How tall are ostriches?

Common ostriches usually weigh from, or as much as two adult humans. The Masai ostriches of East Africa ("S. c. massaicus") averaged in males and in females, while the nominate subspecies, the North African ostrich ("S. c. camelus"), was found to average in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches (in the nominate subspecies) can weigh up to. At sexual maturity (two to four years), male common ostriches can be from in height, while female common ostriches range from tall. New chicks are fawn in colour, with dark brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about per month. At one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately. Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years.

Common ostrich

The common ostrich ("Struthio camelus"), or simply ostrich, is a species of large flightless bird native to Africa. It is one of two extant species of ostriches, the only living members of the genus "Struthio" in the ratite order of birds. The other is the Somali ostrich ("Struthio molybdophanes"), which was recognized as a distinct species by BirdLife International in 2014 having been previously considered a very distinctive subspecies of ostrich.

The common ostrich shares the order Struthioniformes with the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the sister group to all other members of Palaeognathae and thus the flighted tinamous are the sister group to the extinct moa. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a long neck and legs, and can run for a long time at a speed of or even up to about, the fastest land speed of any bird. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest eggs of any living bird (extinct elephant birds of Madagascar and the giant moa of New Zealand laid larger eggs).

The common ostrich's diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates. It lives in nomadic groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, or run away. If cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by geographical region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females.

The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers, which are decorative and are also used as feather dusters. Its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point.

The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff. Females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a thin layer of down. The skin of the female's neck and thighs is pinkish gray, while the male's is gray or pink dependent on subspecies.

The long neck and legs keep their head up to above the ground, and their eyes are said to be the largest of any land vertebrate: in diameter; helping them to see predators at a great distance. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above. However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds' huge size, with the bill measuring.

Their skin varies in colour depending on the subspecies, with some having light or dark gray skin and others having pinkish or even reddish skin. The strong legs of the common ostrich are unfeathered and show bare skin, with the tarsus (the lowest upright part of the leg) being covered in scales: red in the male, black in the female. The tarsus of the common ostrich is the largest of any living bird, measuring in length. The bird has just two toes on each foot (most birds have four), with the nail on the larger, inner toe resembling a hoof. The outer toe has no nail. The reduced number of toes is an adaptation that appears to aid in running, useful for getting away from predators. Common ostriches can run at a speed over and can cover in a single stride. The wings reach a span of about 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), and the wing chord measurement of is around the same size as for the largest flying birds.

The feathers lack the tiny hooks that lock together the smooth external feathers of flying birds, and so are soft and fluffy and serve as insulation. Common ostriches can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In much of their habitat, temperatures vary as much as 40 °C (72 °F) between night and day. Their temperature control relies in part on behavioural thermoregulation. For example, they use their wings to cover the naked skin of the upper legs and flanks to conserve heat, or leave these areas bare to release heat. The wings also function as stabilizers to give better maneuverability when running. Tests have shown that the wings are actively involved in rapid braking, turning and zigzag maneuvers. They have 50–60 tail feathers, and their wings have 16 primary, four alular and 20–23 secondary feathers.

The common ostrich's sternum is flat, lacking the keel to which wing muscles attach in flying birds. The beak is flat and broad, with a rounded tip. Like all ratites, the ostrich has no crop, and it also lacks a gallbladder. They have three stomachs, and the caecum is long. Unlike all other living birds, the common ostrich secretes urine separately from faeces. All other birds store the urine and faeces combined in the coprodeum, but the ostrich stores the faeces in the terminal rectum. They also have unique pubic bones that are fused to hold their gut. Unlike most birds, the males have a copulatory organ, which is retractable and long. Their palate differs from other ratites in that the sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected.

The common ostrich was originally described by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in his 18th-century work, "Systema Naturae" under its current binomial name. Its scientific name is derived from Latin, "struthio" meaning "ostrich" and "camelus" meaning "camel", alluding to its dry habitat.

The common ostrich belongs to the ratite order Struthioniformes. Other members include rheas, emus, cassowaries, moa, kiwi and the largest known bird ever, the now-extinct elephant bird ("Aepyornis"). However, the classification of the ratites as a single order has always been questioned, with the alternative classification restricting the Struthioniformes to the ostrich lineage and elevating the other groups.

Four living subspecies are recognised:

Some analyses indicate that the Somali ostrich is now considered a full species by the Tree of Life Project, "The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World", BirdLife International, and the recognize it as a different species. A few authorities, including the "Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World" do not recognize it as separate. Mitochondrial DNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the East African Rift. Hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range, "S. c. massaicus", has apparently been prevented from occurring on a significant scale by ecological separation, the Somali ostrich preferring bushland where it browses middle-height vegetation for food while the Masai ostrich is, like the other subspecies, a grazing bird of the open savanna and "miombo" habitat.

The population from Río de Oro was once separated as "Struthio camelus spatzi" because its eggshell pores were shaped like a teardrop and not round. However, as there is considerable variation of this character and there were no other differences between these birds and adjacent populations of "S. c. camelus", the separation is no longer considered valid. This population disappeared in the latter half of the 20th century. There were 19th-century reports of the existence of small ostriches in North Africa; these are referred to as Levaillant's ostrich ("Struthio bidactylus") but remain a hypothetical form not supported by material evidence.

Common ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, East Africa, Africa south of the rainforest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today common ostriches prefer open land and are native to the savannas and Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In southwest Africa they inhabit the semi-desert or true desert. Farmed common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations. The Arabian ostriches in the Near and Middle East were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century. Attempts to reintroduce the common ostrich into Israel have failed. Common ostriches have occasionally been seen inhabiting islands on the Dahlak Archipelago, in the Red Sea near Eritrea.

Research conducted by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany in India found molecular evidence that ostriches lived in India 25,000 years ago. DNA tests on fossilized eggshells recovered from eight archaeological sites in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh found 92% genetic similarity between the eggshells and the North African ostrich, so these could have been fairly distant relatives.

Common ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone. Only 16 percent of common ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 100 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. The male common ostrich territory is between.

With their acute eyesight and hearing, common ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of, and can maintain a steady speed of, which makes the common ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear like a mound of earth from a distance, aided by the heat haze in their hot, dry habitat.

When threatened, common ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward.

Contrary to popular belief, ostriches do not bury their heads in sand to avoid danger. This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed." This may have been a misunderstanding of their sticking their heads in the sand to swallow sand and pebbles to help digest their fibrous food, or, as National Geographic suggests, of the defensive behavior of lying low, so that they may appear from a distance to have their head buried. Another possible origin for the myth lies with the fact that ostriches keep their eggs in holes in the sand instead of nests, and must rotate them using their beaks during incubation; digging the hole, placing the eggs, and rotating them might each be mistaken for an attempt to bury their heads in the sand.

They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The bolus may be as much as. After passing through the neck (there is no crop) the food enters the gizzard and is worked on by the aforementioned pebbles. The gizzard can hold as much as, of which up to 45% may be sand and pebbles. Common ostriches can go without drinking for several days, using metabolic water and moisture in ingested plants, but they enjoy liquid water and frequently take baths where it is available. They can survive losing up to 25% of their body weight through dehydration.

Common ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. As with other birds, an individual may reproduce several times over its lifetime. The mating season begins in March or April and ends sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically boom in defence of their territory and harem of two to seven hens; the successful male may then mate with several females in the area, but will only form a pair bond with a'major' female.

The cock performs with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behaviour is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again, and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the soil. Then, while the hen runs a circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation. Common ostriches raised entirely by humans may direct their courtship behaviour not at other ostriches, but toward their human keepers.

The female common ostrich lays her fertilised eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, deep and wide, scraped in the ground by the male. The dominant female lays her eggs first, and when it is time to cover them for incubation she discards extra eggs from the weaker females, leaving about 20 in most cases. A female common ostrich can distinguish her own eggs from the others in a communal nest. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs, though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the adult bird — on average they are long, wide, and weigh, over 20 times the weight of a chicken's egg and only 1 to 4% the size of the female. They are glossy cream-coloured, with thick shells marked by small pits.

The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the males by night. This uses the colouration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days, which is rather short compared to other ratites. This is believed to be the case due to the high rate of predation. Typically, the male defends the hatchlings and teaches them to feed, although males and females cooperate in rearing chicks. Fewer than 10% of nests survive the 9 week period of laying and incubation, and of the surviving chicks, only 15% of those survive to 1 year of age. However, among those common ostriches who survive to adulthood, the species is one of the longest-living bird species. Common ostriches in captivity have lived to 62 years and 7 months.

As a flightless species in the rich biozone of the African savanna, the common ostrich must face a variety of formidable predators throughout its life cycle. Animals that prey on ostriches of all ages may include cheetahs, lions, leopards, African hunting dogs, and spotted hyenas. Common ostriches can often outrun most of their predators in a pursuit, so most predators will try to ambush an unsuspecting bird using obstructing vegetation or other objects. A notable exception is the cheetah, which is the most prolific predator of adult common ostriches due to its own great running speeds.

Predators of nests and young common ostriches include jackals, various birds of prey, warthogs, mongoose and Egyptian vultures. If the nest or young are threatened, either or both of the parents may create a distraction, feigning injury. However, they may sometimes fiercely fight predators, especially when chicks are being defended, and have been capable of killing even lions in such confrontations.

Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the mesentery, and dorsally to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more anterior air sacs including the interclavicular, lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the caudal end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the parabronchi, which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites.

The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the interclavicular (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult common ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or avascular epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes.

The common ostrich is an endotherm and maintains a body temperature of in its extreme living temperature conditions, such as the heat of the savanna and desert regions of Africa. The ostrich utilizes its respiratory system via a costal pump for ventilation rather than a diaphragmatic pump as seen in most mammals. Thus, they are able to use a series of air sacs connected to the lungs. The use of air sacs forms the basis for the three main avian respiratory characteristics:

Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea (c. ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The common ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen.

To compensate for the large "dead" space, the common ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the total lung capacity of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a ostrich is about, with a tidal volume ranging from. The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is small pressure differences between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs.

The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike other birds, the common ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry and moisture lacking properties of the common ostrich respiratory medium affects oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law).

Common ostriches develop via Intussusceptive angiogenesis, a mechanism of blood vessel formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of lung development, along with elaborate parabronchial vasculature, and reorientation of the gas exchange blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The blood–gas barrier (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the capillaries in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB.

The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.

The common ostrich’s heart has similar features to other avian species like having a conically shaped heart, and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume, and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds:

The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricle. Upon view, the myocardial cells are observed to have large densely packed chromosomes within the nucleus.

The coronary arteries start in the right and left aortic sinus and provide blood to the heart muscle in a similar fashion to most other vertebrates. Other domestic birds capable of flight have three or more coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The blood supply by the coronary arteries are fashioned starting as a large branch over the surface of the heart. It then moves along the coronary groove and continues on into the tissue as interventricular branches toward the apex of the heart. The atria, ventricles, and septum are supplied of blood by this modality. The deep branches of the coronary arteries found within the heart tissue are small and supply the interventricular and right atrioventricular valve with blood nutrients for which to carry out their processes. The interatrial artery of the ostrich is small in size and exclusively supplies blood to only part of the left auricle and interatrial septum.

These purkinje fibers (p-fibers) found in the hearts moderator bands are a specialized cardiac muscle fiber that causes the heart to contract. The purkinje cells are mostly found within both the endocardium and the sub-endocardium. The sinoatrial node shows a small concentration of purkinje fibers, however, continuing through the conducting pathway of the heart the bundle of his shows the highest amount of these purkinje fibers.

The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich’s tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface.

During the embryonic stage Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E diminishes while hemoglobin A and D increase in concentration. This shift in hemoglobin concentration results in both decreased oxygen affinity and increased P value.

Furthermore, the P value is influenced by differing organic modulators. In the typical mammalian RBC 2,3 – DPG causes a lower affinity for oxygen. 2,3- DPG constitutes approximately 42–47%, of the cells phosphate of the embryonic ostrich. However, the adult ostrich have no traceable 2,3- DPG.In place of 2,3-DPG the ostrich uses inositol polyphosphates (IPP), which vary from 1–6 phosphates per molecule. In relation to the IPP, the ostrich also uses ATP to lower oxygen affinity. ATP has a consistent concentration of phosphate in the cell. Around 31% at incubation periods, and dropping to 16–20% in 36-day-old chicks. However, IPP has low concentrations, around 4%, of total phosphate concentration in embryonic stages; However, the IPP concentration jumps to 60% of total phosphate of the cell. The majority of phosphate concentration switches from 2,3- DPG to IPP, suggesting the result of the overall low oxygen affinity is due to these varying polyphosphates.

Concerning immunological adaptation, it was discovered that wild common ostriches have a pronounced non specific immunity defense, with blood content reflecting high values of lysosome, and phagocyte cells in medium. This is in contrast to domesticated ostriches, who in captivity develop high concentration of immunoglobulin antibodies in their circulation, indicating an acquired immunological response. It is suggested that this immunological adaptability may allow this species to have a high success rate of survival in variable environmental settings.

The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environment, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is a ground bird and cannot fly to find water sources, which poses a further challenge. Because of their size, common ostriches cannot easily escape the heat of their environment; however, they dehydrate less than their small bird counterparts because of their small surface area to volume ratio. Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich’s homeostatic response to osmoregulate.

The common ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon the length of approximately between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the rectum forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the faeces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in faecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the common ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum.

Common ostriches have two kidneys, which are chocolate brown in color, granular in texture, and lie in a depression in the pelvic cavity of the dorsal wall. They are covered by peritoneum and a layer of fat. Each kidney is about long, wide, and divided into a cranial, middle, and caudal sections by large veins. The caudal section is the largest, extends into the middle of the pelvis. The ureters leave the ventral caudomedial surface and continue caudally, near the midline into the opening of the urodeum of the cloaca. Although there is no bladder, a dilated pouch of ureter stores the urine until it is secreted continuously down from the ureters to the urodeum until discharged.

Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large, and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily, and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn, that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water when drinking water is scarce within the kidney system. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake, and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm, and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm, and a urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d to only 0.3–0.5 L·d.

In mammals and common ostriches, the increase of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine flow rate (UFR) is due to a high protein diets. As seen in various studies, scientists have measured clearance of creatinine, a fairly reliable marker of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It has been seen that during normal hydration within the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate is approximately 92 ml/min. However, when an ostrich experiences dehydration for at least 48 hours (2 days), this value diminishes to only 25% of the hydrated GFR rate. Thus in response to the dehydration, ostrich kidneys secrete small amounts of very viscous glomerular filtrates that have not been broken down, and return them to the circulatory system through blood vessels. The reduction of GFR during dehydration is extremely high, and so the fractional excretion of water (urine flow rate as a percentage of GFR) drops down from 15% at normal hydration to 1% during dehydration.

Common ostriches employ adaptive features to manage the dry heat and solar radiation in their habitat. Ostriches will drink available water; however, they are limited in accessing water by being flightless. They are also able to harvest water through dietary means, consuming plants such as the Euphorbia heterochroma that hold up to 87% water.

Water mass accounts for 68% of body mass in adult common ostriches; this is down from 84% water mass in 35-day-old chicks. The differing degrees of water retention are thought to be a result of varying body fat mass. In comparison to smaller birds ostriches have a lower evaporative water loss resulting from their small body surface area per unit weight.

When heat stress is at its maximum, common ostriches are able to recover evaporative loss by using a metabolic water mechanism to counter the loss by urine, feces, and respiratory evaporation. An experiment to determine the primary source of water intake in the ostrich indicated that while the ostrich does employ a metabolic water production mechanism as a source of hydration, the most important source of water is food. When ostriches were restricted to the no food or water condition, the metabolic water production was only 0.5 L·d, while total water lost to urine, feces and evaporation was 2.3 L·d. When the birds were given both water and food, total water gain was 8.5 L·d. In the food only condition total water gain was 10.1 L·d. These results show that the metabolic water mechanism is not able to sustain water loss independently, and that food intake, specifically of plants with a high water content such as Euphorbia heterochroma, is necessary to overcome water loss challenges in the common ostrich's arid habitat.

In times of water deprivation, urine electrolyte and osmotic concentration increases while urination rate decreases. Under these conditions urine solute:plasma ratio is approximately 2.5, or hyperosmotic; that is to say that the ratio of solutes to water in the plasma is shifted down whereby reducing osmotic pressure in the plasma. Water is then able to be held back from excretion, keeping the ostrich hydrated, while the passed urine contains higher concentrations of solute. This mechanism exemplifies how renal function facilitates water retention during periods of dehydration stress.

A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the common ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck’s nasal gland. The common ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the common ostrich’s nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the common ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool.

The majority of the common ostrich’s internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (Na+), potassium ions (K+), chloride ions (Cl-), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon, and exhibits a rapid fall in Na+ concentrations and small changes in K+ and Cl-.
The colon is divided into three sections and take part in solute absorption. The upper colon largely absorbs Na+ and SCFA, and partially absorbs KCl. The middle colon absorbs Na+, SCFA, with little net transfer of K+ and Cl-. The lower colon then slightly absorbs Na+ and water, and secretes K+. There is no net movements of Cl- and SCFA found in the lower colon.

When the common ostrich is in a dehydrated state plasma osmolality, Na+, K+, and Cl- ions all increase, however, K+ ions returned to controlled concentration. The common ostrich also experiences an increase in haematocrit, resulting in a hypovolemic state. Two antidiuretic hormones, Arginine vasotocin (AVT) and angiotensin (AII) are increased in blood plasma as a response to hyperosmolality and hypovolemia. AVT triggers antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which targets the nephrons of the kidney. ADH causes a reabsorption of water from the lumen of the nephron to the extracellular fluid osmotically. These extracellular fluids then drain into blood vessels, causing a rehydrating effect. This drainage prevents loss of water by both lowering volume and increasing concentration of the urine. Angiotensin, on the other hand, causes vasoconstriction on the systemic arterioles, and acts as a dipsogen for ostriches. Both of these antidiuretic hormones work together to maintain water levels in the body that would normally be lost due to the osmotic stress of the arid environment.

The end-product of catabolism of protein metabolism in animals is nitrogen. Animals must excrete this in the form of nitrogenous compounds. Ostriches are uricotelic. They excrete nitrogen as the complex nitrogenous waste compound uric acid, and related derivatives. Uric acid's low solubility in water gives a semi-solid paste consistency to the ostrich's nitrogenous waste.

Common ostriches are homeothermic endotherms; they regulate a constant body temperature via regulating their metabolic heat rate. They closely regulate their core body temperature, but their appendages may be cooler in comparison as found with regulating species. The temperature of their beak, neck surfaces, lower legs, feet and toes are regulated through heat exchange with the environment. Up to 40% of their produced metabolic heat is dissipated across these structures, which account for about 12% of their total surface area. Total evaporative water loss (TEWL) is statistically lower in the common ostrich than in membering ratites.

As ambient temperature increases, dry heat loss decreases, but evaporative heat loss increases because of increased respiration. As ostriches experience high ambient temperatures, circa, they become slightly hyperthermic; however, they can maintain a stable body temperature, around, for up to 8 hours in these conditions. When dehydrated, the common ostrich minimises water loss, causing the body temperature to increase further. When the body heat is allowed to increase the temperature gradient between the common ostrich and ambient heat is equilibrated.

Common ostriches have developed a comprehensive set of behavioural adaptations for thermoregulation, such as altering their feathers. Common ostriches display a feather fluffing behaviour that aids them in thermoregulation by regulating convective heat loss at high ambient temperatures. They may also physically seek out shade in times of high ambient temperatures. When feather fluffing, they contract their muscles to raise their feathers to increase the air space next to their skin. This air space provides an insulating thickness of. The ostrich will also expose the thermal windows of their unfeathered skin to enhance convective and radiative loss in times of heat stress. At higher ambient temperatures lower appendage temperature increases to difference from ambient temperature. Neck surfaces are around difference at most ambient temperatures, except when temperatures are around it was only above ambient.

At low ambient temperatures the common ostrich utilizes feather flattening, which conserves body heat through insulation. The low conductance coefficient of air allows less heat to be lost to the environment. This flattening behavior compensate for common ostrich's rather poor cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL). These feather heavy areas such as the body, thighs and wings do not usually vary much from ambient temperatures due to this behavioural controls. This ostrich will also cover its legs to reduce heat loss to the environment, along with undergoing piloerection and shivering when faced with low ambient temperatures.

The use of countercurrent heat exchange with blood flow allows for regulated conservation/ elimination of heat of appendages. When ambient temperatures are low, heterotherms will constrict their arterioles to reduce heat loss along skin surfaces. The reverse occurs at high ambient temperatures, arterioles dilate to increase heat loss.
At ambient temperatures below their body temperatures (thermal neutral zone (TNZ)), common ostriches decrease body surface temperatures so that heat loss occurs only across about 10% of total surface area. This 10% include critical areas that require blood flow to remain high to prevent freezing, such as their eyes. Their eyes and ears tend to be the warmest regions. It has been found that temperatures of lower appendages were no more than above ambient temperature, which minimizes heat exchange between feet, toes, wings, and legs.

Both the Gular and air sacs, being close to body temperature, are the main contributors to heat and water loss. Surface temperature can be affected by the rate of blood flow to a certain area, and also by the surface area of the surrounding tissue. The ostrich reduces blood flow to the trachea to cool itself, and vasodilates its blood vessels around the gular region to raise the temperature of the tissue. The air sacs are poorly vascularized but show an increased temperature, which aids in heat loss.

Common ostriches have evolved a'selective brain cooling' mechanism as a means of thermoregulation. This modality allows the common ostrich to manage the temperature of the blood going to the brain in response to the extreme ambient temperature of the surroundings. The morphology for heat exchange occurs via cerebral arteries and the ophthalmic rete, a network of arteries originating from the ophthalmic artery. The ophthalmic rete is analogous to the carotid rete found in mammals, as it also facilitates transfer of heat from arterial blood coming from the core to venous blood returning from the evaporative surfaces at the head.

Researchers suggest that common ostriches also employ a ‘selective brain warming’ mechanism in response to cooler surrounding temperatures in the evenings. The brain was found to maintain a warmer temperature when compared to carotid arterial blood supply. Researchers hypothesize three mechanisms for this finding. They first suggest a possible increase in metabolic heat production within the brain tissue itself to compensate for the colder arterial blood arriving from the core. They also speculate that there is an overall decrease in cerebral blood flow to the brain. Finally, they suggest that warm venous blood perfusion at the ophthalmic rete facilitates warming of cerebral blood that supplies the hypothalamus. Further research will need to be done to find how this occurs.

The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird’s metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way to panting. Both these behaviors allow the ostrich to actively increase the rate of evaporative cooling.
In hot temperatures water is lost via respiration. Moreover, varying surface temperatures within the respiratory tract contribute differently to overall heat and water loss through panting. The surface temperature of the gular area is ; that of the tracheal area, between ; and that of both anterior and posterior air sacs,. The long trachea, being cooler than body temperature, is a site of water evaporation.
As ambient air becomes hotter, additional evaporation can take place lower in the trachea making its way to the posterior sacs, shunting the lung surface. The trachea acts as a buffer for evaporation because of the length, and the controlled vascularization. The Gular is also heavily vascularized; its purpose is for cooling blood, but also evaporation, as previously stated. Air flowing through the trachea can be either laminar or turbulent depending on the state of the bird. When the common ostrich is breathing normally, under no heat stress, air flow is laminar. When the common ostrich is experiencing heat stress from the environment the air flow is considered turbulent. This suggests that laminar air flow causes little to no heat transfer, while under heat stress turbulent airflow can cause maximum heat transfer within the trachea.

Common ostriches are able to attain their necessary energetic requirements via the oxidation of absorbed nutrients. Much of the metabolic rate in animals is dependent upon their allometry, the relationship between body size to shape, anatomy, physiology and behaviour of an animal. Hence, it is plausible to state that metabolic rate in animals with larger masses is greater than animals with a smaller mass.

When a bird is inactive, unfed, and the ambient temperature (i.e. in the thermo-neutral zone) is high, the energy expended is at its minimum. This level of expenditure is better known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and can be calculated by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed during various activities. Therefore, in common ostriches we see use of more energy when compared to smaller birds in absolute terms, but less per unit mass.

A key point when looking at the common ostrich metabolism is to note that it is a non-passerine bird. Thus, BMR in ostriches is particularly low with a value of only 0.113 ml O g h. This value can further be described using Kleiber's law, which relates the BMR to the body mass of an animal.

where formula_2 is body mass, and metabolic rate is measured in kcal per day.

In common ostriches, a BMR (ml O g h) = 389 kg, describing a line parallel to the intercept with only about 60% in relation to other non-passerine birds.

Along with BMR, energy is also needed for a range of other activities. If the ambient temperature is lower than the thermo-neutral zone, heat is produced to maintain body temperature. So, the metabolic rate in a resting, unfed bird, that is producing heat is known as the standard metabolic rate (SMR) or resting metabolic rate(RMR). The common ostrich SMR has been seen to be approximately 0.26 ml O g h, almost 2.3 times the BMR. On another note, animals that engage in extensive physical activity employ substantial amounts of energy for power. This is known as the maximum metabolic scope. In an ostrich, it is seen to be at least 28 times greater than the BMR. Likewise, the daily energy turnover rate for an ostrich with access to free water is 12,700 kJ·d, equivalent to 0.26 ml O g h.

The wild common ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years, with most surviving birds in reserves or on farms. However, its range remains very large (), leading the IUCN and BirdLife International to treat it as a species of Least Concern. Of its 5 subspecies, the Arabian ostrich ("S. c. syriacus") became extinct around 1966, and the North African ostrich ("S. c. camelus") has declined to the point where it now is included on CITES Appendix I and some treat it as Critically Endangered.

Common ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt. A statue of Arsinoe II of Egypt riding a common ostrich was found in a tomb in Egypt. Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari use ostrich eggshells as water containers, punching a hole in them. They also produce jewelry from it. The presence of such eggshells with engraved hatched symbols dating from the Howiesons Poort period of the Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa suggests common ostriches were an important part of human life as early as 60,000 BP.

In Roman times, there was a demand for common ostriches to use in "venatio" games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times have been popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins are valued for their leather. In the 18th century they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. At the start of the 20th century there were over 700,000 birds in captivity. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins and meat became widespread during the 1970s. Common ostriches are so adaptable that they can be farmed in climates ranging from South Africa to Alaska.
In Eastern Christianity it is common to hang decorated common ostrich eggs on the chains holding the oil lamps. The initial reason was probably to prevent mice and rats from climbing down the chain to eat the oil. Another, symbolical explanation is based in the fictitious tradition that female common ostriches do not sit on their eggs, but stare at them incessantly until they hatch out, because if they stop staring even for a second the egg will addle. This is equated to the obligation of the Christian to direct his entire attention towards God during prayer, lest the prayer be fruitless.
Common ostriches have been farmed in South Africa since the beginning of the 19th century. According to Frank G. Carpenter, the English are credited with first taming common ostriches outside Cape Town. Farmers captured baby common ostriches and raised them successfully on their property, and were able to obtain a crop of feathers every seven to eight months instead of killing wild common ostriches for their feathers. It is claimed that common ostriches produce the strongest commercial leather. Common ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein and iron. Uncooked, it is dark red or cherry red, a little darker than beef. Ostrich stew is a dish prepared using common ostrich meat.

Some common ostrich farms also cater to agri-tourism, which may produce a substantial portion of the farm's income. This may include tours of the farmlands, souvenirs, or even ostrich rides.

Common ostriches typically avoid humans in the wild, since they correctly assess humans as potential predators. If approached, they often run away, but sometimes ostriches can be very aggressive when threatened, especially if cornered, and may also attack if they feel the need to defend their territories or offspring. Similar behaviors are noted in captive or domesticated common ostriches, which retain the same natural instincts and can occasionally respond aggressively to stress. When attacking a person, common ostriches deliver slashing kicks with their powerful feet, armed with long claws, with which they can disembowel or kill a person with a single blow. In one study of common ostrich attacks, it was estimated that two to three attacks that result in serious injury or death occur each year in the area of Oudtshoorn, South Africa, where a large number of common ostrich farms are set next to both feral and wild common ostrich populations.

In some countries, people race each other on the backs of common ostriches. The practice is common in Africa and is relatively unusual elsewhere. The common ostriches are ridden in the same way as horses with special saddles, reins, and bits. However, they are harder to manage than horses.

The racing is also a part of modern South African culture. Within the United States, a tourist attraction in Jacksonville, Florida, called 'The Ostrich Farm' opened up in 1892; it and its races became one of the most famous early attractions in the history of Florida. Likewise, the arts scene in Indio, California, consists of both ostrich and camel racing.
Chandler, Arizona, hosts the annual "Ostrich Festival", which features common ostrich races. Racing has also occurred at many other locations such as Virginia City in Nevada, Canterbury Park in Minnesota, Prairie Meadows in Iowa, Ellis Park in Kentucky, and the Fairgrounds in New Orleans, Louisiana.


Where is Campeche?

San Francisco de Campeche (;, ), 19th c. English also Campeachy, is a city in Campeche Municipality in the state of Campeche, Mexico—located at, on the shore of the Bay of Campeche of the Gulf of Mexico—and its municipal seat also serves as the state's capital city. The city's population at the 2010 census was 220,389, and the municipality for which it serves as municipal seat had a population of 259,005.

Campeche City

The city was founded in 1540 by Spanish conquistadores as San Francisco de Campeche atop the pre-existing Maya city of Can Pech. The Pre-Columbian city was described as having 3,000 houses and various monuments, of which little trace remains.

The city retains many of the old colonial Spanish city walls and fortifications which protected the city (not always successfully) from pirates and buccaneers. The state of preservation and quality of its architecture earned it the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999. Originally, the Spaniards lived inside the walled city, while the natives lived in the surrounding "barrios" of San Francisco, Guadalupe and San Román. These barrios still retain their original churches; the one in Guadalupe is almost 500 years old.

Founded in 1540 by Francisco Montejo, Campeche was terrorized by pirates and marauders until the city started fortification in 1686.

San Francisco de Campeche was originally an indigenous village, Ah Kim Pech, where the Spanish first landed in Mexico in 1517. The city of Campeche was founded in 1540 and fortified against pirates during the 17th century. It still has the appearance of a fortress. Historical monuments and buildings, such as the Franciscan cathedral, old Maya ruins, and the old city walls and forts, attract many tourists.

The fortifications system of Campeche, an eminent example of the military architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries, is part of an overall defensive system set up by the Spanish to protect the ports on the Caribbean Sea from pirate attacks like the 1663 Sack of Campeche.

The state of preservation and quality of its architecture earned it the status of a World Heritage Site in 1999.

The city of Campeche is an example of urbanism in a baroque colonial city, with a reticular and regular plan, its urban trace, a model of colonial port cities, reflects the main role that it played as a commercial, religious and military connection point characterized by its high level of integrity and homogeneity. More than one thousand buildings with a historic value have survived as witnesses of space and temporal superimposition of several significant historic periods of Mexico.

Due to the constant attacks of both English and Dutch buccaneers and pirates such as Francis Drake, John Hawkins, Laurens de Graaf, Cornelis Jol, Jacobo Jackson, Jean Lafitte, Francisco de Grammont, Bartolomé Portugués, William Parker, Francisco Nau, Edward Mansvelt, Henry Morgan, Lewis Scot, Roche Braziliano and Michel de Grammont for almost 160 years, in 1686 the government started to fortify the city.

The French engineer Louis Bouchard de Becour was commissioned to unify all the defensive works that surrounded the city with a wall. At its completion, the wall surrounding the city of Campeche was 2,560 meters in length, forming an irregular hexagon around the main part of the city, with eight defensive bastions on the corners. These bulwarks now serve different functions:It also contained four gates to allow access to the main quarters. The main entrances are the "Puerta de la tierra" ("Land Gate"), built in 1732, and the "Puerta del mar" ("Sea Gate"). The Land Gate is kept as a tourist attraction, having a light and sound show three nights each week and keeping original supplies and items from the 17th century. The other gates were Guadalupe and San Román, connecting to the outside neighborhoods.

Additionally, two main forts protected the city from two nearby hills on each side, the forts of San José el Alto (built in 1762) and San Miguel. These forts gave long-range artillery coverage and served also as look-outs. They were built before the walls of the city. The fort of San Miguel is used as a museum and houses a collection of pre-Hispanic items. The fort of San José houses a collection of boats and weapons of the period.

As of 2010, the municipality had a total population of 259,005.

The municipal seat, and largest settlement, is the city of San Francisco de Campeche (often shortened to Campeche). As of 2010, the city had a population of 220,389.

Aside from the municipal seat, the municipality has 564 localities.

The largest localities are, (with 2010 populations in parentheses): Lerma (8,281), Chiná (5,194), classified as urban, and Los Laureles (2,251), Alfredo V. Bonfil (2,060), Pich (1,756), Tikinmul (1,663), Imí (1,227), Hampolol (1,123), Castamay (1,101), and San Francisco Kobén (1,045), classified as rural.

Campeche has a tropical savanna climate, with most rain falling in the wet season from June to October.

The state of Campeche is located in southeast Mexico, on the west side of the Yucatan Peninsula. The territory is, which is 2.6% of Mexico's total. It borders the states of Yucatán, Quintana Roo and Tabasco, with the country of Belize to the east, Guatemala to the south and the Gulf of Mexico to the west. Politically, it is divided into eleven municipalities: Calkiní, Calakmul, Campeche, Candelaria, Champotón, Ciudad del Carmen, Escárcega, Hecelchakán, Hopelchén, Palizada and Tenabo.

Campeche

Campeche (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Campeche (), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. Located in southeast Mexico, it is bordered by the states of Tabasco to the southwest, Yucatán to the northeast, and Quintana Roo to the east; to the southeast by the Orange Walk district of Belize, and by the Petén department of Guatemala to the south. It has a coastline to the west with the Gulf of Mexico. The state capital, also called Campeche, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1997. The formation of the state began with the city, which was founded in 1540 as the Spanish began the conquest of the Yucatán Peninsula. During the colonial period, the city was a rich and important port, but declined after Mexico's independence. Campeche was part of the province of Yucatán but split off in the mid-19th century, mostly due to political friction with the city of Mérida. Much of the state's recent economic revival is due to the finding of petroleum offshore in the 1970s, which has made the coastal cities of Campeche and Ciudad del Carmen important economic centers. The state has important Mayan and colonial sites; however, these are not as well-known or visited as others in the Yucatán.

The state's executive power rests in the governor of Campeche and the legislative power rests in the Congress of Campeche which is a unicameral legislature composed of 35 deputies.

Campeche is a relatively flat area of Mexico with of shoreline on the Gulf of Mexico. Most of the surface is of sedimentary rock much of which is from marine origin. The area with the highest elevations is near the borders with Guatemala and Quintana Roo. Notable elevations include Cerro Champerico, Cerro los Chinos, Cerro El Ramonal, Cerro El Doce, and Cerro El Gavilán. However, these hills are separated by large expanses of lower flat land. In the south of the municipality of Champotón begin a series of rolling hills known as the Sierra Alta or Puuc, which extend northeast to Bolonchen and then into the state of Yucatán. These have only an average altitude of between with some reaching. There other areas of these rolling hills, near the city of Campeche with main ones known as Maxtum, Boxol and El Morro. Another set is called the Sierra Seybaplaya in the center of the state.

Rainforest areas subdivide into a number of types which include perennial tall tree rainforest, semi perennial tall tree rainforest, deciduous medium height tree rainforest, semi deciduous medium height tree rainforest, deciduous low height tree rainforest and semi perennial low height tree rainforest. Away from the coast, these rainforests are interspersed with savannah areas and along the coast are accompanied by areas with sand dunes, mangrove wetlands and estuaries. Species that can be found in the various rainforests include huapaque, cedar (cedrela Mexicana), pukte (bucida buceras), sapote, dyewood (Haematoxylum campechianum), dzalam (lysiloma bohamensis) and more. It also includes a number of precious tropical hardwoods such as red cedar, mahogany, ciricote (cordia dodecandra) and guayacán (guialum sanctum). Along the coastal areas, palms dominate such as the coconut and royal palm. The main wildlife species in the state are the jaguar, ocelot, puma, deer, wild boar, raccoon, hare, ring-tailed cat and spider monkey. There are many bird species including the chachalaca, ducks, quail, pelican, toucan, buzzard and many more. Reptiles include rattlesnakes, coral snakes, boa constrictors, various species of sea and land turtles, iguanas and crocodiles. While still rich in wildlife, much has been decimated because of agriculture and exploitation of forest resources destroying habitat as well as uncontrolled hunting. Off the coast is most of the state aquatic life including many species of fish, crustaceans and mollusks. Many of these are exploited commercially.

Most of the state's surface freshwater is in the south and southwest, with rivers, small lakes and estuaries. These diminish in the north where rainfall rapidly filtrates into the subsoil. The rivers in the south and southwest belong to various basins, with the largest being the Grijalva-Usumacinta to which the Candelaria, Chumpán and Mamantal Rivers belong. The Usumacinta also flows in the state but it tends to change course frequently and occasionally divides into branches. The east branch of this river is also called the Palizada River, which has the largest volume although it is narrow. The San Pedro River is another branch is the Usumacinta, which passes by the community of Jonuta in Tabasco before emptying in the Gulf. The Chumpán River is an isolated river formed by the union of various streams. It runs north-south and empties in the Laguna de Terminos. The Candelaria River forms in Petén, Guatemala and runs north-south and empties into the Laguna de Pargos. The Mamantel River empties into the Laguna de Panlau. The Champotón River is in the center of the state and empties into the Gulf. The rest of the states streams flow only in the rainy season.

The Laguna de Términos lagoon is located in the southwest of the state, near the Tabasco border. It is separated from the Gulf of Mexico only by the Isla del Carmen. It receives fresh water from most of Campeche's rivers as well as salt water from the Gulf. In these brackish waters have developed a number of aquatic species such as sea bass, small sharks, crabs, oysters, turbles, and storks. The lagoon is ringed by smaller lakes and forms the most important lake-lagoon system in the country. These lakes include Atasta, Pom, Puerto Rico, El Este, Del Vapor, Del Corte, Pargos and Panlau. This system formed about five thousand years ago by the accumulation of sediment carried by surrounding rivers. This system connects to the Sabancuy estuary to the northeast.

Campeche is in the tropics; it has a humid climate, with a defined rainy season, and a relatively dry season from late winter to early spring. Average annual rainfall varies between. The hottest and most humid areas of the state are along the coast between the Laguna de Términos and the northern border. Average annual temperature is with highs up to in the summer and lows of in the winter. Prevailing winds are from the northwest from November to March, from the north between September and October, from the southeast from June to August and from the south in April and May. In the winter, storms from the north called “nortes” can bring colder dry air from the area of the United States. In the late summer, there are sometimes hurricanes.

The state has a number of ecosystems, from rainforest, to savanna to coast and sea. Environmentally, the state is divided into four major regions. The coast region consists of the entire coastline of the state and a strip of shallow water just offshore called the Sonda de Campeche with coral reefs and low islands called cays. The region has large expanses of mangroves which dominate the swamps. Non-swamp areas are dominated by palm trees. Wildlife is dominated by bird and reptile species such as storks, pelicans, ducks, seagulls, lizards, turtles and water snakes. The Mountain region is in the north and east of the state consisting of two chains of low hills called the Dzibalchen and Sierra Alta. It also includes the savannah area and an area called Los Chenes, where natural wells called cenotes are common. This area is noted for its tropical hardwoods and the chicle or gum tree. Wildlife includes deer, armadillos, rabbits, quail, and woodpeckers. The Rainforest region is located on the center and south of the state with a wide variety of trees including tropical hardwoods such as mahogany. Many of the plants used in the state's cuisine such as achiote and tropical fruits are from here. This area is under threat due to over exploitation. The River region is located in the southwest of the state, named after the various rivers that flow here, mostly emptying into the Laguna de Términos. It has the hottest and most humid climate in Campeche with wildlife and vegetation similar to that found in both the Rainforest and Coast regions.

Campeche has three main protected areas: The Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, the Laguna de Términos Reserve and the Los Petenes Biosphere Reserve with total an area of. The Calakmul Reserve was created in 1989 over. It consists of Yucatán and Tehuantepec moist forests, containing high and medium growth semi-deciduous forests and seasonally flooded low height semi-deciduous forests. There is also aquatic vegetation. The Laguna de Términos Reserve includes the lagoon and the area surrounding it with an area of. It was established in 1994. Los Petenes is a natural reserve consisting of isolated pockets of rainforest with mangrove areas in between. The wildlife is dependent on a varied and complex system of fresh and brackish water. The reserve extends over in the municipalities of Campeche, Tenabo, Hecelchakan and Calkini.

The name of Campeche is derived from the Maya name of a settlement called “Ah-Kin-Pech” where the city of Campeche is now. When the Spanish first arrived to the area in 1517, they called it Lazaro, since "the day of our landing was St. Lazarus'
Sunday". The native name means “place of snakes and ticks.”

The first people to dominate the state were the Maya, who arrived to Campeche from Guatemala, Honduras and Chiapas. The main Mayan cities were Edzna, Xtampak, and later Calakmul and Becán. The Maya civilization reached its height between 600 AD and 900 AD From 1000 AD on, the Maya cities collapsed and were abandoned for unknown reasons. This led to the establishment of smaller settlements and a mixing of the Maya and Chontal people in the south of the state, which had commercial ties to the central highland cultures of Mexico. From the 11th century to the 16th century, Campeche was divided into smaller dominions.

The first Spaniard in the area was Francisco Hernández de Córdoba y Antón de Alaminos in 1517, who landed at a settlement called Can-Pech, part of the Sol Garrapata dominion. He renamed it San Lázaro. He moved onto the territory of Chakanputon (today Champotón) where he and his men were attacked by the warriors of this dominion. Hernandez de Cordoba died of his wounds from this battle, prompting the Spanish to call this bay the “Bahía de Mala Pelea” (Bay of the Bad Fight). The conquest of Campeche and the rest of the Yucatán Peninsula began in earnest in 1540, under Francisco de Montejos, senior and junior.

The Spanish introduced sugar cane and other crops in the area, starting in the 1540s, but the main value of the area was the port of Campeche, established in 1540 where the old Maya village used to be. During the colonial era, it was a commercial port equal to Havana and Cartagena even though piracy was a constant threat. It shipped valuable exports such as agricultural goods, tropical hardwoods and dyewood, then a widely used textile dye in Europe. It also handled gold and silver from other areas in Mexico going to Spain. Imported items to the port included luxury items such as Italian marble and crystal chandeliers from Austria. The Spanish built a European-based colonial city here and as it became rich, it was filled with large mansions. However, to survive in the hot and humid environment, the Europeans also adapted a number of Maya products such as hammocks for sleeping and storing drinking water in hollow gourds. They also built with the area's local red cedar, mahogany and “sahcab” a local limestone. The shipping in these waters attracted pirates such as John Hawkins, Francis Drake, Diego the Mulatto, Henry Morgan, Cornelis Jol, Bartolomeu Português, Lewis Scot and Roche Braziliano. Most of the attacks were at the port of Campeche, but Champontón also suffered significant attacks in 1644 and 1672. Fortification of the city of Campeche began as early as 1610, but these structures were insufficient. The worst pirate attack occurred in 1685, when Laurens de Graaf sacked the city of Campeche and the surrounding haciendas for over thirty days, killing about a third of the area's population. This prompted far more extensive fortification with numerous forts and a wall around the city that measured in an irregular polygon shape. Most of the forts survive but only of the original wall remains. These fortification cut the threat of pirate attacks but it remained walled until 1890. Campeche was officially recognized as a city in 1774 (the first in southeast Mexico) and in 1784 was declared a minor port. In 1804, the port was closed due to the war between Spain and England. This caused discontentment in the city and fomented insurgent tendencies.

Campeche remained a wealthy and important port until the early 19th century, when a number of events brought on decline. In 1811, the port of Sisal was opened in what is now the State of Yucatán, taking much of the city's business. Another issue was that Independence brought the abolition of slavery, cutting agricultural production. The lack of shipping made the city relatively isolated from Mexico City. From the 19th century until the latter 20th, the state's economy was dependent on agriculture, fishing, logging and salt mining.

In September 1821, the city of Campeche proclaimed its adherence to the Plan of Iguala and the new Independent government of Mexico, forcing out its last Spanish governor a month later. At Independence, Campeche was one of the two most important cities on the Yucatán Peninsula, along with Mérida. There was political friction between the two. Campeche was the more liberal of the two, and supported the 1824 Mexican Constitution which established a Federal Republic. In 1824, Campeche's representative proposed that the peninsula be divided into two states: Mérida and Campeche but this was not accepted. Political divisions intensified along with the nationwide struggle between Liberals and Conservatives.

Despite Campeche's and Mérida's differences, both were involved in an insurrection against Mexico City headed by Jerónimo López de Llergo in 1839 with the aim of creating an independent state of Yucatán. After initial victories, López de Llergo proclaimed the peninsula independent and in 1841, the Constitution of the Yucatán was promulgated on federalist principles. Yucatán independence did not solve the peninsula's internal political problems. Mérida's trade with Havana continued but Campeche's trade with Mexico City was cut off. Campeche wanted to rejoin Mexico for this reason and Andrés de Quintana Roo tried to work out a settlement between the two cities. Mexican president Santa Anna then sent an expedition to force the Yucatán back into Mexico. More fighting came with the outbreak of the Caste War, in 1847, an indigenous rebellion that took place in Campeche and the rest of the Yucatán. This and foreign pressure to pay debts, forced the Yucatan to formally reintegrate into Mexico in 1849.

The Mexican Constitution of 1857 completely broke the schism between Campeche and Mérida with various rebellions breaking out. During one of these 150 men took over one of the main forts of Campeche and demanded a political union consisting of it, Champotón and Isla del Carmen. Other settlements in the west of the peninsula expressed its desire to be partition with these areas as a new state. In 1858, representatives from Campeche and Mérida signed an agreement to divide the peninsula, which was ratified to make the division official.

During the French Intervention in Mexico, forces under Felipe Navarrete took Campeche and forced the state to rejoin the rest of the Yucatán. In 1864, insurgents defeated the imperial army in Hecelchakán and in 1867, they retook Campeche to regain the state's independence.

During the Mexican Revolution, Manuel Castilla Brito took up arms in Campeche in support of Francisco I. Madero. However, the insurgents were defeated by General Manuel Rivera, a Victoriano Huerta supporter in 1913. Forces loyal to Venustiano Carranza entered Campeche in 1914. Slavery and serfdom was abolished on the haciendas. In 1917, Campeche wrote its current constitution.

There was some improvement in the state's economy starting in the 1950s when fishing and timber industries became more developed and there was better communications between the state and Mexico City. In 1955, the University of Campeche was founded and a state system of middle schools was begun.
However, Campeche's main economic change come with the discovery of oil off its shores in a shallow water region called the Sonda de Campeche. This oil was discovered by a fisherman named Rudesindo Cantarell in 1971, who reported an oil slick. In 1975, the first oil platform, called Chac Number One began operations. The first set of offshore platforms were completed by 1979. The find has made the state the top producer of petroleum in Mexico, providing 70% of all oil pumped in the country. The economic boom tripled the population of the city of Campeche in ten years, and nearly doubled that of Ciudad del Carmen, which before was only a small fishing village. However, the production of oil has brought environmental problems to the area, especially fishing yields, as well as internal strife between locals and newcomers.

In the mid-1980s, about 25,000 Guatemalan refugees had fled into the state to escape civil war there.

The oil money allowed for the revitalization of the city of Campeche starting in the 1980s. The State Office of Cultural Heritage Sites and Monuments bought abandoned properties to restore them for use as museums, schools, theaters and a library. More than a thousand facades and monuments have been refurbished in the historic center and the oldest residential areas.

In the 1990s, a number of textile mills of the “maquiladora” type were opened in the state. The capital was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

The most recently created municipality is Candelaria in 1998.

As of 2015, the state has a total population of 899,931. Seventy five percent live in urban areas along the coast and twenty five percent live in rural areas. The most populated municipality is Campeche. Most of the state's population growth has occurred since 1970 when the population then was only 215,600.
As of 2010, the most commonly spoken indigenous language spoken in the state is Maya, with 71,852 speakers. This is followed by Chol with 10,412, Tzeltal with 1,900 and Q'anjob'al with 1,557. There is a total of 91,094 speakers of an indigenous language in the state, which is about twelve percent of the total population. This is up from just under 90,000 in 2005. Fourteen percent of these speakers do not speak Spanish. There are about 7,000 Plautdietsch-speaking Mennonites of German descent in the State of Campeche, mostly around Hopelchen and Hecelchakán. These Menonnites came in the 1980s from the Mennonite settlements which were founded in 1922 and 1924 in the states of Chihahua and Durango, partly via Zacatecas.

Sixty three percent of the population profess the Catholic faith as of 2010. Most those who are non Catholic belong to Evangelical or Protestant churches. The National Presbyterian Church in Mexico has a large percentage of followers in Tabasco State.

Total
Campeche contributes 5.1% of Mexico's total GDP. The average salary per year in the state is $141,088 pesos in comparison to the national average of $99,114. However, there is a very large discrepancy between highly paid oil workers, mostly coming from out of state and locals who do not work for PEMEX. Most land is owned as community property under the ejido system (61%). Twenty nine percent is privately owned and the rest is under state or federal control. Three out of four residences are in urban areas, which generally have basic services. Most of these have cement foundations, with cinderblock walls and brick or cement roofs. Rural residences are usually construction from local materials which may have roofs of laminate, palm fronds or even cardboard, walls made of laminate or wood, with foundations generally of cement or packed earth. Overall in the state, running water, garbage collection and electricity is available in over 80% of homes, but sewerage in only a third. Over sixty five percent of the territory is exploited for forestry products, with over 25% used for grazing, with only 3.3% used for agriculture and about 5.5% used for other purposes such as human settlements.

Only 3.3% of the state's land is used for raising crops due to the soil composition. Over ninety percent of cropland is used for seasonal crops such as corn with the rest used for perennials such as fruit trees. The most important crop is corn, followed by rice and sorghum. Other important crops include jalapeño chili peppers, watermelon, sugar cane and various tropical and non-tropical fruit bearing trees, especially citrus and mango. Most cattle are raised in the center and south of the state for both meat and milk products and account for the most product by volume. In the north, most commercially raised livestock is domestic fowl mostly chickens and turkeys, but domestic fowl is raised in most rural homes all over the state. Sheep and goats are raised sparsely all over the state, depending on local vegetation. Forestry, including the extraction of precious tropical hardwoods, remains an important economic activity despite the degradation of many of the state's forests. Commercial fishing is mostly done along the coast, with shrimp being the most valuable catch, followed by crustaceans and mollusks. This is mostly done in the coast reason, where most of the economy outside of oil production relies on fishing and the building and repair of fishing boats.

The secondary sector of the economy (mining, construction, and industry) is almost entirely concentrated in the coastal area of the state in the municipalities of Campeche, Ciudad del Carmen and Champotón. Mining, mostly oil production, accounts for 52.8% of the state's GDP. This oil lies off the coast of the state, in a shallow water section of the Gulf of Mexico called the Sonda de Campeche. Campeche oil and gas production accounts for 37% of Mexico's total with crude oil alone accounting for 76% in absolute numbers. Campeche does not have metal deposits but it does have deposits of building stone, such as sandstone, marble and limestone, sand, gravel, lime, clay and other minerals. Most deposits are located in the municipalities of Hopelchén, Champotón and Calakmul. In the far north of the coast region, there are important deposits of salt. Construction and manufacturing account for 6.7% of the state's GDP. The most common type of industry relates to food and food processing including seafood, soft drinks, cookies, flour, sugar and honey. Another common industry is that of building materials such as cinderblock, wood products and the processing of building stone. Most industries are small with little financing for technology and growth. Since the 1990s, factories of the “maquiladora” type have opened in the state, such as the Calkiní Shirt Company in Tepacan, Calkiní, Textiles Blazer in Lerma, Campeche, Quality Textil de Campeche in Becal, Calkiní and Karims Textile and Apparel México in the city of Campeche.

Commerce and services account for 33.2% of the state's GDP. The commerce sector of the economy is mostly traditional with small establishments catering to local or regional needs. In the larger cities, supermarkets and malls can be found. Most commerce with entities outside of Campeche is in seafood, agricultural and forestry products. The state has thirty four traditional public markets. All petroleum products are marketed by the national oil company PEMEX. The state has about five hundred businesses dedicated to tourism, about half of which are restaurants, a little less than a quarter bars and a similar number of handcraft shops. There are 126 major hotels mostly in the municipalities of Campeche, Ciudad del Carmen and Champotón.

Much of Campeche's territory is filled with various archeological sites, almost all of which are Mayan. These sites are far less known and visited than sites to the east such as Chichen Itza, Uxmal and Tulum. An early important site is Edzna, located near the city of Campeche in a region known as los Chenes. It was one of the most important ceremonial centers in the pre Classic Maya period (300-900CE). Its building show Petén, Chenes and Puuc influence, with a large acropolis surrounded by various temples, the most important of which is the Pyramid of the Five Floors. It was discovered in the 1920s and excavated in the 1940s. It is located away from other Mayan settlements on the peninsula and was probably a collection center for the agriculture products grown in the area, reaching its height between 600 and 900. These were sent to the city of Tikal in exchange for ritualistic adornment for the site. Its most important building is the Pyramid of the Five Stories, built as its name implies. Another important find came in the 1990s. During the planting season in early May, archeologist Antonio Benavides noticed that the setting sun illuminates a stucco mask hanging one of the pyramid's rooms. The effect also happens in August, during harvest and it is believed to be related to the asking and receiving of abundant crops.

The largest archeological site in the state is Calakmul, which means “twin heaps” in Maya. It is located in the Petén region built in the late Classic period (500-900 CE). Calakmal is estimated to have been populated around 1000 BCE with its height at around 600 In 695 CE, Calakmul was conquered by Tikal and the city fell into decline. Calakmul is located in the interior rainforest of the state in a biosphere named after it near the Guatemala border. The site extends over and was one of the largest cities of Mesoamerica. Its temples were mostly dedicated to ancestor worship encircling the palaces of the elite in the center. There are an estimated 6,000 structures at the site with only half a dozen restored. The two most important structures are the twin pyramids of Temple II and Temple VII, similar to structures found at Tikal. Temple II is tallest at high. The site has been heavily looted by grave robbers.

While most sites are in the interior rainforest of the state, there are fifty five archeological sites on the coast alone, mostly remnants of small villages. The Isla de Jaina is one of the best preserved archeological sites in the state because of its location on an island on the coast, surrounded by estuaries and mangroves. It requires special permission to visit. Unlike others on the coast, it was a true city. Other sites include Can-mayab-mul in Nunkiní, Xculhoc in Hecelchakán, Chunan-tunich, Xtampak, Hochob, Pak-chén and Dzebilnocac in Hopelchén, El Tigre in Candelaria, La Xoch and Chun Cedro in Tenabo and Becán in Calakmul.

Campeche is one of the least known and unrated colonial cities in Mexico, mostly bypassed by those visiting more famous destinations in the Yucatan peninsula. The city's historic buildings are protected by decree to keep them from being destroyed or altered by the growth of the city. Campeche was one of the most important ports in New Spain. It suffered more than twenty one major pirate attacks in the colonial era. After 1685, the city's main fortifications were begun taking 24 years to complete. They succeeded in stopping major pirate attacks, with only one, Barbillas, finding a way to enter the city in 1708. The fortifications consisted of a formidable wall with four main gates, three opening to land and one to the sea. It also included a number of forts such as San Carlos, Santa Rosa, San Juan and San Francisco. Stories persist that many of the mansions had tunnels to escape pirates, but these have never been found.

The state has a number of colonial era churches. The Asunción church in Dzitbalché was constructed in the 18th century, with a pointed arch doorway, choral window and bell-gable. The Guadalupe Church in Bécal, Calkiní was built in the 18th century. The San Diego Apóstol Church in Nunkiní, Calkiní was built in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The church and former monastery of San Luis Obispo is located in Calkiní, built in the 17th century of stone, wood and metal over a former Mayan temple. The facade is simple with a bell-gable and there remains only one of its original Baroque altarpieces, which was made in the 16th century. The Cathedral of Campeche is from the 16th century. Its façade is of worked stone with two levels marked off by two grooved pilasters. The San Francisco Church in Campeche was established in the 16th century although the current building dates from the 17th. The church marks the spot where the first mass was held on mainland America. Most of the state's colonial era churches are located in and near the city of Campeche, with some in Ciudad del Carmen. The Nuestra Señora del Carmen Church in Ciudad del Carmen was built in the 18th century. The Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Church was built in the 18th century in Sabancuy, Carmen. The church and former monastery of San Francisco de Asís was begun in the 16th century by the Franciscans in Hecelchakán.

Outside of the city of Campeche, much of the notable civil architecture in the state is found on the various former haciendas. Many of these haciendas have been turned into hotels, spas and other tourist attractions. Hacienda Blanca Flor is located in Hecelchakán outside Campeche. This hacienda was a site of one of the bloodiest battles of the Caste War. Hacienda Santa Cruz is between Campeche and Calkiní in the Nunkiní community. It is dated to the middle of the 18th century established to raise cattle. It continued operating until the Mexican Revolution. Hacienda San José Carpizo is in the Champotón municipality, founded in 1871 by José María Carpizo Sánchez and was one of the most important on the Yucatán Peninsula, raising cattle. It survived the Mexican Revolution until its workers abandoned it in the 1940s. Hacienda San Luis Carpizo is located in Champotón and belonged to José María Carpizo, dedicated to agriculture. This hacienda was restored by the Mexican Army to house the Marine Infantry School in 1999. Hacienda Uayamón is near the city of Campeche with origins in the 16th century. It was attacked and its owner killed in the raid by Laurens de Graaf in 1685. It continued to operate until the Mexican Revolution and today it is home to the Hotel de Gran Turismo. Hacienda Tankuché was dedicated to raising dyewood (palo de tinte) but changed later to henequen. Despite losing most of its land in the Revolution, its henequen mill continued to operate until the 1980s.

Notable museums in the state include the Del Carmen Archeological Museum, the Museo de las Estelas Mayas in Ciudad del Carmen and the Camino Real Archeological Museum in Hecelchakán. The Museo Fuerte de San Miguel is located on one of the Campeche's old forts. The museum is dedicated to the state's history. Opened in 2000, it is the newest and most modern of Campeche's museums.

Most of the beaches frequented by visitors are in the municipalities of Campeche, Champotón and Ciudad del Carmen. In Campeche, these beaches include Mar Azul, San Lorenzo and Playa Bonita. In Ciudad del Carmen, they include La Maniagua, Bahamita, Sabancuy, Playa Caracol and Playa Norte, Isla de Pájaros. In Champotón, they are Acapulquito, Costa Blanca, Payucán and Sihoplaya. In the interior of the state, there are a number of water parks such as El Remate in Tankuché and San Vicente Chuc-Say on a former hacienda of the same name. These generally take advantage of the local rivers, springs and cenotes. Ecotourism includes caves such as Xculhoc, Chuncedro and Xtacumbilxuna’an or Mujer Escondida.

The state has two main government sponsored cultural festivals, the Festival del Centro Histórico and the Festival de Jazz. Campeche has a Festival del Centro Histórico in November and December, which attracts over 5,000 artists, intellectuals and academics to over 800 events such as concerts, theater, dance, book presentations, and workshops. The Festival de Jazz was begun in 1999 and has had the participation of figures such as Mike Stern, Caribbean Jazz Project, Yazzkin, Chano Domínguez, Eugenio Toussaint, David Gilmore and Scott Henderson. One notable economic fair outside the city is the “Jipi” Sombrero Festival in Bécal in April and May.

The largest religious festival in the state is Carnival in the city of Campeche. Carnival was introduced in 1582. By 1688, the annual event featured orchestras and in 1815, formal dances called “saraos” were organized which originally were held only in the homes of the elite. Later in the 19th century, events in the streets for the masses became popular, with the various neighborhoods of the city organizing their own events. Eventually, these merged into a citywide celebration featuring various traditional dances such as Baile del Pavo, Son de la Cucaracha, the fandango, fandanguillo and various forms of tropical jaranas. They also include more risqué dances such as those called la Culebra, Los Papagayos and la Contradanza de los Palitos which have Afro-Caribbean influence. Other important religious festivals include Candlemas (Candelaria) in Hool, Champotón and Campeche, feast day of Our Lady of Mount Carmen in Ciudad del Carmen, feast day of Saint Joachim in Palizada, and the feast day of Saint Roman in Campeche, the feast of San Isidro Labrador in Calkiní in May, the feast of the Cristo Negro in San Román, Day of the Dead in all of the state, feast of the Holy Cross in Sabancuy, Carmen in May, feast of Our Lady of Mount Carmen in Ciudad del Carmen in July and the feast of the Señor de la Salud in Hecelchakán in April. During these festivals is when the state's most traditional music, called jarana, and traditional dances can be heard and seen.

As a Mayan region, Campeche has had corn as its staple since the pre Hispanic period, accompanied by beans, vegetables, tropical fruits and seafood, with some meat. There are two main types of cuisine. Mestizo is mostly of Spanish origin with some indigenous additions and the other is called Maya and is almost purely indigenous. Some foods have been reinvented. One is papak’sul, or papadzul, which was made with beans and chili peppers. Today it is a torilla filled with cooked egg and squash seed salsa. Common seasonings are a mix of indigenous and those which came from Europe such as salt, oregano, pepper, habanero chili peppers, achiote, cloves and vinegar. Regional dishes include cochinita pibil, beans with pork, pork with achiote, panuchos, empanadas, chanchanes, chocolomo, tamales, shark tacos, pickled vines, seafood such as many species of fish, shrimp, octopus and crustaceans. Similar to cochinita pibil, pibipollos are chickens roasted in underground pits, most often prepared for Day of the Dead. There is also a large number of seafood based dishes such as pan de cazón. One notable shrimp dish is made with giant prawns and called “siete barbas.” Tamales are filled with ground pork or chicken seasoned with achiote, pibil or sweet corn. The staple bread is the corn tortilla. The town of Pomuch in the municipality of Hecelchakán is known for its bread and has a type named after it.(turimsoenc) Cheese was mostly likely influenced by pirate with queso de bola related to Dutch cheese making traditions.

The average number of years of schooling for those over age 15 is 8.5, which means that most finish middle school. This is slightly under the national average of 8.6. Over 55% finish primary school and over 35% finish a level over high school, either in technical training or university. The state has over 1800 schools from preschool to university level. These include seventeen teachers’ colleges and twenty eight other institutions of higher education.

The first educational institution in the state was located in the former monastery of San José in the city of Campeche, founded by the Jesuits in 1756 called the Colegio Clerical de San José. In 1823, its name was changed to the Colegio Clerical de San Miguel de Estrada. After the Reform Laws closed the monastery, The Instituto Campechano was established in 1859 by then governor Pablo Garcia in the same building. The Institute operated until the mid-20th century when it was replaced by the University of Campeche, which was initially housed at the Institute.

The Universidad Autónoma de Campeche was founded in 1957 by the state to systematize higher education in the state as its first major university. The institution operated out of several buildings until the mid-1960s, when the Ciudad Universitaria campus was built, and named the Universidad del Sudeste. This name was changed to the current one in 1989. The university offers twenty three bachelor's degrees, and eight graduate degrees.

The Instituto Tecnológico de Campeche was founded in 1976 as the Instituto Tecnológico Regional de Campeche as part of a nationwide system of technical colleges with only two majors. The college gained its own campus in 1978 and its current name was adopted in the 1980s.

The state has eighteen radio stations (fifteen commercial), seventeen television channels, one of which is local, ten from Mexico City and the rest cable or satellite, and four local newspapers, along with various from Mexico City. Telephone service is still mostly landline but cellular infrastructure is growing.
The state has of highway, about a third of which is federal, connecting urban areas. There are eight nine main bridges, most of which are just to the south of the city of Campeche and near Ciudad del Carmen. The two largest are the Puente de la Unidad and Zacatal, which connect Ciudad del Carmen with the mainland. Other important bridges exist in Champotón, Candelaria and Palizada. Federal Highway 180 is the main thoroughfare in the state, running along the coast from the Tabasco state border connecting Ciudad del Carmen and Campeche with Mérida in Yucatán state. There is of rail line and two main airports in Campeche and Ciudad del Carmen. The latter also has a heliport and there are twenty five over air strips in other parts of the state. The shoreline has thirty seven commercial and military docks. The presence of PEMEX is the main force behind the building and maintenance of port infrastructure. The most developed public transportation is in the city of Campeche although busses, taxis and other public transportation is available in most towns.

The Campeche airport, officially named Ing. Alberto Acuña Ongay, serves the city and port of Campeche with domestic service, mostly to Mexico City. Opened in 1965, it served about 100,000 passengers in 2009.