What was Donald Malcolm Campbell's last race?

Donald Malcolm Campbell, (23 March 19214 January 1967) was a British speed record breaker who broke eight absolute world speed records on water and on land in the 1950s and 1960s. He remains the only person to set both world land and water speed records in the same year (1964). He died during a water speed record attempt at Coniston Water in the Lake District, England.

Donald Campbell

Donald Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the "Bluebird" cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn Whittall.

Campbell attended St Peter's School, Seaford and Uppingham School. At the outbreak of the Second World War he volunteered for the Royal Air Force, but was unable to serve because of a case of childhood rheumatic fever. He joined Briggs Motor Bodies Ltd in West Thurrock, where he became a maintenance engineer. Subsequently, he was a shareholder in a small engineering company called Kine engineering, producing machine tools. Following his father's death on New Year's Eve, 31 December 1948 and aided by Malcolm's chief engineer, Leo Villa, the younger Campbell strove to set speed records first on water and then land.

He married three times: to Daphne Harvey in 1945, producing daughter Georgina (Gina) Campbell, born on 19 September 1946; to Dorothy McKegg in 1952; and to Tonia Bern in December 1958, which lasted until his death in 1967. Campbell was intensely superstitious, hating the colour green, the number thirteen and believing nothing good ever happened on a Friday. He also had some interest in the paranormal, which he nurtured as a member of the Ghost Club.

Campbell was a restless man and seemed driven to emulate, if not surpass, his father's achievements. He was generally light-hearted and was generally, at least until his 1960 crash at the Bonneville Salt Flats, optimistic in his outlook.

Behind the public façade of speed king, he was a complex character — proud and vulnerable, increasingly anxious about his place in the world. Campbell was a great patriot and saw his achievements as being for the greater good of Britain.

Campbell began his speed record attempts in the summer of 1949, using his father's old boat, "Blue Bird K4", which he renamed Bluebird K4. His initial attempts that summer were unsuccessful, although he did come close to raising his father's existing record. The team returned to Coniston Water, Lancashire in 1950 for further trials. While there, they heard that an American, Stanley Sayres, had raised the record from, beyond K4's capabilities without substantial modification.

Over the winter of 1950 to 1951, Bluebird K4 was modified to make it a 'prop-rider' as opposed to her original immersed propeller configuration. This greatly reduced hydrodynamic drag as the third planing point would now be the propeller hub, meaning one of the two propeller blades was always out of the water at high speed. She now sported two cockpits, the second one being for Leo Villa.

Bluebird K4 now had a chance of exceeding Sayers' record and also enjoyed success as a circuit racer, winning the Oltranza Cup in Italy in the spring of that year. Returning to Coniston in September, they finally got Bluebird up to 170 mph after further trials, only to suffer a structural failure at which wrecked the boat. Sayers raised the record the following year to in Slo-Mo-Shun IV.

Along with Campbell, Britain had another potential contender for Water Speed Record honours - John Cobb. He had commissioned the world's first purpose-built turbojet Hydroplane, "Crusader", with a target speed of over, and began trials on Loch Ness in autumn 1952. Cobb was killed later that year, when Crusader broke up, during an attempt on the record. Campbell was devastated at Cobb's loss, but he resolved to build a new Bluebird boat to bring the WSR back to Britain.

In early 1953, Campbell began development of his own advanced all-metal jet-powered "Bluebird K7" hydroplane to challenge the record, by now held by the American prop rider hydroplane Slo-Mo-Shun IV.[1] Designed by Ken and Lew Norris, the K7 was a steel framed, aluminium bodied, three-point hydroplane with a Metropolitan-Vickers Beryl axial-flow turbojet engine, producing 3,500 pound-force (16 kN) of thrust.

Like Slo-Mo-Shun, but unlike Cobb's tricycle Crusader, the three planing points were arranged with two forward, on outrigged sponsons and one aft, in a "pickle-fork" layout, prompting Bluebird's early comparison to a blue lobster. K7 was of very advanced design and construction, and its load bearing steel space frame ultra rigid and stressed to 25g (exceeding contemporary military jet aircraft). It had a design speed of and remained the only successful jet-boat in the world until the late 1960s.

The designation "K7" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration. It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol. Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the 'Unlimited' series.

Campbell set seven world water speed records in K7 between July 1955 and December 1964. The first of these marks was set at Ullswater on 23 July 1955, where he achieved a speed of but only after many months of trials and a major redesign of Bluebird's forward sponson attachments points. Campbell achieved a steady series of subsequent speed-record increases with the boat during the rest of the decade, beginning with a mark of in 1955 on Lake Mead in Nevada. Subsequently, four new marks were registered on Coniston Water, where Campbell and Bluebird became an annual fixture in the latter half of the '50s, enjoying significant sponsorship from the Mobil oil company and then subsequently BP.

Campbell also made an attempt in 1957 at Canandaigua in New York state in the summer of 1957, which failed due to lack of suitable calm water conditions. Bluebird K7 became a well known and popular attraction, and as well as her annual Coniston appearances, K7 was displayed extensively in the UK, USA, Canada and Europe, and then subsequently in Australia during Campbell's prolonged attempt on the land speed record (LSR) in 1963-64.

In order to extract more speed, and endow the boat with greater high speed stability, in both pitch and yaw, K7 was subtly modified in the second half of the 1950s to incorporate more effective streamlining with a blown Perspex cockpit canopy and fluting to the lower part of the main hull. In 1958, a small wedge shaped tail fin, housing an arrester parachute, modified sponson fairings, that gave a significant reduction in forward aerodynamic lift, and a fixed hydrodynamic stabilising fin, attached to the transom to aid directional stability, and exert a marginal down-force on the nose were incorporated into the design to increase the safe operating envelope of the hydroplane. Thus she reached in 1956, where an unprecedented peak speed of was achieved on one run, in 1957, in 1958 and in 1959.

Campbell was awarded the CBE in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the USA which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.

It was after the Lake Mead WSR success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the Land Speed Record as well were planted. The following year, the serious planning was under way - to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at set by John Cobb in 1947. The Norris brothers designed "Bluebird-Proteus CN7" with in mind.

The brothers were even more enthusiastic about the car than the boat and like all of his projects, Campbell wanted Bluebird CN7, to be the best of its type, a showcase of British engineering skills. The British motor industry in the guise of Dunlop, BP, Smiths Industries and Lucas Automotive,Rubery Owen as well as many others, became heavily involved in the project to build the most advanced car the world had yet seen. CN7 was powered by a specially modified Bristol-Siddeley Proteus free-turbine engine of driving all four wheels. Bluebird CN7 was designed to achieve 475–500 mph and was completed by the spring of 1960.

Following low-speed tests conducted at the Goodwood motor racing circuit in Sussex, in July, the "CN7" was taken to the Bonneville Salt Flats in Utah, USA, scene of his father's last LSR triumph, some 25 years earlier in September 1935. The trials initially went well, and various adjustments were made to the car. On the sixth run in CN7, Campbell lost control at over 360 mph and crashed. It was the car's tremendous structural integrity that saved his life. He was hospitalised with a fractured skull and a burst eardrum, as well as minor cuts and bruises but "CN7" was a write off. Almost immediately, Campbell announced he was determined to have another go. Sir Alfred Owen, whose Rubery Owen industrial group had built CN7, offered to rebuild it for him. That single decision was to have a profound influence on the rest of Campbell's life. His original plan had been to break the LSR at over 400 mph in 1960, return to Bonneville the following year to really bump up the speed to something near to 500 mph, get his seventh WSR with K7 and then retire, as undisputed champion of speed and perhaps just as important, secure in the knowledge that he was worthy of his father's legacy.

Campbell decided not to go back to Utah for the new trials. He felt the Bonneville course was too short at and the salt surface was in poor condition. BP offered to find another venue and eventually after a long search, Lake Eyre, in South Australia, was chosen. It hadn't rained there for nine years and the vast dry bed of the salt lake offered a course of up to. By the summer of 1962, Bluebird CN7 was rebuilt, some nine months later than Campbell had hoped. It was essentially the same car, but with the addition of a large stabilising tail fin and a reinforced fibreglass cockpit cover. At the end of 1962, CN7 was shipped out to Australia ready for the new attempt. Low-speed runs had just started when the rains came. The course was compromised and further rain meant, that by May 1963, Lake Eyre was flooded to a depth of 3 inches, causing the attempt to be abandoned. Campbell was heavily criticised in the press for alleged time wasting and mismanagement of the project, despite the fact that he could hardly be held responsible for the unprecedented weather.

To make matters worse for Campbell, American Craig Breedlove drove his pure thrust jet car 'Spirit of America' to a speed of at Bonneville in July 1963. Although the 'car' did not conform to FIA (Federation Internationale de L'Automobile) regulations, that stipulated it had to be wheel-driven and have a minimum of four wheels, in the eyes of the world, Breedlove was now the fastest man on earth.

Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain. BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.

The track never properly dried out and Campbell was forced to make the best of the conditions. Finally, in July 1964, he was able to post some speeds that approached the record. On the 17th of that month, he took advantage of a break in the weather and made two courageous runs along the shortened and still damp track, posting a new LSR of. The surreal moment was captured in a number of well-known images by photographers, including Australia's Jeff Carter.
Campbell was bitterly disappointed with the record as the vehicle had been designed for much higher speeds. "CN7" covered the final third of the measured mile at an average of, peaking as it left the measured distance at over. He resented the fact that it had all been so difficult. 'We've made it – we got the bastard at last,' was his reaction to the success. Campbell's 403.1 mph represented the official Land Speed Record.

In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, President of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.

Campbell now planned to go after the Water Speed Record one more time with Bluebird K7 - to do what he had aimed for so many years ago, during the initial planning stages of CN7 – break both records in the same year. After more delays, he finally achieved his seventh WSR at Lake Dumbleyung near Perth, Western Australia, on the last day of 1964, at a speed of. He had become the first, and so far only, person to set both land and water speed records in the same year.

Campbell's LSR was short-lived, because FIA rule changes meant that pure jet cars would be eligible to set records from October 1964. Campbell's speed on his final Lake Eyre run remained the highest speed achieved by a wheel-driven car until 2001; "Bluebird CN7" is now on display at the National Motor Museum at Beaulieu in Hampshire, England, its potential only partly realised.

Campbell decided a massive jump in speed was called for following his successful 1964 LSR attempt in Bluebird CN7. His vision was of a supersonic rocket car with a potential maximum speed of. Norris Brothers were requested to undertake a design study. Bluebird Mach 1.1 was a design for a rocket-powered supersonic land speed record car.
Campbell chose a lucky date to hold a press conference at the Charing Cross Hotel on 7 July 1965 to announce his future record breaking plans:

Bluebird Mach 1.1 was to be rocket-powered. Ken Norris had calculated using rocket motors would result in a vehicle with very low frontal area, greater density, and lighter weight than if he went down the jet engine route. Bluebird Mach 1.1 would also be a relatively compact and simple design. Norris specified two off-the-shelf Bristol Siddeley BS.605 rocket engines. The 605 had been developed as a take-off assist rocket engine for military aircraft and was fuelled with kerosene, using hydrogen peroxide as the oxidizer. Each engine was rated at thrust. In Bluebird Mach 1.1 application, the combined thrust would be equivalent of 36,000 bhp (27,000 kW; 36,000 PS) at.

In order to increase publicity for his rocket car venture, in the spring of 1966, Campbell decided to try once more for a water speed record. This time the target was. "Bluebird K7" was fitted with a lighter and more powerful Bristol Orpheus engine, taken from a Folland Gnat jet aircraft, which developed of thrust. The modified boat was taken back to Coniston in the first week of November 1966. The trials did not go well. The weather was appalling, and "K7" suffered an engine failure when her air intakes collapsed and debris was drawn into the engine. By the middle of December, some high-speed runs were made, in excess of but still well below Campbell's existing record. Problems with "Bluebird"'s fuel system meant that the engine could not reach full rpm, and so would not develop maximum power. Eventually, by the end of December, after further modifications to her fuel system, and the replacement of a fuel pump, the fuel starvation problem was fixed, and Campbell awaited better weather to mount an attempt.

On 4 January 1967, weather conditions were finally suitable for an attempt. Campbell commenced the first run of his last record attempt at just after 8.45 am. Bluebird moved slowly out towards the middle of the lake, where she paused briefly as Campbell lined her up. With a deafening blast of power, Campbell now applied full throttle and Bluebird began to surge forward. Clouds of spray issued from the jet-pipe, water poured over the rear spar and after a few hundred yards, at 70 mph, Bluebird unstuck from the surface and rocketed off towards the southern end of the lake, producing her characteristic comet's tail of spray.
She entered the measured kilometre at 8:46. Leo Villa witnessed her passing the first marker buoy at about in perfect steady planing trim, her nose slightly down, still accelerating.
7.525 seconds later, Keith Harrison saw her leave the measured kilometre at a speed of over. The average speed for the first run was. Campbell lifted his foot from the throttle about 3/10 of a second before passing the southern kilometre marker. As Bluebird left the measured kilometre, Keith Harrison and Eric Shaw in a course boat at the southern end of the measured kilo both noticed that she was very light around the bows, riding on her front stabilising fins. Her planing trim was no worse than she had exhibited when equipped with the Beryl engine, but it was markedly different from that observed by Leo Villa at the northern end of the kilometre, when she was under full acceleration. Campbell had made his usual commentary throughout the run.
Campbell's words on his first run were, via radio intercom:

Instead of refuelling and waiting for the wash of this run to subside, Campbell decided to make the return run immediately. This was not an unprecedented diversion from normal practice, as Campbell had used the advantage presented i.e. no encroachment of water disturbances on the measured kilometre by the quick turn-a-round, in many previous runs. The second run was even faster once severe tramping subsided on the run-up from Peel Island (caused by the water-brake disturbance). Once smooth water was reached some 700 metres or so from the start of the kilometre, K7 demonstrated cycles of ground effect hovering before accelerating hard at 0.63g to a peak speed of some 200 metres or so from the southern marker buoy. Bluebird was now experiencing bouncing episodes of the starboard sponson with increasing ferocity. At the peak speed, the most intense and long-lasting bounce precipitated a severe decelerating episode (328 mph - 296 mph, -1.86g) as K7 dropped back onto the water. Engine flame-out then occurred and, shorn of thrust nose-down momentum, K7 experienced a gliding episode in strong ground effect with increasing angle-of-attack, before completely leaving the water at her static stability pitch-up limit of 5.2°. Bluebird then executed an almost complete somersault (~ 320° and slightly off-axis) before plunging into the water (port sponson marginally in advance of the starboard), approximately 230 metres from the end of the measured kilometre. The boat then cartwheeled across the water before coming to rest. The impact broke K7 forward of the air intakes (where Campbell was sitting) and the main hull sank shortly afterwards.

Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered. Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of K7 was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body. Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.

Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:

The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):

On 28 January 1967 Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct "for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record."

The wreckage of Campbell's craft was recovered by the Bluebird Project between October 2000, when the first sections were raised, and May 2001, when Campbell's body was recovered. The largest section comprising approximately two thirds of the centre hull was raised on 8 March 2001. The project began when diver Bill Smith was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the Marillion song "Out of this World" (from the album "Afraid of Sunlight"), which was written about Campbell and "Bluebird".

The recovered wreck revealed that the water brake had deployed after the accident as a result of stored accumulator pressure; Campbell would not have had time to deploy the relatively slow-moving brake as the boat flipped out of control. The boat still contained fuel in the engine fuel lines, discounting the fuel-starvation theory. The wreckage all evidenced an impact from left to right, wiping the whole front of the boat off in that direction. Campbell's lower harness mounts had failed and were found to be effectively useless. Further dives recovered various parts of K7, which had separated from the main hull when it broke up on impact.

Campbell's body was finally located just over two months later and recovered from the lake on 28 May 2001, still wearing his blue nylon overalls. On the night before his death, while playing cards he had drawn the queen and the ace of spades. Reflecting upon the fact that Mary, Queen of Scots had drawn the same two cards the night before she was beheaded, he told his mechanics, who were playing cards with him, that he had a fearful premonition that he was going to “get the chop”. It was not possible to determine the cause of Campbell's death, though a consultant engineer giving evidence to the inquest said that the force of the impact could have caused him to be decapitated.
Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 after his coffin was carried down the lake, and through the measured kilometre, on a launch, one last time. A funeral service was then held at St Andrew's Church in Coniston, after an earlier, and positive DNA examination had been carried out. The funeral was attended by his widow Tonia, daughter Gina, other members of his family, members of his former team and admirers. The funeral was overshadowed in the media by coverage of the 9/11 attacks in the United States. Campbell's sister, Jean Wales, had been against the recovery of her brother's body out of respect for his stated wish that, in the event of something going wrong, "Skipper and boat stay together". Jean Wales did, however, remain in daily telephone contact with project leader Bill Smith during the recovery operation in anticipation of any news of her brother's remains. When Campbell was buried in Coniston Cemetery on 12 September 2001 she did not attend the service. Steve Hogarth, lead singer for Marillion, was present at the funeral and performed the song "Out of this World" solo.

Between them, Donald Campbell and his father had set eleven speed records on water and ten on land.

The story of Campbell's last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the BBC television film "Across the Lake" in 1988, with Anthony Hopkins as Campbell. Nine years earlier, Robert Hardy had played Campbell's father, Sir Malcolm Campbell, in the "BBC2 Playhouse" television drama "Speed King"; both were written by Roger Milner and produced by Innes Lloyd. In 2003, the BBC showed a documentary reconstruction of Campbell's fateful water-speed record attempt in an episode of "Days That Shook the World". It featured a mixture of modern reconstruction and original film footage. All of the original colour clips were taken from a film capturing the event, "Campbell at Coniston" by John Lomax, a local amateur filmmaker from Wallasey, England. Lomax's film won awards worldwide in the late 1960s for recording the final weeks of Campbell's life.

In 1956, he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show "This Is Your Life".

An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.

In the village of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum has a display of Donald Campbell memorabilia, and the Bristol Orpheus engine recovered in 2001 is also displayed. The engine's casing is mostly missing, having acted as a sacrificial anode in its time underwater, but the internals are remarkably preserved. Campbell's helmet from the ill-fated run is also on display.

On Thursday 7 December 2006 Gina Campbell, Donald's daughter, formally gifted the recovered wreckage of Bluebird K7 to the Ruskin Museum in Coniston on behalf of the Campbell Family Heritage Trust. In agreement with the Trust and the museum Bill Smith is to organise the restoration of the boat, which is now under way.[9] Now the joint property of the Ruskin Museum and The Bluebird Project, the intention is to rebuild K7 back to running order circa 4 January 1967. Bill Smith has said that this will take an undisclosed number of years to accomplish. Gina Campbell commented: "I've decided to secure the future of Bluebird for the people of Coniston, the Ruskin Museum and the people of the world". Museum Director Vicky Slowe spoke of Gina's generosity and then said: "Bill Smith has assured us he can get Bluebird fully conserved and reconfigured at no cost to the museum. As of 2008, K7 is being fully restored by The Bluebird Project, to a very high standard of working condition in North Shields, Tyne and Wear, using a significant proportion of her original fabric, but with a replacement BS Orpheus engine of the same type albeit incorporating many original components."

As of May 2009 permission has been given for a one-off set of proving trials of Bluebird on Coniston Water, where she will be tested to a safe speed for demonstration purposes only. There is no fixed date for completion of Bluebird K7 or the trials. When not running K7 will be housed in her own purpose built wing at the Ruskin Museum in Coniston, while remaining in the care of The Bluebird Project.

On 20 March 2018 the restoration was featured on the BBC's The One Show,[10] where it was announced that Bluebird K7 would return to the water on Loch Fad, on the Isle of Bute in Scotland, in August 2018 for handling trials.
Refloating and initial trials
In August 2018, initial restoration work on Bluebird was completed. She was transported to Loch Fad where she was refloated on 4 August 2018.[11] Following initial engine trials on 5 August, Bluebird completed a series of test runs on the loch, reaching speeds of about 150 mph (240 km/h).[12] For safety reasons, there are no plans to attempt to reach any higher speeds.

Donald Campbell

Donald Campbell was born at Canbury House, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, the son of Malcolm, later Sir Malcolm Campbell, holder of 13 world speed records in the 1920s and 1930s in the "Bluebird" cars and boats, and his second wife, Dorothy Evelyn Whittall.

Campbell was a restless man and seemed driven to emulate, if not surpass, his father's achievements. He was generally light-hearted and was generally, at least until his 1960 crash at the Bonneville Salt Flats, optimistic in his outlook.

Behind the public façade of speed king, he was a complex character — proud and vulnerable, increasingly anxious about his place in the world. Campbell was a great patriot and saw his achievements as being for the greater good of Britain.

The designation "K7" was derived from its Lloyd's unlimited rating registration. It was carried on a prominent white roundel on each sponson, underneath an infinity symbol. Bluebird K7 was the seventh boat registered at Lloyds in the 'Unlimited' series.

Campbell was awarded the CBE in January 1957 for his water speed record breaking, and in particular his record at Lake Mead in the USA which earned him and Britain very positive acclaim.

It was after the Lake Mead WSR success in 1955 that the seeds of Campbell's ambition to hold the Land Speed Record as well were planted. The following year, the serious planning was under way - to build a car to break the land speed record, which then stood at set by John Cobb in 1947. The Norris brothers designed "Bluebird-Proteus CN7" with in mind.

Campbell returned to Australia in March 1964, but the Lake Eyre course failed to fulfil the early promise it had shown in 1962 and there were further spells of rain. BP pulled out as his main sponsor after a dispute, but he was able to secure backing from Australian oil company Ampol.

In 1969, after Campbell's fatal accident, his widow, Tonia Bern-Campbell negotiated a deal with Lynn Garrison, President of Craig Breedlove and Associates, that would see Craig Breedlove run Bluebird on Bonneville's Salt Flats. This concept was cancelled when the parallel Spirit of America supersonic car project failed to find support.

Mr Whoppit, Campbell's teddy bear mascot, was found among the floating debris and the pilot's helmet was recovered. Royal Navy divers made efforts to find and recover the body but, although the wreck of K7 was found, they called off the search, after two weeks, without locating his body. Campbell's body was finally located in 2001.

Campbell's last words, during a 31-second transmission, on his final run were, via radio intercom:

The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to several possible causes (or a combination of these causes):

On 28 January 1967 Campbell was posthumously awarded the Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct "for courage and determination in attacking the world water speed record."

Between them, Donald Campbell and his father had set eleven speed records on water and ten on land.

In 1956, he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for the seventh episode of the new television show "This Is Your Life".

An English Heritage blue plaque commemorates Campbell and his father at Canbury School, Kingston Hill, Kingston upon Thames, where they lived.


Does Punjab still exist?

Punjab is the second largest province in Pakistan. It is known for its ancient cultural heritage as well as its religious diversity. The lands of Punjab have been home to a number of religions and civilisations. The Indus Valley Civilization once ruled the region and a significant archaeological find was discovered at the ancient city of Harrapa. The Gandhara civilisation was also quite dominant in the northern region of Punjab at the site of Taxila. Several other civilisations such as Greeks, Central Asians, and Persians ruled Punjab leaving a number of sites which still exist today. The arrival of Islam came about during the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate followed by the Ghaznavids. The Mughals took control of the region and ruled its land for several centuries. The mughal heritage remained quite strong in Punjab with a large number of forts, tombs and monuments still intact today. The Durrani Empire ruled the Punjab at the fall of the Mughal Empire for a short period following the rise of the Sikh Empire. The strong control of the Sikhs also lead to a number of sites still remaining intact throughout Punjab. The British Raj took control of the region until the independence.

Tourism in Punjab, Pakistan

Tourism in Punjab is regulated by the Tourism Development Corporation of Punjab. There are a number of large cosmopolitan cities in Punjab. The provincial capital, Lahore is the second largest city of Pakistan as is known to the "Cultural Heart of Pakistan". The Mughal Empire left behind the Lahore Fort and Shalimar Gardens which are now recognised World Heritage Sites. The Walled City of Lahore, Badshahi Mosque, Wazir Khan Mosque, Tomb of Jahangir and Nur Jahan, Tomb of Asaf Khan and Chauburji are other major sites visited by tourists each year. The tomb of Qutb-ud-din Aibak from the Delhi Sultanate is located in the historical market of Anarkali Bazaar in Lahore. The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh and Hazuri Bagh Baradari are prime example of Sikh architecture during the rule of the Sikh Empire. There a number of other sites within Lahore such as Minar-e-Pakistan, Lahore Museum, Data Durbar Complex, Tomb of Muhammad Iqbal, Bagh-e-Jinnah, Lahore Zoo, Tomb of Shah Jamal, Sukh Chayn Gardens, Gaddafi Stadium which all create a large number of visitors annually.

Rawalpindi is known to be a famous hill station stop for tourists before setting out to Murree, Bhurban, Patriata, Northern Areas, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. The Pharwala Fort is a major fort on the outskirts of the city built by an ancient Hindu civilisation. There are a number of sites from the Mughal Empire in the city of Sheikhupura called Hiran Minar and the Sheikhupura Fort. The Rohtas Fort near Jhelum is a major fort built by Sher Shah Suri is a World Heritage Site. The Katasraj temple in the city of Chakwal is a major destination for Hindu devotees. The Khewra Salt Mines is another major tourist attraction as its one of the oldest mines in South Asia. The city of Nankana Sahib is birthplace of the founder of Sikhism. The Gurdwara is visited by a number of pilgrims ever year to mark Guru Nanak Dev birthday. Another famous gurdwara in Punjab is Panja Sahib located in the city of Hasan Abdal. The clock tower and eight bazaars of Faisalabad are famous for its bazaars since they were designed to represent the Union Jack flag.

Travelling southwards, the region starts to become more desertic. Multan is another major tourist destination in Punjab. It is known for its mausoleums of saints and Sufi pirs. The most famous being the Rukn-e-Alam and Baha-ud-din Zakariya. The Multan Museum and Nuagaza tombs are so significant attractions in the city. The city of Bahwalpur is a major destination as it is located near the Cholistan Desert and Thar Desert. The Derawar Fort is a large fort built in the Cholistan Desert which is also the site for the annual Cholistan Jeep Rally. The city is also near the ancient site of Uch Sharif which was once a Delhi Sultanate stronghold. The Noor Mahal, Sadiq Ghar Palace, Darbar Mall are large palaces built during the reign of the Nawabs. The Lal Suhanra National Park is a major zoological garden on the outskirts of the city.

Tourism in Pakistan

Tourism in Pakistan is a growing industry. In 2010, Lonely Planet termed Pakistan as being "...tourism's ‘next big thing’ for more years than we care to remember. [But] world media headlines [always] send things off the rails". In 2018, the British Backpacker Society ranked Pakistan as the world's top adventure travel destination, describing the country as "one of the friendliest countries on earth, with mountain scenery that is beyond anyone’s wildest imagination." The country is geographically and ethnically diverse, and has a number of historical and cultural heritage sites. According to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2017 released by the World Economic Forum, the direct contribution of travel and tourism to Pakistan's GDP in 2015 was US$328.3 million, constituting 2.8% of the total GDP. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, the direct contribution of travel and tourism to Pakistan's GDP in 2016 was US$7.6 billion (PKR 793.0 billion), constituting 2.7% of the total GDP. By 2025, the government predicts tourism will contribute to the Pakistani economy.

In October 2006, one year after the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, "The Guardian" released what it described as "the top five tourist sites in Pakistan" to help the country's tourism industry. The sites included Lahore, the Karakoram Highway, Karimabad and Lake Saiful Muluk. To promote the country's unique cultural heritage, Pakistan launched the "Visit Pakistan" marketing campaign in 2007. This campaign involved events throughout the year including fairs and religious festivals, regional sporting events, arts and craft shows, folk festivals and openings of historical museums. In 2009, The World Economic Forum's Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report ranked Pakistan as one of the top 25% tourist destinations for its World Heritage sites. It ranged from mangroves in the south, to the 5,000-year-old cities of the Indus Valley Civilization which included Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The main destinations of choice for tourists to Pakistan are the Swat, Lahore, Khyber Pass, Peshawar, Karachi and Rawalpindi.

In 2016, foreign tourists visiting Pakistan stood at 965,498. Pakistan's tourism industry attracted an estimated of 1.1 million foreign tourists annually in 2011 and 966,000 in 2012 contributing $351 million and $369 million respectively. Before declining to 565,212 in 2013 which contributed only $298 million, in 2014, Pakistan received 530,000 foreign tourists contributing $308 million. By comparison, Pakistan's domestic tourism industry is estimated at 50 million tourists who travel in the country on short trips usually between May to August. The largest tourism inflow in 2010 was from United Kingdom, followed by United States, India and China.

The country's attractions range from the ruin of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, to the Himalayan hill stations, for those interested in winter sports. Pakistan is home to several mountain peaks over 7000 m, which draw adventurers and mountaineers from around the world, especially K2. The north part of Pakistan has many old fortresses, ancient architecture and the Hunza, Chitral Valley, home to small Kalash people community and Fairy Meadows, Diamer District of Gilgit Baltistan. The romance of the historic Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province is timeless and legendary, Punjab province has the historic city Lahore, Pakistan's cultural capital, with many examples of Mughal architecture such as Badshahi Masjid, Shalimar Gardens, Tomb of Jahangir and the Lahore Fort. Before the global economic crisis Pakistan received more than 500,000 tourists annually since 2000.

The table lists information about each World Heritage Site in Pakistan.

In 2004, the Ministry of Tourism pushed forward for new sites in Pakistan to become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In total, 26 sites are awaiting to be categorised as of 2016 which include:

There are landmarks and structures that have not yet made the UNESCO Tentative List. Long before the creation of Pakistan in 1947, there were cultures and religions that existed before the independence. Pakistan being the centre of various wars led to several dynasties and tribes ruling its lands. They left landmarks behind which some have become national icons whilst others needing the attention of concerned authorities. Some of these include:

Post-independence Pakistan retained its heritage by constructing sites to commemorate its independence by blending styles and influences from the past. Some of these include:

Tourism is a growing industry in Pakistan. With more and more foreign investment and funding, Pakistan was able to build its major road and air networks to cater mass movements of cargo and inter-city travel. Roads are being developed by several consultants from the Northern Areas all the way down to the Port of Karachi.

Statistics from the last decade show tourism is a "market led industry and not supply driven" which has led a large decline in travel to Pakistan. This has led to fewer tour agencies being set up and development of historical sites. It has been estimated that the public and private sectors have gradually earned less income from the tourism market causing less investment and innovation within the industry. This has led to several sites to depreciate over time and the lack of minimum international standards have left many sites in poor states. The latest budget showed that less money was being spent on research and marketing and more on defence and other fixed markets.

The 2017 World Economic forum's Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report (TTCR) ranked Pakistan 125th out of 136 countries. Low branding and marketing effectiveness and low priority the government gave to the travel and tourism industry.

Some have encouraged the government to again attract tourists to Pakistan by initiating the sponsorship of new businesses in the tourist market: building and maintaining the road and air networks to meet international standards. The maturation of human and natural resources can also contribute in development of this feeble industry. Advertising campaigns need to attract tourist by developing holiday packages tailored to explore the greater regions of the country.

In September 2004 with the bifurcation of the Minorities, Culture, Sports, Tourism and Youth Affairs, tourism was given a separate status of Ministry of Tourism. The Ministry of Tourism was responsible for the policy formulation, development, marketing and promotion of foreign and domestic tourism besides coordination and regulating of federal and provincial governments and private sector activities responsible and involved in tourism.

However, it was not able to achieve any of its objectives and was abolished under Constitutional requirements in Pakistan on June 30, 2011. The promotions of tourism was transferred to the provinces. Now each province runs its own organization that is responsible for tourism. It is now part of Pakistan Tourism Development Corporation or PTDC. It is now responsible for the development of tourism sector.Pakistan is subdivided into four provinces (Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Punjab and Sindh), two federal territories (Islamabad Capital Territory, Federally Administered Tribal Areas) and two autonomous regions (Azad Jammu and Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan).

Gilgit Baltistan is the capital of tourism in Pakistan. Gilgit Baltistan is home to some of the highest peaks in the world, including K2 the second highest peak in the world. Gilgit Baltistan's landscape includes mountains, lakes, glaciers and valleys. Gilgit Baltistan is not only known for its mountains — it is also visited for its landmarks, culture, history and people.
K2 Basecamp, Deosai, Naltar, Fairy Meadows and Hushe valley are common places to visit in Gilgit Baltistan.

Balochistan is the largest province by geographical area of Pakistan, constituting approximately 43% of the total area. Balochistan is home to one of the oldest Neolithic (7000 BC to c. 2500 BC) sites in archaeology. Mehrgarh and Nausharo was an ancient city linked to the Indus Valley Civilization. Ancient sites dating back 800 years are the Nausherwani tombs at Qila Ladgasht. There was also an ancient port at the site of Oraea which proved to be a useful port during the Hellenistic civilisation.

Quetta is the provincial capital of Balochistan. There are a number of sites of interest including the protected Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park, Hanna Lake, Quetta Geological Museum, Balochistan Arts Council Library, Quetta Archaeological Museum as well as Command and Staff College Museum. The Quaid-e-Azam Residency is another major site in Balochistan in the city of Ziarat. Ziarat is famous for the juniper forests which are the oldest and largest in the world. Sibi, is an important historical city in Balochistan. The Jigra Hall has a collection of pieces found at the archaeological sites of Mehrgarh, Nasshero and Pirak. The annual Sibi Festival marks the Horse and Cattle Show.

There are a number of mountain passes within Balochistan. The Bolan Pass has been the main entrance to the provincial city of Quetta. There are several others including Lak Pass, Khojak Pass and Harnai Pass. The Balochistan coastline extends from the Sindh province to the Iranian border measuring a total distance of over 750 km. The city of Gwadar holds the largest port in the province which is based near the ancient area of Makran. Pasni is another medium-sized town known for fishing. Along the Makran Coastal Highway there are several rock formations as well as Kund Malir and the Hingol National Park.

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is located in the north-west region of Pakistan. It is known as the tourist hotspot for adventurers and explorers. The province has a varied landscape ranging from rugged mountains, valleys, hills and dense agricultural farms. The region is well known for its ancestral roots. There are a number of Buddhist archaeological sites from the Gandhara civilisation such as Takht Bhai and Pushkalavati. There are a number of other Buddhist and Hindu archaeological sites including Bala Hisar Fort, Butkara Stupa, Kanishka stupa, Chakdara, Panjkora Valley and Sehri Bahlol.

Peshawar is the provincial capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The city is home to a number of sites including Bala Hisar Fort, Peshawar Museum, archaeological site of Gor Khuttree, Mohabbat Khan Mosque, old city of Sethi Mohallah, Jamrud Fort, the Sphola Stupa and the most famous market of Qissa Khawani. The city of Dera Ismail Khan is known to be the entrance into the province from Punjab and Balochistan. The city is known for its Hindu ruins at Kafir Kot. The Buddhist ruins at Shahbaz Garhi are also famous in the city of Mardan. Heading North, the divisions Swat valley
One of the most important cities in the province is Mansehra. The city is a major stop for tourists setting out to the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. The city is connected by the Karakoram Highway which ends up in China. Along the route there are several stops including the Kaghan Valley, Balakot, Naran, Shogran, Lake Saiful Mulook and Babusar Top. There are also several other sites within the province which attract a large number of tourist every year including Ayubia, Batkhela, Chakdara, Saidu Sharif, Kalam Valley and Hindu Kush mountain range in Chitral.

There are also several mountain passes that run through the province. One of the most famous is the Khyber Pass which links Afghanistan with Pakistan. The trade route sees a large number of trucks and lorries importing and exporting goods in and out of the region. The Babusar Pass is another mountain pass connecting the Thak Nala with Chilas on the Karakorum Highway. The Lowari Pass is another pass which connects Chitral with Dir via the Lowari Tunnel. The highest mountain pass in Pakistan is Shandur Pass which connects Chitral to Gilgit and is known as the "Roof of the World". The pass is the centre of three mountain ranges – Hindukush, Pamir and Karakoram.

Rawalpindi is known to be a famous hill station stop for tourists before setting out to Murree, Bhurban, Patriata, Northern Areas, Azad Kashmir and Gilgit-Baltistan. The Pharwala Fort is a major fort on the outskirts of the city built by an ancient Hindu civilisation. There are a number of sites from the Mughal Empire in the city of Sheikhupura called Hiran Minar and the Sheikhupura Fort. The Rohtas Fort near Jhelum is a major fort built by Sher Shah Suri is a World Heritage Site. The Katasraj temple in the city of Chakwal is a major destination for Hindu devotees. The Khewra Salt Mines is another major tourist attraction as its one of the oldest mines in South Asia. The city of Nankana Sahib is birthplace of the founder of Sikhism. The Gurdwara is visited by a number of pilgrims ever year to mark Guru Nanak Dev birthday. Another gurdwara in Punjab is Panja Sahib located in the city of Hasan Abdal. The clock tower and eight bazaars of Faisalabad are famous for its bazaars since they were designed to represent the Union Jack flag.

Travelling southwards, the region starts to become more desertic. Multan is another major tourist destination in Punjab. It is known for its mausoleums of saints and Sufi pirs. The most famous are the Rukn-e-Alam and Baha-ud-din Zakariya. The Multan Museum and Nuagaza tombs are significant attractions in the city. The city of Bahwalpur is a major destination as it is located near the Cholistan Desert and Thar Desert. The Derawar Fort is a large fort built in the Cholistan Desert which is also the site for the annual Cholistan Jeep Rally. The city is also near the ancient site of Uch Sharif which was once a Delhi Sultanate stronghold. The Noor Mahal, Sadiq Ghar Palace, Darbar Mall are large palaces built during the reign of the Nawabs. The Lal Suhanra National Park is a major zoological garden on the outskirts of the city.

Sindh is located in the south-eastern region of Pakistan. The province is known for its religious heritage and rapid-urbanisation. The province is home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation. Mohenjo-daro near the city of Larkana was one of the largest city-settlements in South Asia and is an official UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Chaukhandi tombs are another example of ancient Sindhi and Balochi heritage located near the town of Landi. Another ancient city, Aror, located near the city of Sukkur is also a tourist spot known for its ruins. Kahu-Jo-Darro is an ancient Buddhist archaeological site near Mirpurkhas were a Buddhist stupa was excavated.

The first arrival of Islam in the South Asia took place in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. There has been a number of sites within the province that have led archaeologists to suggest this. Makli Hill is one of the largest necropolises in the world. The site is home to a number of ancient tombs and graves of Islamic dynasties. The Talpur Mirs of Hyderabad also left a number of sites including, Tombs of Talpur Mirs, Faiz Mahal in Khairpur, Qasim fort, Pacco Qillo and the Kot Diji Fort in Kot Diji. Another fort built during the Islam invasion was the Ranikot Fort. Like other provinces, Sindh has a number of cultural shrines and mausoleums including Thatta, Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai, Lal Shahbaz Qalander, Shahjahan Mosque, Mazar-e-Quaid, Minar-e-Mir Masum Shah, Bhambore and Garhi Khuda Bakhsh.

Karachi is the provincial capital of the province and largest city of Pakistan. It is home to the founder of the nation, Mohammad Ali Jinnah. His tomb, Mazar-e-Quaid, is the most iconic mausoleum in Pakistan. The city has the largest port in the country, Port of Karachi, followed by the second largest, Port Qasim. Karachi has also been ruled under a number of tribes which meant the city is home to a number of cultural sites including, Mohatta Palace, National Museum of Pakistan, Empress Market, Frere Hall, Jehangir Kothari Parade, Karachi Municipal Corporation Building and the Hindu Gymkhana. There are also several beaches within the city, some of the most famous are Clifton Beach, French Beach, Sandspit Beach and Manora Island.

The province also forms the basin for the Indus river. This has led to a number of lakes being formed in the province. Some of the most notable ones include: Keenjhar Lake, Manchar Lake and the Bakri Waro Lake in Khairpur. The Kirthar National Park is also a protected reserve for several wildlife within the region. The Thar Desert is also located in the province which adjorns it to Punjab and India. The Great Rann of Kutch is a protected wetland site in the province. There are two wildlife sanctuaries in the province: Rann of Kutch Wildlife Sanctuary and the Nara Desert Wildlife Sanctuary. The Sukkur Barrage is another famous icon in the province it was built to alleviate famines caused by lack of rain.

Port Grand Food and Entertainment Complex is a recreational area built in the centre of Karachi, Pakistan along the waterfront of the 19th century Native Jetty Bridge that connects the Karachi Port Trust to Keamari. The complex is expected to attract up to 5,000 visitors a day and is a major hub of shopping, dining, cultural and coastal recreational activities in the city.
Port Grand is located on Napier Mole Bridge a site that is very significant to the history of Karachi and has played a crucial role in making it the city it is today. The project stretches along 1,000 ft of Karachi's ancient 19th century Native Jetty Bridge and spreads over an area of 200,000 sq. ft.
The one kilometre bridge has been transformed into an entertainment and food enclave housing numerous eateries totalling 40,000 sq. ft of climate-controlled area and space for kiosks of exotic Pakistani and foreign food and a variety of beverages.
To get to the Port Grand from anywhere in the city, Port Grand is a straight shot west out of Mai Kolachi, adjacent to the PNSC Building as the road curves into the facility on the right.

Azad Kashmir is the region of Pakistan situated in Northern part of the country.
The northern part of Azad Jammu and Kashmir encompasses the lower part of the Himalayas, including Jamgarh Peak. However, Sarwali peak in the Neelum Valley is the highest peak in the state.Ganga Choti is the peak in Bagh Fertile, green, mountainous valleys are characteristic of Azad Kashmir's geography.

The southern parts of Azad Kashmir, including Bhimber, Mirpur and Kotli districts, have extremely hot weather in summers and moderate cold weather in winters. It receives rains mostly in monsoon weather.In the central and northern parts of state weather remains moderate hot in summers and very cold and chilly in winter. Snow fall also occurs there in December and January. This region receives rainfall in both winters and summers. Muzaffarabad and Pattan are among the wettest areas of the state. Throughout most of the region, the average rainfall exceeds 1400 mm, with the highest average rainfall occurring near Muzaffarabad (around 1800 mm). During summer, monsoon floods of the Jhelum and Leepa river are common, due to high rainfall and melting snow.

Islamabad is the capital of Pakistan. Islamabad is located in the Pothohar Plateau in the northeastern part of the country, between Rawalpindi District and the Margalla Hills National Park to the north. The region has historically been a part of the crossroads of Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa with the Margalla Pass acting as the gateway between the two regions. Faisal Mosque (the largest mosque in South Asia), Margalla Hills National Park, Daman-i-Koh, Pakistan Monument, Rawal Lake, Simli Lake and Fatima Jinnah Park are among the tourists places which are located in Islamabad.

In October 2006, "The Guardian" released what it described as "The top five tourist sites in Pakistan" to help the country's tourism industry. Pakistan was ranked 47 out of 200 countries in an analysis of the World Travel and Tourism Council's (WTTC) growth figures by Lovehomeswap.com, which said "If the country becomes more peaceful, visitor numbers are predicted to rise".

Punjab has not allowed the construction of the SYL and will not allow it ever. All river waters in the world are allocate on the basis of riparian law, however in this case a grave injustice is being done to Punjab. As stated above J&K has started utilizing Ravi water and does not need Punjab s consent. Punjab needs to implement the same formula of utilizing water for its exclusive usage instead of letting it flow to Haryana and Rajasthan who instead of being thankful to Punjab have started demanding its share as well.

Ravi River

The Raavi (,, ) is a transboundary river crossing northwestern India and eastern Pakistan. It is one of six rivers of the Indus System in Punjab region (Punjab means "Five Rivers"). The waters of Raavi are allocated to India under Indus Water Treaty.

Under the Indus Waters Treaty of 1960, the waters of the Raavi and five other rivers are divided between India and Pakistan. Subsequently, the Indus Basin Project has been developed in Pakistan and many inter-basin water transfers, irrigation, hydropower and multipurpose projects have been built in India.

According to ancient history traced to Vedas, the Raavi River was known as Iravati (also spelt "Eeraveti"; )
The Raavi was known as Parushani or Iravati to Indians in Vedic times and as Hydraotes () to the Ancient Greeks.

Part of the battle of the ten kings was fought on a River, which according to Yaska (Nirukta 9.26) refers to the Iravati River (Raavi River) in the Punjab.

The Raavi River, a transboundary river of India and Pakistan, is an integral part of the Indus River Basin and forms the headwaters of the Indus basin. The waters of the Raavi River drain into the Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean) through the Indus River in Pakistan. The river rises in the Bara Bhangal, District Kangra in Himachal Pradesh, India. The river drains a total catchment area of in India after flowing for a length of. Flowing westward, it is hemmed by the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges, forming a triangular zone.

The Raavi River originates in the Himalayas in the Multhan tehsil of Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh, India. It follows a north-westerly course and is a perennial river. It is the smallest of the five Punjab rivers that rises from glacier fields at an elevation of, on the southern side of the Mid Himalayas. It flows through Barabhangal, Bara Bansu and Chamba districts. It flows in rapids in its initial reaches with boulders seen scattered in the bed of the river. The Raavi River in this reach flows in a gorge with a river bed slope of and is mostly fed by snow melt, as this region lies in a rain shadow. Two of its major tributaries, the Budhil and Nai or Dhona join downstream from its source. The Budhil River rises in Lahul range of hills and is sourced from the Manimahesh Kailash Peak and the Manimahesh Lake, at an elevation of, and both are Hindu pilgrimage sites. The entire length of Budhil is where it has a bed slope of. It flows through the ancient capital of Bharmwar, now known as Bharmour in Himachal Pradesh. During 1858–1860, the Raja of Bharmour had considered the Budhil valley as an excellent source of Deodar trees for supply to the British Raj. However, a part of the forest surrounding the temple was considered sacred and declared a reserved area. The second tributary, the Nai, rises at Kali Debi pass, and flows for, with a bed slope of, from its source at Trilokinath to its confluence with the Ravi. This valley was also exploited for its forest wealth during the English period.

Another major tributary that joins the Raavi River, just below Bharmour, the old capital of Chamba, is the Seul River from the northern direction. The valley formed by the river was also exploited for its rich timber trees. However, the valley has large terraces, which are very fertile and known as "the garden of Chamba". crops grown here supply grains to the capital region and to Dalhousie town and its surrounding areas. One more major tributary that joins the Raavi River near Bissoli is the Siawa. This river was also exploited for its forest resources, (controlled by the then Raja of Chamba) originating from the Jammu region. The valley is also formed by another major tributary that joins Seul River, the Baira-Nalla. Its sub-basin is in the Chamba district, located above Tissa. Baira drains the southern slopes of the Pir Panjal Range. The valley has an elevation variation between and.

Tant Gari is another small tributary that rises from the subsidiary hill ranges of the Pir Panjal Range east of Bharmour. The valley formed by this stream is U-shaped with a river bed scattered with boulders and glacial morainic deposits.

The main Raavi River flows through the base of Dalhousie hill, past the Chamba town. It is at an elevation of (where a long wooden bridge existed to cross the Raavi River). It flows into the south-west, near Dalhousie, and then cuts a gorge in the Dhauladhar Range, before entering the Punjab plain near Madhopur and Pathankot. It then flows along the Indo–Pak border for before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab River. The total length of the river is about.

Ujh River is another major tributary of the Raavi River. Its source is in the Kailash mountains at an elevation of, close to the Bhaderwah Mountains in Jammu district. After flowing for, it joins Raavi at Nainkot in Pakistan.

As the Raavi flows past Lahore in Pakistan ( below Amritsar in India) it is called "The river of Lahore" since that city is on its eastern bank. After passing through Lahore the river takes a turn at Kamlia and then debouches into the Chenab River, south of the town of Ahmadpur Sial. On its western bank is the town of Shahdara Bagh with the tomb of Jahangir and the Tomb of Noor Jahan.

According to satellite imagery studies carried out over a period of 20 years (between 1972–1973 and 1991–1993), the river coursing along the India–Pakistan border meanders substantially in the alluvial plains of the Amritsar, pathankot and Gurdaspur districts of Punjab. This has resulted in successive damage in the Indian Territory as a result of the river changing its course towards India. The reason attributed to this change in the course of the river is massive river training structures/bunds constructed by Pakistan in its part of the river, close to the old course of the river. The shift in the course of the river is reported to be towards India.In the trans-boundary Raavi River flowing from India to Pakistan, in urban areas of Lahore the pollution levels in the river discharge are reportedly very high, which is attributed to careless disposal of large amount of industrial and agricultural waste water and faulty drainage systems in both countries. A stretch of the Raavi River from Lahore Siphon to Baloki headworks indicates heavy contamination of the water and sediment with Cd, Cr, Pt and Cu. The river sediments are highly contaminated and have become secondary source for pollution of the river water, even though some control over unauthorised discharges into the river have been checked. Hence, measures to check metal re-mobilization from sediments into the river flows needs attention. The worst affected drainage is the Hadharaam drain, a tributary of the Raavi River. It is also a trans-border problem involving both India and Pakistan. A UNDP funded a special programme was launched in 2006 to address the issue in both countries.

The Raavi valley in its upper reaches has Deodar, walnut, Quercus ilex, mulberry, alder, edible pine ("Pinus gerardiana"), twisted cypress "(Cupressus torulosa)", chinar ("Platanus orientalis"), "daphne papyracea", "cedrela serata", and sisso, olive and kakkar (raus).

The waters of the Raavi River are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty, signed by India and Pakistan. Within India, the river is under the jurisdiction of the riparian states of Punjab and Himachal, and non-riparian states of Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir and Rajasthan, but management is presided by the Supreme Court of India and the Raavi Beas Tribunal, set up in 1986 for the purpose.On the Ravi River, the earliest project built was the Madhopur Headworks, in 1902. It is a run-of-the river project (no storage envisaged) to divert flows through the Upper Bari Doab Canal (also known as Central Bari Doab Canal) to provide irrigation in the command area of the then unified India. Doabas formed by the Raavi River are known as the Rechna Doab – between the Chenab and the Raavi River, and the "Bari Doab" or Majha – between the Raavi and the Beas River. Government of India has assessed the pre-partition use in India (Punjab) at.The Hydropower potential of Raavi River system has been assessed at 2294 MW. The hydropower potential developed since the 1980s is through installation of Baira Suil Hydroelelectric Power Project of 198 MW capacity, the Chamera-I of 540 MW capacity commissioned in 1994, the Ranjitsagar Multipurpose Project (600 MW) completed in 1999 and the Chamera-II of 300 MW capacity in the upstream of Chamera-I commissioned in 2004. As the Raavi river is located at lower level, Indus, Jhelum and Chenab rivers water can be diverted to this river for harnessing huge hydro power potential.

The major multipurpose project (Irrigation, Hydropower, Flood Control, development of Fisheries, Tourism and so forth) built on the river is the Ranjit Sagar Dam (also known as Thein dam as it is in Thein village). The left bank is in Punjab and the right bank is in Jammu and Kashmir. It is located on the main stem of the Raavi River, about upstream of Madhopur Headworks (built during pre-partition time). The project is an outcome of the development plan conceived for the use of the waters of three eastern rivers allocated to India under the Indus Treaty, namely the Sutlej, the Beas and the Raavi, for irrigation, hydropower generation and other consumptive uses.

A proposal for building a storage dam on the Raavi River was initially planned in 1912, envisaging a high dam. A committee later conducted a survey of the area, but it was not until 1954 that geologists fully inspected the project area. In 1957, a storage Dam was proposed on the Ravi River for irrigation purposes only. The power generation aspect was not considered then. It was only in 1964 that the project was conceived for multipurpose development and submitted to Government of India for approval. Finally, in April 1982, the project was approved for construction by the Government of India.

The project, as built now, has a high earth gravel shell dam with a gross irrigation potential of of land and power generation of 600 MW (4 units of 150 MW capacity each).

The geomorpohological setting of the river basin, which has a large number of terraces between Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal ranges, is attributed to the truly Himalayan characteristics of the river reflecting the "cis-Himalayan tectonic; structural, lithological and climatic conditions. Obviously it is different from the antecedent Indus and Sutlej".

The upper reaches of the main Indus River and its tributaries lie in India whereas the lower reaches are in Pakistan. Following the partition of India in August 1947, a dispute arose between India and Pakistan on sharing of the waters of the Indus River Basin. The dispute was resolved with the intervention of the World Bank and a treaty was signed in 1960 on sharing of the Indus waters between India and Pakistan.

The Indus System of Rivers comprises the three Western Rivers in the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab together with three Eastern Rivers; the Sutlej, the Beas and the Raavi. To establish the ownership of these waters, an Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan on 1 April 1960, under monitoring of the World Bank. The treaty, under Article 5.1, envisages the sharing of waters of the rivers Raavi, Beas, Sutlej, Jhelum and Chenab which join the Indus River on its left bank (eastern side) in Pakistan. According to this treaty, Raavi, Beas and Sutlej, which constitute the eastern rivers, are allocated for exclusive use by India before they enter Pakistan. However, a transition period of 10 years was permitted in which India was bound to supply water to Pakistan from these rivers until Pakistan was able to build the canal system for utilisation of waters of Jhelum, Chenab and the Indus itself, allocated to it under the treaty. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the Western Rivers Jhelum, Chenab and Indus but with some stipulations for development of projects on these rivers in India. Pakistan also received one-time financial compensation for the loss of water from the Eastern rivers. Since 31 March 1970, after the 10-year moratorium, India has secured full rights for use of the waters of the three rivers allocated to it. The treaty resulted in partitioning of the rivers rather than sharing of their waters.

Under this treaty, the two countries also agreed to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty envisaged creation of the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner appointed by each country. The Indus Waters Treaty is the only International treaty that has been implemented over the last 60 years with due diligence and sincerity by both India and Pakistan, in spite of many wars fought between the two countries (the treaty was not revoked either by India or Pakistan during the 1965 or the 1971 war).

Even prior to the partition of India in August 1947, India had developed projects on the river Raavi and Beas River system. When the treaty was under debate, India had taken advance action to develop the three rivers, which were eventually allocated to it under the treaty. According to a directive of the Government of India, planning for development of the Raavi and Beas rivers was initiated concurrently with the treaty negotiations, which involved four riparian states of Punjab, PEPSU (this was merged with Punjab and subsequently Punjab was divided, and additionally the Haryana state was created), Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) within the ambit of the already developed Bhakra Nangal Dam project on the Sutlej River. A review of the flows in the two river systems revealed that prior to partition of the country and up to the time of the signing of the Indus Treaty, of water was used by major irrigation systems such as the Upper Bari Doab Canal System (1959) and the Lower Bari Doab Canal System (1915). The unused flow in the two river systems was assessed at, which was planned to be developed by the four states of J&K, PEPSU, Punjab and Rajasthan. However, with the merger of PEPSU with Punjab and subsequent bifurcation of Punjab into two states, a dispute arose on the allocation of Raavi and Beas waters for which a tribunal was set up under the Interstate River Water Disputes Act.

As a counter claim to the exclusive claims of Punjab, Haryana claims that a small part of Haryana state lying north in Panchkula district is part of Sutlej river basin area in addition to Punjab and Himachal Pradesh in India. Thus Haryana claims to be a riparian state of Indus river basin.

Following the reorganisation of the state of Punjab in 1966, Haryana State was created. This was followed by a notification by the Government of India dated 24 March 1976 allocating the surplus waters between Punjab and Haryana in due consideration of the powers conferred by Sub Section (I) of Section 78 of the Punjab Reorganization Act, 1966 (31 of 1966). The allocation was challenged in the Supreme Court by Haryana. A tripartite agreement followed on 31 December 1981, based on the revised mean annual flows from the flow series of 1921–60 assessed as —including prepartition use of and transit losses in the Madhopur Beas Link of —vis-a-vis the figure of assessed in earlier allocation, which was based on the flow series of 1921–45. The revised assessed surplus supplies of (from flow and storage) was allocated as:

However, the legality of this agreement was challenged by Punjab. This was followed by the Punjab accord signed by the then Prime Minister of India Rajiv Gandhi and Sant Harchand Singh Longowal, President of the Shiromani Akali Dal, on 24 July 1985. This accord stipulated that

Following the above accord, Raavi & Beas Waters Tribunal (RBWT) came to be set up in April 1986, in pursuance of paragraphs 9.1 & 9.2 of Punjab Settlement (Rajiv-Longowal Accord, 1985) inter-alia to adjudicate the claims of Punjab and Haryana in Ravi-Beas waters. The Terms of Reference was set and also the time for submission of the report. The Tribunal submitted its report on 30 January 1987. However, the report was contested as Rajasthan also moved an application "seeking explanation and guidance regarding the report of this Raavi Beas waters Tribunal, 1987". The Tribunal is further examining the matter. It is yet to submit its further report to the Government on the pleas submitted by the party States and the Central Government also seeking explanation/guidance on its earlier report. In the mean time, a Presidential reference on Punjab Termination of Agreements Act, 2004 is pending before the Honorable Supreme Court. Hence, the further hearings of the Tribunal and its final report are now enjoined on the outcome of the Supreme Court hearing of the Presidential reference.

Punjab is contemplating to construct 206 MW Shahpurkandi dam project hydro electric project on the Ravi river between Ranjitsagar dam and Madhopur head works. This stretch of the river is forming boundary between J & K state and Punjab state. Since Punjab had unilaterally exited from the earlier water sharing agreements, J & K state refused the project construction. Also J & K state is going ahead with the construction of Raavi canal originating from Basantpur to irrigate of land in Jammu region. This canal would draw river water by pumping the water released downstream from the Rangitsagar reservoir for which J & K state is not required to take consent from Punjab as it is not bound by earlier river water sharing agreements.

Transfer of surplus water from one basin to another, termed as interbasin water transfer has been effectively implemented on the Raavi River. The surplus waters of the Raavi River have been transferred directly first to the Beas River through the Raavi-Beas Link. A further link from Beas River to the Sutlej River by the Beas Sutlej Link augments storage of the Bhakra reservoir in India.

The partition split the Punjab Province (British India) into the two states of West Punjab (Punjab, Pakistan) and East Punjab. However, the historic Majha region is arguably still the same as before since the partition does not change the previous history of Punjab, therefore does not change the geography of the Majha region of the historic Punjab region.

Majha

The Majha (Punjabi: ਮਾਝਾ (Gurmukhi), (Shahmukhi); "Mājhā") region is recognized as the region that is located at the center of the historical Punjab region, that is northward from the right banks[note 1] of river Beas, and extends up to river Jhelum at its northmost. People of the Majha region are given the demonym "Mājhi". The Majhi dialect of Punjabi language is the main language of this region, which is also the standard dialect of the Punjabi language. The most populous city in the area is Lahore on the Pakistani side of the border.

During the partition of India in 1947, the Majha region of Punjab got split into India and Pakistan when the Indian Punjab and Pakistani Punjab were formed. The Majha region of Indian State of Punjab covers the area between Beas and Ravi rivers, including the area on the north of Sutlej, after the confluence of Beas and Sutlej at Harike in Tarn Taran district, extending up to the Ravi river, which is all part of the Majha region in India. This region contains thirteen districts of the Pakistani province of Punjab and four districts of Indian state of Punjab - Amritsar, Tarn Taran, Gurdaspur, and Pathankot.

The people of the Majha region have been historically known to be fierce and stubborn fighters and in lieu of this, the Majha region is called the "Sword Arm of the Country", due to it contributing disproportionately to the Officer as well as Orderly ranks of the Army. The Sikh Empire was founded in the Majha region which is also referred to as "the cradle of the brave Sikhs."

The word "Mājhā" (ਮਾਝਾ) means the "central" or the "heartland". The Majha region is geographically located in the middle (or central part) of the historic Punjab region, hence giving it the name Majha. It includes a considerable portion of the Bari Doab (the region between the rivers Beas and Ravi) and the Rechna Doab (the region between the rivers Ravi and Chenab), and a smaller portion of the Jech Doab region (the region between the rivers Jhelum and Chenab).

The Majha region of historical Punjab region spans northward from the right banks of river Beas, and extends up to river Jhelum at its northmost, making it the largest regions of historic Punjab.

The Indian state of Punjab has continued to recognize the Majha region through maintaining the districts that have always belonged to the renowned historic Majha region. However, Majha being the only region that the Pakistani province of Punjab had, it has made Lahore as its provincial capital consisting of 10 sub-divisions such as Bahawalpur, Dera Ghazi Khan, Faisalabad, Gujranwala, Lahore, Multan, Rawalpindi, Sahiwal and Sargodha.

The following districts are classified as Majha:

! Majha districts of Panjab, India in 2016!! Majha districts of Punjab, PakistanNawab Jassa Singh Ahluwalia Sikh General and the head of Dal Khalsa


Who is Luke Cage married to in the comics?

Jessica Jones tells her baby girl, Danielle, about the first time she met Luke Cage. Jessica decides to consent to be his wife, though she has not informed Luke. [She would marry him in "New Avengers Annual" #1]

The Pulse (comics)

The Pulse is a comic book series published by Marvel Comics, written by Brian Michael Bendis, about the people who work on "The Pulse", a weekly section in the fictional "Daily Bugle" newspaper, focusing on superheroes.

The main star of the book is Jessica Jones, a former superhero and private investigator, previously seen in the "Alias" series. Jones works as a specialist consultant for "The Pulse" with journalists Ben Urich and Kat Farrell. Other cast members include Luke Cage, superhero and boyfriend to Jessica, the "Bugle"'s publisher, J. Jonah Jameson, and senior editor Joseph "Robbie" Robertson.

In the first story arc, the Green Goblin's true identity is revealed to the public after an investigation by "The Daily Bugle" into the murder of a "Bugle" journalist. After an extended battle with Spider-Man and Luke Cage, the Goblin is arrested and sent to prison for the first time in the character's 40-year history. Also, Ben Urich reveals to Peter Parker that he is aware that Peter is Spider-Man.

In the second story arc, in a tie-in to the "Secret War" mini-series, Jessica and Luke are attacked by a mystery woman who leaves Luke in a coma. The hospital where Luke is being cared for at is attacked and Luke disappears. Jessica fails to get help from the "Bugle" in locating him and must find him herself.

In a "House of M" tie-in, Kat Farrell meets Hawkeye, who is alive in this reality and despondent over recovering the memory of his life in the regular 616 universe (most specifically his death at the hands of the Scarlet Witch).

A 50-cent promo printed on cheap newsprint. Made to look like a copy of the "Daily Bugle"'s "Pulse" publication, covering the events of the "House of M" universe. Articles are "Headline News", "Global News", "Politics", "History Today", "Science", "Sports", "Arts and Leisure" and "Personal Growth".

Ben Urich starts to investigate a down and out "C-list" hero named D-Man. With Luke Cage now an Avenger, Jessica Jones's water breaks while she, Luke Cage and best friend Carol Danvers are picking out a new costume design for him. Carol Danvers rushes Jessica to the hospital. Jessica gives birth to a baby girl, and refuses to give "The Daily Bugle" the agreed upon exclusive story. At the same time J. Jonah Jameson's slanderous coverage of the Avengers' unveiling (in "New Avengers" #15) brings Jessica to quit her job at the "Bugle".

The series has been collected into trade paperbacks:Also published in Complete Collection