How often does the UEFA Champions League occur?

The UEFA European Championship (known informally as the Euros) is the primary association football competition contested by the senior men's national teams of the members of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), determining the continental champion of Europe. Held every four years since 1960, in the even-numbered year between World Cup tournaments, it was originally called the UEFA European Nations' Cup, changing to the current name in 1968. Starting with the 1996 tournament, specific championships are often referred to in the form "UEFA Euro [year]"; this format has since been retroactively applied to earlier tournaments.

UEFA European Championship

Prior to entering the tournament all teams other than the host nations (which qualify automatically) compete in a qualifying process. The championship winners earn the opportunity to compete in the following FIFA Confederations Cup, but are not obliged to do so.

The 15 European Championship tournaments have been won by ten national teams: Germany and Spain each have won three titles, France has two titles, and Soviet Union, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Netherlands, Denmark, Greece and Portugal have won one title each. To date, Spain is the only team in history to have won consecutive titles, doing so in 2008 and 2012. It is the second most watched football tournament in the world after the FIFA World Cup. The Euro 2012 final was watched by a global audience of around 300 million.

The most recent championship, hosted by France in 2016, was won by Portugal, who beat France 1–0 in the final at the Stade de France in Saint-Denis after extra time. The final also attracted 284 million viewers which is the second most viewed game in European tournament history.

The idea for a pan-European football tournament was first proposed by the French Football Federation's secretary-general Henri Delaunay in 1927, but it was not until 1958 that the tournament was started, three years after Delaunay's death. In honour of Delaunay, the trophy awarded to the champions is named after him. The 1960 tournament, held in France, had four teams competing in the finals out of 17 that entered the competition. It was won by the Soviet Union, beating Yugoslavia 2–1 in a tense final in Paris. Spain withdrew from its quarter-final match against the USSR because of two political protests. Of the 17 teams that entered the qualifying tournament, notable absentees were England, the Netherlands, West Germany and Italy.

Spain held the next tournament in 1964, which saw an increase in entries to the qualification tournament, with 29 entering; West Germany was a notable absentee once again and Greece withdrew after being drawn against Albania, with whom they were still at war. The hosts beat the title holders, the Soviet Union, 2–1 at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid.

The tournament format stayed the same for the 1968 tournament, hosted and won by Italy. For the first and only time a match was decided on a coin toss (the semi-final Italy vs. Soviet Union) and the final went to a replay, after the match against Yugoslavia finished 1–1. Italy won the replay 2–0. More teams entered this tournament (31), a testament to its burgeoning popularity.

Belgium hosted the 1972 tournament, which West Germany won, beating the USSR 3–0 in the final, with goals coming from Gerd Müller (twice) and Herbert Wimmer at the Heysel Stadium in Brussels. This tournament would provide a taste of things to come, as the German side contained many of the key members of the 1974 FIFA World Cup Champions.

The 1976 tournament in Yugoslavia was the last in which only four teams took part in the final tournament, and the last in which the hosts had to qualify. Czechoslovakia beat West Germany in the newly introduced penalty shootout. After seven successful conversions, Uli Hoeneß missed, leaving Czechoslovakian Antonín Panenka with the opportunity to score and win the tournament. An "audacious" chipped shot, described by UEFA as "perhaps the most famous spot kick of all time" secured the victory as Czechoslovakia won 5–3 on penalties.

The competition was expanded to eight teams in the 1980 tournament, again hosted by Italy. It involved a group stage, with the winners of the groups going on to contest the final, and the runners-up playing in the third place play-off. West Germany won their second European title by beating Belgium 2–1, with two goals scored by Horst Hrubesch at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome. Horst Hrubesch scored early in the first half before René Vandereycken equalised for Belgium with a penalty in the second half. With two minutes remaining, Hrubesch headed the winner for West Germany from a Karl-Heinz Rummenigge corner.

France won their first major title at home in the 1984 tournament, with their captain Michel Platini scoring 9 goals in just 5 games, including the opening goal in the final, in which they beat Spain 2–0. The format also changed, with the top two teams in each group going through to a semi-final stage, instead of the winners of each group going straight into the final. The third place play-off was also abolished.

West Germany hosted UEFA Euro 1988, but lost 2–1 to the Netherlands, their traditional rivals, in the semi-finals, which sparked vigorous celebrations in the Netherlands. The Netherlands went on to win the tournament in a rematch of their first game of the group stage, beating the USSR 2–0 at the Olympia Stadion in Munich, a match in which Marco van Basten scored one of the most memorable goals in football history, a spectacular volley over the keeper from the right wing.

UEFA Euro 1992 was held in Sweden, and was won by Denmark, who were only in the finals because UEFA did not allow Yugoslavia to participate as some of the states constituting the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia were at war with each other. The Danes beat holders the Netherlands on penalties in the semi-finals, then defeated world champion Germany 2–0. This was the first tournament in which a unified Germany took part and also the first major tournament to have the players' names printed on their backs.

England hosted UEFA Euro 1996, the first tournament to use the nomenclature "Euro [year]" and would see the number of teams taking part double to 16. The hosts, in a replay of the 1990 FIFA World Cup semi-final, were knocked out on penalties by Germany, who would go on to win in the Final 2–1 against the newly formed Czech Republic thanks to the first golden goal ever in a major tournament, scored by Oliver Bierhoff. This was Germany's first title as a unified nation.

UEFA Euro 2000 was the first tournament to be held by two countries, in the Netherlands and Belgium. France, the reigning World Cup champions, were favoured to win, and they lived up to expectations when they beat Italy 2–1 after extra time, having come from being 1–0 down: Sylvain Wiltord equalised in the very last minute of the game and David Trezeguet scored the winner in extra time.
UEFA Euro 2004, like 1992, produced an upset: Greece, who had only qualified for one World Cup (1994) and one European Championship (1980) before, beat hosts Portugal 1–0 in the final (after having also beaten them in the opening game) with a goal scored by Angelos Charisteas in the 57th minute to win a tournament that they had been given odds of 150–1 to win before it began (being the second least likely team to have any success after Latvia). On their way to the Final, they also beat holders France as well as the Czech Republic with a silver goal, a rule which replaced the previous golden goal in 2003, before being abolished itself shortly after this tournament.

The 2008 tournament, hosted by Austria and Switzerland, marked the second time that two nations co-hosted and the first edition where the new trophy was awarded. It commenced on 7 June and finished on 29 June. The Final between Germany and Spain was held at the Ernst Happel Stadion in Vienna. Spain defeated Germany 1–0, with a goal scored by Fernando Torres in the 33rd minute, sparking much celebration across the country. This was their first title since the 1964 tournament. Spain were the highest scoring team with 12 goals scored and David Villa finished as the top scorer with four goals. Xavi was awarded the player of the tournament, and nine Spanish players were picked for the team of the tournament.

The UEFA Euro 2012 tournament was co-hosted by Poland and Ukraine. Spain defeated Italy 4–0 in the final, thus becoming the first nation to defend a European Championship title and the first nation to win three major international tournaments in succession (Euro 2008, 2010 World Cup, Euro 2012). In scoring the third goal of the Final, Fernando Torres became the first player to score in two European Championship finals. He was equal top scorer for the tournament with three goals in total, along with Mario Balotelli, Alan Dzagoev, Mario Gómez, Mario Mandžukić, and Cristiano Ronaldo, despite only being used as a substitute player. The tournament was otherwise notable for having the most headed goals in a Euro tournament (26 out of 76 goals in total); a disallowed goal in the England versus Ukraine group game which replays showed had crossed the goal line, and which prompted President of FIFA Sepp Blatter to tweet, "GLT (Goal-line technology) is no longer an alternative but a necessity", thus reversing his long-held reluctance to embrace such technology; and some crowd violence in group games.

In 2007, the Football Association of Ireland and Scottish Football Association proposed the expansion of the tournament, which was later confirmed by the UEFA Executive Committee in September 2008. Out of the 54 member associations of UEFA, only three including England and Germany opposed the expansion. On 28 May 2010, UEFA announced that Euro 2016 would be hosted by France. France beat bids of Turkey (7–6 in voting in second voting round) and Italy, which had the least votes in first voting round. UEFA Euro 2016 was the first to have 24 teams in the finals. This was the third time France have hosted the competition. Portugal, which qualified for the knock-out phase despite finishing third in its group, went on to win the championship by defeating heavily favoured host team France 1–0 in the final, thanks to a goal from Eder in the 109th minute. Cristiano Ronaldo, Portugal's world renowned striker, came out of the game due to injury in the 25th minute. This was the first time Portugal won a major tournament.

For the 2020 tournament, three bids were proposed, including a bid from Turkey, a joint bid from the Republic of Ireland, Scotland and Wales, and a joint bid from Georgia and Azerbaijan. In December 2012, however, UEFA announced that the 2020 tournament would be hosted in several cities in various countries across Europe. The venues were selected and announced by UEFA on 19 September 2014. However, Brussels was removed as a host city on 7 December 2017 due to delays with the building of the Eurostadium.

The "Henri Delaunay Trophy", which is awarded to the winner of the European Championship, is named in honour of Henri Delaunay, the first General Secretary of UEFA, who came up with the idea of a European championship but died five years prior to the first tournament in 1960. His son, Pierre, was in charge of creating the trophy. Since the first tournament it has been awarded to the winning team for them to keep for four years, until the next tournament.

For the 2008 tournament, the Henri Delaunay Trophy was remodelled to make it larger, as the old trophy was overshadowed by UEFA's other trophies such as the new European Champion Clubs' Cup. The new trophy, which is made of sterling silver, now weighs and is tall, being seven inches longer and one pound heavier than the old one. The marble plinth that was serving as base was removed. The new silver base of the trophy had to be enlarged to make it stable. The names of the winning countries that had appeared on the plinth are now engraved on the back of the trophy.

The players and coaches of the winning team and the runner-up team are awarded gold and silver medals, respectively. Each association that competes in the final tournament receives a commemorative plaque. Each losing semi-finalist as well as each finalist receive a dedicated plaque. Though there is no longer a third place play-off, UEFA decided in the 2008 edition to award the semi-final losers (Turkey and Russia) bronze medals for the first time, and did the same in the 2012 edition when Germany and Portugal received bronze medals. However, UEFA decided that losing semi-finalists would no longer receive medals from the 2016 edition onwards. Bronze medals were previously awarded for winners of the third place play-off, the last of which was held in 1980.

Before 1980, only four teams qualified for the final tournament. From 1980, eight teams competed. In 1996 the tournament expanded to 16 teams, since it was easier for European nations to qualify for the World Cup than their own continental championship; 14 of the 24 teams at the 1982, 1986 and 1990 World Cups had been European, whereas the European Championship finals still involved only eight teams.

For 2016, the competition has increased to 24 teams. In 2007, there was much discussion about an expansion of the tournament to 24 teams, started by Scotland and the Republic of Ireland, due to the increased number of football associations in Europe after the break-ups of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, and the inclusion of Israel and Kazakhstan. The new president of UEFA, Michel Platini, was reported to be in favour of expansion which proved an accurate assumption. Whilst on 17 April 2007, UEFA's Executive Committee formally decided against expansion in 2012, Platini indicated in June 2008 that UEFA will increase participation from 16 to 24 teams in future tournaments, starting from 2016. On 25 September, it was announced by Franz Beckenbauer that an agreement had been reached, and the expansion to 24 teams would be officially announced the next day.

The competing teams are chosen by a series of qualifying games: in 1960 and 1964 through home and away play-offs; from 1968 through a combination of both qualifying groups and play-off games. The host country was selected from the four finalists after they were determined through qualifying.

Since the expansion of the final tournament starting from 1980, the host country, or countries, have been chosen beforehand and qualify automatically.

To qualify, a team must finish in one of the qualifying spots or win a play-off. After this, a team proceeds to the finals round in the host country, although hosts qualify for the tournament automatically. The qualifying phase begins in the autumn after the preceding FIFA World Cup, almost two years before the finals.

The groups for qualification are drawn by a UEFA committee using seeding. Seeded teams include reigning champions, and other teams on the basis of their performance in the preceding FIFA World Cup qualifying and the last European Championship qualifying. To obtain an accurate view of the teams abilities, a ranking is produced. This is calculated by taking the total number of points won by a particular team and dividing it by the number of games played, i.e. points per game. In the case of a team having hosted one of the two previous competitions and therefore having qualified automatically, only the results from the single most recent qualifying competition are used. If two teams have equal points per game, the committee then bases their positions in the rankings on:The qualifying phase is played in a group format, the composition of the groups is determined through means of a draw of teams from pre-defined seeded bowls. The draw takes place after the preceding World Cup's qualifying competition. For UEFA Euro 2012, the group qualifying phase consists of nine groups; six of six teams and the remainder of five teams each.

Each group is played in a league format with teams playing each other home and away. Teams then either qualify for the final tournament or to further playoffs depending on their position in the group. As with most leagues, the points are awarded as three for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. In the eventuality of one or more teams having equal points after all matches have been played, the following criteria are used to distinguish the sides:Sixteen teams progressed to the final tournament for the 2012 tournament. They were joint hosts Poland and Ukraine, the winners and the highest ranked second placed team from the nine qualifying groups as well as the winners of four play-off matches between the runners-up of the other groups. These sixteen teams were divided equally into four groups, A, B, C and D, each consisting of four teams. The groups were drawn up by the UEFA administration, again using seeding. The seeded teams being the host nations, the reigning champions, subject to qualification, and those with the best points per game coefficients over the qualifying phase of the tournament and the previous World Cup qualifying. Other finalists were assigned to by means of a draw, using coefficients as a basis.

For the 2016 tournament, the expansion to 24 teams means that the teams will be drawn into six groups of four, with the six group winners, six group runners-up and the four best third-placed teams advancing to the round of 16 when it becomes a knockout competition.

The groups are again played in a league format, where a team plays its opponents once each. The same points system is used (three points for a win, one point for a draw, no points for a defeat). A schedule for the group matches will be drawn up, but the last two matches in a group must kick off simultaneously. The winner and runner-up of each group progresses to the next round, where a knockout system is used (the two teams play each other once, the winner progresses), this is used in all subsequent rounds as well. The winners of the quarter-finals matches progress to the semi-finals, where the winners play in the final. If in any of the knockout rounds, the scores are still equal after normal playing time, extra time and penalties are employed to separate the two teams. Unlike the FIFA World Cup, this tournament no longer has a third place playoff.


What is the largest primate?

Gigantopithecus (from the Ancient Greek'"giant", and'"ape") is an extinct genus of ape that existed from perhaps nine million years to as recently as one hundred thousand years ago, at the same period as "Homo erectus" would have been dispersed, in what is now India, Vietnam, China and Indonesia placing "Gigantopithecus" in the same time frame and geographical location as several hominin species. The primate fossil record suggests that the species "Gigantopithecus blacki" were the largest known primates that ever lived, standing up to and weighing as much as, although some argue that it is more likely that they were much smaller, at roughly in height and in weight.

Gigantopithecus

The first "Gigantopithecus" remains described by an anthropologist were found in 1935 by Ralph von Koenigswald in an apothecary shop. Fossilized teeth and bones are often ground into powder and used in some branches of traditional Chinese medicine. Von Koenigswald named the theorized species "Gigantopithecus".

Since then, relatively few fossils of "Gigantopithecus" have been recovered. Aside from the molars recovered in Chinese traditional medicine shops, Liucheng Cave in Liuzhou, China, has produced numerous "Gigantopithecus blacki" teeth, as well as several jawbones. Other sites yielding significant finds were in Vietnam and India. These finds suggest that the range of "Gigantopithecus" was in southeast Asia. There are presently three extinct named species of "Gigantopithecus": "G. blacki", "G. bilaspurensis", and "G. giganteus".

In 1955, 47 "G. blacki" teeth were found among a shipment of "dragon bones" (also called "oracle bones") in China. Tracing these teeth to their source resulted in the recovery of more teeth and a rather complete large mandible. By 1958, three mandibles and more than 1,300 teeth had been recovered. "Gigantopithecus" remains have come from sites in Hubei, Guangxi, and Sichuan, from warehouses for Chinese medicinal products, as well as from cave deposits. Not all Chinese remains have been dated to the same time period, and the fossils in Hubei appear to be of a later date than elsewhere in China. The Hubei teeth are also larger.

Chinese physical anthropologist and paleoprimotologist Dong Tichen suggested that "Gigantopithecus" bears a series of quite distinctly differentiated characteristics of its own. Thus it stands for a completely independent branch on the primate genealogical tree. Tichen considered Gigantopithecinae as a new subfamily, with "Gigantopithecus" as its type genus, which logically belongs to Pongidae, not to Hominidae.

Gigantopithecus blacki (named in honour of the friend and colleague of von Koenigswald, Davidson Black) is known only through fossil teeth and mandibles found in cave sites in South China and Vietnam. These are appreciably larger than those of living gorillas, but the exact size and structure of the rest of the body can only be estimated in the absence of additional findings. Dating methods have shown that "G. blacki" existed for at least a million years, going extinct about 100,000 years ago after having been contemporary with anatomically modern humans ("Homo sapiens") for tens of thousands of years, and co-existing with "H. erectus", who preceded the appearance of "H. sapiens". In 2014, for the first time, fossil teeth and mandible of "G. blacki" were found in Indonesia.

Some of the caves in which teeth have been found were not caves yet at the time the apes lived, but just fissures. It has been suggested that "Gigantopithecus" bones were brought there by giant porcupines, who chew on bones as a source of calcium. This may help explain the lack of "Gigantopithecus" bones today.

In the past, "Gigantopithecus blacki" was thought to be closely related to early hominins, particularly "Australopithecus", on the basis of molar evidence; this is now regarded a result of convergent evolution. "Gigantopithecus" is now placed in the subfamily Ponginae along with the orangutan.

Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis is a very large fossil ape identified from a few jaw bones and teeth from India. This species lived about 6 to 9 million years ago in the Miocene. While it was related to "G. blacki", it was moved to its own genus, "Indopithecus giganteus," around 2013. Overtime "G. bilaspurensis" had its named changed to Gigantopithecus giganteus

Dating to roughly five million years before "G. blacki", a separate species, Gigantopithecus giganteus, is known from extremely fragmentary remains from northern India and China. In the Guangxi region of China, teeth of this species were discovered in limestone formations in Daxin and Wuming, north of Nanning. Despite the name, "G. giganteus" is believed to have been about half the size of "G. blacki". Based on the slim fossil finds, it was a large, ground-dwelling herbivore that ate primarily bamboo and foliage.

"Gigantopithecus"'s method of locomotion is uncertain, as no pelvic or leg bones have been found. The dominant view is that it walked on all fours like modern gorillas and chimpanzees; however, a minority opinion favors bipedal locomotion. This was most notably championed by the late Grover Krantz, but this assumption is based only on the very few jawbone remains found, all of which are U-shaped and widen towards the rear. This allows room for the windpipe to be within the jaw, allowing the skull to sit squarely on a fully erect spine as in modern humans, rather than roughly in front of it, as in the other great apes.

The majority view is that the weight of such a large, heavy animal would put enormous stress on the creature's legs, ankles, and feet if it walked bipedally; while if it walked on all four limbs, like gorillas, its weight would be better distributed over each limb.

Based on the fossil evidence, adult male "G. blacki" are believed to have stood about tall and weighed as much as, making the species three to four times as heavy as modern gorillas and seven to eight times as heavy as the orangutan, its closest living relative. Large males may have had an armspan of over. The species was highly sexually dimorphic, with adult females roughly half the weight of males. Because of wide interspecies differences in the relationship between tooth and body size, some argue that it is more likely that adult male "G. blacki" were much smaller, at roughly in height and in weight.

Its appearance is not known, because of the fragmentary nature of its fossil remains. It possibly resembled modern gorillas, because of its supposedly similar lifestyle. Some scientists, however, think it probably looked more like its closest modern relative, the orangutan. Based on the upper estimates, "Gigantopithecus" possibly had few or no enemies when fully grown. However, younger, weak, or injured individuals may have been vulnerable to predation by big cats, large constrictor snakes, crocodiles, machairodonts, hyenas, and "H. erectus". Based on the lower estimates, however, even fully grown individuals may have been vulnerable to predation by all the animals mentioned above other than large snakes.

The genus lived in Asia and probably inhabited bamboo forests, since its fossils are often found alongside those of extinct ancestors of the giant panda. Most evidence points to "Gigantopithecus" being a herbivore.

The jaws of "Gigantopithecus" are deep and very thick. The molars are low-crowned and flat, and exhibit heavy enamel suitable for tough grinding. The premolars are broad and flat and configured similarly to the molars. The canine teeth are neither pointed nor sharp, while the incisors are small, peglike, and closely aligned. The features of teeth and jaws suggested that the animal was adapted to chewing tough, fibrous food by cutting, crushing, and grinding it. "Gigantopithecus" teeth also have a large number of cavities, similar to those found in giant pandas, whose diet, which includes a large amount of bamboo, may be similar to that of "Gigantopithecus".

In addition to bamboo, "Gigantopithecus" consumed other vegetable foods, as suggested by the analysis of the phytoliths adhering to its teeth. An examination of the microscopic scratches and gritty plant remains embedded in "Gigantopithecus" teeth suggests that they fed on seeds and fruit, as well as bamboo.

After changes in climate during the Pleistocene era, "Gigantopithcus" may have changed to a diet more reliant on fruit due to bamboo becoming more scarce. This comes from the fact that many fossilized "Gigantopithecus" teeth contain eroded enamel, most likely the result of a diet that contained high amounts of acidic fruit.

"Gigantopithecus" may have become extinct approximately 100,000 years ago because the climate change during the Pleistocene era changed the plants from forest to savanna, and their food supply in fruits decreased. "Gigantopithecus" did not eat the grass, roots and leaves that were dominant food sources in the savanna.

There is also speculation that competition with "H. erectus" may have contributed to the extinction of "Gigantopithecus". This is due to the discovery of both "H. erectus" and "Gigantopithecus" fossils in South China, indicating that the two species may have coexisted at one time. Coexistence may have lead to competition over food such as bamboo, which was quickly becoming a rarity with the changing climate of the Pleistocene.

Though similar to "Palaeopropithecus", "Archaeoindris" was significantly larger and more robust. "Archaeoindris" was one of the largest primates to ever evolve, and was the largest-known strepsirrhine primate, weighing an estimated. It was roughly the size of an adult male gorilla, which was first noted by Lamberton.

Archaeoindris

Archaeoindris fontoynontii is an extinct giant lemur and the largest primate known to have evolved on Madagascar, comparable in size to a male gorilla. It belonged to a family of extinct lemurs known as "sloth lemurs" (Palaeopropithecidae), and because of its extremely large size, it has been compared to the ground sloths that once roamed North and South America. It was most closely related to "Palaeopropithecus", the second largest type of sloth lemur. Along with the other sloth lemurs, "Archaeoindris" was related to the living indri, sifakas, and woolly lemurs, as well as the recently extinct monkey lemurs (Archaeolemuridae). The genus, "Archaeoindris", translates to "ancient indri-like lemur", even though it probably became extinct recently, around 350 BCE.

"Archaeoindris" was first described by Herbert F. Standing in 1909 based on subfossil fragmentary jaws, although Charles Lamberton later discovered a complete skull. Only six bones from the lower skeleton have been found, and excavations in the 1980s offered no leads for new finds. Its remains have been found at only one location: Ampasambazimba, a subfossil site in central Madagascar. Following its initial discovery, some subfossil remains of "Megaladapis grandidieri" (a type of extinct koala lemur) were mistakenly associated with "Archaeoindris", while smaller leg bones from a juvenile and a massive adult leg bone were erroneously assumed to belong to two separate species. These errors were gradually corrected between the 1930s and 1980s. The skeleton of "Archaeoindris" was massive and robust, and shared many traits with that of "Palaeopropithecus". The arms were longer than the legs, but no hand or foot bones have been found for comparison with the other sloth lemurs.

Size estimates based on the limited remains have varied widely, ranging as high as, but the most thorough statistical investigation using regression analyses predicts a mass of. Misattributions and limited remains have resulted in varying opinions about the way "Archaeoindris" moved in its environment, ranging from tree-dwelling to ground-dwelling. Its skeleton suggests it was a deliberate climber that visited the ground to travel. The diet of "Archaeoindris" was mostly leaves, and its habitat—prior to human arrival—was a mix of woodlands, bushlands, and savanna, rich in lemur diversity. Today, the region is dominated by grasslands and lemur diversity is very low in the nearest protected area, Ambohitantely Special Reserve. Although it was a rare lemur, it was still extant when humans first arrived on Madagascar, and it would have been vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss.

The generic name "Archaeoindris", meaning "ancient indri-like lemur", is derived from the Greek word ἀρχαῖος (archaios, or "ancient") and "indris", a common variation of the generic name "Indri". The species name, "fontoynontii" (sometimes spelled "fontoynonti"), was selected in honor of Antoine Maurice Fontoynont, the president of the Académie Malgache (Malagasy Academy) at the time. Fontoynont was reported to have been supervising the excavation when it was discovered.

"Archaeoindris" was a type of sloth lemur (family Palaeopropithecidae), a recently extinct family of giant lemurs (known as subfossil lemurs) native to Madagascar. Its ancestors were likely arboreal (tree-dwelling), and this giant sloth lemur has been compared to the extinct giant ground sloths of North and South America.
"Archaeoindris" was most closely related to "Palaeopropithecus", a genus containing the second largest of the sloth lemurs and specialized for suspensory behavior in its arboreal habitat. Traits of the postcranium (skeleton below the skull) indicate that "Babakotia" was the next most closely related sloth lemur to "Archaeoindris" and "Palaeopropithecus", followed by "Mesopropithecus", the smallest of the sloth lemurs.

All four genera of sloth lemurs are known to be a sister taxon (close relatives) of family Indriidae, which includes the indri ("Indri"), sifakas ("Propithecus"), and woolly lemurs ("Avahi"). This relationship is supported by data from morphological, developmental, and molecular research. Another member of this clade (related group) is the family of monkey lemurs (Archaeolemuridae). Dental features, such as the morphology of their molar teeth and the modified number of teeth in their toothcomb (a specialized grooming structure found in lemuriforms), have long suggested a relationship. However, other anatomical and developmental traits suggested that monkey lemurs might be more closely related to family Lemuridae, which include five genera of lemur, including the ring-tailed lemur ("Lemur catta"). Molecular analysis has shown strong support for the former, placing the monkey lemurs in a clade with the sloth lemurs and indriids.

The family Palaeopropithecidae contained a large number of species compared to most other subfossil lemur families. It included four genera and seven species, all of which are now extinct. Among these was the genus "Archaeoindris", one of only a few monotypic lemur taxa.

"Archaeoindris fontoynontii" was first described by Herbert F. Standing in 1909 from two fragments of a maxilla (upper jaw) and a complete mandible (lower jaw). These type specimens—AM-6239 (maxillae) and AM-6237 (mandible)—are stored in the collection at the University of Antananarivo. The mandible contains a complete set of upper teeth, the left maxillary fragment contains the last premolar (P4) and all three molars (M1–M3), and the right maxillary fragment bears both premolars (P2 and P4) and the first molar (M1). At the time, Standing noted similarities with the dentition of "Palaeopropithecus". Sixteen years after Standing's discovery, Charles Lamberton discovered the first and only complete cranium (skull) and associated mandible for "Archaeoindris", both of which were well preserved. He published this find in 1934.

Only six postcranial specimens of "Archaeoindris" have been found. Two of these belonged to an adult and include a damaged humerus (upper arm bone) and an almost complete femur (thigh bone). The other four come from an immature individual and include a damaged humerus, a damaged ulna (lower arm bone), and two femurs, both lacking the epiphyses (rounded end of the bone) on both ends. "Archaeoindris" is one of the least common of the subfossil lemurs, and the few known specimens were all found at Ampasambazimba in the Central Highlands. Excavations run by a multi-disciplinary Malagasy-American team at this fossil site between 1983 and 1984 yielded no new subfossil remains, and no other potential sites are known for this species.

Historically, some remains from other subfossil lemurs have been mistakenly attributed to "Archaeoindris", resulting in incorrect interpretations of its anatomy and behavior. In 1934, Lamberton missed earlier attribution errors and incorrectly labeled a tibia and two fibulae (lower leg bones) from a species of koala lemur ("Megaladapis grandidieri") as belonging to "Archaeoindris". Because of these misattributions and Lamberton's use of the immature bones, his reconstruction was inaccurate. In 1936, Alice Carleton corrected Lamberton by identifying the tibia and fibulae as belonging to a koala lemur. Carleton's corrections were later confirmed and other misattributions were corrected in the 1960s and 1970s by Alan Walker and William L. Jungers.

In 1910, twenty-four years before Lamberton's monograph on "Archaeoindris", Standing identified a massive right femur from Ampasambazimba as a new species, "Lemuridotherium madagascariense". Although Standing recognized the strong similarities between "Lemuridotherium" and "Archaeoindris", he placed them in separate genera due to what he perceived as a great size difference. Lamberton was also persuaded by the size difference, partly because he failed to recognize the smaller tibia and fibulae as belonging to the smaller "Megaladapis grandidieri". Furthermore, Lamberton did not realize that the smaller femurs he assigned to "Archaeoindris" belonged to a juvenile. Although some later authors considered "Lemuridotherium" a synonym of "Archaeoindris", it was not until 1988 that Martine Vuillaume-Randriamanantena provided a definitive proof. Vuillaume-Randriamanantena also established associations between the postcrania and crania of "Archareoindris", summarized what is known about the postcranial skeleton, and documented the strong similarity with the genus "Palaeopropithecus".

Since its discovery, size estimates have varied from "larger than a human" to "possibly the largest primate ever". In a study by Jungers from 1990, the area of its molar teeth predicted a mass of, while the femoral head diameter predicted a mass of. In 1995, Laurie Godfrey estimated a mass of using the midshaft circumferences of the humerus and femur. Based on multiple regressions of the cortical area of the femur in 2008, Jungers and colleagues generated the current best estimate of with a possible range of. These estimates were considered to be more accurate since the harder cortical bone in the midshaft of the femur supported an animal's weight, and its thickness better correlated with the animal's mass than the midshaft diameter (which includes both hard cortex and spongy bone). The only fossil primate that was probably larger than "Archaeoindris" was "Gigantopithecus blacki", a close relative of orangutans.

Like all three species of "Palaeopropithecus", "Archaeoindris" exhibited derived traits not seen in the two other less specialized genera of sloth lemur. These traits included deflated auditory bullae and paired protrusions of bone around the nasal opening consisting of part of the premaxilla and the nasal bones. Its skull was wider than that of "Megaladapis", but shorter, measuring. Its face was shorter than that of "Palaeopropithecus", with its eyes directed further forward. The neurocranium (braincase) was small and elevated relative to the face, unlike "Palaeopropithecus". Postorbital constriction (narrowing of the skull behind the eye sockets) is pronounced. The skull also bore a low, broad sagittal crest (a ridge of bone on the top of the skull to which jaw muscles attach) and robust but smaller nuchal crests (ridges of bone on the back of the skull to which neck muscles attach). Unlike "Palaeopropithecus" the rims of the orbits (eye sockets) were not as thick. The area of the orbit was, comparable to that of gorillas. Based on the ratio of its orbit area to the size of its optic canal, "Archaeoindris" had low retinal summation, meaning its eyes were less sensitive to light (like living diurnal lemurs). Yet the ratio was not as low as in comparably sized apes, suggesting "Archaeoindris" had low visual acuity and lacked trichromatic color vision.
The jaw exhibited a long, robust mandibular symphysis (joining of the two halves of the lower jaw), which fused early during development. Its palate (bones on the roof of the mouth) was rectangular. Like other sloth lemurs, it likely experienced accelerated dental development, and had an adult dental formula of. Its teeth were also similar to those of "Palaeopropithecus", both in morphology and proportions. The four lower incisors that would have made up the toothcomb were modified, being shorter and more robust, possibly for feeding purposes. The canines were short and stout, but sharp. Also, there was a diastema (gap) between the lower premolars (p2 and p4). Other dental similarities with "Palaeopropithecus" included small third upper and lower molars (M3 and m3), the first and second molars were narrow and long, and the enamel of its cheek teeth was crenulated (low and rounded), though not as wrinkled and slightly higher-crowned.

Most bones of the postcranial skeleton, including the bones of the hands, feet, vertebral column, ribs, radius (lower arm bone), tibia, and fibula, have not been found for "Archaeoindris". As with many cranial features, the postcranial bones that have been discovered are similar to that of "Palaeopropithecus", but significantly larger and more robust. The head of the femur was large and lacked a fovea capitis femoris (a small depression in the head of the femur). The femur was short and extremely robust, had a very high collodiaphyseal angle (the angle of the neck and shaft of the bone), and the greater trochanter was small. In the adult, the humerus was significantly longer than the femur, while in the immature specimen, both the humerus and ulna were much longer than the femur, making the arms considerably longer than the legs, as also seen in "Palaeopropithecus". The relative length of the arms to the legs was shorter in "Archaeoindris", so although its intermembral index was over 100, it was lower than that of "Palaeopropithecus".

"Archaeoindris" is thought to have been a leaf-eater (folivorous), a view supported by wear patterns on its teeth. Its fused mandibular symphyses and the likelihood of accelerated dental development suggest that it began processing fibrous foods in the mouth with thorough chewing. Its diet may also have included some fruits and seeds. Like most of the other giant lemurs, "Archaeoindris" is thought to have been diurnal because of its relatively small orbits, which are comparable to those of gorillas.

Both Standing and Lamberton assumed "Archaeoindris" to be a slow-moving tree-dweller like "Megaladapis", primarily due to the misattributed bones. Lamberton also speculated that it would have resembled a ground sloth—a view later supported by Jungers in 1980 after several misattributions had been corrected and having considered its gorilla-like size. Jungers went on to propose that it would have spent most of its time on the ground (terrestrial). However, the functional morphology of its hip joint indicates a degree of mobility typically seen in more arboreal animals. Other traits shared with "Palaeopropithecus", particularly seen in the femur, suggest that "Archaeoindris" spent considerable time in the trees for feeding and possibly nesting, although it also would have visited the ground to feed and travel. It is described as a deliberate, scansorial (climbing) browser, and it is unknown whether it was like "Palaeopropithecus" in performing hang-feeding since hand and foot bones are missing. Given its bulky size, this would be unexpected.

"Archaeoindris" is only known from one subfossil site, Ampasambazimba, in central Madagascar, and all remains date to the Late Quaternary. The area today is dominated by grasslands, particularly of the grass genus "Aristida". Prior to human arrival, the area around Ampasambazimba was not completely forested, but more of an open habitat, consisting of a mix of woodlands, bushlands, and savanna. Animal remains at this subfossil site have yielded about 20 species of lemur living in sympatry (sharing the same geographic area). In comparison, the nearby Ambohitantely Special Reserve today contains only 4 species, roughly 20% of the area's original lemur diversity.

Despite being the most species-rich family among the giant lemurs, all four genera of sloth lemur, including "Archaeoindris", have gone extinct. Radiocarbon dating of the stratigraphic level of some of the "Archaeoindris" remains were dated to 8000 BP, while two other specimens were dated to 2362–2149 BP (412–199 BCE) and 2711–2338 BP (761–388 BCE). From these dates, it is likely that "Archaeoindris" was still alive on the high plateau in 350 BCE when the first humans reached the west coast of Madagascar, despite being rare by that time. Consequently, it would have been especially vulnerable to hunting and habitat loss.

Sierra Leone has 15 identified species of primates that include bushbaby, monkeys and a great ape, the common chimpanzee which is Sierra Leone's largest primate. Chimpanzees are found across the country with the 2010 chimpanzee census estimated a wild population in excess of 5500 more than double the number previously thought to live in the country. This is the second largest population of the endangered subspecies of western chimpanzee, after Guinea,
with the largest density in the Loma area, 2.69 individuals per km2, and the Outamba, with 1.21 individuals per km2.

Wildlife of Sierra Leone

The wildlife of Sierra Leone is very diverse due to the variety of different habitats within the country. Sierra Leone is home to approximately 2090 known higher plant species, 147 known species of mammals, 172 known breeding bird species, 67 known reptile species, 35 known amphibian species and 99 known species of fish.

There are approximately 147 known species of wild mammals within Sierra Leone. Members of fourteen orders of placental mammals inhabit Sierra Leone. The endangered pygmy hippopotamus has territories around the islands on the Moa River and is widespread in the Gola Forest area. There are three species of wild pig that occur across Sierra Leone: the wart hog, the giant forest hog and the red river hog.

There are several species of whales and the African manatee in the waters of Sierra Leone. The manatee is an endangered species and lives in the rivers and estuaries of Sierra Leone especially around Bonthe.

Mammals found in Sierra Leone include:Sierra Leone has over 630 known species of bird ten of which are considered endangered including rufous fishing-owl and Gola malimbe. On the coastal area there are several important sites for migratory ducks and wading birds from the palearctic area.

There are 67 known species of reptiles, three of which are endangered, in Sierra Leone including several large reptiles. There are three species of crocodiles, the Nile crocodile, the slender-snouted crocodile which lives in forest streams, dwarf crocodile found in mangrove swamps. All the species of sea turtles live in the waters of Sierra Leone with the green turtle and leatherback turtle laying eggs on the shores including on Sherbro Island and Turtle Island. Common species of lizard include the large Nile monitor, the agama seen around settlements, the Brook's house gecko often lives inside houses, and chamaeleos.

Sierra Leone has around 750 species of butterflies. Including one of the largest butterflies the giant African swallowtail whose wingspan can be up to 25 cm.

Wild flora vegetation types include the lowland moist and semi-deciduous forests, part of the Western Guinean lowland forests, inland valley
swamps, wooded savannah, bolilands and mangrove swamps. There are about 2,000 known species of plants with 74 species only occurring only in Sierra Leone. Primary rainforest used to cover around 70% of Sierra Leone in the mid-2000s this had reduced to around 6%. Common species include:

The largest primate in the region, excluding humans, is the chacma baboon. A true generalist, it is found in virtually all habitats in South Africa. The other primates in the region are the vervet monkey and the Samango monkey. They are mainly frugivores, although they are true opportunists and may take eggs and nestlings from bird nests.

Fauna of South Africa

The fauna of South Africa is varied, but largely typical of the ecosystems of Africa. South Africa is ranked sixth out of the world’s seventeen megadiverse countries. Many endemic species are unique to South Africa and are found nowhere else in the world. South Africa is among the world leaders in conservation, though there are several significant conservation challenges which South Africa needs to resolve.
The topography and geology of South Africa is extremely varied, resulting in a wide variety of habitats. Due to this, South Africa enjoys high biodiversity, and is ranked sixth out of the world’s seventeen megadiverse countries. In the extreme northwest of the country is true desert, which is the southernmost end of the Namib desert, a desert that is at least 55 million years old, making it the oldest desert in the world. This arid corner intergrades into the extensive semi-arid Karoo found across much of South Africa, covering the Northern Cape and into parts of the Western Cape, Eastern Cape and the Free State. This biome used to be extensive grassland in the past, but has become dominated by small shrubs and succulents due to centuries of overgrazing. To the north and east of these biomes is the Kalahari, which is mainly semi-arid woodland, dominated by thorn trees of the genus "Acacia". The north-east and eastern parts of South Africa (Mpumalanga, Limpopo and Kwa-Zulu Natal)is covered with savanna and open woodlands known as "bushveld". This area supports the widest variety of wildlife in the country. The most prevalent biome in South Africa is grassland, particularly on the Highveld, where the plant cover is dominated by different grasses and low shrubs. In this biome trees are rare and occur only along watercourses where fires are uncommon. Towards the southern coast, the vegetation is again dominated by shrubs in ecological communities known as "thicket" and "noorsveld", where succulent species such as "Euphorbia", "Aloe", and "Portulacaria afra" are common, as well as Cape honeysuckle "Tecoma capensis" and Cape leadwort "Plumbago auriculata". To the west, the vegetation intergrades into Mediterranean shrubland known locally as fynbos, dominated mainly by plant families rare in other habitats, such as Proteaceae, Ericaceae and Restionaceae. Here the vegetation is made up of sclerophyllous plants which do not support much mammal or bird life. Finally, the last biome found is forest, which only covers 1% of South Africa and is concentrated around the Knysna area and scattered along the escarpment of the Drakensberg mountains upwards along Kwa-Zulu Natal.

The country has over 300 species of mammals.

Many carnivores, both large and small, inhabit South Africa. Most carnivoran families are well represented in South Africa, such as Canidae, Felidae, Hyaenidae, Mustelidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, and Otariidae. Most famous of these is the lion, the largest carnivore on the continent and the second-largest cat in the world. The other two big cats are the African leopard and the South African cheetah. The spotted hyena is commonly found in most large game reserves, while the brown hyena inhabits the arid parts of the country, and the aardwolf is widespread. The African wild dog is an endangered species and is found mainly in the Kruger National Park and surrounding areas.

Smaller carnivores are common across the country, and two species, the black-backed jackal and the caracal, are seen by some as pest species, often taking livestock such as sheep and goats, as lion, leopard, cheetah, African wild dog, and both species of hyena have been largely extirpated outside of protected areas. The serval is a rodent specialist and often occurs in marshy areas. Bat-eared foxes, Cape foxes and small felids such as the black-footed cat ("Felis nigripes") and Southern African wildcat ("Felis sylvestris cafra") are widespread, although there are concerns about the genetic purity of the African wild cat, as it breeds readily with both domestic and feral domestic cats ("Felis sylvestris catus"), which dilutes the African wild cat's gene pool. There are many species of mongoose, such as the meerkat, yellow mongoose and water mongoose. There are two genet species, the common genet and the large spotted genet. There are relatively few mustelid species in South Africa, as it appears that most niches taken by mustelids elsewhere in the world are taken up by vivverids and herpestids in sub-Saharan Africa (only seven species are native to Africa south of the Sahara). Two species of otter are native to South Africa, both inhabiting freshwater habitats and the Cape clawless otter ranging into the sea at the coast. The honey badger is probably the best known mustelid native to the region; aside from the otters, two other species occur, the African striped weasel and the striped polecat - their black-and-white fur serves the same function as that of skunks. The only seal native to the region is the brown fur seal, which breeds in large colonies off Namibia and South Africa.

Artiodactyls

South Africa has many antelope species, some which are widespread and are well known in other parts of the world, and some that are endemic. There is an extinct species of antelope endemic to South Africa known as the bluebuck. Several antelopes are found in different habitats. Species such as the gemsbok are found in arid areas, the black wildebeest (an endemic species) in grasslands, the Cape grysbok in fynbos, the impala in savanna and the klipspringer in rocky terrain. Other species range in a wider variety of habitats, such as the Springbok in arid shrublands, semidesert and grassland, and the Greater Kudu in thicket, open woodlands and riverine vegetation. South Africa has a wealth of small antelope species, such as the aforementioned klipspringer and Cape grysbok, common duiker, blue duiker, steenbok and oribi.

There are also larger artiodactyl species, such as the Cape buffalo, common eland and the giraffe. These are preyed upon mainly by lions.

Common warthogs are common in the east of the country. Bushpigs occur in habitats with dense cover.

Distantly related to the warthog and the bushpig but closer to cetaceans is the hippopotamus, an amphibious mammal that usually submerges itself in water bodies during the day and comes on land to feed on grasses during the night. The hippopotamus is found in the eastern part of the country down to the St Lucia wetlands/ Kosi Bay estuary in Kwa-Zulu Natal, although they used to be much more widespread, occurring as far west as Cape Town and down the length of the Orange River. There is a small population of hippos in Cape Town, where they were reintroduced to control alien vegetation. After their arrival in 1652 the Dutch settlers, led by founder of Cape Town Jan van Riebeeck, shot the resident hippopotamus population to extinction for meat and hides.

Perissiodactyls

Herbivores which are not artiodactyls also occur in the region. There are two native species of equids in the country, the plains zebra and the mountain zebra. An extinct subspecies of the plains zebra, the quagga, was endemic to the country.

Both the white rhinoceros and the black rhinoceros occur in the country. Neither can be distinguished by the colour, as both are a similar colour, but can be told apart by the shape of their mouths: with the white rhino, it has a wide or square mouth, while the black has a hook-lipped mouth. Both also behave differently, with the black rhino being smaller, shyer, and more aggressive.

There are again many species of rodents in South Africa, such as the vlei rat and four-striped grass mouse.

The three alien species of muriod rodents, the brown rat, the black rat and the house mouse, are all widespread in the country.

The Cape ground squirrel is common in arid areas and often shares its burrows with mongooses and meerkats, and is known to use its bushy tail as an umbrella from the harsh sun. There are tree squirrels, one of which is an introduced species: the eastern gray squirrel, introduced in Cape Town by Cecil John Rhodes from Europe. The rest, such as "Paraxerus cepapi", are found in the savanna biome in the north-east of the country.

Shrews occur, which prey on invertebrates. The Southern African hedgehog ("Atelerix frontalis") is a hedgehog that is native to South Africa. It differs from the European hedgehog in having a dark face bordered by white fur and longer legs, an adaptation to a warmer climate. They are found in the Eastern Cape northwards to Zimbabwe.

The South African springhare is common in savanna and semiarid habitats. This animal is similar in appearance to a small wallaby, but it is actually a rodent. It consumes tubers and bulbs.

Scrub hares and Cape hares are common in all regions of South Africa, and are a common prey item of many predatory species such as leopards, cheetahs and birds of prey. The riverine rabbit is a critically endangered species of rabbit that is confined to several small populations in the Karoo. Smith's red rock hare ("Pronolagus rupestris"), Jameson's red rock hare ("Pronolagus randensis") and the Natal red rock hare ("P. crassicaudatus") are three species of hare that live in rocky environments, hence their name. These species are isolated from one another in where they live. There is an introduced population of European rabbits on Robben Island, which is under a culling programme.

The origins of the taxon Afrotheria is deeply rooted in the African continent. The best known of these is the aardvark and the African bush elephant. Most members of the Afrotheria have remained in Africa.

The African bush elephant is the only proboscidean in South Africa, and the largest native animal. It is an ecosystem engineer, opening up dense thicket and woodland for more open-habitat species.

The aardvark is an odd-looking creature. It is a prodigious digger and sleeps in burrows during the day. It feeds mainly on termites and ants.

There are two species of "dassies" or hyraxes, the rock hyrax and the tree hyrax, the former widespread over the country and the latter occurring in the eastern part of the country. They are relatives of the elephants, although not the closest (sirenians are more closely related). Their major predators are the Verreaux's eagle and the caracal.

Elephant shrews resemble shrews but are not related to them. They similarly eat arthropods.

The largest primate in the region, excluding humans, is the chacma baboon. A true generalist, it is found in virtually all habitats in South Africa. The other primates in the region are the vervet monkey and the Samango monkey. They are mainly frugivores, although they are true opportunists and may take eggs and nestlings from bird nests.

858 species of birds have been recorded in South Africa.

There are many raptor species found in South Africa, some of which are the eagles, hawks, falcons and vultures.
Eagles are widespread over the country. Different species inhabit different habitats. The African fish eagle is found wherever there are large bodies of water, and takes mainly fish and occasionally other vertebrates. The martial eagle is found in savanna, while Verreaux's eagle is found in areas with rocky terrain and mountains. The Verreaux's eagle is being given attention by conservation authorities as there has been noticeable population decline in some areas. It is an important predator of the rock hyrax. The crowned eagle is a forest species, and takes monkeys and duikers. There are myriad species of hawk found across the country; examples are harriers, sparrowhawks, the African harrier hawk, "Buteo" species known as buzzards (the jackal buzzard), and kites, such the black-winged kite.

The falcons are well represented by a number of species. The peregrine falcon is both a resident and a visitor, and nests mainly on cliffs. More common than the peregrine and similar in appearance is the lanner falcon. Both prey mainly on other birds. The rock kestrel is widespread. There is a highly localised population of the Taita falcon.

The vultures that occur in South Africa are Old World vultures, locally represented by the lappet-faced vulture, the white-backed vulture, the Cape vulture and the highly unusual palm-nut vulture. The Egyptian vulture is extinct as a local resident and occurs only as a rare vagrant. All the vultures except the palm-nut are scavengers.

Gamebirds

The gamebirds are represented by the families Numididae and the large family Phasianidae.

The guineafowls are characterised in South Africa by the crested guineafowl which is restricted to bushveld, and the helmeted guineafowl, which is widespread and common in urban and agricultural areas.

The Phasianidae are locally constituted of the francolins, quails, partridges and the Indian peafowl, which is an alien species that has escaped from captivity in some areas. Some of the francolins include the Cape francolin, Swainson's francolin, and Natal francolin, to name a few. The quails are represented by the harlequin quail and the common quail. The chukar partridge, another alien species from Eurasia, is restricted to Robben Island.

The waterfowl are well represented in South Africa. They include the dabbling ducks of the genus "Anas", the shelducks and the sheldgeese, the extremely common Egyptian goose, and the spur-winged goose.

Hornbills, bee-eaters, rollers, kingfishers, the hoopoe and woodhoopoes are all common in the region.

Hornbills
The largest species is the southern ground hornbill. It occurs only in nature reserves. Other well-known species include the southern yellow-billed hornbill, the southern red-billed hornbill, the African grey hornbill and the trumpeter hornbill. Hornbills are characterised by a large downcurved bill which is frequently brightly colored and sometimes has a casque on the upper mandible. They are omnivores, eating both fruit and small animals such as chameleons; the ground hornbill is an adept hunter and will forage in packs, flushing out prey such as locusts, lizards and even tortoises.

Bee-eaters
Bee-eaters are brightly coloured birds with a long dark, decurved bill, useful for holding bees and wasps at beak's length. The most common is the southern carmine bee-eater. bee-eaters nest in holes on river banks.

Rollers
Similar in colour to the bee-eaters but resembling crows in size and shape are the rollers, family Coraciidae. Among the most well-known is the lilac-breasted roller and the European roller. They hawk for insects from perches.

Kingfishers
The kingfishers are famous as hunters of fish, but not all species hunt fish or over water. Indeed, some hunt away from water, such as the brown-hooded kingfisher, which is a woodland species that hunts large insects and small vertebrates. Some South African species are among the largest of their kind, such as the giant kingfisher and the pied kingfisher. Others are the smallest, such as the malachite kingfisher.

Hoopoe and wood-hoopoes
The hoopoe is one of the most wide-ranging bird species in the world, resident over much of Europe, Asia and Africa. The African subspecies (which some authorities elevate to full species status), is more russet in colour than its northerly relative and feeds similarly on insects, hawking for them and probing the soil with the long bill.

Wood-hoopoes, despite the name, are not related to the hoopoe, but along with the scimitarbills reside in a family all of their own, the Phoeniculidae. The green woodhoopoe is widespread over much of the country, and the other South African species is the common scimitarbill. The wood-hoopoes feed on arthropods, especially insects, which they find by probing with their bills in rotten wood and in crevices in bark, such as on the paper-bark thorn.

The passerines are one of the largest bird orders, with over 5,000 identified species.

There are several species of starling in South Africa, two of which are introduced species: the common starling and the common myna. The common starling was introduced by Cecil John Rhodes in 1890 from Europe in Cape Town. The common myna was introduced in Durban in 1902 and has become common in Kwa-Zulu Natal and has spread further north to Gauteng. Fortunately, it has no significant impact on rural and natural habitats.

The red-winged starling is extremely common and widespread across the country, absent only in the arid north-west, where it is replaced by its close relative the pale-winged starling. The difference between the two is that the red-winged has rufous primaries while the pale-winged has whitish primaries edged with orange. The pale-winged has a bright red or orange eye, while the red-winged's is dark, almost black. Only the female of the red-winged has a grey head.

The pied starling occurs over much of the country.There are four species of corvid which occur in the region, three native and one introduced (the house crow, likely ship-assisted). The pied crow is widespread and common including in urban areas, with the white-necked raven, the largest corvid in the region, inhabiting mountainous areas and increasingly in urban areas. The Cape crow is mainly restricted to rural habitats. The house crow can be found in Cape Town and Durban, where control measures have been implemented with varying degrees of success.

The only ratite in the country and the largest bird in the world is the common ostrich. It is widely farmed in the Little Karoo region.

Amphibians in South Africa are represented by the frogs and toads (order Anura); the salamander and caecilian orders are absent. About 110 out of the 135 species of frog native to Southern Africa exist in South Africa, about 50% of them endemic. About 15% of the total number of species are threatened to varying degrees according to IUCN guidelines. Frogs tend to be less abundant in the arid west compared to the rest of the country.

The ten or so families in South Africa are as follows:

The rain frogs belong to the family Microhylidae and are classified in the genus "Breviceps". Rain frogs are unable to swim; if they fall into a body of water, they puff up and float until they reach the shore.

The Cape river frog falls under the family Pyxicephalidae, and is widespread over the country, also occurring in Namibia, Lesotho, and Swaziland. In the same family is the critically endangered micro frog, classified in its own genus, "Microbatrachella".
Genus "Pyxicephalus" comprises the African bullfrog, which are among the biggest amphibians in the world.

The common caco is a species of frog in the Petropedetidae family. This family, along with the Pyxicephalidae mentioned above, are often placed as subfamilies in the family Ranidae.

The family Heleophrynidae is endemic to Southern Africa and are known as the ghost frogs. They inhabit fast-moving streams. Some are confined to restricted areas in South Africa, such as the Table Mountain ghost frog and the natal ghost frog.

The 'typical' toads, of family Bufonidae, include the western leopard toad, the raucous toad, the guttural toad and a few other species.

The Pipidae are a family of primitive, aquatic frogs, with representatives both in Southern Africa and South America. The most famous member is the African clawed frog, or Platanna. This frog is a model organism for biological study, and it was once used extensively for pregnancy tests, where the urine from pregnant women induced the frog to lay eggs. The platanna may be the source of the chytrid fungus that is devastating frog species worldwide. A less well-known relative is the Cape platanna, which is endangered.

The family Hyperoliidae has a few representatives in South Africa, including the painted reed frog, the arum lily reed frog, and "Kassina maculata".

The only locally occurring member of the Rhacophoridae family, the grey foam-nest treefrog has an interesting breeding system. A female lays her eggs onto a tree branch. Several males then cluster around her and fertilise the eggs by producing sperm which they whip into a foamy 'nest' with their hind legs. After a period of time, the tadpoles exit this 'foam nest' and drop into the pond or puddle below. This species is present in the north-east of the country.

The common squeaker is another species which is the sole representative of its family, in this case Arthroleptidae, in South Africa.

The Marbled snout-burrower is a member of the family Hemisotidae.

Many reptiles inhabit South Africa, including snakes, lizards, tortoises and turtles, and crocodiles.

The Nile crocodile inhabits water bodies located in the north and east of the country; the west and south are either too cool or too arid for the crocodile. Warning signs are placed wherever crocodiles are known to exist to alert people to their presence; the Nile crocodile is one of the most dangerous animals in Africa.

Many species of snake, both venomous and non-venomous, make South Africa their home. The largest is the African rock python, a non-venomous snake that kills its prey, which includes creatures up to the size of an antelope, by constriction. A much smaller species that also kills by constriction is the mole snake; as its name suggests, this snake preys on small mammals, most often rodents such as mole-rats.
Many venomous snakes occur, some of which include famous examples such as the black mamba (one of the most deadly snakes in the world), eastern green mamba, boomslang, Cape cobra and rinkhals. Though human fatalities can occur, these snakes are normally timid and prefer to avoid humans. Snakes, both venomous and non-venomous, are important in controlling rodent populations.

Several species of tortoise occur. The most widespread is the leopard tortoise, which inhabits semi-arid and grassland habitats.

South Africa has rich and varied sea life, thanks to the confluence of two major oceans (the Atlantic and the Indian) around its southernmost point, Cape Agulhas.

The country is well known for its great white sharks; shark tourism is an important part of tourism in the southern Cape region.

Coelacanths, formerly considered extinct since the Late Cretaceous period, were discovered in 1938 when one was caught off the eastern coast of the country. A population exists in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Kwazulu-Natal.

The Oligochaeta fauna is represented by over 140 species of the families Acanthodrilidae, Enchytraeidae, Eudrilidae, Haplotaxidae, Microchaetidae and Tritogeniidae.

Coleoptera
Beetles are among best studied South African insect groups and include a number of endemic species.

Lepidoptera
Diptera
The flies native to South Africa have been classified into over 90 families.

Hymenoptera

Poaching of rhinoceroses has become a national issue for South Africa. In 2015, 1175 rhinos were killed for their horn, which is an ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine. Since then, the rate of rhinos being poached for their horn has been increasing exponentially every year. However, this trend was bucked in 2015, where the number of rhinos poached were lower than the year before. Currently, poaching is carried out by sophisticated criminal syndicates.

Gorillas are ground-dwelling, predominantly herbivorous apes that inhabit the forests of central Sub-Saharan Africa. They are classified in the genus Gorilla which is divided into two species: the eastern gorillas and the western gorillas (both critically endangered), and either four or five subspecies. They are the largest living primates. The DNA of gorillas is highly similar to that of humans, from 95 to 99% depending on what is included, and they are the next closest living relatives to humans after the species of "Pan"; the chimpanzees and bonobos.

Gorilla

Gorillas' natural habitats cover tropical or subtropical forests in Sub-Saharan Africa. Although their range covers a small percentage of Sub-Saharan Africa, gorillas cover a wide range of elevations. The mountain gorilla inhabits the Albertine Rift montane cloud forests of the Virunga Volcanoes, ranging in altitude from. Lowland gorillas live in dense forests and lowland swamps and marshes as low as sea level, with western lowland gorillas living in Central West African countries and eastern lowland gorillas living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo near its border with Rwanda.

The word "gorilla" comes from the history of Hanno the Navigator, ( 500 BC) a Carthaginian explorer on an expedition on the west African coast to the area that later became Sierra Leone. Members of the expedition encountered "savage people, the greater part of whom were women, whose bodies were hairy, and whom our interpreters called Gorillae". The word was then later used as the species name, though it is unknown whether what these ancient Carthaginians encountered were truly gorillas, another species of ape or monkeys, or humans.

The American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman first described the western gorilla (they called it "Troglodytes gorilla") in 1847 from specimens obtained in Liberia. The name was derived, described by Hanno.

The closest relatives of gorillas are the other two Homininae genera, chimpanzees and humans, all of them having diverged from a common ancestor about 7 million years ago. Human gene sequences differ only 1.6% on average from the sequences of corresponding gorilla genes, but there is further difference in how many copies each gene has. Until recently, gorillas were considered to be a single species, with three subspecies: the western lowland gorilla, the eastern lowland gorilla and the mountain gorilla. There is now agreement that there are two species, each with two subspecies. More recently, a third subspecies has been claimed to exist in one of the species. The separate species and subspecies developed from a single type of gorilla during the Ice Age, when their forest habitats shrank and became isolated from each other.

Primatologists continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations. The species and subspecies listed here are the ones upon which most scientists agree.

The proposed third subspecies of "Gorilla beringei", which has not yet received a trinomen, is the Bwindi population of the mountain gorilla, sometimes called the Bwindi gorilla.

Some variations that distinguish the classifications of gorilla include varying density, size, hair colour, length, culture, and facial widths. Population genetics of the lowland gorillas suggest that the western and eastern lowland populations diverged ~261 thousand years ago.

Gorillas move around by knuckle-walking, although they sometimes walk bipedally for short distances while carrying food or in defensive situations, and some Mountain Gorillas use other parts of their hand to aid locomotion (studies of 77 Mountain Gorillas published in 2018 showed 61% only used knuckle walking, but the remainder used knuckle walking plus other parts of their hand—fist walking in ways that do not use the knuckles, using the backs of their hand, and using their palms). Wild male gorillas weigh, while adult females usually weigh about half as much as adult males at. Adult males are tall, with an arm span that stretches from. Female gorillas are shorter at, with smaller arm spans. Groves (1970) calculates that average weight of the 47 wild adult male gorillas is 143 kg, while Smith and Jungers(1997) found that the average weight of the 19 wild adult male gorillas is 169 kg. Adult male gorillas are known as silverbacks due to the characteristic silver hair on their backs reaching to the hips. The tallest gorilla recorded was a silverback with an arm span of, a chest of, and a weight of, shot in Alimbongo, northern Kivu in May 1938. The heaviest gorilla recorded was a silverback shot in Ambam, Cameroon, which weighed. Males in captivity are noted to be capable of reaching weights up to. Gorilla facial structure is described as mandibular prognathism, that is, the mandible protrudes farther out than the maxilla. Adult males also have a prominent sagittal crest.

The eastern gorilla is more darkly coloured than the western gorilla, with the mountain gorilla being the darkest of all. The mountain gorilla also has the thickest hair. The western lowland gorilla can be brown or grayish with a reddish forehead. In addition, gorillas that live in lowland forests are more slender and agile than the more bulky mountain gorillas. The eastern gorilla also has a longer face and broader chest than the western gorilla.

Studies have shown gorilla blood is not reactive to anti-A and anti-B monoclonal antibodies, which would, in humans, indicate type O blood. Due to novel sequences, though, it is different enough to not conform with the human ABO blood group system, into which the other great apes fit. Like humans, gorillas have individual fingerprints.
Their eye colour is dark brown, framed by a black ring around the iris.

Gorillas have a patchy distribution. The range of the two species is separated by the Congo River and its tributaries. The western gorilla lives in west central Africa, while the eastern gorilla lives in east central Africa. Between the species, and even within the species, gorillas live in a variety of habitats and elevations. Gorilla habitat ranges from montane forests to swamps. Eastern gorillas inhabit montane and submontane forests between above sea level. Mountain gorillas live in the montane forests at the higher ends of the elevation range, while eastern lowland gorillas live in submontane forests at the lower ends of the elevation range. In addition, eastern lowland gorillas live in montane bamboo forests, as well as lowland forests ranging from in elevation. Western gorillas live in both lowland swamp forests and montane forests, and elevations ranging from sea level to. Western lowland gorillas live in swamp and lowland forests ranging up to, and Cross River gorillas live in low-lying and submontane forests ranging from.

Gorillas construct nests for daytime and night use. Nests tend to be simple aggregations of branches and leaves about in diameter and are constructed by individuals. Gorillas, unlike chimpanzees or orangutans, tend to sleep in nests on the ground. The young nest with their mothers, but construct nests after three years of age, initially close to those of their mothers. Gorilla nests are distributed arbitrarily and use of tree species for site and construction appears to be opportunistic. Nest-building by great apes is now considered to be not just animal architecture, but as an important instance of tool use.

A gorilla's day is divided between rest periods and travel or feeding periods. Diets differ between and within species. Mountain gorillas mostly eat foliage, such as leaves, stems, pith, and shoots, while fruit makes up a very small part of their diets. Mountain gorilla food is widely distributed and neither individuals nor groups have to compete with one another. Their home ranges average 3–15 km (1.16–5.79 mi), and their movements range around or less on an average day. Despite eating a few species in each habitat, mountain gorillas have flexible diets and can live in a variety of habitats.

Eastern lowland gorillas have more diverse diets, which vary seasonally. Leaves and pith are commonly eaten, but fruits can make up as much as 25% of their diets. Since fruit is less available, lowland gorillas must travel farther each day, and their home ranges vary from 2.7–6.5 km (1.04 to 2.51 mi), with day ranges. Eastern lowland gorillas will also eat insects, preferably ants. Western lowland gorillas depend on fruits more than the others and they are more dispersed across their range. They travel even farther than the other gorilla subspecies, at per day on average, and have larger home ranges of 7–14 km (2.70–5.41 mi). Western lowland gorillas have less access to terrestrial herbs, although they can access aquatic herbs in some areas. Termites and ants are also eaten.

Gorillas rarely drink water "because they consume succulent vegetation that is almost half water as well as morning dew", although both mountain and lowland gorillas have been observed drinking.

Gorillas live in groups called troops. Troops tend to be made of one adult male or silverback, multiple adult females and their offspring. However, multiple-male troops also exist. A silverback is typically more than 12 years of age, and is named for the distinctive patch of silver hair on his back, which comes with maturity. Silverbacks also have large canine teeth that also come with maturity. Both males and females tend to emigrate from their natal groups. For mountain gorillas, females disperse from their natal troops more than males. Mountain gorillas and western lowland gorillas also commonly transfer to second new groups.

Mature males also tend to leave their groups and establish their own troops by attracting emigrating females. However, male mountain gorillas sometimes stay in their natal troops and become subordinate to the silverback. If the silverback dies, these males may be able to become dominant or mate with the females. This behaviour has not been observed in eastern lowland gorillas. In a single male group, when the silverback dies, the females and their offspring disperse and find a new troop. Without a silverback to protect them, the infants will likely fall victim to infanticide. Joining a new group is likely to be a tactic against this. However, while gorilla troops usually disband after the silverback dies, female eastern lowlands gorillas and their offspring have been recorded staying together until a new silverback transfers into the group. This likely serves as protection from leopards.

The silverback is the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites, and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop. Younger males subordinate to the silverback, known as blackbacks, may serve as backup protection. Blackbacks are aged between 8 and 12 years and lack the silver back hair. The bond that a silverback has with his females forms the core of gorilla social life. Bonds between them are maintained by grooming and staying close together. Females form strong relationships with males to gain mating opportunities and protection from predators and infanticidal outside males. However, aggressive behaviours between males and females do occur, but rarely lead to serious injury. Relationships between females may vary. Maternally related females in a troop tend to be friendly towards each other and associate closely. Otherwise, females have few friendly encounters and commonly act aggressively towards each other.

Females may fight for social access to males and a male may intervene. Male gorillas have weak social bonds, particularly in multiple-male groups with apparent dominance hierarchies and strong competition for mates. Males in all-male groups, though, tend to have friendly interactions and socialise through play, grooming, and staying together, and occasionally they even engage in homosexual interactions. Severe aggression is rare in stable groups, but when two mountain gorilla groups meet, the two silverbacks can sometimes engage in a fight to the death, using their canines to cause deep, gaping injuries.

One possible predator of gorillas is the leopard. Gorilla remains have been found in leopard scat, but this may be the result of scavenging. When the group is attacked by humans, leopards, or other gorillas, an individual silverback will protect the group, even at the cost of his own life.

Females mature at 10–12 years (earlier in captivity), and males at 11–13 years. A female’s first ovulatory cycle occurs when she is six years of age, and is followed by a two-year period of adolescent infertility. The estrous cycle lasts 30–33 days, with outward ovulation signs subtle compared to those of chimpanzees. The gestation period lasts 8.5 months. Female mountain gorillas first give birth at 10 years of age and have four-year interbirth intervals. Males can be fertile before reaching adulthood. Gorillas mate year round.

Females will purse their lips and slowly approach a male while making eye contact. This serves to urge the male to mount her. If the male does not respond, then she will try to attract his attention by reaching towards him or slapping the ground. In multiple-male groups, solicitation indicates female preference, but females can be forced to mate with multiple males. Males incite copulation by approaching a female and displaying at her or touching her and giving a "train grunt". Recently, gorillas have been observed engaging in face-to-face sex, a trait once considered unique to humans and bonobos.
Gorilla infants are vulnerable and dependent, thus mothers, their primary caregivers, are important to their survival. Male gorillas are not active in caring for the young, but they do play a role in socialising them to other youngsters. The silverback has a largely supportive relationship with the infants in his troop and shields them from aggression within the group. Infants remain in contact with their mothers for the first five months and mothers stay near the silverback for protection. Infants suckle at least once per hour and sleep with their mothers in the same nest.

Infants begin to break contact with their mothers after five months, but only for a brief period each time. By 12 months old, infants move up to from their mothers. At around 18–21 months, the distance between mother and offspring increases and they regularly spend time away from each other. In addition, nursing decreases to once every two hours. Infants spend only half of their time with their mothers by 30 months. They enter their juvenile period at their third year, and this lasts until their sixth year. At this time, gorillas are weaned and they sleep in a separate nest from their mothers. After their offspring are weaned, females begin to ovulate and soon become pregnant again. The presence of play partners, including the silverback, minimizes conflicts in weaning between mother and offspring.

Twenty-five distinct vocalisations are recognised, many of which are used primarily for group communication within dense vegetation. Sounds classified as grunts and barks are heard most frequently while traveling, and indicate the whereabouts of individual group members. They may also be used during social interactions when discipline is required. Screams and roars signal alarm or warning, and are produced most often by silverbacks. Deep, rumbling belches suggest contentment and are heard frequently during feeding and resting periods. They are the most common form of intragroup communication.

For this reason, conflicts are most often resolved by displays and other threat behaviours that are intended to intimidate without becoming physical. The ritualized charge display is unique to gorillas. The entire sequence has nine steps: (1) progressively quickening hooting, (2) symbolic feeding, (3) rising bipedally, (4) throwing vegetation, (5) chest-beating with cupped hands, (6) one leg kick, (7) sideways running, two-legged to four-legged, (8) slapping and tearing vegetation, and (9) thumping the ground with palms to end display.

A gorilla's lifespan is normally between 35 and 40 years, although zoo gorillas may live for 50 years or more. Colo, a female western gorilla at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium was the oldest known gorilla, at 60 years of age when she died on January 17, 2017.

Gorillas are considered highly intelligent. A few individuals in captivity, such as Koko, have been taught a subset of sign language. Like the other great apes, gorillas can laugh, grieve, have "rich emotional lives", develop strong family bonds, make and use tools, and think about the past and future. Some researchers believe gorillas have spiritual feelings or religious sentiments. They have been shown to have cultures in different areas revolving around different methods of food preparation, and will show individual colour preferences.

The following observations were made by a team led by Thomas Breuer of the Wildlife Conservation Society in September 2005. Gorillas are now known to use tools in the wild. A female gorilla in the Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park in the Republic of Congo was recorded using a stick as if to gauge the depth of water whilst crossing a swamp. A second female was seen using a tree stump as a bridge and also as a support whilst fishing in the swamp. This means all of the great apes are now known to use tools.

In September 2005, a two-and-a-half-year-old gorilla in the Republic of Congo was discovered using rocks to smash open palm nuts inside a game sanctuary. While this was the first such observation for a gorilla, over 40 years previously, chimpanzees had been seen using tools in the wild 'fishing' for termites. Great apes are endowed with semiprecision grips, and have been able to use both simple tools and even weapons, by improvising a club from a convenient fallen branch, for example.

American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage obtained the first specimens (the skull and other bones) during his time in Liberia. The first scientific description of gorillas dates back to an article by Savage and the naturalist Jeffries Wyman in 1847 in "Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History", where "Troglodytes gorilla" is described, now known as the western gorilla. Other species of gorilla were described in the next few years.

The explorer Paul Du Chaillu was the first westerner to see a live gorilla during his travel through western equatorial Africa from 1856 to 1859. He brought dead specimens to the UK in 1861.

The first systematic study was not conducted until the 1920s, when Carl Akeley of the American Museum of Natural History traveled to Africa to hunt for an animal to be shot and stuffed. On his first trip, he was accompanied by his friends Mary Bradley, a mystery writer, her husband, and their young daughter Alice, who would later write science fiction under the pseudonym James Tiptree Jr. After their trip, Mary Bradley wrote "On the Gorilla Trail". She later became an advocate for the conservation of gorillas, and wrote several more books (mainly for children). In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Robert Yerkes and his wife Ava helped further the study of gorillas when they sent Harold Bigham to Africa. Yerkes also wrote a book in 1929 about the great apes.

After World War II, George Schaller was one of the first researchers to go into the field and study primates. In 1959, he conducted a systematic study of the mountain gorilla in the wild and published his work. Years later, at the behest of Louis Leakey and the "National Geographic", Dian Fossey conducted a much longer and more comprehensive study of the mountain gorilla. When she published her work, many misconceptions and myths about gorillas were finally disproved, including the myth that gorillas are violent.

Western lowland gorillas ("G. g. gorilla") are believed to be one of the zoonotic origins of HIV/AIDS. The SIVgor Simian immunodeficiency virus that infects them is similar to a certain strain of HIV-1.

The gorilla became the next-to-last great ape genus to have its genome sequenced. The first gorilla genome was generated with short read and Sanger sequencing using DNA from a female western lowland gorilla named Kamilah. This gave scientists further insight into the evolution and origin of humans. Despite the chimpanzees being the closest extant relatives of humans, 15% of the human genome was found to be more like that of the gorilla. In addition, 30% of the gorilla genome "is closer to human or chimpanzee than the latter are to each other; this is rarer around coding genes, indicating pervasive selection throughout great ape evolution, and has functional consequences in gene expression." Analysis of the gorilla genome has cast doubt on the idea that the rapid evolution of hearing genes gave rise to language in humans, as it also occurred in gorillas.

Since coming to the attention of western society in the 1860s, gorillas have been a recurring element of many aspects of popular culture and media. For example, gorillas have featured prominently in monstrous fantasy films such as "King Kong". Pulp fiction, such as "Tarzan" and "Conan the Barbarian", has featured gorillas as physical opponents of the titular protagonists.

All species (and sub-species) of gorilla are listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List. Now, over 100,000 western lowland gorillas are thought to exist in the wild, with 4,000 in zoos; eastern lowland gorillas have a population of under 5,000 in the wild and 24 in zoos. Mountain gorillas are the most severely endangered, with an estimated population of about 880 left in the wild and none in zoos. Threats to gorilla survival include habitat destruction and poaching for the bushmeat trade. In 2004, a population of several hundred gorillas in the Odzala National Park, Republic of Congo was essentially wiped out by the Ebola virus. A 2006 study published in "Science" concluded more than 5,000 gorillas may have died in recent outbreaks of the Ebola virus in central Africa. The researchers indicated in conjunction with commercial hunting of these apes, the virus creates "a recipe for rapid ecological extinction". Conservation efforts include the Great Apes Survival Project, a partnership between the United Nations Environment Programme and the UNESCO, and also an international treaty, the Agreement on the Conservation of Gorillas and Their Habitats, concluded under UNEP-administered Convention on Migratory Species. The Gorilla Agreement is the first legally binding instrument exclusively targeting gorilla conservation; it came into effect on 1 June 2008.

The eastern gorilla ("Gorilla beringei") is a critically endangered species of the genus "Gorilla" and the largest living primate. At present, the species is subdivided into two subspecies. Grauer's gorilla, formerly known as the eastern lowland gorilla ("G. b. graueri") is more populous, at about 3,800 individuals. The mountain gorilla ("G. b. beringei") has only about 1000 individuals. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature mentioned illegal hunting in its assessment of threats to the species.

Eastern gorilla

There are two recognised subspecies of eastern gorilla: the mountain gorilla ("Gorilla beringei beringei") of the volcanic slopes of Rwanda, Uganda and eastern Democratic Republic of Congo; and Grauer's gorilla or eastern lowland gorilla ("Gorilla beringei graueri") in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo.

Grauer's gorillas and mountain gorillas were previously thought to be two of the three subspecies of one single species, the gorilla ("Gorilla gorilla"). However, genetic research has shown that the two eastern subspecies are far more closely related than the western subspecies: the western lowland gorilla ("G. gorilla gorilla"), which justified the separate classification. The two eastern subspecies are now classified as "G. beringei".

The eastern gorilla is a large hominid with a large head, broad chest, and long arms. It has a flat nose with large nostrils. The face, hands, feet and breast are bald. The fur is mainly black, but adult males have a silvery "saddle" on their back. When the gorilla gets older, the hair on the saddle of the back becomes white, much like the gray hair of elderly people. This is why the older males are called "silverbacks". Grauer's gorilla has a shorter, thicker, deep black fur, while the mountain gorilla has a more bluish color. The mountain gorilla is slightly smaller and lighter than Grauer's gorilla, but still larger and heavier than the western lowland gorilla and the Cross River gorilla. Males are much larger than females. A full-grown adult male Eastern gorilla typically weighs and stands upright and a female typically weighs and stands tall. The tallest silverback recorded was a individual shot in Alimbongo, northern Kivu in May 1938. The heaviest gorilla recorded was a silverback shot in Ambam, Cameroon, which weighed, although the latter area is within the range of the western gorilla, far outside that of the eastern gorilla.

Mountain gorillas are restricted to the mountain rainforests and subalpine forests of eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, southwestern Uganda and Rwanda. Grauer's gorilla occur across the forests of the Albertine Rift in eastern DRC.

Eastern gorillas are herbivorous, with a heavily foliage based diet, due to lack of available fruit in their habitats. They have smaller home ranges than western gorillas as foliage is more abundant than fruit. They are diurnal but the majority of foraging occurs in the morning and late afternoon. At night, they build nests by folding over vegetation, usually on the ground.

Eastern gorillas live in stable, cohesive family groups, led by a dominant silverback male. Eastern gorillas tend to have larger group sizes than their western relatives, numbering up to 35 individuals. There is no distinct breeding season and females give birth only once every 3–4 years due to the long period of parental care and a gestation period of 8.5 months. Newborn gorillas have greyish-pink skin and can crawl after 9 weeks; they are not fully weaned until 3.5 years. Males defend their females and offspring using their large size in intimidating displays involving charging and chest-beating.

The eastern gorilla has become increasingly endangered since the 1990s, and the species was listed as critically endangered in September 2016 as its population continued to decrease. Illegal hunting for bushmeat and destruction of their habitat as a result of intensifying forestry and the development of agriculture form the most important threats for the species. Between 1996 and 2016, the eastern gorilla lost more than 70 percent of its population, and by 2016 the total population was estimated to be less than 6,000.

The only exception is the mountain gorilla subspecies, which is also critically endangered but saw its population increase to about 880 individuals in 2016. In some national parks, viewing mountain gorillas is a popular tourist attraction. These national parks include Volcanoes National Park in Rwanda, Virunga National Park in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mgahinga Gorilla National Park and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. This has both advantages (environmental awareness, financial benefit) and disadvantages (disease risks, disturbance of natural behavior) for the conservation of the gorillas.

Unlike the western lowland gorilla, there are few eastern gorillas in zoos. The Antwerp Zoo is the only zoo outside the native range of the species that has eastern lowland gorillas. Outside the native range, the mountain gorilla is not held in captivity at all. Small groups consisting of animals confiscated from poachers are kept in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Grauer's gorillas at the Gorilla Rehabilitation and Conservation Education (GRACE) center in Tayna Nature Reserve, and mountain gorillas at the Senkwekwe Center in Virunga National Park.

Eastern gorilla

Eastern gorilla