What can we learn with microbiology?

The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences. Microbiology can be also classified based on taxonomy, in the cases of bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is considerable overlap between the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines, and certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology
In general the field of microbiology can be divided in the more fundamental branch (pure microbiology) and the applied microbiology (biotechnology). In the more fundamental field the organisms are studied as the subject itself on a deeper (theoretical) level.
Applied microbiology refers to the fields where the micro-organisms are applied in certain processes such as brewing or fermentation. The organisms itself are often not studied as such, but applied to sustain certain processes.

Branches of microbiology

Microbiology (from Greek, "mīkros", "small";, "bios", "life"; and, "-logia") is the study of microorganisms, those being unicellular (single cell), multicellular (cell colony), or acellular (lacking cells). Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, parasitology, mycology and bacteriology.

Microbiology

Eukaryotic microorganisms possess membrane-bound cell organelles and include fungi and protists, whereas prokaryotic organisms—all of which are microorganisms—are conventionally classified as lacking membrane-bound organelles and include Bacteria and Archaea. Microbiologists traditionally relied on culture, staining, and microscopy. However, less than 1% of the microorganisms present in common environments can be cultured in isolation using current means. Microbiologists often rely on molecular biology tools such as DNA sequence based identification, for example 16s rRNA gene sequence used for bacteria identification.

Viruses have been variably classified as organisms, as they have been considered either as very simple microorganisms or very complex molecules. Prions, never considered as microorganisms, have been investigated by virologists, however, as the clinical effects traced to them were originally presumed due to chronic viral infections, and virologists took search—discovering "infectious proteins".

The existence of microorganisms was predicted many centuries before they were first observed, for example by the Jains in India and by Marcus Terentius Varro in ancient Rome. The first recorded microscope observation was of the fruiting bodies of moulds, by Robert Hooke in 1666, but the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher was likely the first to see microbes, which he mentioned observing in milk and putrid material in 1658. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek is considered a father of microbiology as he observed and experimented with microscopic organisms in 1676, using simple microscopes of his own design. Scientific microbiology developed in the 19th century through the work of Louis Pasteur and in medical microbiology Robert Koch.

The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized for many centuries before their actual discovery. The existence of unseen microbiological life was postulated by Jainism which is based on Mahavira’s teachings as early as 6th century BCE. Paul Dundas notes that Mahavira asserted the existence of unseen microbiological creatures living in earth, water, air and fire. Jain scriptures describe nigodas which are sub-microscopic creatures living in large clusters and having a very short life, said to pervade every part of the universe, even in tissues of plants and flesh of animals. The Roman Marcus Terentius Varro made references to microbes when he warned against locating a homestead in the vicinity of swamps "because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and thereby cause serious diseases."

In the golden age of Islamic civilization, Iranian scientists hypothesized the existence of microorganisms, such as Avicenna in his book "The Canon of Medicine", Ibn Zuhr (also known as Avenzoar) who discovered scabies mites, and Al-Razi who gave the earliest known description of smallpox in his book "The Virtuous Life" (al-Hawi).

In 1546, Girolamo Fracastoro proposed that epidemic diseases were caused by transferable seedlike entities that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact, or vehicle transmission.

In 1676, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who lived most of his life in Delft, Holland, observed bacteria and other microorganisms using a single-lens microscope of his own design. He is considered a father of microbiology as he pioneered the use of simple single-lensed microscopes of his own design. While Van Leeuwenhoek is often cited as the first to observe microbes, Robert Hooke made his first recorded microscopic observation, of the fruiting bodies of moulds, in 1665. It has, however, been suggested that a Jesuit priest called Athanasius Kircher was the first to observe micro-organisms.

Kircher was among the first to design magic lanterns for projection purposes, so he must have been well acquainted with the properties of lenses. He wrote "Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by Microscope" in 1646, stating "who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms." He also noted that putrid material is full of innumerable creeping animalcules. He published his "Scrutinium Pestis" (Examination of the Plague) in 1658, stating correctly that the disease was caused by microbes, though what he saw was most likely red or white blood cells rather than the plague agent itself.

The field of bacteriology (later a subdiscipline of microbiology) was founded in the 19th century by Ferdinand Cohn, a botanist whose studies on algae and photosynthetic bacteria led him to describe several bacteria including "Bacillus" and "Beggiatoa". Cohn was also the first to formulate a scheme for the taxonomic classification of bacteria, and to discover endospores. Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch were contemporaries of Cohn, and are often considered to be the father of microbiology and medical microbiology, respectively. Pasteur is most famous for his series of experiments designed to disprove the then widely held theory of spontaneous generation, thereby solidifying microbiology’s identity as a biological science. One of his students, Adrien Certes, is considered the founder of marine microbiology. Pasteur also designed methods for food preservation (pasteurization) and vaccines against several diseases such as anthrax, fowl cholera and rabies. Koch is best known for his contributions to the germ theory of disease, proving that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogenic micro-organisms. He developed a series of criteria that have become known as the Koch's postulates. Koch was one of the first scientists to focus on the isolation of bacteria in pure culture resulting in his description of several novel bacteria including "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", the causative agent of tuberculosis.

While Pasteur and Koch are often considered the founders of microbiology, their work did not accurately reflect the true diversity of the microbial world because of their exclusive focus on micro-organisms having direct medical relevance. It was not until the late 19th century and the work of Martinus Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky that the true breadth of microbiology was revealed. Beijerinck made two major contributions to microbiology: the discovery of viruses and the development of enrichment culture techniques. While his work on the tobacco mosaic virus established the basic principles of virology, it was his development of enrichment culturing that had the most immediate impact on microbiology by allowing for the cultivation of a wide range of microbes with wildly different physiologies. Winogradsky was the first to develop the concept of chemolithotrophy and to thereby reveal the essential role played by micro-organisms in geochemical processes. He was responsible for the first isolation and description of both nitrifying and nitrogen-fixing bacteria. French-Canadian microbiologist Felix d'Herelle co-discovered bacteriophages in 1917 and was one of the earliest applied microbiologists.

Joseph Lister was the first to use phenol disinfectant on the open wounds of patients.

The branches of microbiology can be classified into pure and applied sciences, or divided according to taxonomy, as is the case with bacteriology, mycology, protozoology, and phycology. There is considerable overlap between the specific branches of microbiology with each other and with other disciplines, and certain aspects of these branches can extend beyond the traditional scope of microbiology
While some fear microbes due to the association of some microbes with various human diseases, many microbes are also responsible for numerous beneficial processes such as industrial fermentation (e.g. the production of alcohol, vinegar and dairy products), antibiotic production and act as molecular vehicles to transfer DNA to complex organisms such as plants and animals. Scientists have also exploited their knowledge of microbes to produce biotechnologically important enzymes such as Taq polymerase, reporter genes for use in other genetic systems and novel molecular biology techniques such as the yeast two-hybrid system.

Bacteria can be used for the industrial production of amino acids. "Corynebacterium glutamicum" is one of the most important bacterial species with an annual production of more than two million tons of amino acids, mainly L-glutamate and L-lysine. Since some bacteria have the ability to synthesize antibiotics, they are used for medicinal purposes, such as Streptomyces to make aminoglycoside antibiotics.

A variety of biopolymers, such as polysaccharides, polyesters, and polyamides, are produced by microorganisms. Microorganisms are used for the biotechnological production of biopolymers with tailored properties suitable for high-value medical application such as tissue engineering and drug delivery. Microorganisms are for example used for the biosynthesis of xanthan, alginate, cellulose, cyanophycin, poly(gamma-glutamic acid), levan, hyaluronic acid, organic acids, oligosaccharides polysaccharide and polyhydroxyalkanoates.

Microorganisms are beneficial for microbial biodegradation or bioremediation of domestic, agricultural and industrial wastes and subsurface pollution in soils, sediments and marine environments. The ability of each microorganism to degrade toxic waste depends on the nature of each contaminant. Since sites typically have multiple pollutant types, the most effective approach to microbial biodegradation is to use a mixture of bacterial and fungal species and strains, each specific to the biodegradation of one or more types of contaminants.

Symbiotic microbial communities confer benefits to their human and animal hosts health including aiding digestion, producing beneficial vitamins and amino acids, and suppressing pathogenic microbes. Some benefit may be conferred by eating fermented foods, probiotics (bacteria potentially beneficial to the digestive system) or prebiotics (substances consumed to promote the growth of probiotic microorganisms). The ways the microbiome influences human and animal health, as well as methods to influence the microbiome are active areas of research.

Research has suggested that microorganisms could be useful in the treatment of cancer. Various strains of non-pathogenic clostridia can infiltrate and replicate within solid tumors. Clostridial vectors can be safely administered and their potential to deliver therapeutic proteins has been demonstrated in a variety of preclinical models.

Microbiology


Who is the current Chief Justice?

The Chief Justice is chosen by secret ballot by the Justices to serve a 4-year term. The current Chief Justice is Mary Fairhurst who was elected by her peers on November 3, 2016. Chief Justice Mary Fairhurst was sworn in on January 9, 2017, and succeeds Barbara Madsen, one of the longest-serving Chief Justices in Washington state history.
Prior to January 1997 (pursuant to a Constitutional amendment adopted in 1995) the post of Chief Justice was held for a 2-year term by a justice who (i) was one of the Justices with 2 years left in their term, (ii) was the most senior in years of service of that cohort, and (iii) (generally) had not previously served as Chief Justice. The last Chief Justice under the rotation system, Barbara Durham was the architect of the present internal election system, and was the first to be elected under the new procedure, serving until her resignation in 1999.

Washington Supreme Court

The Washington Supreme Court is the highest court in the judiciary of the US state of Washington. The Court is composed of a Chief Justice and eight Justices. Members of the Court are elected to six-year terms. Justices must retire at the end of the calendar year in which they reach the age of 75, per the Washington State Constitution.

The court convenes in the Temple of Justice, a historic building on the Washington State Capitol campus in Olympia, Washington.

The persuasiveness of the Court's decisions reaches far beyond Washington's borders. A Supreme Court of California study published in 2007 found that the Washington Supreme Court's decisions were the second most widely followed by the appellate courts of all other US states in the period from 1940 to 2005 (second only to California).

The early history of the Washington Supreme Court has been described as follows:

The current Chief Justice is Richard Wagner, who took office on December 18, 2017, replacing Beverley McLachlin, the first woman to hold this position. Born in Montreal on April 2, 1957, he had been a puisne Supreme Court justice for at the time of his elevation to chief justice. He previously sat on the Quebec Court of Appeal.

Chief Justice of Canada

The Chief Justice of Canada () is the presiding judge of the nine-member Supreme Court of Canada, the highest judicial body in Canada. As such, the chief justice is the highest-ranking judge of the Canadian court system. The Supreme Court Act grants plenary power to the Governor General to appoint—with the advice of the Prime Minister—a chief justice, who serves until they resign, die, are removed from office for cause, or attain the age of 75 years. By tradition, a new chief justice is chosen from among the Court's incumbent puisne justices.

The chief justice has significant influence in the proceedural rules of the Court, presides when oral arguments are held, and leads the discussion of cases among the justices. He or she is also Deputy Governor General, "Ex-officio" chairman of the Canadian Judicial Council, and heads the committee that selects recipients of the Order of Canada. Additionally, a chief justice also assumes viceregal duties upon the death or incapacitation of the Governor-General.

Since the Supreme Court was established in 1875, 18 people have served as chief justice. The Court's first chief justice was William Buell Richards; currently, it is Richard Wagner. Beverley McLachlin is the longest serving Canadian chief justice (), and was the first woman to hold the position.

The Chief Justice is appointed by the Governor General-in-Council under the federal "Supreme Court Act" on the advice of the Prime Minister. The appointment is subject to the "Supreme Court Act", which governs the administration and appointment of judges of the court. By this component of the Constitution of Canada, Judges appointed to the court must be "a judge of a superior court of a province or a barrister or advocate of at least ten years standing at the bar of a province."

Tradition dictates that the chief justice be appointed from among the Court's puisne judges; in the history of the Court, only two were not: William Buell Richards, and Charles Fitzpatrick. It is also customary that a new chief justice be chosen alternately from among: the three justices who by law must be from Quebec (with its civil law system), and the other six justices from the rest of Canada (representing the common law tradition). Since 1933, this tradition has only been broken once, when Brian Dickson of Manitoba was named to succeed Bora Laskin of Ontario in 1984.

The Chief Justice's central duty is to preside at hearings before the Supreme Court. The Chief Justice presides from the centre chair. If the Chief Justice is absent, the senior puisne judge presides.

The Chief Justice chairs the Canadian Judicial Council, which is composed of all chief justices and associate chief justices of superior courts in Canada. This body, established in 1971 by the Judges Act, organizes seminars for federally appointed judges, coordinates the discussion of issues of concern to the judiciary, and conducts inquiries, either on public complaint or at the request of the federal Minister of Justice or a provincial attorney general, into the conduct of any federally appointed judge.

The Chief Justice is sworn as a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada prior to taking the judicial oath of office. He or she also sits on the advisory council of Canada's highest civilian order, the Order of Canada. In practice however, the Chief Justice abstains from voting on a candidate's removal from the order, presumably because this process has so far only applied to individuals convicted in a lower court of a criminal offence, and could create a conflict of interest for the Chief Justice if that individual appealed their conviction to the Supreme Court.

Under the Electoral Boundaries Readjustment Act, each province has a three-person commission responsible for modifying that province's federal ridings. The chair of each such commission is appointed by the chief justice of that province; if no appointment is made by the provincial chief justice, the responsibility falls to the Chief Justice of Canada.

The Letters Patent of 1947 respecting the Office of Governor General provide that, should the Governor General die, become incapacitated, or be absent from the country for a period of more than one month, the Chief Justice or, if that office is vacant, the Senior Puisne Justice, of the Supreme Court would become the Administrator of Canada and exercise all the powers and duties of the Governor General. This has happened on three occasions: Chief Justices Lyman Duff and Robert Taschereau each did so, in 1940 and 1967 respectively, following the death of the incumbent Governor General, as did Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin when the Governor General underwent surgery in 2005.

The Chief Justice and the other Justices of the Court serve as deputies of the Governor General for the purpose of giving Royal Assent to bills passed by parliament, signing official documents or receiving credentials of newly appointed high commissioners and ambassadors.

Since the Supreme Court was established in 1875, the following 18 persons have served as Chief Justice:

This graphical timeline depicts the length of each justice's tenure as chief justice:

John D. Minton Jr. (born March 19, 1952 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida) is the current Chief Justice of the Kentucky Supreme Court. Minton was elected to the Supreme Court on July 24, 2006 to fill a vacancy created by Justice William S. Cooper, who retired on June 30, 2006. On the retirement of Chief Justice Joseph E. Lambert, Minton was elected by his fellow justices to replace him. He was sworn in as Chief Justice on June 27, 2008.

John D. Minton Jr.

Minton earned his bachelor's degree—with honors in history and English—from Western Kentucky University in 1974. He earned his juris doctor from the University of Kentucky College of Law in 1977.

Prior to his election to the Kentucky Supreme Court, Minton served as an appellate judge for the Kentucky Court of Appeals, representing the 2nd Appellate District. He was elected to the Court of Appeals in November 2003, and served there until his election to the Supreme Court in July 2006. From 1996 until his appointment to the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 2003, Minton also served as a circuit judge for Kentucky's 8th Judicial Circuit, which encompasses Warren County. During the same time, and by special appointment of Chief Justice Lambert, Minton also served as chief regional judge for the Green River Region, a 21-county area.

Before his election to the Circuit Court Bench, Minton practiced law in Bowling Green, KY for nearly 15 years.

While serving on the Circuit Court Bench, Minton was recognized by the Kentucky Court of Justice for his leadership in forming the Warren County Drug Court, as well as for his commitment to law-related education programs. In 2003, the Kentucky Bar Association honored him with its Outstanding Judge Award. He is also a graduate of the National Judicial College.

Minton is the son of Dr. and Mrs. John D. Minton. At a young age, Minton and his parents moved from Cadiz, KY to Bowling Green, KY, where he was raised and still resides. Minton is married to the former Susan Lenell Page, also a native of Bowling Green. They have two children: a daughter, Page Sullivan Minton, and a son, John D. Minton III. Minton's father, Dr. John D. Minton Sr., served as a history professor at Western Kentucky University and, much later, as the university's fifth president.

Minton is a member of Bowling Green's Broadway United Methodist Church and a former lay leader for the Kentucky Conference of The United Methodist Church. He currently serves on the board of the Student Life Foundation at Western Kentucky University. He is also a member and past president of the Bowling Green Rotary Club and a former member of the board of directors of Shakertown at South Union.

The current Chief Justice is Alan Blow, who was appointed by Governor Peter Underwood in 2013.

Chief Justice of Tasmania

The Chief Justice of Tasmania is the senior judge of the Supreme Court of Tasmania and the highest ranking judicial officer in the Australian state of Tasmania. The Chief Justice is both the judicial head of the Supreme Court as well as the administrative head. He or she is responsible for arranging the business of the court and establishing its rules and procedures.

The current Chief Justice is Anne Ferguson, who was appointed by Governor Linda Dessau to succeed Marilyn Warren. Ferguson's term began on 2 October 2017.

Chief Justice of Victoria

The Chief Justice of Victoria is the senior judge of the Supreme Court of Victoria and the highest ranking judicial officer in the Australian state of Victoria. The Chief Justice is both the judicial head of the Supreme Court as well as the administrative head. They are responsible for arranging the business of the court and establishing its rules and procedures.

The Chief Justice of Nigeria or CJN is the head of the judicial arm of the government of Nigeria, and presides over the country's Supreme Court and the National Judicial Council The current Chief Justice is Ibrahim Tanko Muhammad who was controversially appointed on the 25th January 2019 by the Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari in acting capacity, pending the determination of the trial against Walter Samuel Nkanu Onnoghen the former Chief Justice, by the Code of Conduct Tribunal.
The Supreme Court of Nigeria is the highest court in Nigeria and its decisions are final. The Chief Justice of Nigeria is nominated by the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria upon recommendation by the National Judicial Council and is subject to confirmation by the Senate of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. The CJN holds office at the pleasure of the Nigerian constitution and can only be removed from office by death or on attainment of age 70 whichever occurs first or by impeachment by the Senate of the Federal Republic of Nigeria which requires a super majority of the members of the Nigerian Senate

Chief Justice of Nigeria

Source: Federal Judicial Service Commission, Nigeria

Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, 17 people have served as chief justice. The first was John Jay (1789–1795). The current chief justice is John Roberts (since 2005). John Rutledge, Edward Douglass White, Charles Evans Hughes, Harlan Fiske Stone, and William Rehnquist served as associate justice prior to becoming chief justice.

Chief Justice of the United States

The Chief Justice of the United States is the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States, and as such the highest-ranking judge of the federal judiciary. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution grants plenary power to the President of the United States to nominate, and with the advice and consent of the United States Senate, appoint a chief justice, who serves until they resign, are impeached and convicted, retire, or die.

The chief justice has significant influence in the selection of cases for review, presides when oral arguments are held, and leads the discussion of cases among the justices. Additionally, when the Court renders an opinion, the chief justice, if in the majority, chooses who writes the Court's opinion. When deciding a case, however, the chief justice's vote counts no more than that of any associate justice.

Additionally, the chief justice serves as a spokesperson for the federal government's judicial branch and acts as a chief administrative officer for the federal courts. The Chief Justice presides over the Judicial Conference and, in that capacity, appoints the director and deputy director of the Administrative Office. The Chief Justice is also an "ex officio" member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution and, by custom, is elected chancellor of the board.

The United States Constitution does not explicitly establish an office of Chief Justice, but presupposes its existence with a single reference in : "When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside." Nothing more is said in the Constitution regarding the office. Article III, Section 1, which authorizes the establishment of the Supreme Court, refers to all members of the Court simply as "judges". The Judiciary Act of 1789 created the distinctive titles of "Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States" and "Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States".

In 1866, at the urging of Salmon P. Chase, Congress restyled the chief justice's title to the current "Chief Justice of the United States". The first person whose Supreme Court commission contained the modified title was Melville Fuller in 1888. The associate justices' title was not altered in 1866, and remains as originally created.

The chief justice, like all federal judges, is nominated by the President and confirmed to office by the U.S. Senate. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution specifies that they "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior". This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, and that, once in office, justices' tenure ends only when they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process. Since 1789, 15 presidents have made a total of 22 official nominations to the position.

The salary of the chief justice is set by Congress; the current (2018) annual salary is $267,000, which is slightly higher than that of associate justices, which is $255,300.

The practice of appointing an individual to serve as chief justice is grounded in tradition; while the Constitution mandates that there be a chief justice, it is silent on the subject of how one is chosen and by whom. There is no specific constitutional prohibition against using another method to select the chief justice from among those justices properly appointed and confirmed to the Supreme Court. Constitutional law scholar Todd Pettys has proposed that presidential appointment of chief justices should be done away with, and replaced by a process that permits the Justices to select their own chief justice.

Three incumbent associate justices have been nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate as chief justice: Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, and William Rehnquist in 1986. A fourth, Abe Fortas, was nominated to the position in 1968, but was not confirmed. As an associate justice does not have to resign his or her seat on the Court in order to be nominated as chief justice, Fortas remained an associate justice. Similarly, when associate justice William Cushing was nominated and confirmed as chief justice in January 1796, but declined the office, he too remained on the Court. Two former associate justices subsequently returned to service on the Court as chief justice. John Rutledge was the first. President Washington gave him a recess appointment in 1795. However, his subsequent nomination to the office was not confirmed by the Senate, and he left office and the Court. In 1933, former associate justice Charles Evans Hughes was confirmed as chief justice. Additionally, in December 1800, former chief justice John Jay was nominated and confirmed to the position a second time, but ultimately declined it, opening the way for the appointment of John Marshall.

Along with his general responsibilities as a member of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice has several unique duties to fulfill.

Article I, section 3 of the U.S. Constitution stipulates that the Chief Justice shall preside over impeachment trials of the President of the United States in the U.S. Senate. Two Chief Justices, Salmon P. Chase and William Rehnquist, have presided over the trial in the Senate that follows an impeachment of the president – Chase in 1868 over the proceedings against President Andrew Johnson and Rehnquist in 1999 over the proceedings against President Bill Clinton. Both presidents were subsequently acquitted.

Many of the Court's procedures and inner workings are governed by the rules of based on the seniority of the justices. The chief justice always ranks first in the order of precedence—regardless of the length of the officeholder's service (even if shorter than that of one or more associate justices). This elevated status has enabled successive chief justices to define and refine both the Court's culture and its judicial priorities.

The chief justice sets the agenda for the weekly meetings where the justices review the petitions for certiorari, to decide whether to hear or deny each case. The Supreme Court agrees to hear less than one percent of the cases petitioned to it. While associate justices may append items to the weekly agenda, in practice this initial agenda-setting power of the chief justice has significant influence over the direction of the court. Nonetheless, a chief justice's influence may be limited by circumstances and the associate justices' understanding of legal principles; it is definitely limited by the fact that he has only a single vote of nine on the decision whether to grant or deny certiorari.

Despite the chief justice's elevated stature, his vote carries the same legal weight as the vote of each associate justice. Additionally, he has no legal authority to overrule the verdicts or interpretations of the other eight judges or tamper with them. The task of assigning who shall write the opinion for the majority falls to the most senior justice in the majority. Thus, when the chief justice is in the majority, he always assigns the opinion. Early in his tenure, Chief Justice John Marshall insisted upon holdings which the justices could unanimously back as a means to establish and build the Court's national prestige. In doing so, Marshall would often write the opinions himself, and actively discouraged dissenting opinions. Associate Justice William Johnson eventually persuaded Marshall and the rest of the Court to adopt its present practice: one justice writes an opinion for the majority, and the rest are free to write their own separate opinions or not, whether concurring or dissenting.

The chief justice's formal prerogative—when in the majority—to assign which justice will write the Court's opinion is perhaps his most influential power, as this enables him to influence the historical record. He "may assign this task to the individual justice best able to hold together a fragile coalition, to an ideologically amenable colleague, or to himself." Opinion authors can have a big influence on the content of an opinion; two justices in the same majority, given the opportunity, might write very different majority opinions. A chief justice who knows well the associate justices can therefore do much—by the simple act of selecting the justice who writes the opinion of the court—to affect the general character or tone of an opinion, which in turn can affect the interpretation of that opinion in cases before lower courts in the years to come.

Additionally, the chief justice chairs the conferences where cases are discussed and tentatively voted on by the justices. He normally speaks first and so has influence in framing the discussion. Although the chief justice votes first—the Court votes in order of seniority—he may strategically pass in order to ensure membership in the majority if desired. It is reported that:
The Chief Justice typically administers the oath of office at the inauguration of the President of the United States. This is a tradition, rather than a constitutional responsibility of the Chief Justice; the Constitution does not require that the oath be administered by anyone in particular, simply that it be taken by the president. Law empowers any federal and state judge, as well as notaries public (such as John Calvin Coolidge, Sr.), to administer oaths and affirmations.

If the Chief Justice is ill or incapacitated, the oath is usually administered by the next senior member of the Supreme Court. Seven times, someone other than the Chief Justice of the United States administered the oath of office to the President. Robert Livingston, as Chancellor of the State of New York (the state's highest ranking judicial office), administered the oath of office to George Washington at his first inauguration; there was no Chief Justice of the United States, nor any other federal judge prior to their appointments by President Washington in the months following his inauguration. William Cushing, an associate justice of the Supreme Court, administered Washington's second oath of office in 1793. Calvin Coolidge's father, a notary public, administered the oath to his son after the death of Warren Harding. This, however, was contested upon Coolidge's return to Washington and his oath was re-administered by Judge Adolph A. Hoehling, Jr. of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. John Tyler and Millard Fillmore were both sworn in on the death of their predecessors by Chief Justice William Cranch of the Circuit Court of the District of Columbia. Chester A. Arthur and Theodore Roosevelt's initial oaths reflected the unexpected nature of their taking office. On November 22, 1963, after the assassination of President John F. Kennedy, Judge Sarah T. Hughes, a federal district court judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas, administered the oath of office to then Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson aboard the presidential airplane.

In addition, the Chief Justice ordinarily administers the oath of office to newly appointed and confirmed associate justices, whereas the senior associate justice will normally swear in a new Chief Justice or vice president.

Since the tenure of William Howard Taft, the office of the Chief Justice has moved beyond just first among equals. The Chief Justice also:

Unlike Senators and Representatives who are constitutionally prohibited from holding any other "office of trust or profit" of the United States or of any state while holding their congressional seats, the Chief Justice and the other members of the federal judiciary are not barred from serving in other positions. Chief Justice John Jay served as a diplomat to negotiate the so-called Jay Treaty (also known as the Treaty of London of 1794), Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed by President Truman to be the U.S. Prosecutor in the Nuremberg trials of leading Nazis, and Chief Justice Earl Warren chaired The President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy. As described above, the Chief Justice holds office in the Smithsonian Institution and the Library of Congress.

Under, when the chief justice is unable to discharge his functions, or when that office is vacant, the chief justice's duties are carried out by the most senior associate justice until the disability or vacancy ends. Currently, since August 2018, Clarence Thomas is the most senior associate justice.

Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 17 persons have served as Chief Justice:

The Chief Justice is the chairman of the Judicial Council of Ghana. The council is expected to propose judicial reforms to the Ghana government to help improve the level of administration of justice and efficiency in the Judiciary. It is also expected to be a forum to enhance the administration of justice in Ghana.The current Chief Justice is Sophia Akuffo. She succeeded Georgina Wood who was Ghana's first female Chief Justice.
Akuffo was sworn in as Chief Justice by President Akufo-Addo on 19 June 2017.

Chief Justice of Ghana

The Chief Justice of Ghana is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Ghana. The Chief Justice is also the head of the Judiciary of Ghana and is responsible for its administration and supervision. In order of state precedence, the Chief Justice is the fourth highest official in Ghana.

The Supreme Court Ordinance of 1876 ended the 10-year absence of a Supreme Court, establishing a Supreme Court of Judicature for the Gold Coast Colony. The court consisted of the Chief Justice and not more than four puisne judges. This led to the appointment of the first Chief Justice, Sir David Patrick Chalmers by the British colonial authorities in 1876. The nature of the office of Chief Justice evolved with the years. The 1954 Gold Coast constitution provided for the Chief Justice to be appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister while other judges and judicial officers were appointed on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. Under the 1957 Ghana constitution, on the attainment of independence, the Chief Justice and all superior justices were appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister as the Judicial Service Commission was abolished. Sir Kobina Arku Korsah became the first Ghanaian Chief Justice. Under the 1969 constitution, the Chief Justice was appointed by the President acting in consultation with the Council of State. The office has not changed much since the 1979 constitution though the court system underwent a lot of changes under various military governments between 1972 and 1993.

The Chief Justice is appointed by the President of Ghana in consultation with the Council of State of Ghana and with the approval of the Parliament of Ghana. A person qualified to be the Chief Justice of Ghana must be of a high moral character and have proven integrity. S/he must have been a lawyer for at least fifteen years to have been eligible for appointment to the Supreme Court in the first place. Where the office of the Chief Justice is vacant or the Chief Justice is incapacitated and unable to carry out his duties, the most senior of the Justices of the Supreme Court is expected to act in his place until he is able to resume or a new substantive Chief Justice is appointed by the President. The Chief Justice and any other justice of the Superior Courts may voluntarily retire on reaching the age of 60 years or stay on till the compulsory retiring age of 70 years.

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and at least nine other judges. The Chief Justice is expected to preside at all sittings of the Supreme Court whenever he or she is present. The Chief Justice oversees the administration of the Court of Appeal of which he or she is the most senior member. He or she is also a member and administrator of the High Court and the Regional Tribunals.

Since its inception in 1876, the Supreme Court has had 25 Chief Justices, including 13 in the Gold Coast era.

Justice Francis Yaonasu Kpegah, the most senior of the Supreme Court judges acted as Chief Justice between March 2007 and June 2007.

The current Chief Justice is Tom Bathurst, who was appointed by Governor Marie Bashir to succeed Jim Spigelman, effective 1 June 2011.

Chief Justice of New South Wales

The Chief Justice of New South Wales is the senior judge of the Supreme Court of New South Wales and the highest-ranking judicial officer in the Australian state of New South Wales. The Chief Justice is both the judicial head of the Supreme Court as well as the administrative head. He or she is responsible for arranging the business of the court and establishing its rules and procedures.

Alan Michael Blow (born 3 December 1949) is an Australian judge who is the current Chief Justice of Tasmania.

Alan Blow

After graduating from the University of Sydney with Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Laws degrees, he practised as a barrister in civil litigation, criminal and family law, before being appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court of Tasmania in 2000. He has also a long time lecturer in Supreme Court Advocacy at the University of Tasmania's Centre for Legal Studies, teaching postgraduate legal practice students.

On 8 April 2013, Blow was appointed Chief Justice of Tasmania, replacing Ewan Crawford who had reached the mandatory retirement age of 72.

In 2018 Blow was appointed Officer of the Order of Australia for "distinguished service to the judiciary and to the law, particularly as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Tasmania, to legal education and professional standards, and to the community".


Did Zhou Enlai have a wife?

The Memorial to Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao is a museum in Tianjin. The three-story museum is dedicated to the memory of premier Zhou Enlai and his wife, Deng Yingchao, and features photos, documents and dioramas of significant events in their lives. Situated in the entrance-hall are the white jade sitting statues of Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao. In another exhibition hall there are over 140 artifacts recovered from Zhou Enlai and Deng Yingchao.

The museum is located near the Tianjin Water Park.

The Story of Zhou Enlai () is a 2013 Chinese Historical period drama film written by Tian Yunzhang and Jiang Yue and directed by Chen Li. Based on the life of Premier Zhou Enlai between May 3 and May 7, 1961, when he investigated extensively and scientifically the rural situation in Huaxi of Guiyang and the old revolutionary base Boyan Township of Hebei, it stars Sun Weimin as Zhou Enlai and Hao Yan as Zhou's wife Deng Yingchao, with He Wei, Bai Qing, Chu Zhibo, and Niu Ben. The film premiered in China on 16 July 2013.

The Story of Zhou Enlai

In the late 1950s and the early 1960s, the newly established Communist State suffered a natural disaster for three years running. The mistake of Great Leap Forward and Soviets' pressing for the repayment presented severe difficulties for national economy. In 1961, under the leadership of Mao Zedong, all the Chinese leaders went to the forefront to do investigation.

On May 3, 1961, Zhou Enlai (Sun Weimin) comes to Boyan, an old revolutionary base in north China's Hebei province, to do investigation. On the way to Boyan Township, Zhou Enlai sees trees had been despoiled of their leaves. He feels puzzled. Guo Fenglin (He Wei), the director of Boyan People's Commune, sends people to shut the dissidents, and than takes some people to greet Zhou Enlai. As soon as Zhou Enlai meets Guo Fenglin, he asks where are the leaves, Guo Fenglin lies to Zhou Enlai. A passing little girl named Lian Di says the truth that the leaves were ate by local hungry people.

Zhou Enlai is in a meeting all morning. Everyone is not telling the truth, they all praise the present policy. At noon, Guo Fenglin invites Zhou Enlai to dinner. When Zhou Enlai sees the braised pork and eggs on the table, he do not even enter the door. Soon afterwards, Zhou Enlai comes to the kitchen and ate a bowl of congee and half a substituted steamed corn bread (). In the afternoon after the meeting, Lian Di comes home with Zhou Enlai. Lian Di's grandma sang a laozi opera to Zhou Enlai and tells Zhou Enlai the truth situation. At night, Zhou Enlai comes to the classroom following the sound of reading, the children tells Zhou Enlai that they skipped classes because of hunger.

On the second day, after inquiring about the situations of the field and the post office, Zhou Enlai comes to the "Danganhu"'s (go-it-aloner) home to ask for information. The 65-year-old bachelor tells Zhou Enlai that he is an individuallist and he is afraid that others will eat his ration. At night, a freak storm badly damages all the sweet potato vines which were just planted. All the villagers are carrying rain gears to the fields to deal with the flood. Zhou Enlai is very melancholy when he sees the villagers working in the torrential rain. Zhou Enlai comes to the kitchen to help cooking a pot of brown sugar water.

On the third day, after the farewell party, Zhou Enlai helds a meeting. Zhang Erting, an honest farmer, tells to Zhou Enlai that he has a bone to pick with the public dining hall () and it should be adjustment and he is against the way of dining. He complains to Zhou Enlai that the people are hungry that's because some officials and cooks ate and took more than their shark. Zhang Erting's opinion broke the silence, Zhou Enlai listens to them carefully and asks solicitously.

In the small hours of the fourth day, Zhou Enlai has a long talk with Mao Zedong on the phone. On the morning, Zhou Enlai comes to Zhang Erting's home and says that he wants to adopt Zhang Erting's youngest son, but Zhang refuses because he promised to bring the children up no matter how difficult it is. Later, Zhou Enlai conveys Mao Zedong's instructions in the microphone that Mao agreed with Zhang Erting's opinion and close the dining hall right now.

On the morning of the fifth day, the Boyan people all come to the road to send Zhou Enlai.The films was shot entirely on location in Boyan Town of Wu'an, a county-level city administered as part of Handan, Hebei, China.

"The Story of Zhou Enlai" was released on 16 July 2013, in China.

Douban gave the drama 5 out of 10. The audience criticized the film for covering up the historical truth and promoting individual worship.