what is the purpose of the party national convention

The 2016 Republican National Convention, in which delegates of the United States Republican Party chose the party's nominees for President of the United States and Vice President of the United States in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, was held July 18â€“21, 2016, at Quicken Loans Arena in Cleveland, Ohio.[3] The event marked the third time Cleveland has hosted the Republican National Convention and the first since 1936.[4] In addition to determining the party's national ticket, the convention ratified the party platform.[5]

2016 Republican National Convention

President of the United States
Incumbent

Business and personal

There were 2,472 delegates to the Republican National Convention, with a simple majority of 1,237 required to win the presidential nomination.[6][7] Most of those delegates were bound for the first ballot of the convention based on the results of the 2016 Republican presidential primaries.[8] The convention formally nominated Donald Trump for President and Indiana Governor Mike Pence for Vice President.[9] Trump and Pence went on to win the general election with a majority of the electoral votes.

In 2016, both the Democratic and Republican conventions were held before the Summer Olympics instead of after, as was the case in 2008 and 2012. One reason the Republican Party scheduled their convention in July was to help avoid a longer, drawn-out primary battle similar to what happened in 2012, which left the party fractured heading into the general election and eventually led to Mitt Romney losing the election to Barack Obama. The Democratic Party then followed suit, scheduling their convention in Philadelphia the week after the Republicans' convention, to provide a quicker response.[10] On May 3, Republican National Committee chairman Reince Priebus declared Donald Trump the presumptive nominee after Texas senator Ted Cruz dropped out of the race. The next day, Ohio Governor John Kasich suspended his campaign, effectively making Trump the presumptive Republican presidential nominee. Trump was the first presidential nominee of a major party since Wendell Willkie, the Republican candidate in 1940, who has held neither political office nor a high military rank prior to his nomination. He was also the first presidential nominee of a major party without political experience since General Dwight D. Eisenhower first captured the Republican presidential nomination in 1952. This was the first Republican National Convention to be held entirely in July since 1980. Twitter and CBS News live streamed the convention via Twitter.[11]

On April 2, 2014, the Republican National Committee announced that Cincinnati, Cleveland, Dallas, Denver, Kansas City and Las Vegas were the finalists for hosting the convention.[12] In late June 2014, Cleveland and Dallas were announced as the final two contenders to be the host city.[13] Cleveland was selected on July 8, 2014.[14]

The 2016 Cleveland Host Committee, an Ohio nonprofit corporation with no political affiliation, is the official and federally designated Presidential Convention Host Committee for the convention. It is responsible for "organizing, hosting and funding" the convention; it also aims "to promote Northeast Ohio and ensure Cleveland is best represented, and to lessen the burden of local governments in hosting the 2016 Republican National Convention".[15] The Host Committee is composed of prominent Ohio business executives, civic leaders, and other community leaders.[16][17] David Gilbert, CEO of Destination Cleveland and the Greater Cleveland Sports Commission, is the President and CEO of the host committee.[15] Organizers have found it hard to raise the money needed to put on the convention, which is normally supported by corporate donations. Corporations that donated hundreds of thousands of dollars to the 2012 convention but nothing in 2016 include JPMorgan Chase, General Electric, Ford Motor Company, Motorola Solutions and Amgen.[18] Reluctance to be associated with Trump, or concern that the convention might be disrupted by floor fights or violence, were sometimes cited as factors in the decision to withhold funds.[19][20] In July as the convention got under way, the Cleveland Host Committee said it had raised $58 million of its $64 million goal. They asked billionaire Sheldon Adelson, who often contributes to Republicans, to make up the $6 million shortfall.[21]

The convention is designated as a National Special Security Event, meaning that ultimate authority over law enforcement goes to the Secret Service and Department of Homeland Security.[22] A highly publicized online petition[23] by gun activists to allow the open carry of guns inside Quicken Loans Arena garnered 45,000 signatures; however, the Secret Service, which is in charge of convention security, announced that it would not allow guns in the arena (or the small "secure zone" immediately outside it[24]) during the event,[25] releasing a statement in late March 2016 saying: "Individuals determined to be carrying firearms will not be allowed past a predetermined outer perimeter checkpoint, regardless of whether they possess a ticket to the event."[26] The Secret Service has the authority to restrict guns, firearms or other weapons from entering any site where it is protecting an individual.[27]

The Cleveland Police Department received $50 million in federal grants to support local police operations during the event.[28] With this grant money, the City of Cleveland sought to purchase over 2,000 riot control personnel gear sets prior to the convention for $20 million, and the remaining $30 million is expected to go to personnel expenses.[29] Items such as water guns, swords, tennis balls and coolers have been banned by the City of Cleveland from the 1.7-square-mile "event zone" outside the convention hall by the City of Cleveland, but because of a statewide open-carry law permitting the open carrying of guns, firearms are permitted.[24][30][31][32] The Cleveland chapter of the NAACP raised concerns in March 2016 in a letter to city and county leaders about security at the Convention, writing that police were unprepared for a "possible mix of protesters and demonstrators brandishing guns."[23][33] The Cleveland Police Union also raised concerns similar to those raised by the local NAACP in March, writing that equipment and training for police was behind schedule.[23] On July 16—the eve of the convention—the Cleveland Police Union asked Governor John Kasich to temporarily suspend Ohio's state open-carry gun law so as to block the carrying of guns within the event zone,[24] but Kasich rejected the request, writing: "Ohio governors do not have the power to arbitrarily suspend federal and state constitutional rights or state laws as suggested."[24]

Before the convention there were a number of online phishing expeditions that may have been hackers looking for weak spots in the convention's network.[34] The computer network of the Democratic National Committee had already been penetrated by hackers linked with the Russian government, compromising, among other things, the database of opposition research on Trump.[35] On July 17, 2016, The New York Times reported that "Cleveland has assigned about 500 police officers specifically to handle the convention and it has brought in thousands more officers to help, from departments as distant as California and Texas."[36]

The Los Angeles Times wrote at the end of March 2016 that fears of a turbulent and volatile convention atmosphere were heightened because of a variety of factors: "a city scarred by controversial police shootings and simmering with racial tension; a candidate [Trump] who has threatened that his supporters will riot if he comes with the most delegates but leaves without the nomination; and a police force with a reputation for brutality."[37] Concerns specifically focused on the ability of the Cleveland Police Department to handle protests in the wake of the Tamir Rice and Michael Brelo cases, and a 2014 Department of Justice investigation that criticized the police department for having a pattern or practice of using "unreasonable and unnecessary force."[37] Left-wing activists have been preparing for the convention since it was announced in 2014.[37] In May 2016, the American Civil Liberties Union threatened to file a lawsuit on behalf of two activist groups, Citizens for Trump and a progressive group called Organize Ohio, asserting that protesters were being inhibited in their attempts to organize effectively by the city's delay in granting permits.[38] As of May 19, six groups had filed for permits, but none had been granted. Cleveland stalled on approving and making public the demonstration applications it received, while Philadelphia (hosting the 2016 Democratic National Convention) had already granted an application.[39] The ACLU sued the city in federal district court on June 14, 2016.[40] As of May 20, 2016, groups that have filed for protest permits have included the AIDS Healthcare Foundation; Global Zero; Organize Ohio, a group of progressive activists; the Citizens for Trump/Our Votes Matter March; Coalition to March on the RNC and Dump Trump; Stand Together Against Trump, an anti-Donald Trump group; People's Fightback Center/March Against Racism; and Created Equal, an anti-abortion group. A pro-Trump group, Trump March RNC, withdrew its application after Trump became the presumptive nominee.[41]

As Trump rose to become the presumptive presidential nominee of the Republican Party, a number of prominent Republicans announced they would not attend the convention.[42][43] Of the living former Republican nominees for president, only 1996 nominee Bob Dole announced that he would attend the convention; Romney, John McCain, George W. Bush and George H. W. Bush all announced that they would skip the convention.[44] A number of Republican Governors, U.S. Representatives and U.S. Senators, particularly those facing difficult reelection campaigns, also indicated that they would not attend, seeking to distance themselves from Trump and spend more time with voters in their home states.[42] Most notably, Governor Kasich chose to avoid the convention, while Ohio Senator Rob Portman attended the convention but avoided taking a major role in its proceedings.[45] On July 8, 2016, Nebraska Senator Ben Sasse announced that he would not attend the convention.[46] Many Republican senators did not attend the convention at all:[47] Senator Steve Daines of Montana, who would be "fly-fishing with his wife"; Senator Jeff Flake of Arizona, who said he had "to mow his lawn"; and Senator Lisa Murkowski of Alaska, who would be traveling in Alaska by bush plane.[47]

A number of prominent businesses and trade groups, including Coca-Cola, Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, scaled back participation in the convention, sharply reducing their contributions for convention events and sponsorship.[43][48] In June, six major companies that sponsored the 2012 Republican convention—Wells Fargo, UPS, Motorola, JPMorgan Chase, Ford and Walgreens Boots—announced they would not sponsor the 2016 Republican convention.[49] Apple Inc. followed suit, announcing that it, too, would be withdrawing funding from the convention over Trump's position on certain election issues.[50]

Seating arrangements for state and territorial delegations were announced on July 16, two days before the convention began.[51][52] The Ohio and Texas delegations were assigned to the back of the convention hall, a move viewed as punishment for the delegations, as they did not back Trump in their respective primaries (Ohio and Texas voted for Kasich and Cruz, respectively).[53][54]

There are four Convention committees, which met ahead of the Convention for specific purposes under the rules of the Republican Party.[55] Each committee is composed of one man and one woman from each state, the five U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia, totaling 112 members. Those committee members are selected by the 56 delegations, which determine on their own how to choose their representatives on each committee.[56] Each of the committees met the week before the convention at the Huntington Convention Center in Cleveland.[57] The committees are as follows:

The Rules Committee, which sets the rules of the convention and the standing rules that govern the party until the next convention, met on July 14. The rules it passes must be adopted by the full convention to take effect. This committee is regarded as the most powerful. It consists of 112 members, including one male delegate and one female delegate from each state, territory and Washington, D.C. Members of this committee are elected at state conventions.[58][59] The Rules Committee was chaired by Enid Mickelsen of Utah and Ron Kaufman of Massachusetts.[60]

In June 2016, activists Eric O'Keefe and Dane Waters formed a group called Delegates Unbound, which CNN described as "an effort to convince delegates that they have the authority and the ability to vote for whomever they want."[61][62][56] Republican delegate Kendal Unruh led an effort among other Republican delegates to change the convention rules "to include a 'conscience clause' that would allow delegates bound to Trump to vote against him, even on the first ballot at the July convention."[63] Following a "marathon 15-hour meeting" on July 14, 2016, the Rules Committee voted down, by a vote of 84–21, a move to send a "minority report" to the floor allowing the unbinding of delegates, thereby guaranteeing Trump's nomination. The committee then made the opposite move, voting 87–12 to include rules language specifically stating that delegates were required to vote based on their states' primary and caucus results.[64] By a unanimous vote, the Rules Committee also voted to change Rule 40(b), a controversial rule that had provided that "a candidate had to win a majority of the vote in eight states to have his or her name placed into nomination at the convention."[65] The committee voted to return to the pre-2012 rule, which required a candidate to receive only a plurality of the vote in at least five states to have his or her name placed in nomination.[65]

The Platform Committee met for two days of open hearings on July 11 and 12[57][66] to draft a party platform, which had to be ratified by the full convention. (See Platform below).[67] The Platform Committee was chaired by Senator John Barrasso of Wyoming and co-chaired by Congresswoman Virginia Foxx of North Carolina and Governor Mary Fallin of Oklahoma.[68][69]

The Credentials Committee handles disputes on the eligibility of convention delegates. The Committee on Contests reviews contested delegates; if the Contests Committee recommends that a delegate be de-certified, the Credentials Committee considers the recommendation.[70][71] The Rule Committee was chaired by Mike Duncan, former chairman of the Republican National Committee, and co-chaired by Arkansas Republican Party chairman Doyle Webb.[72]

The Committee on Arrangements handles the scheduling and logistics of the convention.[73] The committee was chaired by Steve King, former chairman of the Republican Party of Wisconsin.[74]

The platform committee adopted its platform on July 12.[75] The platform was described as "staunchly conservative" and reflective of the party's move towards the right.[76][77][78] The most contentious discussions at the platform committee dealt with social issues, particularly those dealing with LGBT people.[76][78] The platform adopted by the platform committee adopted a "strict, traditionalist view" on social issues, expressing deep criticism "of how the modern American family has evolved."[76] Many platform planks expressing "disapproval of homosexuality, same-sex marriage or transgender rights"—championed by Tony Perkins, the president of the Family Research Council—passed.[76] The platform calls for overturning Obergefell v. Hodges, the Supreme Court decision on same-sex marriage, by a constitutional amendment.[76] The platform also calls for the appointment of judges "who respect traditional family values."[76] The platform promotes state bathroom bills to restrict the public restrooms that transgender persons can use; and stated that "natural marriage" is between a man and a woman and is less likely to result in children who become drug addicts.[78][76] The platform also expressed support for allowing parents to seek "the proper medical treatment and therapy for their minor children," which was widely seen as alluding to the right of parents to have their gay minors undergo conversion therapy.[76][78][79][80][81][82] The platform calls internet pornography "a public health crisis that is destroying the life of millions" and encourages states to fight it.[83] The platform also calls for the teaching of the Bible in public schools.[76]

Rachel Hoff, a District of Columbia delegate who is the first openly gay member of a Republican platform committee, offered several amendments to soften or offer language inclusive of the LGBT community, but each proposal failed.[84] Hoff's proposal for language "stating that marriage is a fundamentally important institution and that 'there are diverse and sincerely held views on marriage' within the party" failed in an unofficial vote of 30 to 82.[84] An amendment was also offered to recognize that gay people are targeted by ISIL; the delegates who introduced this amendment sought to signal inclusion of the gay community. The amendment was opposed by conservative delegates (such as Jim Bopp of Indiana, who termed such an amendment "identity politics") and was voted down.[76][78]

The party's platform language "was strengthened to condemn all types of abortion" without exceptions.[78] The platform committee adopted a provision, proposed by Kansas Secretary of State Kris Kobach, expressing opposition to any restriction on magazine capacity in firearms.[76][78] The platform called for "certain federally controlled public lands" to be immediately transferred to state ownership, where it could be privatized. The platform did not specify whether the lands would include national parks, national forests, or wilderness areas.[85]

On foreign policy, the members of the platform committee were split between "libertarian-minded isolationists" and "national security hawks."[78] The latter camp won on almost every point, voting down measures that would have condemned ongoing U.S. involvement in Middle Eastern wars and approving language promoting increased military spending.[78] One plank reflected a more isolationist approach, eliminating references to giving weapons to Ukraine in its fight with Russia and rebel forces, after Trump staffers reportedly intervened with delegates.[86] The platform adopted by the platform committee opposes a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.[78] While the 2012 Republican platform called for passage of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), the 2016 platform adopted by the convention committee omits mention of the agreement, reflecting the influence of presumptive nominee Donald Trump, who opposes the trade pact.[76] The platform also expressly calls for a wall to be built on the U.S.-Mexico border, as Trump has called for (a strengthening of initially proposed language calling for a "physical barrier").[76]

Giovanni Cicione of Rhode Island, a platform committee member, led "a dissident group of Republican delegates" who opposed the anti-LGBT provisions of the sixty-page, committee-adopted platform and sought to replace it with a two-page "statement of principles" that avoided controversial issues such as same-sex marriage.[75][87] Cicione tried to force a debate and vote on the platform from the floor of the convention.[75][87] Cicione's effort was unsuccessful; on the first day of the convention, the delegates approved the platform by voice vote, with only a few scattered "nays" audible.[88]

After the Indiana primary on May 3, 2016, Donald Trump became the presumptive nominee as the lone remaining Republican candidate running for the Republican nomination. Under rules established by previous Republican conventions, most delegates were bound on the first ballot according to the results of the primaries.[89][90] A simple majority of 1,237 delegates was needed to win the nomination.[91][92] Entering the convention, Trump was seen as the presumptive nominee and had the support of a comfortable majority of the delegates.[93]

On the afternoon of July 18, 2016, a group of delegates sought to force a roll-call vote on the proposed convention rules package adopted by the Rules Committee.[93][97] Some who demanded a roll call vote sought to change the party rules package to "unbind" delegates so that on the first ballot, delegates could "vote their conscience" and conceivably block Trump from being nominated on the first ballot; such a move would also "allow Trump opponents a platform to argue against" Trump.[93] Others demanding a roll call vote were seeking to reform party rules to decentralize power from the RNC and make changes for the 2020 primary process.[93][98]

That morning, a petition for a roll call vote was submitted with the signatures of a majority of delegates from ten states.[99] That afternoon, the Presiding Officer, Rep. Steve Womack of Arkansas, did not recognize delegates clamoring for recognition over the rules package for the convention. Womack first declared the previous question was ordered by unanimous consent despite loud cries of objection. The rules were then adopted by voice vote, prompting loud cries of protest from delegates demanding recognition for a roll-call vote.[93][99] Finally, Womack declared that a Reconsideration of a motion was laid upon the table by unanimous consent, again to cries of objection. With loud cries throughout the convention hall, Womack abandoned the podium for several minutes, allowing RNC and Trump whips to work the floor and collect withdrawal signatures from the petition for a roll call vote.[100] Womack then reappeared and, again using unanimous consent, stated he would put the question of adopting the rules to the convention for a voice vote a second time. A second voice vote was taken. Womack then recognized the leader of the Utah delegation, who requested a roll call vote. Womack denied the motion, ruling that there were insufficient signatures to compel such a vote,[93] and announcing that while there had initially appeared to be nine state delegations that agreed to the roll-call vote, enough signatures had since been withdrawn to cause three states to fall below the threshold, thus missing the required seven states needed.[101] It was reported that Trump campaign aides and RNC staff worked on the floor to persuade delegates to withdraw their support and "challenged the validity of various signatures."[93][97] Delegates, including Senator Mike Lee of Utah, sought recognition and repeatedly called for a point of order,[102] but were ignored by Womack, and reportedly had their microphones turned off.[103] Lee said he had "never seen anything like this" after Womack declined to recognize their objections and walked off the stage,[102] and Ken Cuccinelli, the Virginia delegation chairman, said the RNC "cheated" and "violate[d] their own rules."[103] The process prompted the Colorado delegation to walk out in protest.[93]

Jeff Sessions, U.S. Senator from Alabama, formally nominated Trump for president,[104] with Chris Collins, U.S. Representative from New York, and Henry McMaster, Lieutenant Governor of South Carolina, seconding the nomination.[105][106] Trump won the presidential nomination on July 19, 2016[107] on the first ballot with 69.8% of the delegates, the lowest percentage of delegates won by the Republican nominee since the 1976 Republican National Convention.[108] The vice presidential nomination was held immediately after the presidential nomination. Eric Holcomb, the Lieutenant Governor of Indiana, nominated Indiana Governor Mike Pence for vice president.[109] Trump had announced his choice of Pence as his preferred running mate the weekend before the start of the convention.[110] Pence won the vice presidential nomination by acclamation.[111]

All of the delegates from Iowa, Alaska, Utah and the District of Columbia were recorded and counted for Trump, despite the fact that Trump lost all three contests, and most of the members of those delegations had voted for other candidates. The Alaska delegation challenged the award of votes to Trump by the RNC Secretary and the Utah delegation booed when its delegates were awarded to Trump, but was reminded by the RNC Chairman that the rules for these two states required the votes to be awarded to whichever candidate was still in the race for the RNC Nomination for President, and that Cruz, Rubio, and the other candidates that had withdrawn from the race had forfeited these delegates based on the RNC nomination rules.[112][113][114][115][116]

In April 2016, Trump vowed to bring "some showbiz" to the convention, criticizing the party's 2012 convention in Tampa, Florida, as "the single most boring convention I’ve ever seen."[118] The convention's lineup of speakers lacked "many of the party's rising stars" and rather featured some of Trump's "eclectic collection of friends, celebrities and relatives."[119] Politico reported that Trump was directly involved in details of convention plans, seeking "to maximize the drama and spectacle" of the four-night event.[120] A large number of prominent Republican elected officials said they were not interested in attending the convention or even speaking at it, seeking to distance themselves from Trump.[121] The Trump campaign considered the idea of having Trump speak all four nights at the convention – a break from the traditional practice of the presidential nominee taking the stage only on the final night of the convention.[120] Ultimately, Trump decided not to speak every night.[122] Trump also initially stated that he would announce his vice-presidential running mate at the convention itself, rather than before the convention,[123] with a campaign staffer saying that "announcing the vice-presidential nominee before the convention is like announcing the winner of Celebrity Apprentice before the final episode is on the air."[120] Trump's campaign eventually announced plans to announce a running mate the week before the convention[124] and named Mike Pence as his running mate on July 15, 2016.[125]

A number of figures that Trump said he would invite to speak, including boxing promoter Don King, former Alaska governor Sarah Palin and New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady, were not included in the lineup.[119] Trump wanted King to speak at the convention and raised the issue several times, reportedly until Republican National Committee chairman Reince Priebus "firmly explained" to Trump that King should not be invited due to his past manslaughter conviction.[126] Former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka, a Trump supporter, declined an invitation to speak.[127] An early roster of speakers obtained by the media listed former NFL quarterback Tim Tebow as a speaker, but Tebow later dismissed this as a rumor and did not appear at the convention.[128][129] Haskel Lookstein, a prominent Orthodox rabbi, was initially set to appear at the convention to deliver the opening prayer (having accepted an invitation to do so from Ivanka Trump, a congregant), but after hundreds of American Modern Orthodox Jews urged him to withdraw from the convention, Lookstein pulled out.[130]

Trump sought to bar those who have not endorsed him from addressing the convention, making comments aimed at the former primary rivals who have declined to endorse him â€“ Bush, Carly Fiorina, Lindsey Graham and George Pataki.[131] However, both Senator Marco Rubio of Florida and Senator Ted Cruz of Texas, who ran against Trump for the Republican nomination and lost, were eventually placed on the speakers' schedule, although "neither... paid the expected price of that spotlight by offering an explicit endorsement."[132] Cruz met with Trump two weeks before the convention and accepted an invitation to speak.[132] Rubio was initially not offered a speaking slot and was expected to skip the convention,[133] but on July 17, 2016, it was confirmed that Rubio would address the convention via recorded video.[132] Neither Rubio nor Cruz were listed as "headliner" speakers.[132]

Governor Kasich did not enter the convention hall or speak at the convention, despite overtures from Trump allies Priebus and Newt Gingrich – who, along with Chris Christie, lost the running mate job to Pence – and top Trump campaign advisor Paul Manafort.[133] Kasich said: "If I'm going to show up at the convention and I'm not going to be saying all these great things about the host, then I think it's inappropriate. I don't think that's the right thing to do." Kasich attended events outside the convention hall in support of down-ballot Republican candidates.[133] As the convention began, the Trump campaign lashed out at Kasich for his failure to endorse, prompting an exchange that The New York Times called "remarkably bitter" and "the latest extraordinary turn in a campaign that has veered sharply away from political precedent."[134] Manafort called Kasich "petulant" and accused him of "embarrassing his party," prompting Kasich chief political aide John Weaver to mock Trump and criticize Manafort for his work on behalf of foreign "thugs and autocrats" abroad.[134]

On July 17, 2016, the convention planners released the convention's official schedule of events and speakers, along with themes.[135] (An early, preliminary roster of speakers, "confirmed by two people with direct knowledge of the convention planning," had been obtained and published by the New York Times several days earlier.)[43] The schedule of speakers is as follows:

Of the 19 speakers billed as "headliners," six are members of the Trump family: Trump himself, his wife Melania and four of his children, Ivanka, Don Jr., Eric and Tiffany.[132]

These speeches received a significant amount of media attention.

Melania Trump's speech[153] "almost immediately came under scrutiny when striking similarities were discovered between her speech" and Michelle Obama's speech at the 2008 Democratic National Convention.[154] The Trump campaign at first denied allegations of plagiarism.[155][156] Campaign manager Paul Manafort argued that the speech contained "not that many similarities" and the words used are not unique words "that belong to the Obamas."[157]

Following Mrs. Trump's speech, various media outlets reported similarities as alleged plagiarism.[158][159] Chris Harrick, Vice President of Marketing at the plagiarism prevention service Turnitin, discovered that Trump used about 6% of Michelle Obama's words and found two types of plagiarism, "clone" and "find and replace".[160][161] Various media outlets suggested that members of Donald Trump's presidential campaign should respond to the accusations, which they did a few hours after the speech in the form of the following statement by the campaign's senior communications advisor, Jason Miller: "In writing [the] speech, Melania's team of writers took notes on her life's inspirations, and in some instances included fragments that reflected her own thinking. Melania's immigrant experience and love for America shone through in her speech, which made it a success."[162]

Reince Priebus, chairman of the Republican National Committee, described the speech as "inspirational" but said if plagiarism were found, he thought "it certainly seems reasonable" to fire the person who wrote the speech.[163] Paul Manafort, Donald Trump's campaign chairman, called it a "great speech" and said "obviously Michelle Obama feels very similar sentiments toward her family". He later said "to think that she would be cribbing Michelle Obamaâ€™s words is crazy", adding "This is once again an example of when a woman threatens Hillary Clinton, she seeks out to demean her and take her down. It's not going to work against Melania Trump."[164] Sean Spicer, director of communications for the Republican National Committee, defended the speech by saying that similar statements have existed before her speech such as quotes by John Legend, Kid Rock, and Twilight Sparkle from My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic.[165]

David Lauter of the Los Angeles Times stated that while these allegations are unlikely to cost Trump votes, the distraction is unhelpful, referring to it as a "lost opportunity" for the campaign.[166]

On July 20, 2016, the Trump campaign issued a statement by Meredith McIver which included the following:

In working with Melania on her recent first lady speech, we discussed many people who inspired her and messages she wanted to share with the American people. A person she has always liked is Michelle Obama. Over the phone, she read me some passages from Mrs. Obamaâ€™s speech as examples. I wrote them down and later included some of the phrasing in the draft that ultimately became the final speech.[167][168]

On July 20, two days after Melania's speech, McIver wrote that Donald Trump declined her offer to resign.[169]

In the second night of the convention, Governor Chris Christie gave a speech in a style of a mock trial. After a series of accusations against Hillary Clinton to which his audience responded "guilty", the crowd chanted "lock her up". The crowd's reaction has received widespread coverage following the speech.[170][171][143] The "lock her up" chant was later uttered by supporters of Bernie Sanders before the 2016 Democratic National Convention.[172] Clinton responded to the chant in an interview on 60 Minutes by saying that it saddened her.[173]

In the third night of the convention, Senator Ted Cruz of Texas gave a speech in which he did not endorse Trump for president, and instead urged listeners to "vote your conscience, vote for candidates up and down the ticket who you trust to defend our freedom and to be faithful to the Constitution."[175] Pro-Trump delegates were enraged at Cruz's speech, shouting him down and booing him off the stage,[176] in what was described by the New York Times as "the most electric moment of the convention."[175] Convention security personnel and Cruz advisor Ken Cuccinelli escorted Cruz's wife Heidi out of the hall, fearing for her safety.[175][176] Newt Gingrich spoke after Cruz and said: "I had the text of what Ted Cruz was gonna say, and I thought it was funny," Gingrich said. "I mean, Ted gets up and he says, 'Look, vote your conscience for someone who will support the Constitution.' Well, in this particular election year, that by definition cannot be for Hillary Clinton."[177] The following morning, Cruz attended a contentious meeting with delegates representing Texas that resulted in what CNN labeled "a remarkable 25-minute back-and-forth with his own constituents, defying appeals from his own Texas delegation to put the party above his inhibitions and back Trump."[178][179]

Cruz's speech sparked a backlash[180][181][182][183] and elicited negative reactions from prominent Republicans supporting Trump.[184] New Jersey governor and former presidential candidate Chris Christie called the speech "awful" and "selfish."[184] New York Congressman Peter T. King called Cruz a "fraud" and a "self-centered liar."[184] Senator Dan Coats of Indiana responded that Cruz was a "self-centered, narcissistic, pathological liar."[185] Representative Marsha Blackburn of Tennessee, when asked about Cruz's speech, responded that she "would tell [Cruz] the same thing I would tell my kids, ‘get over yourself.’"[186][187] Susan Hutchison, chair of the Washington State Republican Party, confronted Cruz after his speech and labeled Cruz a "traitor to the party."[188] In addition, Cruz was denied entry to influential Republican donor Sheldon Adelson's suite at the convention.[189] Conservative radio host Rush Limbaugh speculated that Cruz was trying to mimic Ronald Reagan's speech at the 1976 Republican National Convention, in that "he wanted to deliver a speech that was Reaganesque in that the delegates would walk out of there thinking that they should have nominated him. He didn't get there." Instead, Limbaugh compared his speech to Ted Kennedy's at the 1980 Democratic National Convention, in which he failed to endorse President Jimmy Carter, the nominee, by putting his own interests ahead of the interests of the party.[190] According to CNN, in the wake of Cruz’s non-endorsement of Trump at the RNC, his critics believe that an intraparty challenge could be possible. GOP donors and Texas politicians have asked Rep. Mike McCaul to run against him in the next cycle’s Texas primary in 2018. McCaul, a congressman for six terms and chair of the House Homeland Security Committee, has not yet made a decision but likewise has not yet ruled out a possible Senate run.[191] Later, on September 23, 2016, Cruz publicly endorsed Trump for president.[192]

Peter Thiel, a billionaire PayPal co-founder and Silicon Valley investor, delivered a manifesto for tackling the greater issues of the day, focusing on technology, the economy and small government.[194] Thiel also affirmed his pride to be "gay, a Republican and most of all an American", a stance that earned him a standing ovation, chanting "USA!".[195] It was the first time in the history of Republican National Conventions that a speaker identified himself as gay in his speech, although there have been previous speeches by gay men.[196]

Trump, having been formally nominated as the Republican presidential nominee on the second night of the convention, spoke on the fourth and final night of the convention. Trump's speech was leaked hours in advance by Correct the Record, a liberal-leaning Super PAC, though Trump had already given copies of his speech to the network press pool.[197] Trump's daughter, Ivanka Trump, introduced Trump in a speech immediately before his own speech.[198] "Here Comes the Sun" was used as the entrance music for Ivanka Trump. The George Harrison estate complained about the use of this song, which his family said was "offensive and against the wishes of the George Harrison estate."[199]

Trump spoke for 75 minutes, making his speech the longest since at least the 1972 Republican National Convention and one of the longest acceptance speeches ever in major-party convention history.[200] In his speech, Trump stated that America faces a "crisis" due to "attacks on our police" and "terrorism in our cities," and emphasized an important theme in his campaign: law and order.[200] In evaluating the speech, Glenn Thrush of Politico noted the influence of Richard Nixon, Spiro Agnew, Ronald Reagan, and Rudy Giuliani, all of whom sounded similar themes earlier in American history in attempts to win over the "Silent Majority".[201] Trump also promised to limit American participation in global crises and trade deals.[200] When Trump turned to the subject of illegal immigration, many in the audience began shouting "Build the wall, build the wall,” referring to a signature promise of Trump's campaign to build a wall on the Mexico–United States border.[200] Trump also repeatedly attacked President Barack Obama and the Democratic presumptive nominee, Hillary Clinton, arguing that the country and world had become less safe during their time in office.[200] However, Trump attempted to reach out to supporters of defeated Democratic candidate Bernie Sanders, as well as down-and-out urbanites.[202] In his speech, Trump also became the first Republican nominee to mention the LGBT community in a GOP nomination address, saying, "As your president, I will do everything in my power to protect our LGBTQ citizens from the violence and oppression of a hateful foreign ideology."[203]

Philip Rucker and David Fahrenthold of the Washington Post found Trump's speech to be "relentlessly gloomy," and observed that Trump painted himself as an agent of change, while he cast Clinton as a defender of the status quo.[204] Trump's speech was variously dubbed the "Mourning in America" speech[205] and the "Evening in America" speech[206] in reference to Ronald Reagan's more optimistic "Morning in America" campaign ad. Niall Stanage of The Hill argued that Trump's speech brought stability to a turbulent convention and showed Trump at his "most comfortable and energized."[207] A Politico poll found largely positive reactions among "GOP political insiders" while Democrats argued that Trump's "dark" speech would prove damaging.[208] The New York Post released a cover story the next day by Michael Goodwin praising Trump's speech, declaring it "the speech of his life," and also saying that the speech "could signal the start of an American revival."[209] Ratings figures released by the major networks showed that approximately 32 million viewers watched Trump's speech, slightly ahead of the number that watched Mitt Romney's 2012 speech.[210]

Some LGBT advocates critiqued Trump's reference to LGBT people, on the ground that it stood in contrast to positions he had taken on LGBT issues during the campaign; activists such as Chad Griffin of the Human Rights Campaign and Rick Zbur of Equality California suggested that the statement was an attempt to turn LGBT people against Muslims and pit minority groups against each other.[211][212]

A Gallup survey found that 35% of Americans saw Trump's speech positively (either "excellent" or "good"), while 36% saw it negatively.[213][214] According to Gallup, the speech had "the least positive reviews of any speech we have tested after the fact."[213] 36% of Americans said the convention made them more likely to vote for Trump, while 51% said it made them less likely to vote for him. This is the highest "less likely to vote" percentage for a candidate in the 15 times Gallup has asked this question after a convention.[213] It is also the first time in Gallup's convention polling that a Democratic or Republican convention has made more say that they are less likely to vote for the party's nominee.[215]

According to a CNN/ORC poll, the public rendered a split decision on whether the convention made them more or less likely to back Trump, with 42% saying more likely while 44% saying less so.[216] 40% called the speech "excellent or good," and about half of voters (45%) said Trump's speech reflected the way they feel about things in the U.S. today.[216] However, some negative numbers included the fact that 18% called Trump's speech "terrible," which was the highest number recorded in that category by CNN since it first started to ask the question in 1996.[216]

According to FiveThirtyEight, poll averages suggested a post-convention bounce of 3 to 4 percentage points for Trump.[217]

The number of demonstrators was significantly lower than expected, and according to Cleveland records, three of five officially permitted protests planned for the first three days of the convention did not occur. Lower-than-expected was attributed to a variety of factors, including "fear of violence from the police and fear of violence from the Trump supporters"; Cleveland's relatively small size compared to cities such as Chicago or New York; and a heavy police presence.[218]

On July 18, the convention's first day, dueling anti-Trump and pro-Trump demonstrations took place at various places in Cleveland, attracting several hundred demonstrators each. The demonstrations were peaceful,[219] with just two reported arrests.[220]

On July 19, the convention's second day, peaceful protests continued. Demonstrators included those from groups such as the antiwar organization Code Pink and from the West Ohio Minutemen, a militia group.[221] Three people were arrested for criminal mischief for climbing flag poles and hanging a banner at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, bringing the total number of convention-related arrests to five.[220][221] A brief scuffle between supporters of pro-Trump conspiracy theorist Alex Jones and anti-Trump protesters was quickly broken up by police.[221][222] On July 21, the final day of the convention, Jones and Roger Stone interrupted a broadcast of Cenk Uygur's The Young Turks, leading to a confrontation between Jones, Stone, and Uygur.[223]

On July 20, the convention's third day, seventeen people were arrested, and two officers sustained minor injuries. The International Business Journal reported: "News reports and videos circulated on social media about the increasingly tense nature of protests that have included activists from Black Lives Matter, the Ku Klux Klan and the Westboro Baptist Church, in addition to ardent supporters for Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton."[224]

On July 21, the final day of the convention, Donald Trump's acceptance speech was briefly interrupted by Code Pink activist Medea Benjamin.[225]

The demonstrations were generally peaceful. Some demonstrators expressed disappointment at the low turnout.[226][227] In contrast, the 2016 Democratic National Convention saw a larger turnout and more arrests than the Republican Convention.[228]


when is ivy and bean book 11 coming out

Book 11 in the series, "Ivy and Bean One Big Happy Family," is listed on Amazon.com for publication on August 28, 2018.

Ivy and Bean

Ivy and Bean is a children's book series written by American author Annie Barrows, illustrated by Sophie Blackall, and published by Chronicle Books.

In the stories, Ivy (a quiet, intellectual child) and Bean (a rambunctious child) become fast friends despite their differences and their initial reluctance to like each other â€“ "two friends who never meant to like each other", as the tagline for the series goes. They are both 7-year-old girls who live on a cul-de-sac in a suburban environment on Pancake Court, in an unnamed town. In each book they get into considerable mischief, and have wild adventures with the other characters in the neighborhood.

The books feature illustrations, but are not picture books; the reading level is suitable for middle grade school readers. As of 2017, there are ten volumes in the series.

The books in the series are:


why is it necessary to heat a solvent in order to make a supersaturated solution

Special conditions need to be met in order to generate a supersaturated solution. One of the easiest ways to do this relies on the temperature dependence of solubility. As a general rule, the more heat is added to a system, the more soluble a substance becomes. (There are exceptions where the opposite is true). Therefore, at high temperatures, more solute can be dissolved than at room temperature. If this solution were to be suddenly cooled at a rate faster than the rate of precipitation, the solution will become supersaturated until the solute precipitates to the temperature-determined saturation point. The precipitation or crystallization of the solute takes longer than the actual cooling time because the molecules need to meet up and form the precipitate without being knocked apart by water. Thus, the larger the molecule, the longer it will take to crystallize due to the principles of Brownian motion.

Supersaturation

Supersaturation is a state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances. It can also refer to a vapor of a compound that has a higher (partial) pressure than the vapor pressure of that compound.

The condition of supersaturation does not necessarily have to be reached through the manipulation of heat. The ideal gas law

suggests that pressure and volume can also be changed to force a system into a supersaturated state. If the volume of solvent is decreased, the concentration of the solute can be above the saturation point and thus create a supersaturated solution. The decrease in volume is most commonly generated through evaporation. Similarly, an increase in pressure can drive a solution to a supersaturated state. All three of these mechanisms rely on the fact that the conditions of the solution can be changed quicker than the solute can precipitate or crystallize out.

Supersaturated solutions will also undergo crystallization under specific conditions.[1][2] In a normal solution, once the maximum amount of solute is dissolved, adding more solute would either cause the dissolved solute to precipitate out and/or for the solute to not dissolve at all.[3] Similarly, there are cases wherein solubility of a saturated solution is decreased by manipulating temperature, pressure, or volume but a supersaturated state does not occur.[4] In these cases, the solute will simply precipitate out. This is because a supersaturated solution is in a higher energy state than a saturated solution.

A supersaturated solution of gases in a liquid may form bubbles if suitable nucleation sites exist. Supersaturation may be defined as a sum of all gas partial pressures in the liquid which exceeds the ambient pressure in the liquid.[5]

Crystallization will occur to allow the solution to reach a lower energy state.(Keep in mind that this process can be exothermic or endothermic). The activation energy comes in the form of a nuclei crystal being added to the liquid solution (or a condensation nuclei when the solution is gaseous). This nuclei can be either added from another source, which is known as seeding, or can spontaneously form within the solution due partly to ion and molecule interactions. This process is known as primary nucleation. It is necessary for the nuclei to be identical to the solute that is crystallizing.[6] This will allow for the dissolved ions to build up on the nuclei and then each other in the process of crystal growth or secondary nucleation.[7] There are a multitude of factors that will affect the rate and order of magnitude with which crystallization proceeds as well as the difference in formation of crystallites and single crystals.

A crystallization phase diagram shows where undersaturation, saturation, and supersaturation occur at certain concentrations. Concentrations below the solubility curve result in an undersaturation solution. Saturation occurs when the concentrations are on the solubility curve. If the concentrations are above the solubility curve, the solution is considered supersaturated. There are three mechanisms with which supersaturation occurs: precipitation, nucleation, and metastable. In the precipitation zone, the molecules in a solution are in excess and will separate from the solution to form amorphous aggregates. The excess of molecules aggregate to form a crystalline structure when in the nucleation zone. In the metastable zone, the solution takes time to nucleate. In order to grow crystals while in the metastable zone, the conditions would require the formation of one nucleus while in the nucleation zone, just past the metastable region. The supersaturated solution can then return to the metastable region.[8]

Table 1. Supersaturation measurement methods (Profos, 1987).[9]

Supersaturation has been a frequent topic of research throughout history. Early studies of these solutions were normally conducted with sodium sulfate, also known as Glauber’s Salt, due to the stability of the crystal and the rising role it had in industry. Through the use of this salt, an important scientific discovery was made by Jean-Baptiste Ziz, a botanist from Mayence, in 1809.[10] His experiments allowed him to conclude that the crystallization of a supersaturated solution does not simply come from its agitation, (the previous belief) but from solid matter entering and acting as a “starting” site for crystals to form, now called nuclei sites. Expanding upon this, Gay-Lussac brought attention to the kinematics of salt ions and the characteristics of the container having an impact on the supersaturation state. He was also able to expand upon the number of salts with which a supersaturated solution can be obtained. Later Henri Löwel came to the conclusion that both nuclei of the solution and the walls of the container have a catalyzing effect on the solution that cause crystallization. Explaining and providing a model for this phenomenon has been a task taken on by more recent research. Désiré Gernez contributed to this research by discovering that nuclei must be of the same salt that is being crystallized in order to yield crystallization.

Supersaturation is a widely encountered phenomenon both found in environmental processes and exploited in commercial manufacturing. For example, honey, the sweet nectar-derived food source, is a supersaturated solution of sugars. Nectar itself is a sugary solution below the point of saturation. Once bees harvest the nectar, they fan it rapidly with their wings to force evaporation. This forces the solution into a supersaturated state, creating honey. This explains why honey crystallizes; the solution is simply returning to its saturated state.[11]

Certain candies are made by crystallizing supersaturated solutions of sugar. To make rock candy, manufacturers can raise a solvent to a high temperature, add sugar to reach a high concentration, and then lower the temperature. If a string or stick is present in the solution as it cools, the crystallization will occur on that solid and create a candy. This is the same principle that leads maple syrup to crystallize.[12]

The carbonation of water is also reliant upon the behavior of supersaturated solutions. In this case, the solution is supersaturated with a gas. To create sodas and seltzer water, carbon dioxide gas is forced to dissolve in water beyond its saturation point. This is done by applying high amounts of pressure to the gas in the presence of water followed by sealing the system in an airtight manner.

The characteristics of supersaturation have practical applications in terms of pharmaceuticals. By creating a supersaturated solution of a certain drug, it can be ingested in liquid form. The drug can be made driven into a supersaturated state through any normal mechanism and then prevented from precipitating out by adding precipitation inhibitors.[13] Drugs in this state are referred to as "supersaturating drug delivery services," or "SDDS."[14] Oral consumption of a drug in this form is simple and allows for the measurement of very precise dosages. Primarily, it provides a means for drugs with very low solubility to be made into aqueous solutions.[15][16]

The identification of supersaturated solutions can be used as a tool for marine ecologists to study the activity of organisms and populations. Photosynthetic organisms release O2 gas into the water. Thus, an area of the ocean supersaturated with O2 gas can likely determined to be rich with photosynthetic activity. Though some O2 will naturally be found in the ocean due to simple physical chemical properties, upwards of 70% of all oxygen gas found in supersaturated regions can be attributed to photosynthetic activity.[17]

The study of supersaturation is also relevant to atmospheric studies. Since the 1940s, the presence of supersaturation in the atmosphere has been known. When water is supersaturated in the troposphere, the formation of ice lattices is frequently observed. In a state of saturation, the water particles will not form ice under tropospheric conditions. It is not enough for molecules of water to form an ice lattice at saturation pressures; they require a surface to condense on to or conglomerations of liquid water molecules of water to freeze. For these reasons, relative humidities over ice in the atmosphere can be found above 100%, meaning supersaturation has occurred. Supersaturation of water is actually very common in the upper troposphere, occurring between 20% and 40% of the time.[18] This can be determined using satellite data from the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder.[19] Evidence of supersaturation in the troposphere can be seen in the contrails of airplanes and rocket ships, which need to reach a humidity above that of ice saturation in order to form.


where is the university of north dakota located

The University of North Dakota (also known as UND or North Dakota) is a public research university in Grand Forks, North Dakota. Established by the Dakota Territorial Assembly in 1883, six years before the establishment of the state of North Dakota, it is the state's oldest.

University of North Dakota

UND was founded with a strong liberal arts foundation, but has grown into a prominent scientific research university. It is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as having high research activity, and is considered one of the top academic and research institutions in the northern Midwest.[2] UND is ranked among the top 100 public universities in the country by U.S. News & World Report, and is widely regarded as the top university in the American Northern Plains region.[6]

The University offers a variety of professional and specialized programs, including the only schools of law and medicine in the state of North Dakota. Its best known college is perhaps its John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences, which is the first in the country to offer a degree in unmanned aircraft systems operations,[2][7] and is competitively ranked as one of the world's top schools of aviation and aerospace.

UND maintains nationally competitive programs in aerospace, health sciences, political science, nutrition, energy and environmental protection, and engineering research, among others.[2] Several national research institutions are located on the university's campus including the Energy and Environmental Research Center, the School of Medicine and Health Sciences, and the USDA Human Nutrition Research Center.[2][8]

North Dakota's athletic teams compete in the NCAA's Division I. Most teams compete as members of the Big Sky Conference, with the exceptions of men's hockey (National Collegiate Hockey Conference), women's hockey (Western Collegiate Hockey Association), and swimming (Western Athletic Conference).[2] The men's ice hockey team has a long history as one of the top in the nation. They have won eight national championships, and play in the Ralph Engelstad Arena.

UND was founded in 1883, six years before North Dakota became a state.[9] Grand Forks native George H. Walsh submitted the bill to the Territorial Legislature of Dakota Territory that called for the new state of North Dakota's university to be in Grand Forks.[9] The first classes were held on September 8, 1884. The first building at UND, Old Main, housed all classrooms, offices, dorm rooms, and a library.[10] In the 1880s, UND consisted of only a few acres of property, surrounded by farms and fields, nearly two miles west of the city of Grand Forks. Students living off campus had to take a train or a horse and carriage bus, dubbed the "Black Maria", from downtown to the campus.[10][11]

As the university grew, more buildings were constructed on campus and a trolley system was built to connect the growing university to downtown Grand Forks. However, there were several major interruptions in the life of the university. In 1918, UND was the country's hardest-hit single institution by the flu epidemic that killed 1,400 people in North Dakota alone.[12] Later that year, classes were suspended so the campus could become an army base for soldiers during World War I.[12] During the Great Depression, UND provided free housing to students willing to do manual labor on campus.[13] "Camp Depression," as it was called, consisted of railroad cabooses that housed eight male students each.[13] "Camp Depression" students did not get regular meals from the cafeteria and had to be satisfied with only free leftovers. However, Grand Forks citizens often opened their homes and kitchen tables to many of these young men.[13]

After World War II, enrollment quickly grew to more than 3,000.[14] A large amount of housing and several academic buildings had to be built on campus.[14] The 1950s saw the rise of the Fighting Sioux hockey tradition.[15] In the 1960s and 1970s, many student protests occurred at UND.[16] The largest occurred in May 1970 when over 1,500 students protested the Kent State shootings.[16] In 1975, enrollment swelled to a record 8,500. The 1970s also saw the establishment of the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences at UND. During the 1980s and 1990s the University continued to grow.[17] However, the devastating 1997 Red River Flood inundated numerous buildings on campus and forced the cancellation of the remainder of the school year.[18]

The start of the 21st century was marked by the opening of two major venues for UND athletics.[19] The Ralph Engelstad Arena, home of men's and women's hockey, and the Alerus Center, home of UND football, both opened in 2001. The Betty Engelstad Sioux Center opened in August 2004, and serves as home to UND volleyball and men's and women's basketball.[20]

Millions of dollars worth of construction and renovation projects have dotted the campus landscape. As part of a plan to improve student facilities on campus, UND constructed a Wellness Center, a parking garage, and an apartment-style housing complex. Other construction projects around campus have included a new LEED Platinum-certified alumni center, a renovated and expanded College of Education and Human Development, and an expanded Energy and Environmental Research Center. As of 2014[update], a $124-million Medicine and Health Services building was under construction.[21] The new building was designed by JLG Architects in partnership with Perkins+Will and Steinberg Architects.[22]

In 2015, UND's economic impact on the state and region was estimated to be more than $1.4 billion a year according to the NDUS Systemwide Economic Study by the School of Economics at North Dakota State University.[23][24] It was the fourth largest employer in the state of North Dakota, after the Air Force.[25]

The University of North Dakota's main campus sits in the middle of Grand Forks on University Avenue. The campus is made up of 240 buildings (6.4 million square feet) on 550 acres (2.2Â km2).[2] The campus stretches roughly one and half miles from east to west and is divided by the meandering English Coulee. The western edge is bordered by Interstate 29, the eastern edge is bordered with University Park, the Grand Forks railyards sit on the south side, and the north side is marked by U.S. Highway 2 which is called Gateway Drive in Grand Forks.

The central campus area is the oldest part of UND and contains many historic buildings.[26] This area is home to most academic buildings on campus. At the heart of campus sits the Chester Fritz Library, the largest library in North Dakota. The 82-foot (25 m) tower of the library is a familiar landmark on University Avenue.[26] Behind the library is the park-like setting of the central campus mall. The mall includes several statues and is a popular place for students to study. The mall is lined with historic buildings including Merrifield Hall, Twamley Hall, Babcock Hall, Montgomery Hall, and the old Carnegie Library.[26] Old Main Memorial Plaza and the eternal flame of the Old Main Memorial Sphere mark the location of Old Main, the first building on campus.[26] Other buildings in the central part of campus include the School of Law, the North Dakota Museum of Art, Memorial Union, Gamble Hall, the J. Lloyd Stone Alumni Center, the Burtness Theatre, and Chandler Hall—the oldest remaining building on the UND campus.[27] The English Coulee flows along the western edge of the central campus area and on the western bank of the Coulee sits the Chester Fritz Auditorium and the Hughes Fine Arts Center. The historic 1907 Adelphi Fountain is next to the Coulee as is the on-campus Spiritual Center.[26][28]

On the eastern edge of the central campus area sits Memorial Stadium, the old Ralph Engelstad Arena, and the Hyslop Auditorium. These structures are all old athletic venues which have been replaced with new structures elsewhere on campus. The eastern part of campus is also the home of the Energy and Environmental Research Center complex which includes the National Center for Hydrogen Technology. The Grand Forks Human Nutrition Research Center, which is operated by the United States Department of Agriculture, is also in this part of campus.[8] A five-story parking garage sits at the corner of University Avenue and Columbia Road. At the extreme eastern portion of campus sits University Park which is operated by the Grand Forks Park District.

To the north of the central campus area, along Columbia Road, sits the School of Medicine complex. The main School of Medicine building is the remodeled St. Michael's Hospital building which was built in 1951.[26] Other buildings in the medical school complex include the Biomedical Research Center and the Neuroscience Research Facility.[26] Further north sits an area that is called University Village. This land sat virtually empty for decades, but has recently been developed for UND, commercial, and residential purposes.[29] University Village is anchored by the $100 million Ralph Engelstad Arena, which is used by the men's and women's hockey teams. University Village is also home to the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center, the new Student Wellness Center, university apartments, the UND bookstore, a medical clinic, and several residential and commercial properties.

The western part of the UND campus is a newer area with modern styles of architecture.[26] This area is home to the John D. Odegard School of Aerospace Sciences, which includes Odegard Hall, Clifford Hall, Ryan Hall, and Streibel Hall.[26] Directly adjacent to the Aerospace Complex sits the Skalicky Business Incubator, the Ina Mae Rude Entrepreneur Center, the “REAC 1,” which houses the University of North Dakota’s Center of Excellence in Life Sciences and Advanced Technologies (COELSAT), and a Hilton Garden Inn. The western part of campus is also the location of most residence halls and student apartments, including a new $20 million student housing project called University Place on University Avenue.[30]

UND operates a satellite campus consisting of several buildings at Grand Forks International Airport where aviation students train.[31] UND Aerospace also operates flight training centers in Crookston, Minnesota, and Phoenix, Arizona.[32] UND owns and operates the Ray Richards 9-hole golf course south of the main UND campus.[33] The School of Medicine and Health Sciences operates several clinics throughout North Dakota.[34] The UND football team is a major tenant of the city of Grand Forks-owned Alerus Center.

The Council on Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability, made up of representatives from various departments, is exploring ways to improve sustainability. The campus’s recycling system reduces UND’s overall waste stream by 20 percent. UND has conducted lighting retrofits and installed heat recovery systems and power management technology for peak and off-peak use adjustment. Students are involved in promoting sustainability via recycling and other initiatives. The University received a B- grade on the 2011 College Sustainability Report Card released by the Sustainable Endowments Institute.[35]

The Gorecki Alumni Center on campus is North Dakota's first LEED Platinum build. The building uses a combination of Geothermal and Solar Panels to power the building.[36]

UND has ten academic divisions:[2]

UND offers a total of 224 fields of study, including 90 undergraduate majors, 73 undergraduate minors, 54 master's programs, 27 doctoral programs, two professional programs (medicine and law), and a specialist diploma program in educational leadership.[37] UND also has an interdisciplinary program that allows students to obtain a degree in virtually any course of study.[38] A collection of online classes and degree programs are offered for students around the nation and world.[39] This online program has been highly ranked by US News and other leading online college rankings.[40][41][42] "Based on factors such as graduation rates, indebtedness of new graduates and academic and career support services offered to students," US News ranked the online Bachelor's program 208th of 217 online colleges and universities.[43] On campus, academic classrooms range from smaller rooms capable of seating around twenty students to large lecture bowls capable of seating hundreds at a time. Many areas have wireless access for laptops and technologically equipped classrooms enable professors to offer interactive lectures. UND offers 1,000 computer workstations for student use and computer labs can be found in the libraries, Memorial Union, and in several academic areas.[2]

The Division of Continuing Education offers many distance learning and online degree programs. It offers undergraduate level programs in Chemical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Mechanical Engineering. Graduate level programs like MBA, Applied Economics, Educational Leadership, Forensic Psychology, Social Work, Public Administration and Nursing are offered, in addition to doctoral level programs in Educational Leadership, Teaching & Learning, and Nursing.

UND has three major libraries which, together, form the largest system of research libraries in the state of North Dakota.[47] The Chester Fritz Library is the largest library in the state.[48] It houses 1.6 million volumes, provides access to approximately 28,000 electronic journal subscriptions, and owns over 20,000 electronic books.[49] It also serves as a U.S. patent and trademark depository and a government document depository.[47] UND's special collections department is known for its genealogical resources, including Norwegian Bygdeboker, or Norwegian farm and town records.[50] Branches of the Chester Fritz Library include the Energy and Environmental Research Library, the F.D. Holland Geology Library, and the Gordon Erickson Music Library.[47] The School of Law operates the Thormodsgard Law Library[51] and the School of Medicine operates the Harley E. French Library of the Health Sciences.[52]

UND is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a doctoral/research-intensive institution.[2] This level of research activity is shown in UND's research statistics which, in fiscal year 2006, included program awards that reached $94.3 million, sponsored program expenditures that reached $81.2 million, and an overall research portfolio that included $315 million in total ongoing and committed accounts.[53] Research activity at UND focuses on health sciences, nutrition, energy and environmental protection, aerospace, and engineering.[2] As a major component of the Red River Valley Research Corridor, UND operates many research units including the Energy and Environmental Research Center, the School of Medicine, the Center for Rural Health, the Center for Innovation, the Upper Midwest Aerospace Consortium, the Bureau of Governmental Affairs, the Bureau of Educational Services and Applied Research, and the Social Science Research Institute.[54] The Energy and Environmental Research Center (EERC), located on the eastern fringes of the UND campus, has been recognized as a leader in researching cleaner, more efficient forms of energy.[55] The EERC operates a number of research units at UND including the National Center for Hydrogen Technology.

UND competes in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The men's ice hockey team compete in the National Collegiate Hockey Conference and the women's hockey team compete as members of the Western Collegiate Hockey Association. Women's hockey will be cut from the university starting in the 2017-2018 year. All other sports compete in the Big Sky Conference.

The men's ice hockey team has won eight national championships and has been runner-up five times. Both the men's and women's ice hockey teams play at the Ralph Engelstad Arena. The football team won the Division II national championship in 2001 and was the runner-up in 2003, and play at the Alerus Center. The basketball and volleyball teams play in the Betty Engelstad Sioux Center. The women's basketball team has won three national championships in 1997, 1998, and 1999 and was runner-up in 2001.

The colors of UND athletics are green and white, which were adopted in the 1920s. The university's official school colors are green and white, representative of North Dakota's state flower, the Wild Prairie Rose; however, this combination is rarely employed outside of official or ceremonial applications.[5] UND's athletic teams bore the name of the Fighting Sioux, but were without a nickname and mascot from 2012â€“2015, in compliance with the NCAA's policy against the use of Native American nicknames.[56][57] On November 18, 2015, it was announced the new nickname would be "Fighting Hawks", effective immediately.[58][59]

A notable UND athletic alumnus is National Basketball Association (NBA) coach and former player Phil Jackson, widely considered one of the greatest coaches in NBA history.[60][61] In addition, many UND alumni have played in the National Hockey League (NHL), including: Minnesota Wild wing Zach Parise, New Jersey Devils center Travis Zajac, Los Angeles Kings defensemen Matt Greene and Mike Commodore, Chicago Blackhawks forward and captain Jonathan Toews, former NHL goalie Ed Belfour, and Washington Capitals forward T. J. Oshie.

The school's primary fight song is "Stand Up and Cheer". Two other fight songs are "UND" and It's for You, North Dakota U (or North Dakota U), composed by Franz Rickaby in 1921.[62][63]

Over 15,000 students attend classes on the UND campus each year.[65] About 40 percent of the student body is from North Dakota and the other half is made up of students from all 50 states and over 60 other nations.[67] The ratio between male and female students is about even.[67] Demographically, about 80 percent of the student body is caucasian.[67] Students can live on or off campus. On campus, there are 14 residence halls[68] and 850 student apartment units,[69] as well as thirteen fraternities[70] and seven sororities.[71] There are over 275 student organizations at UND[72] as well as an intramural sports program called RecSports.[73]

The student body is represented by the three-branch Student Government. The executive branch consists of seven executives who each have different areas of focus. The legislative branch consists of 23 student senators who represent each academic and residential district. The judicial branch consists of seven justices that deal with judicial matters when necessary. In addition, three standing committees enhance university life for all students: University Programming Council (UPC), Student Organization Funding Agency (SOFA), and Student Communications Funding Committee (SCFC). In addition, five administrative assistants help with all areas of Student Government.[74]

The fraternity and sorority community has a rich history at the University of North Dakota. Sanctioned chapters on campus include seven sororities (Alpha Chi Omega, Alpha Phi, Delta Gamma, Gamma Phi Beta, Kappa Alpha Theta, Pi Beta Phi, Kappa Delta) and thirteen fraternities (Alpha Tau Omega, Beta Theta Pi, Delta Tau Delta, Delta Upsilon, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Phi Delta Theta, Pi Kappa Alpha, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, Sigma Chi, Sigma Nu, Sigma Phi Epsilon).

The North Dakota Museum of Art, the official art museum of the state of North Dakota, is in the heart of campus and offers exhibits throughout the year.[75] The Burtness Theater and the Chester Fritz Auditorium regularly feature theater and concert events.[76][77] The Ralph Engelstad Arena also features non-athletic events including concerts. The nearby city-owned Alerus Center hosts several concerts each year as well as other events. Each year, UND hosts the University of North Dakota Writers Conference.[78] This is a week-long event that brings together prominent American and foreign writers. Participants have included Truman Capote, Tennessee Williams, Eudora Welty, Tom Wolfe, Allen Ginsberg, Louise Erdrich, Chuck Klosterman, and Gary Snyder.[79]

The Dakota Student is UND's student newspaper.

North Dakota Quarterly, a literary journal, is edited at UND.[80]

The North Dakota Law Review, published by the School of Law since 1924, serves as the journal of the State Bar Association of North Dakota.[81]

The Alumni Review is published by the UND Alumni Association and Foundation.[82]

UND owns two public radio stations, which are operated by Prairie Public Radio: KUND and KFJM.[83] KUND-FM rebroadcasts the Prairie Public radio network, which also carries National Public Radio programming. KFJM broadcasts some Prairie Public and NPR programming, but also broadcasts some locally produced programs.[84]

UND operates two local cable television channels. One operates as an information billboard and also features a weekly student-produced news program entitled Studio One.[85][86] The other is a movie channel for the campus residence halls, Residence Life Cinema, on cable channel 17. The University separately licenses movies for showing on this channel.[87] UND also formerly operated the UND Sports Network.

Alumni of the University of North Dakota have become notable in a variety of different fields including politics and government, business, science, literature, arts and entertainment, and athletics.[88] Eight Governors of North Dakota were educated at UND, including Fred G. Aandahl,[89] Louis B. Hanna,[90] Lynn Frazier,[91] William Langer,[92] John Moses,[93] Ragnvald A. Nestos,[94] Allen I. Olson,[95] and Ed Schafer, who was also the US Secretary of Agriculture from 2008â€“2009.[96] Former Deputy National Security Advisor at the White House, Mark Pfeifle is a 1997 graduate in the School of Communications.[97] Many U.S. Senators and Representatives of North Dakota were also graduates of UND, including former Senator Byron Dorgan[98] and former Representative Earl Pomeroy.[99] Former House Majority Leader Dick Armey is a UND graduate.[100] Ronald Davies, a UND graduate and former federal judge, became a part of history when he ordered the integration of Little Rock Central High School during the Civil Rights Movement.[101]

UND alumni who went on to notable careers in the business world include chairman of TNSE & president of the Winnipeg Jets hockey club Mark Chipman,[102] current president and former CEO of Cargill Gregory R. Page,[103] current president and CEO of the Buffalo Wild Wings restaurant chain Sally J. Smith,[104] current CEO of Forum Communications William C. Marcil,[105] former Las Vegas casino owner and UND philanthropist Ralph Engelstad,[106] and former CEO of American Skandia and founder of WealthVest Marketing Wade Dokken.[107]

In the realm of science, notable UND alumni include important contributor to information theory Harry Nyquist,[108] pioneer aviator Carl Ben Eielson,[109] Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson,[110] engineer and NASA astronaut Karen L. Nyberg,[111] and leading NASA manager John H. Disher.

Alumni who have become notable through literature include the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright and author Maxwell Anderson,[112] Rhodes scholar and poet Thomas McGrath,[113] essayist and journalist Chuck Klosterman,[114] and novelist Jon Hassler.[115] UND graduates have become editors of major magazines: Carroll Eugene Simcox of The Living Church, former Ebony editor Era Bell Thompson[116] and former LIFE editor Edward K. Thompson.[117] Alumni who have become notable in arts and entertainment include actor Sam Anderson[118] and America's Next Top Model winner Nicole Linkletter.[119]

Former UND students who have gone on to notable careers in athletics include former NBA player and coach and current president of the New York Knicks, Phil Jackson,[120] ice hockey player who played in the 1980 Winter Olympics "Miracle on Ice" game Dave Christian,[121] NHL professional ice hockey players Ed Belfour, Tony Hrkac, Jonathan Toews – captain of the Chicago Blackhawks, Zach Parise – Minnesota Wild, Travis Zajac – New Jersey Devils, T.J. Oshie and Taylor Chorney – Washington Capitals, Ryan Bayda – Pittsburgh Penguins, Drew Stafford – Boston bruins, Brian Lee – Ottawa Senators, Matt Smaby – Tampa Bay Lightning, Matt Jones and Matt Frattin – Toronto Maple Leafs, Mike Commodore – Columbus Blue Jackets, Jason Blake – Anaheim Ducks, Ryan Johnson – Vancouver Canucks, Chris VandeVelde - Philadelphia Flyers NFL professional football players Jim Kleinsasser and Dave Osborn both of the Minnesota Vikings, Chris Kuper of the Denver Broncos, and Weston Dressler of the Canadian Football League's Winnipeg blue bombers.


how many times has val won dancing with the stars

For season 23, he was partnered with Olympic artistic gymnast Laurie Hernandez. On November 22, Hernandez and Chmerkovskiy won the title, giving Chmerkovskiy his 2nd mirrorball.

Valentin Chmerkovskiy

Maksim Chmerkovskiy
(brother)

Peta Murgatroyd
(Sister in law)

Valentin Aleksandrovich "Val" Chmerkovskiy (Ukrainian: Валентин Олекса́ндрович Чмерковський; born March 24, 1986)[1] is a Ukrainian-American professional dancer, best known for his appearances on the U.S. version of Dancing with the Stars, which he won twice. Chmerkovskiy is a two-time World Latin Dance Champion (Junior and Youth) and a 14-time U.S. National Latin Dance champion.

Chmerkovskiy was born in the Ukrainian city of Odessa, in what was then the Soviet Union.[1] His parents are Aleksandr "Sasha" Chmerkovskiy and Larisa Chmerkovskaya.[2] His older brother, Maksim Chmerkovskiy (born 1980), is also a professional dancer who appears on Dancing with the Stars.[3] His father is Jewish and his mother is Christian.[4]

The family moved to the United States in 1994. In 1996, Maksim and Sasha opened a youth-oriented dance studio in New Jersey, and Valentin was one of the students. In 2001, Valentin and partner Diana Olonetskaya, 15, became the first American dance team to win a world junior championship title.[5]

Chmerkovskiy is a co-owner of nine social dance studios under the brand "Dance With Me".[6] Six are in the New York metropolitan area (Glen Rock and Fort Lee in New Jersey, Glen Cove, Long Island, SoHo, Manhattan, Midtown, Manhattan and Stamford, Connecticut). The three other studios are located in Southlake, Texas, The Woodlands, Texas, and Summerlin, Nevada. Previously one was in Sherman Oaks, California, but has since changed ownership.[2][7]

Chmerkovskiy first appeared on season 2, February 10, 2006, as a student of his brother during Week 6. The students were: Valentin & Valeriya Kozharinova, Sergei Onik & Michelle Glazarov and Boris Leokumovich & Nicole Volynets. The couples performed two numbers.[8][9]

Chmerkovskiy then appeared once again on season 4 results show on May 8, 2007. He starred in a dance off against his brother, Maksim Chmerkovskiy.[10]

Chmerkovskiy appeared on the season 10 results show on April 6, 2010. He did a country western themed routine with his brother Maksim, Edyta Śliwińska and Snejana Petrova.[11]

He appeared on the season 11 results show on October 5, 2010, performing a music and dance duel against Mark Ballas. While performing to the song "Toxic" by Britney Spears, Val played the violin and danced with Lacey Schwimmer.[12]

In season 13, Chmerkovskiy was partnered with model and actress Elisabetta Canalis. They were eliminated second, finishing in 11th place.

In season 14, Chmerkovskiy was partnered with comedian and talk show host Sherri Shepherd. On Rock Week (Week 4) of Dancing with the Stars, they were the third couple to be eliminated, finishing in 10th place.

Chmerkovskiy danced as a professional partner in season 15 with season 1 winner, Kelly Monaco.[13] They finished in third place on the season finale.

For season 16, Chmerkovskiy was partnered with Disney Channel's Shake It Up star, Zendaya. On May 21, Zendaya and Val came in second place behind Derek Hough and Kellie Pickler.

For season 17, he paired with film and television actress Elizabeth Berkley Lauren. Despite receiving high scores, they were eliminated on week 9, finishing in sixth place.

For season 18, he paired with actress and author Danica McKellar. They were eliminated on Week 8 and ended in sixth place.

For season 19, he was paired with Pretty Little Liars actress Janel Parrish. They made it to the finals and finished in third place.[14]

For season 20, he was paired with actress and singer Rumer Willis. On May 19, 2015, Willis and Chmerkovskiy were crowned the winners marking Chmerkovskiy's first win.

For season 21, he was partnered with R&B singer and reality television star, Tamar Braxton.[15] On November 11, 2015, Braxton revealed that she had to withdraw from the competition due to health issues.[16]

For season 22, he was partnered with meteorologist Ginger Zee. The couple made it to the finals but ultimately ended in third place.

For season 24, he was partnered with Fifth Harmony singer Normani Kordei. They made it to the finals and finished in third place.

For season 25, he was partnered with former Paralympic swimmer Victoria Arlen. They made it to the semi-finals in week 9, but were then eliminated, finishing in fifth place.

1Additional score of Week 3 was given by Robin Roberts

2For this week only, as part of the "Partner Switch-Up", Danica McKellar did not perform with Chmerkovskiy and instead performed with Maksim Chmerkovskiy; Chmerkovskiy performed Argentine Tango with Meryl Davis and received scores of 10/9/10/10

3Additional score of Week 4 was given by Julianne Hough

4Additional score of Week 5 was given by Donny Osmond

5Additional score of Week 6 was given by Redfoo

6Additional score of Week 7 was given by Ricky Martin

7Additional score of Week 8 was given by Abby Lee Miller

1 Score given by guest judge Kevin Hart in place of Goodman.

2The American public scored the dance in place of Goodman with the averaged score being counted alongside the three other judges.

3This week only, for "Partner Switch-Up" week, Parrish performed with Artem Chigvintsev instead of Chmerkovskiy. Chmerkovskiy performed with Lea Thompson.

4 Score given by guest judge Jessie J in place of Goodman.

5Score given by guest judge Pitbull in place of Goodman.

1Score given by guest judge Alfonso Ribeiro

2This week only, for "Partner Switch-Up" week, Braxton performed with Louis van Amstel instead of Chmerkovskiy. Chmerkovskiy performed with Bindi Irwin.[17]

3Score given by guest judge Maksim Chmerkovskiy

4Score given by guest judge Olivia Newton-John.

5Braxton and Chmerkovskiy's scores for this dance were based on dress rehearsal footage, due to Braxton being in the emergency room and not arriving at the show in time to perform it.

1 Score given by guest judge Zendaya.
2 For this week only, as part of "America's Switch Up", Zee performed with Mark Ballas instead of Chmerkovskiy. Chmerkovskiy performed with Jodie Sweetin.
3 Score given by guest judge Maksim Chmerkovskiy.
3 Due to Goodman being the judge coaching Zee's team during the team-up dance, the viewers scored the dance in his place with the averaged score being counted alongside the remaining judges.

1Score given by guest judge Pitbull
2Score given by guest judge Idina Menzel

1 Score given by guest judge Nick Carter
2 Score given by guest judge Mandy Moore

1 Score given by guest judge Shania Twain.

In 2016, Chmerkovskiy posted a meme of a girl drinking soda, which had previously gone viral in 2014, with the caption "Letting your kid become obese should be considered child abuse."[19][20][21][22] The family of the girl in the picture, who has Down syndrome, then sued Chmerkovskiy seeking $6 million for defamation, emotional distress, and invasion of privacy.[21] Chmerkovskiy deleted the post.[19]

Chmerkovskiy dated Amber Rose for 5 months from 2016 to early 2017. Chmerkovskiy has been dating troupe dancer Jenna Johnson on and off for the past two years but became public and serious in summer of 2017 although rumors date back to the pair heating things back up around early 2017.


what do you call a younger girl in japanese

The relationship is an interdependent one, as a senpai requires a kōhai and vice versa,[1] and establishes a bond determined by the date of entry to an organization.[2] Senpai refers to the member of higher experience, hierarchy, level, or age in the organization who offers assistance, friendship, and counsel to a new or inexperienced member, known as the kōhai, who must demonstrate gratitude, respect, and occasionally personal loyalty.[2][3] The Senpai acts at the same time as a friend.[2][4] This relation is similar to the interpersonal relation between tutor and tutored in Eastern culture, but differs in that the senpai and kōhai must work in the same organization.[5]

Senpai and kōhai

Senpai (先輩, "earlier colleague") and kōhai (後輩, "later colleague") are terms from the Japanese language describing an informal hierarchical interpersonal relationship found in organizations, associations, clubs, businesses, and schools in Japan. The concept is based in Japanese philosophy and has permeated Japanese society.

The relationship is an interdependent one, as a senpai requires a kōhai and vice versa, and establishes a bond determined by the date of entry to an organization. The kōhai defers to the senpai's seniority and experience, and speaks to the senpai using honorific language.

The relation originates in Confucian teaching, as well as the morals and ethics that have arrived in Japan from ancient China and have spread throughout various aspects of Japanese philosophy. The senpai–kōhai relation is a vertical hierarchy (like a father–son relation) that emphasizes respect for authority, for the chain of command, and for one's elders, eliminating all forms of internal competition and reinforcing the unity of the organization.[3][4]

Over time this mechanism has allowed the transfer of experience and knowledge, as well as the expansion of acquaintances, to maintaining the art of teaching alive. It also allows the development of beneficial experiences between both, as the kōhai benefits from the senpai's knowledge and the senpai learns new experiences from the kōhai by way of developing a sense of responsibility.[6][7][8] This comradeship does not imply friendship; a senpai and kōhai may become friends, but such is not an expectation.[9]

The Korean terms seonbae and hubae are written with the same Chinese characters and indicate a similar senior–junior relationship. The terms may have derived from Japanese, and may have had Chinese origins, though the senpai–kōhai relationship does not exist in Chinese culture.[10] However, it is close to the system of sifu -student system of Chinese martial arts.

The senpai–kōhai system has existed since the beginning of Japanese history. Three elements have had a significant impact on its development: Confucianism, the traditional Japanese family system, and the Civil Code of 1898.[11]

Confucianism arrived from China between the 6th and 9th centuries, but the derived line of thought that brought about deep social changes in Japan was Neo-Confucianism, which became the official doctrine of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867). The precepts of loyalty and filial piety as tribute (朝貢 chōkō) dominated the Japanese at the time, as respect for elders and ancestor worship that Chinese Confucianism taught were well accepted by the Japanese, and these influences have spread throughout daily life. Like other Chinese influences, the Japanese adopted these ideas selectively and in their own manner, so that the "loyalty" in Confucianism was taken as loyalty to a feudal lord or the Emperor.[12]

The Japanese family system (家 ie) was also regulated by Confucian codes of conduct and had an influence on the establishment of the senpai–kōhai relation. In this family system the father, as male head, had absolute power over the family and the eldest son inherited the family property. The father had power because he was the one to receive an education and was seen to have superior ethical knowledge. Since reverence for superiors was considered a virtue in Japanese society, the wife and children had to obey it. In addition to the hereditary system, only the eldest son could receive his father's possessions, and neither the eldest daughter nor the younger children received anything from him.[13]

The last factor influencing the senpai–kōhai system was the Civil Code of 1898, which strengthened the rules of privilege of seniority and reinforced the traditional family system, giving clear definitions of hierarchical values within the family. This was called koshusei (戸主制, "family-head system"), in which the head of the household had the right to command his family and the eldest son inherited that position. These statutes were abolished in 1947, after the surrender of Japan at the end of World War II. These ideals nevertheless remained during the following years as a psychological influence in Japanese society.[13]

The seniority rules are reflected in various grammatical rules in the Japanese language. A person who speaks respectfully to a superior uses honorific language (敬語 keigo), which is divided into three categories:[14][13]

Sonkeigo and kenjōgo have expressions (verbs, nouns, and special prefixes) particular to the type of language; for example, the ordinary Japanese verb for "to do" is suru, but in sonkeigo is nasaru and in kenjōgo is itasu.[16]

Another rule in the hierarchical relation is the use of honorific suffixes of address. A senpai addresses a kōhai with the suffix -kun after the kōhai's given name or surname, regardless if the kōhai is male or female. A kōhai similarly addresses a senpai with the suffix -senpai or -san; it is extremely unusual for a kōhai to refer to a senpai with the suffix -sama, which indicates the highest level of respect to the person spoken to.[17]

One place the senpai–kōhai relation applies to its greatest extent in Japan is in schools. For example, in junior and senior high schools (especially in school clubs) third-year students (who are the oldest) demonstrate great power as senpais. It is common in school sports clubs for new kōhais to have to perform basic tasks such as retrieving balls, cleaning playing fields, taking care of equipment, and even wash elder students' clothes. They must also bow to or salute their senpais when congratulated,[18][19] and senpais may punish kōhais or treat them severely.[1][18]

The main reason for these humble actions is that it is believed that team members can become good players only if they are submissive, obedient, and follow the orders of the trainer or captain, and thus become a humble, responsible, and cooperative citizen in the future. Relations in Japanese schools also place a stronger emphasis on the age than on the abilities of students. The rules of superiority between a senpai and a kōhai are analogous to the teacher–student relation, in which the age and experience of the teacher must be respected and never questioned.[19]

The senpai–kōhai relation is weaker in universities, as students of a variety of ages attend the same classes; students show respect to older members primarily through polite language (teineigo). Vertical seniority rules nevertheless prevail between teachers based on academic rank and experience.[19]

The senpai–kōhai system also prevails in Japanese businesses. The social environment in Japanese businesses is regulated by two standards: the system of superiority and the system of permanent employment. The status, salary, and position of employees depend heavily of seniority, and veteran employees generally take the highest positions and receive higher salaries than their subordinates. Until the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, employment was guaranteed for life and thus such employees did not have to worry about losing their positions.[19]

The senpai–kōhai relation is a cornerstone in interpersonal relations within the Japanese business world; for example, at meetings the lower-level employee should sit in the seat closest to the door, called shimoza (下座, "lower seat"), while the senior employee (sometimes the boss) sits next to some important guest in a position called kamiza (上座, "upper seat"). During meetings, most employees do not give their opinions, but simply listen and concur with their superiors, although they can express opinions with the prior consent of the employees of greater rank and influence in the company.[20]

Outside Japan, the senpai–kōhai relation is often found in the teaching of Japanese martial arts, though misunderstandings arise due to lack of historical knowledge, and as the vertical social hierarchy of Japan does not exist in Western cultures.[21]

Despite the senpai–kōhai relation's deep roots in Japanese society, there have been changes since the end of the 20th century in academic and business organizations. Kōhais no longer show as much respect to the experience of their senpais, the relation has become more superficial, and the age factor has begun to lose importance. The student body has diversified with Japanese students who have spent a large part of their lives overseas and have returned to Japan, as well as foreign students without a mentality rooted in the Japanese hierarchical system.[4]

The collapse of the economic bubble in the early 1990s caused a high level of unemployment, including the laying off of high-ranked employees. Companies since then first began to consider employees' skills rather than age or length of service with the company, due to which many long-serving employees lost their positions over being incapable of fulfilling expectations. Gradually many companies have had to restructure their salary and promotion systems, and seniority has thus lost some influence in Japanese society.[4]

Attitudes towards the senpai–kōhai system vary from appreciation for traditions and the benefits of a good senpai–kōhai relationship; to reluctant acquiescence; to antipathy. Those who criticize the system find it arbitrary and unfair, that senpais were often pushy, and that the system results in students who are shy or afraid of standing out from the group. for example, some kōhais fear that if they outperform their senpais in an activity, their senpai will lose face, for which kōhais must apologize. In some cases, the relation is open to violence and bullying. Most Japanese people—even those who criticize it—accept the senpai–kōhai system as common-sense aspect of society, straying from which will have inevitably negative social consequences.[22]