration to all. He rose to the rank of Major while serving in the Pacific Theater where he was wounded at Peleliu and Okinawa. Retired as a Lieutenant Colonel. The former economics professor later served as a U.S. Senator from Illinois. By his personal courage, fortitude and leadership, the Honorable Paul H. Douglas demonstrated the personal traits characteristic of Marine leaders.

From 1986 to 1997, the U.S. Department of Education awarded the Paul Douglas Teacher Scholarship in Douglas's honor.

In 1992 the University of Illinois, Institute of Government and Public Affairs established the Paul H. Douglas Award for Ethics in Government as part of the celebration of the senator's 100th birthday, and in recognition of his outstanding service to the nation.

Douglas was entitled to campaign participation credit ("battle stars") for Capture and Occupation of the Southern Palau Islands (Peleliu), and Assault and Occupation of Okinawa Gunto


Are manga and anime the same thing?

Even when the story of the Manga and Anime appears to be in the same universe there are some factual differences in the world of the anime and manga.
In the manga the names of the shikigamis are created by their Toujinshi at the time of the contract and in the anime the names of the shikigamis are always the same. For example, in the manga the name of the shikigami that once made a contract with Monju is revealed to be "Byakko no Akatsuki", and then it's revealed that is in fact the same shikigami as "Byakko no Kogenta", and the name Kogenta is the name that Yakumo gave him. In contrast the anime reveals that the name of Byakko no Kogenta has been always the same, as is revealed in the anime when the story of the contract between Byakko no Kogenta and Raihou is told.
Also, in the manga, there are no factions between the Toujinshi, and every Toujinshi is independent.
Even when in the anime almost every Toujinshi uses a Drive, in the manga almost every Toujinshi uses a Toujinki, with the exception of Yakumo who gets his Zero Drive from the Naraku in the middle of Volume 2 in order to save Kogenta because Yakumo's Toujinki is destroyed, and Tsukuyomi that summons his shikigami with Toujin-fu.
It also is revealed in the manga that the Drive is in fact a Toujinki prototype.
In the anime when the Toujinshi shikigami is defeated the Toujinshi loses his/her memories as Toujinshi and he/she can no longer be a Toujinshi. In the manga the only consequence of a Shikigami defeat is that the Toujinshi can no longer make a contract with that shikigami.

Onmyō Taisenki

"Onmyō Taisenki" literally translates to 'The Chronicles of the Great Yin-Yang War'. The series makes clear references to I Ching and to the Taoist theory of the five elements:,,, and. Various Taoist elements are incorporated within the story: the existence of the four, the use of cards that act as the, the use of trigrams to represent direction when the Drive is swung (north-south-east-west is represented as 坎-離-震-兌 instead of 北-南-東-西, respectively), the emphasis on the balance of the "sekki" (the 24 seasons), and the character "Nazuna", who is a Taoist maiden. Also, the show itself can be split into four seasons (13 episodes each), each with its distinct story, purpose, and goals.

The "Onmyō Taisenki" anime was produced by Sunrise, a subsidiary of Namco Bandai Holdings. It has a total of 52 episodes, and was aired weekly in TV Tokyo (from PM 6:00 to PM 6:30) from September 30, 2004 to September 29, 2005. It replaces the series Aqua Kids and then was replaced by series Kotencotenco.

is a 12-year-old Japanese boy who lives near Tokyo. Never having met his parents, he lives an ordinary life with his adoptive grandfather. His grandfather had taught him a series of strange hand movements, which Riku did not know the purpose of until the day his grandfather is attacked near his shrine. But it is not an ordinary attacker. The attacker is a, strange monsters with human owners. Riku comes to the scene and that's where he first gets in contact with his, the device he uses to call and make a with, his Shikigami and, from that day on, best friend. The Shikigami needs, for special attacks, a special series of, one of which happens to be the strange hand movements Riku's grandfather always taught him.
As Riku's grandfather decides to leave the house for a journey, the 10-year-old boy and the 10-year-old girl rent rooms in Riku's house. The 17-year-old man, Masaomi, who teaches Riku the secrets of Onmyōdō (such as the use of Tōjinfu, for example), drops by eventually. The three of them have 'contracts' with Shikigami.
The main events of Onmyō Taisenki anime are related to the menace of the, a powerful Japanese financial group related to the Onmyoudou; attempting to open the four ; and freeing, a boy who was born with the power to control, and had been imprisoned for thousands of years.

"Onmyō Taisenki" shows monsters called Shikigami. There are 24 families of Shikigami (three per family for a total of 72) to represent each Solar term. These monsters are extremely powerful, and their are activated when their owners use certain sequences of In. Every Shikigami has its own In sequences and some have special weapons, which are also activated by the In. Every Shikigami has its own name and a class/family. For example, the name "Byakko no Kogenta" means Kogenta of the, one of the four Japanese great Gods; the other three are,, and family. Class names are usually named after gods and flowers.

The Shikigami can transform into a, which is a giant and extremely powerful form where they usually go berserk. Although Nazuna says that a true Daikōjin occurs when Mind-Technique-Body are together, Riku has been able to summon one when he is highly desperate and emotional (usually when Kogenta is about to be killed). Shikigami can also transform into Daikōjin form by forcing a Tōjin stone into a Shikigami, as Isou does to his Shikigami, Fuji, in Episode 20 (or by inserting a special chip made from the Tōjin stones into the drive). However, these methods only produce a confused and pained Daikōjin and causes the Drive to sprout coils that will eventually kill the Tōjinshi if the Daikōjin is not defeated. In addition, members of the obliterated sect Jin-ryū have been able to change their Shikigami into Daikōjin by using lengthy series of In.

Later in the series when Kogenta and Rangetsu were fighting together against Mikazuchi, both Riku and Yuuma gain the Master Drive and their partner Shikigami are able to transform into a, where the Shikigami still have their sanity but a different appearance. Later, Kibachiyo and his partner gain the Master Drive and could also transform into a Chōkōjin.

When a Drive is activated for the first time, the Shikigami will appear behind a shōji and asks what the owner desires, and if it is to the Shikigami's liking, it will accept and a contract will be formed. Once the terms of the contract have been fulfilled, the Tōjinshi and Shikigami will part. However, when a contract is broken (Shikigami dies or Tōjinshi tries to break the contract), the Tōjinshi loses all the memories built since when he first contracted with the Shikigami and usually wanders around lost and depressed while the Shikigami is sent to. Similar events happen with Riku in Episode 23-24, as he rejects his contract with Kogenta and consequently does not remember people he only met after he formed the contract, but still remembers his childhood friend Momo.The Onmyou Taisenki manga is published by Jump Comics and runs monthly in V-Jump magazine (2005). Each volume is nine chapters and three have been published: the first one (192 pages) published on October 10, 2004, the second one (200 pages) on August 4, 2005, and the third one (267 pages) on March 3, 2006. The manga has the collaboration of WiZ and Bandai. Each volume costs about 400 Yen (Price inside Japanese territory).

The Onmyou Taisenki manga does not tell the same history as the anime. The story happens years before the events in the anime. The main character, Yakumo (who also appears on the anime, as a teenager) is the son of Monju, the chief priest of the Taihaku Temple, in Kyoto. Yakumo also trains the "In", with a baseball ball. In this temple, a, and Monju's former teacher, Mahoroba, is imprisoned. The problems start when Mahoroba escapes, gains power, and transforms Monju into stone. Yakumo is called by a Zero Drive, which was one of the treasures of the temple. This Zero Drive handles Byakko no Kogenta. The story of the manga is about Yakumo's first steps with a Shikigami, training with Idzuna (Taihaku Temple's shrine maiden) and seeking Mahoroba through various Japanese historical dates. Famous Japanese historical characters such as Oda Nobunaga can be seen on the manga. The story is cited by Kogenta around episode 35 in the anime. However, not many details are given.

There are three Onmyou Taisenki games, being two for PlayStation 2, and one for Game Boy Advance.
The first PS2 game is called, and was released on March 31, 2005. The PlayStation 2 EyeToy is required to play this game.
The second PS2 game is called, and was released on June 26, 2005. It is a side-story with the same characters from the anime, where Kogenta and Riku train and become stronger through five, which are parallel worlds with lots of. The five Fukumaden featured in this game are Fire, Water, Tree, Earth and. The 'Gold' element from Onmyoudou is also featured in the game, but there is no "Fukumaden" for it.
The only game for GB Advance is called, and was released on December 12, 2004.
All the three games were released in Japan only.

The premise of both the manga and the anime was the same, and the characters looked nearly identical in both, but the stories differed greatly. Stories which appeared in the manga were not used again for the anime – and vice versa. In addition, the manga version has Shinichi's schoolfriends and teachers playing more of a role than they would in the anime.

The Amazing 3

The Amazing 3, known in Japan as, is a Japanese manga and a black and white anime series created by Osamu Tezuka in the 1960s. It involves the adventures of three agents from outer space who are sent to Earth to determine whether the planet, a potential threat to the universe, should be destroyed.

The series was first released in manga print format in Japan in 1965, and then spawned a Japanese anime television version, with different stories. This version was then dubbed in English and released in the United States, with a different theme song, as well as different closing and opening elements. The American version was also aired in Australia in 1969, and in Spanish-speaking countries as "Los tres espaciales". The Japanese anime version was first released on DVD in 2002, and then a full 10-DVD set in 2005.

The series tackles a number of issues which were unusual in animated cartoons of that period: in particular, ecological concerns and poverty.

The Galactic Federation is concerned about the number of wars on the Planet Earth. It sends three agents to determine if the planet is a potential threat to the universe, and whether it should be destroyed. The instrument of destruction is a device resembling a large black ball with two antennae that is variously called an anti-proton bomb, a solar bomb, and a neutron bomb. The agents (Captain Bokko, Nokko, and Pukko) are originally humanoid in appearance, but upon arrival on Earth they take on the appearances of a rabbit (Bokko), a horse (Nokko), and a duck (Pukko) that they had captured as examples of Earth life forms. While on Earth they travel in a tire-shaped vehicle capable of enormous speeds called the Big Wheel, which can travel on both land and water (and, with modifications, through the air).

After landing, they are befriended by Shinichi Hoshi, a young boy who becomes their ally throughout the series. The series also features Shinichi's older brother Koichi who is a member of the secret intelligence agency "Phoenix", formed to protect the peace of the world. The Wonder 3 are initially repulsed by the violence of the earthlings, especially Pukko, but gradually change their thinking after being touched by the kind personality of Shinichi.

In the final episode of the series the decision is made by the galactic council that mankind is irredeemable and that the Earth is to be destroyed. Although Pukko is in favor of this as much as ever, Bokko puts off the order as long as possible, and eventually decides to disobey the council's decision. However, prior to Bokko's decision to disobey her orders, Shinichi is appalled at the likelihood that his friends would obey the order and runs to Koichi to ask Phoenix to intervene.

Although dozens of Phoenix agents fight the Amazing 3 in their saucer, they are unable to destroy it, and Shinichi appeals to Bokko, Nokko, and Pukko to take him back to their home planet to plead Earth's case. During the trip Bokko, Nokko, and Pukko revert to their humanoid forms for the first time, much to the surprise of Shinichi, who had never seen their true appearances before (perhaps not clearly, anyway – he had also seen them through the window of their saucer in the first episode, though it's suggested in the episode that he could only see their silhouettes).

Shinichi is particularly surprised by Bokko's beauty in her actual form. A3 are presented to the galactic council on charges of disobeying orders. Shinichi is given a chance to plead Earth's case and the council offers him the opportunity to stay on their planet with all the rights and privileges of other citizens. Shinichi becomes angry and attacks a guard, thus proving mankind's inherently violent nature to many there.
The order is given to wipe out Shinichi's memories, but before this can be done Bokko pleads for him to be released, and for the Earth to be given more time to develop. The council eventually decides to return A3 to the Earth and re-examine the matter when Shinichi reaches adulthood.

Upon their return to Earth Pukko is ashamed of his attitude toward humans before that point, Shinichi is reunited with Koichi, and Bokko is transformed by Nokko and Pukko into an Earth girl so she'll have a chance to be with Shinichi as the human girl she really wants to be – for a short time, anyway. The closing shot of the series is of the now-human Bokko walking towards Shinichi's home to find him.

(Bonnie in the American version) is the cute one, and the brains of the group. She is capable of great powers of telepathy, telekinesis and hypnosis, has extremely sensitive hearing, and can also control the inner workings of machines by pressing her ears against them. She likes humans and sees no need to destroy the planet because of the actions of a few bad eggs. Despite the fact that in her humanoid form she is somewhat older than Shinichi (their human friend who is probably in his early teens, while she is probably in her 20s), and the fact that she's a rabbit in her animal form, her feelings for Shinichi are considerably more than platonic. Her deepest desire is to be an Earth girl so she can be with Shinichi.

Bokko, Nokko, and Pukko are all conversant in Japanese – and apparently English – and can also talk to other animals. They also possess a gun called the time reversal gun. It can be used to reverse the flow of time in a small area.

There are three main supporting characters. Shinichi and Kōichi's mother is voiced by Ryoko Sakurai in the Japanese version. She is a heavyset and domineering woman. Shinichi and Koichi's father and mother operate a small hotel. Their father is something of a milquetoast. The third major supporting character is the mysterious M, the head of Phoenix and the person from whom Kōichi takes orders. Only the back of his head is ever seen.

"W3" aired in Japan on Fuji TV from June 6, 1965 until June 27, 1966 for a total of 52 episodes. The American version of the series, "The Amazing 3", was released in syndication through Erika Productions in 1967. It aired on KCOP-TV (Channel 13) in Los Angeles, California and on WPIX-TV (Channel 11) in New York, New York. The series was also dubbed into Spanish and broadcast in Spanish-speaking countries as "Los tres espaciales".

This series was the first Tezuka production in which Tezuka adopted a method of animation which had long been used by Disney and Warner Brothers in which each animator was responsible for drawing a single character instead of the team of animators each taking a piece of a show and drawing everything.

In the pilot for the series a few characters looked slightly different. Bokko's appearance was more rabbit-like and less feminine, and she didn't yet have the black tips on her ears, or the tuft of black hair on her head. Pukko didn't have his Beatle haircut. And Koichi looked much the same, but his face was altered slightly for the series. The pilot for the series is largely the same as the first episode – and some footage was reused for the first episode – but differs in a few respects; mostly with regards to how Bokko, Nokko, and Pukko first meet Shinichi. It is also only about 15 minutes long, and ends with Koichi's discovery of a hidden base, which isn't part of the first episode.

Unlike "Astro Boy", where the opening theme music was the same in both the Japanese and American versions (with only the lyrics changed), the Japanese and American versions of "The Amazing 3" had different theme music, as well as considerably different opening and closing segments. The American version borrowed part of its melody from the Japanese version. The Japanese theme (sung by a group called Vocal Shop) was considerably more playful and complex than the American version.

There was a brief report from the 2000 Anime Expo in Anaheim, California that Studio Pierrot and a newer company called Digital Manga were considering the idea of teaming up and producing a new version of the series to be streamed on the internet. However, it appears that the project never got past the initial design stage.

The complete Japanese-language manga is available in two volumes. A late 1970s three volume set can also sometimes be found. The manga has never been officially released in English.

During the 1990s, the series was available in Japan both on two sets of laserdiscs and on a series of thirteen VHS videocassettes. The series was first released on DVD in Japan in two volumes in 2002 and 2003. A complete single-volume 10-DVD set was released in 2005. A lower priced (¥15,000) 10-DVD set was released for a limited time in 2008 in honor of what would have been Tezuka's 80th birthday. Though the negatives for the series were damaged in a warehouse flood, the episodes on the Japanese DVDs were taken from the best existing sources.

The American (English-dubbed) films are rumored to have been either lost or destroyed. The English-dubbed version of the series also aired on Australia's Channel 9 beginning in 1969. Anime Sols, which closed officially on May 1, 2015 attempted to crowdfund the streaming rights for the official English-subbed version of the show.


Who created the element hassium?

Also in 1984, a research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI; "Institute for Heavy Ion Research") in Darmstadt, Hesse, West Germany, attempted to create element 108. The team bombarded a target of lead with accelerated nuclei of iron. They reported synthesis of 3 atoms of 108.

Hassium

Hassium is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Hs and atomic number 108. It is named after the German state of Hesse. It is a synthetic element and radioactive; the most stable known isotope, Hs, has a half-life of approximately 10 seconds.

In the periodic table of the elements, it is a d-block transactinide element. Hassium is a member of the 7th period and belongs to the group 8 elements: it is thus the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals. Chemistry experiments have confirmed that hassium behaves as the heavier homologue to osmium in group 8. The chemical properties of hassium are characterized only partly, but they compare well with the chemistry of the other group 8 elements. In bulk quantities, hassium is expected to be a silvery metal that reacts readily with oxygen in the air, forming a volatile tetroxide.

The synthesis of element 108 was first attempted in 1978 by a research team led by Yuri Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research (JINR) in Dubna, Moscow Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union. The team used a reaction that would generate 108 from radium and calcium. The researchers were uncertain in interpreting result data; the paper did not unambiguously claim discovery. That same year, another team at JINR investigated the possibility of synthesis of element 108 in reactions between lead and iron; they were uncertain in interpreting result data as well, openly suggesting a possibility that element 108 had not been created.

New experiments were performed in 1983. In each experiment, a thin layer of a target material was installed on a rotating wheel and bombarded at a shallow angle. This was made so that fission fragments from spontaneously fissioning nuclides formed could escape the target and be detected in a number of fission track detectors surrounding the wheel. The experiments probably resulted in synthesis of element 108: bismuth was bombarded with manganese to obtain 108, lead was bombarded with iron to obtain 108, and californium was bombarded with neon to obtain 108. These experiments were not claimed as a discovery and were only announced by Oganessian in a conference rather than in a written report.

In 1984, researchers in Dubna published a written report. The researchers performed a number of experiments set up as the previous ones with, bombarding target materials (bismuth and lead) with ions of lighter element (manganese and iron, correspondingly).

In 1985, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP) formed a Joint Working Party (JWP) to assess discoveries and establish final names for the elements with atomic number greater than 100. The party held meetings with delegates from the three competing institutes; in 1990, they established criteria on recognition of an element, and in 1991, they finished the work on assessing discoveries, and disbanded. These results were published in 1993.

According to the report, the 1984 works from JINR and GSI simultaneously independently established synthesis of element 108. Of the two 1984 works, the one from GSI was said to be sufficient as a discovery on its own, while the JINR work, which preceded the GSI one, "very probably" displayed synthesis of element 108, but that is determined in retrospect given the work from Darmstadt. The report concluded that the major credit should be awarded to GSI.

According to Mendeleev's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements, hassium should be known as "eka-osmium". In 1979, IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called "unniloctium" (with the corresponding symbol of "Uno"), a systematic element name as a placeholder, until the element was discovered (and the discovery then confirmed) and a permanent name was decided on. Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels, from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks, the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field, who either called it "element 108", with the symbol of "E108", "(108)", or even simply "108", or used the proposed name "hassium".

The name "hassium" was proposed by Peter Armbruster and his colleagues, the officially recognised German discoverers, in September 1992. It is derived from the Latin name "Hassia" for the German state of Hesse where the institute is located. In 1994, IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry recommended that element 108 be named "hahnium" (Hn) after the German physicist Otto Hahn so that elements named after Hahn and Lise Meitner (meitnerium) would be next to each other, honoring their joint discovery of nuclear fission. This was because they felt that Hesse did not merit an element being named after it. GSI protested saying that this contradicted the long-standing convention to give the discoverer the right to suggest a name; the American Chemical Society supported the GSI. IUPAC relented and the name "hassium" (Hs) was adopted internationally in 1997.

Hassium is not known to occur naturally on Earth; the half-lives of all its known isotopes are short enough that no primordial hassium would have survived to the present day. This does not rule out the possibility of unknown longer-lived isotopes or nuclear isomers existing, some of which could still exist in trace quantities today if they are long-lived enough. In the early 1960s, it was predicted that long-lived deformed isomers of hassium might occur naturally on Earth in trace quantities. This was theorized in order to explain the extreme radiation damage in some minerals that could not have been caused by any known natural radioisotopes, but could have been caused by superheavy elements.

In 1963, Soviet scientist Viktor Cherdyntsev, who had previously claimed the existence of primordial curium-247, claimed to have discovered element 108 (specifically, the Hs isotope, which supposedly had a half-life of 400 to 500 million years) in natural molybdenite and suggested the name "sergenium" (symbol Sg; at the time, this symbol had not yet been taken by seaborgium) for it; this name takes its origin in the name for the Silk Road and was explained as "coming from Kazakhstan". His rationale for claiming that sergenium was the heavier homologue to osmium was that minerals supposedly containing sergenium formed volatile oxides when boiled in nitric acid, similarly to osmium. His findings were criticized by Soviet physicist Vladimir Kulakov on the grounds that some of the properties Cherdyntsev claimed sergenium had were inconsistent with the then-current nuclear physics.

The chief questions raised by Kulakov were that the claimed alpha decay energy of sergenium was many orders of magnitude lower than expected and the half-life given was eight orders of magnitude shorter than what would be predicted for a nuclide alpha decaying with the claimed decay energy, but at the same time a corrected half-life in the region of 10 years would be impossible as it would imply that the samples contained about 100 milligrams of sergenium. In 2003 it was suggested that the observed alpha decay with energy 4.5 MeV could be due to a low-energy and strongly enhanced transition between different hyperdeformed states of a hassium isotope around Hs, thus suggesting that the existence of superheavy elements in nature was at least possible, although unlikely.

In 2004, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research conducted a search for natural hassium. This was done underground to avoid interference and false positives from cosmic rays, but no results have been released, strongly implying that no natural hassium was found. The possible extent of primordial hassium on Earth is uncertain; it might now only exist in traces, or could even have completely decayed by now after having caused the radiation damage long ago.

In 2006, it was hypothesized that an isomer of Hs might have a half-life of around years, which would explain the observation of alpha particles with energies of around 4.4 MeV in some samples of molybdenite and osmiridium. This isomer of Hs could be produced from the beta decay of Bh and Sg, which, being homologous to rhenium and molybdenum respectively, should occur in molybdenite along with rhenium and molybdenum if they occurred in nature. Since hassium is homologous to osmium, it should also occur along with osmium in osmiridium if it occurred in nature. The decay chains of Bh and Sg are very hypothetical and the predicted half-life of this hypothetical hassium isomer is not long enough for any sufficient quantity to remain on Earth. It is possible that more Hs may be deposited on the Earth as the Solar System travels through the spiral arms of the Milky Way, which would also explain excesses of plutonium-239 found on the floors of the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of Finland, but minerals enriched with Hs are predicted to also have excesses of uranium-235 and lead-207, and would have different proportions of elements that are formed during spontaneous fission, such as krypton, zirconium, and xenon. Thus, the occurrence of hassium in nature in minerals such as molybdenite and osmiride is theoretically possible, but highly unlikely.

A 2007 calculation on the decay properties of unknown neutron-rich isotopes of superheavy elements suggested that the isotope Hs may be the most stable superheavy nucleus against alpha decay and spontaneous fission, as a consequence of the shell closure at "N" = 184. As such, it was considered as a candidate to exist in nature. However, this nucleus is predicted to be highly unstable toward beta decay, and any beta-stable isotopes of hassium (such as Hs) would be too unstable in the other decay channels to possibly be observed in nature. Indeed, a subsequent search for Hs in nature along with its congener osmium was unsuccessful, setting an upper limit to its abundance at 3×10 grams of hassium per gram of osmium.

Hassium has no stable or naturally occurring isotopes. Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory, either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements. Twelve different isotopes have been reported with atomic masses from 263 to 277 (with the exceptions of 272, 274, and 276), three of which, hassium-265, hassium-267, hassium-269, have known metastable states. Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay, but some also undergo spontaneous fission.

The lightest isotopes, which usually have shorter half-lives were synthesized by direct fusion between two lighter nuclei and as decay products. The heaviest isotope produced by direct fusion is Hs; heavier isotopes have only been observed as decay products of elements with larger atomic numbers. In 1999, scientists at University of California in Berkeley, California, United States, announced that they had succeeded in synthesizing three atoms of Og. These parent nuclei were reported to have successively emitted three alpha particles to form hassium-273 nuclei, which were claimed to have undergone an alpha decay, emitting alpha particles with decay energies of 9.78 and 9.47 MeV and half-life 1.2 s, but their claim was retracted in 2001 as it came out the data was fabricated. The isotope was successfully produced in 2010 by the same team. The new data matched the previous (fabricated) data.

According to calculations, 108 is a proton magic number for deformed nuclei (nuclei that are far from spherical), and 162 is a neutron magic number for deformed nuclei. This means that such nuclei are permanently deformed in their ground state but have high, narrow fission barriers to further deformation and hence relatively long life-times to spontaneous fission. The spontaneous fission half-lives in this region are typically reduced by a factor of 10 in comparison with those in the vicinity of the spherical doubly magic nucleus Fl, caused by the narrower fission barrier for such deformed nuclei. Hence, the nucleus Hs has promise as a deformed doubly magic nucleus. Experimental data from the decay of the darmstadtium (Z=110) isotopes Ds and Ds provides strong evidence for the magic nature of the N=162 sub-shell. The syntheses of Hs, Hs, and Hs also fully support the assignment of N=162 as a magic number. In particular, the low decay energy for Hs is in complete agreement with calculations.

Evidence for the magicity of the Z=108 proton shell can be obtained from two sources: the variation in the partial spontaneous fission half-lives for isotones and the large gap in the alpha Q value for isotonic nuclei of hassium and darmstadtium. For spontaneous fission, it is necessary to measure the half-lives for the isotonic nuclei Sg, Hs and Ds. Since the isotopes Sg and Ds are not currently known, and fission of Hs has not been measured, this method cannot yet be used to confirm the stabilizing nature of the Z=108 shell. Good evidence for the magicity of the Z=108 shell can nevertheless be found from the large differences in the alpha decay energies measured for Hs, Ds and Ds. More conclusive evidence would come from the determination of the decay energy for the unknown nucleus Ds.
Various calculations show that hassium should be the heaviest known group 8 element, consistent with the periodic law. Its properties should generally match those expected for a heavier homologue of osmium, with a few deviations arising from relativistic effects.

The previous members of group 8 have relatively high melting points (Fe, 1538 °C; Ru, 2334 °C; Os, 3033 °C). Much like them, hassium is predicted to be a solid at room temperature, although the melting point of hassium has not been precisely calculated. Hassium should crystallize in the hexagonal close-packed structure (/ = 1.59), similarly to its lighter congener osmium. Pure metallic hassium is calculated to have a bulk modulus (resistance to uniform compression) comparable to that of diamond (442 GPa). Hassium is expected to have a bulk density of 40.7 g/cm, the highest of any of the 118 known elements and nearly twice the density of osmium, the most dense measured element, at 22.61 g/cm. This results from hassium's high atomic weight, the lanthanide and actinide contractions, and relativistic effects, although production of enough hassium to measure this quantity would be impractical, and the sample would quickly decay. Osmium is the densest element of the first 6 periods, and its heavier congener hassium is expected to be the densest element of the first 7 periods.

The atomic radius of hassium is expected to be around 126 pm. Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital, the Hs ion is predicted to have an electron configuration of [Rn] 5f 6d 7s, giving up a 6d electron instead of a 7s electron, which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues. On the other hand, the Hs ion is expected to have an electron configuration of [Rn] 5f 6d 7s, analogous to that calculated for the Os ion.

Hassium is the sixth member of the 6d series of transition metals and is expected to be much like the platinum group metals. Calculations on its ionization potentials, atomic radius, as well as radii, orbital energies, and ground levels of its ionized states are similar to that of osmium, implying that hassium's properties would resemble those of the other group 8 elements, iron, ruthenium, and osmium. Some of these properties were confirmed by gas-phase chemistry experiments. The group 8 elements portray a wide variety of oxidation states, but ruthenium and osmium readily portray their group oxidation state of +8 (the second-highest known oxidation state for any element, which is very rare for other elements) and this state becomes more stable as the group is descended. Thus hassium is expected to form a stable +8 state. Analogously to its lighter congeners, hassium is expected to also show other stable lower oxidation states, such as +6, +5, +4, +3, and +2. Indeed, hassium(IV) is expected to be more stable than hassium(VIII) in aqueous solution.

The group 8 elements show a very distinctive oxide chemistry which allows extrapolations to be made easily for hassium. All the lighter members have known or hypothetical tetroxides, MO. Their oxidising power decreases as one descends the group. FeO is not known due to its extraordinarily large electron affinity (the amount of energy released when an electron is added to a neutral atom or molecule to form a negative ion) which results in the formation of the well-known oxoanion ferrate(VI),. Ruthenium tetroxide, RuO, formed by oxidation of ruthenium(VI) in acid, readily undergoes reduction to ruthenate(VI),. Oxidation of ruthenium metal in air forms the dioxide, RuO. In contrast, osmium burns to form the stable tetroxide, OsO, which complexes with the hydroxide ion to form an osmium(VIII) -"ate" complex, [OsO(OH)]. Therefore, eka-osmium properties for hassium should be demonstrated by the formation of a stable, very volatile tetroxide HsO, which undergoes complexation with hydroxide to form a hassate(VIII), [HsO(OH)]. Ruthenium tetroxide and osmium tetroxide are both volatile, due to their symmetrical tetrahedral molecular geometry and their being charge-neutral; hassium tetroxide should similarly be a very volatile solid. The trend of the volatilities of the group 8 tetroxides is known to be RuO  HsO, which completely confirms the calculated results. In particular, the calculated enthalpies of adsorption (the energy required for the adhesion of atoms, molecules, or ions from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid to a surface) of HsO, −(45.4 ± 1) kJ/mol on quartz, agrees very well with the experimental value of.

Despite the fact that the selection of a volatile hassium compound (hassium tetroxide) for gas-phase chemical studies was clear from the beginning, the chemical characterization of hassium was considered a difficult task for a long time. Although hassium isotopes were first synthesized in 1984, it was not until 1996 that a hassium isotope long-lived enough to allow chemical studies to be performed was synthesized. Unfortunately, this hassium isotope, Hs, was then synthesized indirectly from the decay of Cn; not only are indirect synthesis methods not favourable for chemical studies, but also the reaction that produced the isotope Cn had a low yield (its cross-section was only 1 pb), and thus did not provide enough hassium atoms for a chemical investigation. The direct synthesis of Hs and Hs in the reaction Cm(Mg,xn)Hs (x = 4 or 5) appeared more promising, as the cross-section for this reaction was somewhat larger, at 7 pb. This yield was still around ten times lower than that for the reaction used for the chemical characterization of bohrium. New techniques for irradiation, separation, and detection had to be introduced before hassium could be successfully characterized chemically as a typical member of group 8 in early 2001.

Ruthenium and osmium have very similar chemistry due to the lanthanide contraction, but iron shows some differences from them: for example, although ruthenium and osmium form stable tetroxides in which the metal is in the +8 oxidation state, iron does not. Consequently, in preparation for the chemical characterization of hassium, researches focused on ruthenium and osmium rather than iron, as hassium was expected to also be similar to ruthenium and osmium due to the actinide contraction. Nevertheless, in the planned experiment to study hassocene (Hs(CH)), ferrocene may also be used for comparison along with ruthenocene and osmocene.
The first chemistry experiments were performed using gas thermochromatography in 2001, using Os and Os as a reference. During the experiment, 5 hassium atoms were synthesized using the reaction Cm(Mg,5n)Hs. They were then thermalized and oxidized in a mixture of helium and oxygen gas to form the tetroxide.

The measured deposition temperature indicated that hassium(VIII) oxide is less volatile than osmium tetroxide, OsO, and places hassium firmly in group 8. However, the enthalpy of adsorption for HsO measured,, was significantly lower than what was predicted,, indicating that OsO was more volatile than HsO, contradicting earlier calculations, which implied that they should have very similar volatilities. For comparison, the value for OsO is. It is possible that hassium tetroxide interacts differently with the different chemicals (silicon nitride and silicon dioxide) used for the detector; further research is required, including more accurate measurements of the nuclear properties of Hs and comparisons with RuO in addition to OsO.

In 2004 scientists reacted hassium tetroxide and sodium hydroxide to form sodium hassate(VIII), a reaction well known with osmium. This was the first acid-base reaction with a hassium compound, forming sodium hassate(VIII):

The team from the University of Mainz were planning to study the electrodeposition of hassium atoms using the new TASCA facility at the GSI. Their aim was to use the reaction Ra(Ca,4n)Hs. In addition, scientists at the GSI were hoping to utilize TASCA to study the synthesis and properties of the hassium(II) compound hassocene, Hs(CH), using the reaction Ra(Ca,xn). This compound is analogous to the lighter ferrocene, ruthenocene, and osmocene, and is expected to have the two cyclopentadienyl rings in an eclipsed conformation like ruthenocene and osmocene and not in a staggered conformation like ferrocene. Hassocene was chosen because it has hassium in the low formal oxidation state of +2 (although the bonding between the metal and the rings is mostly covalent in metallocenes) rather than the high +8 state which had previously been investigated, and relativistic effects were expected to be stronger in the lower oxidation state. Many metals in the periodic table form metallocenes, so that trends could be more easily determined, and the highly symmetric structure of hassocene and its low number of atoms also make relativistic calculations easier. Hassocene should be a stable and highly volatile compound.

Hassium