who built the first practical telescope and developed a theory of colour

In 1666 Isaac Newton, based on his theories of refraction and color, perceived that the faults of the refracting telescope were due more to a lens's varying refraction of light of different colors than to a lens's imperfect shape. He concluded that light could not be refracted through a lens without causing chromatic aberrations, although he incorrectly concluded from some rough experiments[50] that all refracting substances would diverge the prismatic colors in a constant proportion to their mean refraction. From these experiments Newton concluded that no improvement could be made in the refracting telescope.[51] Newton's experiments with mirrors showed that they did not suffer from the chromatic errors of lenses, for all colors of light the angle of incidence reflected in a mirror was equal to the angle of reflection, so as a proof to his theories Newton set out to build a reflecting telescope.[52] Newton completed his first telescope in 1668 and it is the earliest known functional reflecting telescope.[53] After much experiment, he chose an alloy (speculum metal) of tin and copper as the most suitable material for his objective mirror. He later devised means for grinding and polishing them, but chose a spherical shape for his mirror instead of a parabola to simplify construction. He added to his reflector what is the hallmark of the design of a "Newtonian telescope", a secondary "diagonal" mirror near the primary mirror's focus to reflect the image at 90° angle to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope. This unique addition allowed the image to be viewed with minimal obstruction of the objective mirror. He also made all the tube, mount, and fittings. Newton's first compact reflecting telescope had a mirror diameter of 1.3 inches and a focal ratio of f/5.[54] With it he found that he could see the four Galilean moons of Jupiter and the crescent phase of the planet Venus. Encouraged by this success, he made a second telescope with a magnifying power of 38x which he presented to the Royal Society of London in December 1672. This type of telescope is still called a Newtonian telescope.

History of the telescope

The earliest known telescope appeared in 1608 in the Netherlands when an eyeglass maker named Hans Lippershey tried to obtain a patent on one. Although Lippershey did not receive his patent, news of the new invention soon spread across Europe. The design of these early refracting telescopes consisted of a convex objective lens and a concave eyepiece. Galileo improved on this design the following year and applied it to astronomy. In 1611, Johannes Kepler described how a far more useful telescope could be made with a convex objective lens and a convex eyepiece lens and by 1655 astronomers such as Christiaan Huygens were building powerful but unwieldy Keplerian telescopes with compound eyepieces.[1]

Isaac Newton is credited with building the first reflector in 1668 with a design that incorporated a small flat diagonal mirror to reflect the light to an eyepiece mounted on the side of the telescope. Laurent Cassegrain in 1672 described the design of a reflector with a small convex secondary mirror to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

The achromatic lens, which greatly reduced color aberrations in objective lenses and allowed for shorter and more functional telescopes, first appeared in a 1733 telescope made by Chester Moore Hall, who did not publicize it. John Dollond learned of Hall's invention[2][3] and began producing telescopes using it in commercial quantities, starting in 1758.

Important developments in reflecting telescopes were John Hadley's production of larger paraboloidal mirrors in 1721; the process of silvering glass mirrors introduced by Léon Foucault in 1857;[4] and the adoption of long-lasting aluminized coatings on reflector mirrors in 1932.[5] The Ritchey-Chretien variant of Cassegrain reflector was invented around 1910, but not widely adopted until after 1950; many modern telescopes including the Hubble Space Telescope use this design, which gives a wider field of view than a classic Cassegrain.

During the period 1850–1900, reflectors suffered from problems with speculum metal mirrors, and a considerable number of "Great Refractors" were built from 60 cm to 1 metre aperture, culminating in the Yerkes Observatory refractor in 1897; however, starting from the early 1900s a series of ever-larger reflectors with glass mirrors were built, including the Mount Wilson 60-inch (1.5 metre), the 100-inch (2.5 metre) Hooker Telescope (1917) and the 200-inch (5 metre) Hale telescope (1948); essentially all major research telescopes since 1900 have been reflectors. A number of 4-metre class (160 inch) telescopes were built on superior higher altitude sites including Hawaii and the Chilean desert in the 1975–1985 era. The development of the computer-controlled alt-azimuth mount in the 1970s and active optics in the 1980s enabled a new generation of even larger telescopes, starting with the 10-metre (400 inch) Keck telescopes in 1993/1996, and a number of 8-metre telescopes including the ESO Very Large Telescope, Gemini Observatory and Subaru Telescope.

The era of radio telescopes (along with radio astronomy) was born with Karl Guthe Jansky's serendipitous discovery of an astronomical radio source in 1931. Many types of telescopes were developed in the 20th century for a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The development of space observatories after 1960 allowed access to several bands impossible to observe from the ground, including X-rays and longer wavelength infrared bands.

Objects resembling lenses date back 4000 years although it is unknown if they were used for their optical properties or just as decoration.[6] Greek accounts of the optical properties of water filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, including Ptolemy (2nd century) in his Optics, who wrote about the properties of light including reflection, refraction, and color, followed by Ibn Sahl (10th century) and Ibn Al-Haytham (11th century).[7][7]

Actual use of lenses dates back to the widespread manufacture and use of eyeglasses in Northern Italy beginning in the late 13th century.[8][6][9][10][11] The invention of the use of concave lenses to correct near-sightedness is ascribed to Nicholas of Cusa in 1451.

The first record of a telescope comes from the Netherlands in 1608. It is in a patent filed by Middelburg spectacle-maker Hans Lippershey with the States General of the Netherlands on 2 October 1608 for his instrument "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby".[12] A few weeks later another Dutch instrument-maker, Jacob Metius also applied for a patent. The States General did not award a patent since the knowledge of the device already seemed to be ubiquitous[13][14] but the Dutch government awarded Lippershey with a contract for copies of his design.

The original Dutch telescopes were composed of a convex and a concave lensâ€”telescopes that are constructed this way do not invert the image. Lippershey's original design had only 3x magnification. Telescopes seem to have been made in the Netherlands in considerable numbers soon after this date of "invention", and rapidly found their way all over Europe.[citation needed]

In 1655 Dutch diplomat William de Boreel tried to solve the mystery of who invented the telescope. He had a local magistrate in Middelburg follow up on Boreel's childhood and early adult recollections of a spectacle maker named "Hans" who he remembered as the inventor of the telescope. The magistrate was contacted by a then unknown claimant, Middelburg spectacle maker Johannes Zachariassen, who testified that his father, Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope and the microscope as early as 1590. This testimony seemed convincing to Boreel, who now recollected that Zacharias and his father, Hans Martens, must have been who he remembered.[17] Boreel's conclusion that Zacharias Janssen invented the telescope a little ahead of another spectacle maker, Hans Lippershey, was adopted by Pierre Borel in his 1656 book De vero telescopii inventore.[18][19] Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including Zachariassen misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious.[20] The "Janssen" claim would continue over the years and be added on to with Zacharias Snijder in 1841 presenting 4 iron tubes with lenses in them claimed to be 1590 examples of Janssen's telescope[16] and historian Cornelis de Waard's 1906 claim that the man who tried to sell a broken telescope to astronomer Simon Marius at the 1608 Frankfurt Book Fair must have been Janssen.[21]

In 1682,[22] the minutes of the Royal Society in London Robert Hooke noted Thomas Digges' 1571 Pantometria, (a book on measurement, partially based on his father Leonard Digges' notes and observations) seemed to support an English claim to the invention of the telescope, describing Leonard as having a fare seeing glass in the mid 1500s based on an idea by Roger Bacon.[23][24] Thomas described it as "by proportional Glasses duly situate in convenient angles, not only discovered things far off, read letters, numbered pieces of money with the very coin and superscription thereof, cast by some of his friends of purpose upon downs in open fields, but also seven miles off declared what hath been done at that instant in private places." Comments on the use of proportional or "perspective glass" are also made in the writings of John Dee (1575) and William Bourne (1585).[25] Bourne was asked in 1580 to investigate the Diggs device by Queen Elizabeth I's chief advisor Lord Burghley. Bourne's is the best description of it, and from his writing it seemed to consist of peering into a large curved mirror that reflected the image produced by a large lens.[26] The idea of an "Elizabethan Telescope" has been expanded over the years, including astronomer and historian Colin Ronan concluding in the 1990s that this reflecting/refracting telescope was built by Leonard Digges between 1540 and 1559.[27][28][29] This "backwards" reflecting telescope would have been unwieldy, it needed very large mirrors and lens to work, the observer had to stand backwards to look at an upside down view, and Bourne noted it had a very narrow field of view making it unsuitable for military purposes.[26] The optical performance required to see the details of coins lying about in fields, or private activities seven miles away, seems to be far beyond the technology of the time[30] and it could be the "perspective glass" being described was a far simpler idea, originating with Bacon, of using a single lens held in front of the eye to magnify a distant view.[31]

A 1959 research paper by Simon de Guilleuma claimed that evidence he had uncovered pointed to the French born spectacle maker Juan Roget (died before 1624) as another possible builder of an early telescope that predated Hans Lipperhey's patent application.[32] inventing early telescope-like devices.

Lippershey's application for a patent was mentioned at the end of a diplomatic report on an embassy to Holland from the Kingdom of Siam sent by the Siamese king Ekathotsarot: Ambassades du Roy de Siam envoyé à l'Excellence du Prince Maurice, arrivé à La Haye le 10 Septemb. 1608 (Embassy of the King of Siam sent to his Excellency Prince Maurice, arrived at The Hague on 10 September 1608). This report was issued in October 1608 and distributed across Europe, leading to experiments by other scientists, such as the Italian Paolo Sarpi, who received the report in November, and the English mathematician and astronomer Thomas Harriot, who used a six-powered telescope by the summer of 1609 to observe features on the moon.[33]

The Italian polymath Galileo Galilei was in Venice in June 1609[34] and there heard of the "Dutch perspective glass" by means of which distant objects appeared nearer and larger. Galileo states that he solved the problem of the construction of a telescope the first night after his return to Padua from Venice and made his first telescope the next day by fitting a convex lens in one extremity of a leaden tube and a concave lens in the other one. A few days afterwards, having succeeded in making a better telescope than the first, he took it to Venice where he communicated the details of his invention to the public and presented the instrument itself to the doge Leonardo Donato, who was sitting in full council. The senate in return settled him for life in his lectureship at Padua and doubled his salary.

Galileo spent his time to improving the telescope, producing telescopes of increased power. His first telescope had a 3x magnification, but he soon made instruments which magnified 8x and finally, one nearly a meter long with a 37mm objective (which he would stop down to 16mm or 12mm) and a 23x magnification.[35] With this last instrument he began a series of astronomical observations in October or November 1609, discovering the satellites of Jupiter, hills and valleys on the Moon, the phases of Venus[36] and observed spots on the sun (using the projection method rather than direct observation). Galileo noted that the revolution of the satellites of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, rotation of the Sun and the tilted path its spots followed for part of the year pointed to the validity of the sun-centered Copernican system over other Earth-centered systems such as the one proposed by Ptolemy. Galileo's instrument was the first to be given the name "telescope". The name was invented by the Greek poet/theologian Giovanni Demisiani at a banquet held on April 14, 1611 by Prince Federico Cesi to make Galileo Galilei a member of the Accademia dei Lincei.[37] The word was created from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing'.

These observations, together with Galileo's improvement of the instrument, led to the adoption of the name of the Galilean telescope for these early forms of telescope that employed a negative lens.[38]

Johannes Kepler first explained the theory and some of the practical advantages of a telescope constructed of two convex lenses in his Catoptrics (1611). The first person who actually constructed a telescope of this form was the Jesuit Christoph Scheiner who gives a description of it in his Rosa Ursina (1630).[38]

William Gascoigne was the first who commanded a chief advantage of the form of telescope suggested by Kepler: that a small material object could be placed at the common focal plane of the objective and the eyepiece. This led to his invention of the micrometer, and his application of telescopic sights to precision astronomical instruments. It was not till about the middle of the 17th century that Kepler's telescope came into general use: not so much because of the advantages pointed out by Gascoigne, but because its field of view was much larger than in the Galilean telescope.[38]

The first powerful telescopes of Keplerian construction were made by Christiaan Huygens after much labor—in which his brother assisted him. With one of these: an objective diameter of 2.24 inches (57 mm) and a 12 ft (3.7 m) focal length,[39] he discovered the brightest of Saturn's satellites (Titan) in 1655; in 1659, he published his "Systema Saturnium" which, for the first time, gave a true explanation of Saturn's ring—founded on observations made with the same instrument.[38]

The sharpness of the image in Kepler's telescope was limited by the chromatic aberration introduced by the non-uniform refractive properties of the objective lens. The only way to overcome this limitation at high magnifying powers was to create objectives with very long focal lengths. Giovanni Cassini discovered Saturn's fifth satellite (Rhea) in 1672 with a telescope 35 feet (11 m) long. Astronomers such as Johannes Hevelius were constructing telescopes with focal lengths as long as 150 feet (46 m). Besides having really long tubes these telescopes needed scaffolding or long masts and cranes to hold them up. Their value as research tools was minimal since the telescope's frame "tube" flexed and vibrated in the slightest breeze and sometimes collapsed altogether.[40][41]

In some of the very long refracting telescopes constructed after 1675, no tube was employed at all. The objective was mounted on a swiveling ball-joint on top of a pole, tree, or any available tall structure and aimed by means of string or connecting rod. The eyepiece was handheld or mounted on a stand at the focus, and the image was found by trial and error. These were consequently termed aerial telescopes.[42] and have been attributed to Christiaan Huygens and his brother Constantijn Huygens, Jr.[40][43] although it is not clear that they invented it.[44] Christiaan Huygens and his brother made objectives up to 8.5 inches (220 mm) diameter[39] and 210 ft (64 m) focal length and others such as Adrien Auzout made telescopes with focal lengths up to 600 ft (180 m). Telescopes of such great length were naturally difficult to use and must have taxed to the utmost the skill and patience of the observers.[38] Aerial telescopes were employed by several other astronomers. Cassini discovered Saturn's third and fourth satellites in 1684 with aerial telescope objectives made by Giuseppe Campani that were 100 and 136 ft (30 and 41 m) in focal length.

The ability of a curved mirror to form an image may have been known since the time of Euclid[45] and had been extensively studied by Alhazen in the 11th century. Galileo, Giovanni Francesco Sagredo, and others, spurred on by their knowledge that curved mirrors had similar properties to lenses, discussed the idea of building a telescope using a mirror as the image forming objective.[46] Niccolò Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit astronomer and physicist, wrote in his book Optica philosophia of 1652 that he tried replacing the lens of a refracting telescope with a bronze concave mirror in 1616. Zucchi tried looking into the mirror with a hand held concave lens but did not get a satisfactory image, possibly due to the poor quality of the mirror, the angle it was tilted at, or the fact that his head partially obstructed the image.[47]

In 1636 Marin Mersenne proposed a telescope consisting of a paraboloidal primary mirror and a paraboloidal secondary mirror bouncing the image through a hole in the primary, solving the problem of viewing the image.[48] James Gregory went into further detail in his book Optica Promota (1663), pointing out that a reflecting telescope with a mirror that was shaped like the part of a conic section, would correct spherical aberration as well as the chromatic aberration seen in refractors. The design he came up with bears his name: the "Gregorian telescope"; but according to his own confession, Gregory had no practical skill and he could find no optician capable of realizing his ideas and after some fruitless attempts, was obliged to abandon all hope of bringing his telescope into practical use.

A third form of reflecting telescope, the "Cassegrain reflector" was devised in 1672 by Laurent Cassegrain. The telescope had a small convex hyperboloidal secondary mirror placed near the prime focus to reflect light through a central hole in the main mirror.

No further practical advance appears to have been made in the design or construction of the reflecting telescopes for another 50 years until John Hadley (best known as the inventor of the octant) developed ways to make precision aspheric and parabolic speculum metal mirrors. In 1721 he showed the first parabolic Newtonian reflector to the Royal Society.[55] It had a 6-inch (15 cm) diameter, 62 3⁄4-inch (159 cm) focal length speculum metal objective mirror. The instrument was examined by James Pound and James Bradley.[56] After remarking that Newton's telescope had lain neglected for fifty years, they stated that Hadley had sufficiently shown that the invention did not consist in bare theory. They compared its performance with that of a 7.5 inches (190 mm) diameter aerial telescope originally presented to the Royal Society by Constantijn Huygens, Jr. and found that Hadley's reflector, "will bear such a charge as to make it magnify the object as many times as the latter with its due charge", and that it represents objects as distinct, though not altogether so clear and bright.

Bradley and Samuel Molyneux, having been instructed by Hadley in his methods of polishing speculum metal, succeeded in producing large reflecting telescopes of their own, one of which had a focal length of 8 ft (2.4 m). These methods of fabricating mirrors were passed on by Molyneux to two London opticians —Scarlet and Hearn— who started a business manufacturing telescopes.[57]

The British mathematician, optician James Short began experimenting with building telescopes based on Gregory's designs in the 1730s. He first tried making his mirrors out of glass as suggested by Gregory, but he later switched to speculum metal mirrors creating Gregorian telescopes with original designers parabolic and elliptic figures. Short then adopted telescope-making as his profession which he practised first in Edinburgh, and afterward in London. All Short's telescopes were of the Gregorian form. Short died in London in 1768, having made a considerable fortune selling telescopes.

Since speculum metal mirror secondaries or diagonal mirrors greatly reduced the light that reached the eyepiece, several reflecting telescope designers tried to do away with them. In 1762 Mikhail Lomonosov presented a reflecting telescope before the Russian Academy of Sciences forum. It had its primary mirror tilted at four degrees to telescope's axis so the image could be viewed via an eyepiece mounted at the front of the telescope tube without the observer's head blocking the incoming light. This innovation was not published until 1827, so this type came to be called the Herschelian telescope after a similar design by William Herschel.[58]

About the year 1774 William Herschel (then a teacher of music in Bath, England) began to occupy his leisure hours with the construction of reflector telescope mirrors, finally devoted himself entirely to their construction and use in astronomical research. In 1778, he selected a 6 1⁄4-inch (16 cm) reflector mirror (the best of some 400 telescope mirrors which he had made) and with it, built a 7-foot (2.1 m) focal length telescope. Using this telescope, he made his early brilliant astronomical discoveries. In 1783, Herschel completed a reflector of approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 20 ft (6.1 m) focal length. He observed the heavens with this telescope for some twenty years, replacing the mirror several times. In 1789 Herschel finished building his largest reflecting telescope with a mirror of 49 inches (120 cm) and a focal length of 40 ft (12 m), (commonly known as his 40-foot telescope) at his new home, at Observatory House in Slough, England. To cut down on the light loss from the poor reflectivity of the speculum mirrors of that day, Herschel eliminated the small diagonal mirror from his design and tilted his primary mirror so he could view the formed image directly. This design has come to be called the Herschelian telescope. He discovered Saturn's sixth known moon, Enceladus, the first night he used it (August 28, 1789), and on September 17, its seventh known moon, Mimas. This telescope was world's largest telescope for over 50 years. However, this large scope was difficult to handle and thus less used than his favorite 18.7-inch reflector.

In 1845 William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse built his 72-inch (180Â cm) Newtonian reflector called the "Leviathan of Parsonstown" with which he discovered the spiral form of galaxies.

All of these larger reflectors suffered from the poor reflectivity and fast tarnishing nature of their speculum metal mirrors. This meant they need more than one mirror per telescope since mirrors had to be frequently removed and re-polished. This was time consuming since the polishing process could change the curve of the mirror so it usually had to be "re-figured" to the correct shape.

From the time of the invention of the first refracting telescopes it was generally supposed that chromatic errors seen in lenses simply arose from errors in the spherical figure of their surfaces. Opticians tried to construct lenses of varying forms of curvature to correct these errors.[38] Isaac Newton discovered in 1666 that chromatic colors actually arose from the un-even refraction of light as it passed through the glass medium. This led opticians to experiment with lenses constructed of more than one type of glass in an attempt to canceling the errors produced by each type of glass. It was hoped that this would create an "achromatic lens"; a lens that would focus all colors to a single point, and produce instruments of much shorter focal length.

The first person who succeeded in making a practical achromatic refracting telescope was Chester Moore Hall from Essex, England.[citation needed] He argued that the different humours of the human eye refract rays of light to produce an image on the retina which is free from color, and he reasonably argued that it might be possible to produce a like result by combining lenses composed of different refracting media. After devoting some time to the inquiry he found that by combining two lenses formed of different kinds of glass, he could make an achromatic lens where the effects of the unequal refractions of two colors of light (red and blue) was corrected. In 1733, he succeeded in constructing telescope lenses which exhibited much reduced chromatic aberration. One of his instruments had an objective measuring 2 1⁄2 inches (6.4 cm) with a relatively short focal length of 20 inches (51 cm).

Hall was a man of independent means and seems to have been careless of fame; at least he took no trouble to communicate his invention to the world. At a trial in Westminster Hall about the patent rights granted to John Dollond (Watkin v. Dollond), Hall was admitted to be the first inventor of the achromatic telescope. However, it was ruled by Lord Mansfield that it was not the original inventor who ought to profit from such invention, but the one who brought it forth for the benefit of mankind.

In 1747, Leonhard Euler sent to the Prussian Academy of Sciences a paper in which he tried to prove the possibility of correcting both the chromatic and the spherical aberration of a lens. Like Gregory and Hall, he argued that since the various humours of the human eye were so combined as to produce a perfect image, it should be possible by suitable combinations of lenses of different refracting media to construct a perfect telescope objective. Adopting a hypothetical law of the dispersion of differently colored rays of light, he proved analytically the possibility of constructing an achromatic objective composed of lenses of glass and water.

All of Euler's efforts to produce an actual objective of this construction were fruitlessâ€”a failure which he attributed solely to the difficulty of procuring lenses that worked precisely to the requisite curves.[59] John Dollond agreed with the accuracy of Euler's analysis, but disputed his hypothesis on the grounds that it was purely a theoretical assumption: that the theory was opposed to the results of Newton's experiments on the refraction of light, and that it was impossible to determine a physical law from analytical reasoning alone.[60]

In 1754, Euler sent to the Berlin Academy a further paper in which starting from the hypothesis that light consists of vibrations excited in an elastic fluid by luminous bodies—and that the difference of color of light is due to the greater or lesser frequency of these vibrations in a given time— he deduced his previous results. He did not doubt the accuracy of Newton's experiments quoted by Dollond.

Dollond did not reply to this, but soon afterwards he received an abstract of a paper by the Swedish mathematician and astronomer, Samuel Klingenstierna, which led him to doubt the accuracy of the results deduced by Newton on the dispersion of refracted light. Klingenstierna showed from purely geometrical considerations (fully appreciated by Dollond) that the results of Newton's experiments could not be brought into harmony with other universally accepted facts of refraction.

As a practical man, Dollond at once put his doubts to the test of experiment: he confirmed the conclusions of Klingenstierna, discovered a difference far beyond his hopes in the refractive qualities of different kinds of glass with respect to the divergence of colors, and was thus rapidly led to the construction of lenses in which first the chromatic aberration—and afterwards—the spherical aberration were corrected.[61]

Dollond was aware of the conditions necessary for the attainment of achromatism in refracting telescopes, but relied on the accuracy of experiments made by Newton. His writings show that with the exception of his bravado, he would have arrived sooner at a discovery for which his mind was fully prepared. Dollond's paper[61] recounts the successive steps by which he arrived at his discovery independently of Hall's earlier inventionâ€”and the logical processes by which these steps were suggested to his mind.

In 1765 Peter Dollond (son of John Dollond) introduced the triple objective, which consisted of a combination of two convex lenses of crown glass with a concave flint lens between them. He made many telescopes of this kind.[citation needed]

The difficulty of procuring disks of glass (especially of flint glass) of suitable purity and homogeneity limited the diameter and light gathering power of the lenses found in the achromatic telescope. It was in vain that the French Academy of Sciences offered prizes for large perfect disks of optical flint glass.

The difficulties with the impractical metal mirrors of reflecting telescopes led to the construction of large refracting telescopes. By 1866 refracting telescopes had reached 18 inches (46 cm) in aperture with many larger "Great refractors" being built in the mid to late 19th century. In 1897, the refractor reached its maximum practical limit in a research telescope with the construction of the Yerkes Observatorys' 40-inch (100 cm) refractor (although a larger refractor Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of 49.2 inches (1.25 m) diameter was temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition). No larger refractors could be built because of gravity's effect on the lens. Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces.[62]

In 1856–57, Karl August von Steinheil and Léon Foucault introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. The silver layer was not only much more reflective and longer lasting than the finish on speculum mirrors, it had the advantage of being able to be removed and re-deposited without changing the shape of the glass substrate. Towards the end of the 19th century very large silver on glass mirror reflecting telescopes were built.

The beginning of the 20th century saw construction of the first of the "modern" large research reflectors, designed for precision photographic imaging and located at remote high altitude clear sky locations[63] such as the 60-inch Hale telescope of 1908, and the 100-inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope in 1917, both located at Mount Wilson Observatory.[64] These and other telescopes of this size had to have provisions to allow for the removal of their main mirrors for re-silvering every few months. John Donavan Strong, a young physicist at the California Institute of Technology, developed a technique for coating a mirror with a much longer lasting aluminum coating using thermal vacuum evaporation. In 1932, he became the first person to "aluminize" a mirror; three years later the 60-inch (1,500 mm) and 100-inch (2,500 mm) telescopes became the first large astronomical telescopes to have their mirrors aluminized.[65] 1948 saw the completion of the 200-inch (510 cm) Hale reflector at Mount Palomar which was the largest telescope in the world up until the completion of the massive 605 cm (238 in) BTA-6 in Russia twenty-seven years later. The Hale reflector introduced several technical innovations used in future telescopes, including hydrostatic bearings for very low friction, the Serrurier truss for equal deflections of the two mirrors as the tube sags under gravity, and the use of Pyrex low-expansion glass for the mirrors. The arrival of substantially larger telescopes had to await the introduction of methods other than the rigidity of glass to maintain the proper shape of the mirror.

The 1980s saw the introduction of two new technologies for building larger telescopes and improving image quality, known as active optics and adaptive optics. In active optics, an image analyser senses the aberrations of a star image a few times per minute, and a computer adjusts many support forces on the primary mirror and the location of the secondary mirror to maintain the optics in optimal shape and alignment. This is too slow to correct for atmospheric blurring effects, but enables the use of thin single mirrors up to 8Â m diameter, or even larger segmented mirrors. This method was pioneered by the ESO New Technology Telescope in the late 1980s.

The 1990s saw a new generation of giant telescopes appear using active optics, beginning with the construction of the first of the two 10 m (390 in) Keck telescopes in 1993. Other giant telescopes built since then include: the two Gemini telescopes, the four separate telescopes of the Very Large Telescope, and the Large Binocular Telescope.

Adaptive optics uses a similar principle, but applying corrections several hundred times per second to compensate the effects of rapidly changing optical distortion due to the motion of turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere. Adaptive optics works by measuring the distortions in a wavefront and then compensating for them by rapid changes of actuators applied to a small deformable mirror or with a liquid crystal array filter. AO was first envisioned by Horace W. Babcock in 1953, but did not come into common usage in astronomical telescopes until advances in computer and detector technology during the 1990s made it possible to calculate the compensation needed in real time.[66] In adaptive optics, the high-speed corrections needed mean that a fairly bright star is needed very close to the target of interest (or an artificial star is created by a laser). Also, with a single star or laser the corrections are only effective over a very narrow field (tens of arcsec), and current systems operating on several 8-10m telescopes work mainly in near-infrared wavelengths for single-object observations.

Developments of adaptive optics include systems with multiple lasers over a wider corrected field, and/or working above kiloHertz rates for good correction at visible wavelengths; these are currently in progress but not yet in routine operation as of 2015.

The twentieth century saw the construction of telescopes which could produce images using wavelengths other than visible light starting in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered astronomical objects gave off radio emissions; this prompted a new era of observational astronomy after World War II, with telescopes being developed for other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum from radio to gamma-rays.

Radio astronomy began in 1931 when Karl Jansky discovered that the Milky Way was a source of radio emission while doing research on terrestrial static with a direction antenna. Building on Jansky's work, Grote Reber built a more sophisticated purpose-built radio telescope in 1937, with a 31.4-foot (9.6 m) dish; using this, he discovered various unexplained radio sources in the sky. Interest in radio astronomy grew after the Second World War when much larger dishes were built including: the 250-foot (76 m) Jodrell bank telescope (1957), the 300-foot (91 m) Green Bank Telescope (1962), and the 100-metre (330 ft) Effelsberg telescope (1971). The huge 1,000-foot (300 m) Arecibo telescope (1963) is so large that it is fixed into a natural depression in the ground; the central antenna can be steered to allow the telescope to study objects up to twenty degrees from the zenith. However, not every radio telescope is of the dish type. For example, the Mills Cross Telescope (1954) was an early example of an array which used two perpendicular lines of antennae 1,500 feet (460 m) in length to survey the sky.

High-energy radio waves are known as microwaves and this has been an important area of astronomy ever since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964. Many ground-based radio telescopes can study microwaves. Short wavelength microwaves are best studied from space because water vapor (even at high altitudes) strongly weakens the signal. The Cosmic Background Explorer (1989) revolutionized the study of the microwave background radiation.

Because radio telescopes have low resolution, they were the first instruments to use interferometry allowing two or more widely separated instruments to simultaneously observe the same source. Very long baseline interferometry extended the technique over thousands of kilometers and allowed resolutions down to a few milli-arcseconds.

A telescope like the Large Millimeter Telescope (active since 2006) observes from 0.85 to 4 mm (850 to 4,000 μm), bridging between the far-infrared/submillimeter telescopes and longer wavelength radio telescopes including the microwave band from about 1 mm (1,000 μm) to 1,000 mm (1.0 m) in wavelength.

Although most infrared radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere, infrared astronomy at certain wavelengths can be conducted on high mountains where there is little absorption by atmospheric water vapor. Ever since suitable detectors became available, most optical telescopes at high-altitudes have been able to image at infrared wavelengths. Some telescopes such as the 3.8-metre (150 in) UKIRT, and the 3-metre (120 in) IRTF — both on Mauna Kea — are dedicated infrared telescopes. The launch of the IRAS satellite in 1983 revolutionized infrared astronomy from space. This reflecting telescope which had a 60-centimetre (24 in) mirror, operated for nine months until its supply of coolant (liquid helium) ran out. It surveyed the entire sky detecting 245,000 infrared sources—more than 100 times the number previously known.

Although optical telescopes can image the near ultraviolet, the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs ultraviolet radiation shorter than 300 nm so most ultra-violet astronomy is conducted with satellites. Ultraviolet telescopes resemble optical telescopes, but conventional aluminium-coated mirrors cannot be used and alternative coatings such as magnesium fluoride or lithium fluoride are used instead. The Orbiting Solar Observatory satellite carried out observations in the ultra-violet as early as 1962. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (1978) systematically surveyed the sky for eighteen years, using a 45-centimetre (18 in) aperture telescope with two spectroscopes. Extreme-ultraviolet astronomy (10–100 nm) is a discipline in its own right and involves many of the techniques of X-ray astronomy; the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (1992) was a satellite operating at these wavelengths.

X-rays from space do not reach the Earth's surface so X-ray astronomy has to be conducted above the Earth's atmosphere. The first X-ray experiments were conducted on sub-orbital rocket flights which enabled the first detection of X-rays from the Sun (1948) and the first galactic X-ray sources: Scorpius X-1 (June 1962) and the Crab Nebula (October 1962). Since then, X-ray telescopes (Wolter telescopes) have been built using nested grazing-incidence mirrors which deflect X-rays to a detector. Some of the OAO satellites conducted X-ray astronomy in the late 1960s, but the first dedicated X-ray satellite was the Uhuru (1970) which discovered 300 sources. More recent X-ray satellites include: the EXOSAT (1983), ROSAT (1990), Chandra (1999), and Newton (1999).

Gamma rays are absorbed high in the Earth's atmosphere so most gamma-ray astronomy is conducted with satellites. Gamma-ray telescopes use scintillation counters, spark chambers and more recently, solid-state detectors. The angular resolution of these devices is typically very poor. There were balloon-borne experiments in the early 1960s, but gamma-ray astronomy really began with the launch of the OSO 3 satellite in 1967; the first dedicated gamma-ray satellites were SAS B (1972) and Cos B (1975). The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (1991) was a big improvement on previous surveys. Very high-energy gamma-rays (above 200Â GeV) can be detected from the ground via the Cerenkov radiation produced by the passage of the gamma-rays in the Earth's atmosphere. Several Cerenkov imaging telescopes have been built around the world including: the HEGRA (1987), STACEE (2001), HESS (2003), and MAGIC (2004).

In 1868, Fizeau noted that the purpose of the arrangement of mirrors or glass lenses in a conventional telescope was simply to provide an approximation to a Fourier transform of the optical wave field entering the telescope. As this mathematical transformation was well understood and could be performed mathematically on paper, he noted that by using an array of small instruments it would be possible to measure the diameter of a star with the same precision as a single telescope which was as large as the whole array— a technique which later became known as astronomical interferometry. It was not until 1891 that Albert A. Michelson successfully used this technique for the measurement of astronomical angular diameters: the diameters of Jupiter's satellites (Michelson 1891). Thirty years later, a direct interferometric measurement of a stellar diameter was finally realized by Michelson & Francis G. Pease (1921) which was applied by their 20 ft (6.1 m) interferometer mounted on the 100 inch Hooker Telescope on Mount Wilson.

The next major development came in 1946 when Ryle and Vonberg (Ryle and Vonberg 1946) located a number of new cosmic radio sources by constructing a radio analogue of the Michelson interferometer. The signals from two radio antennas were added electronically to produce interference. Ryle and Vonberg's telescope used the rotation of the Earth to scan the sky in one dimension. With the development of larger arrays and of computers which could rapidly perform the necessary Fourier transforms, the first aperture synthesis imaging instruments were soon developed which could obtain high resolution images without the need of a giant parabolic reflector to perform the Fourier transform. This technique is now used in most radio astronomy observations. Radio astronomers soon developed the mathematical methods to perform aperture synthesis Fourier imaging using much larger arrays of telescopes â€”often spread across more than one continent. In the 1980s, the aperture synthesis technique was extended to visible light as well as infrared astronomy, providing the first very high resolution optical and infrared images of nearby stars.

In 1995 this imaging technique was demonstrated on an array of separate optical telescopes for the first time, allowing a further improvement in resolution, and also allowing even higher resolution imaging of stellar surfaces. The same techniques have now been applied at a number of other astronomical telescope arrays including: the Navy Prototype Optical Interferometer, the CHARA array, and the IOTA array. A detailed description of the development of astronomical optical interferometry can be found here [3].

In 2008, Max Tegmark and Matias Zaldarriaga proposed a "Fast Fourier Transform Telescope" design in which the lenses and mirrors could be dispensed with altogether when computers become fast enough to perform all the necessary transforms.


who plays mary margret in once upon a time

Snow White, formerly known as Mary Margaret Blanchard in Storybrooke,[2] is a fictional character in ABC's television series Once Upon a Time. She is portrayed by Ginnifer Goodwin and by Bailee Madison as a child. She is the true love of Prince Charming/David Nolan, mother of Emma Swan and son Neal, and grandmother of Emma's son Henry. The character has been one of Goodwin's best roles, one she loves playing on the show.[3]

Mary Margaret Blanchard

Before accepting the role, Goodwin stated in interviews that she'd always wanted to play Snow White and called her acceptance of the role "a no-brainer.[4] Kitsis and Horowitz are self-described big fans of Goodwin's previous series, Big Love, and wrote the part of Snow with Goodwin in mind.

In the Enchanted Forest, Mary Margaret was actually born Snow White, the daughter of King Leopold and Queen Eva. As a young girl, Snow White's mother dies when Cora poisons her, in an attempt to make Cora's daughter Regina the new Queen. Snow is later rescued from a runaway horse by Regina, which leads to her having a loveless marriage with Snow's father. After Regina assumes the throne by killing the King, she recruits the Huntsman to kill Snow, but he ends up sparing her for her selflessness.[5] Snow then lives in the forest, meeting Prince David while robbing him who she nicknames Charming. The pair fall in love, but he returns to his fiancÃ©e Princess Abigail,[6] though the Evil Queen holds him captive.[7] In exchange for Charming's life, Snow eats an apple from the Queen containing a sleeping curse.[8] Charming breaks free of his imprisonment and awakens her with true love's kiss. The two are later married. During the wedding the Evil Queen announces her curse to destroy their happiness. Snow gives birth to Emma and she is placed in a magical wardrobe and transported to the real world as the curse takes hold.

In Storybrooke, she appears as Mary Margaret Blanchard, Henry Mills' fourth grade teacher at Storybrooke Elementary School. As a part-time volunteer at the General Hospital, she awakens David Nolan (Prince Charming) from his coma, and the pair gradually fall in love, despite David's marriage to Kathryn Nolan (Princess Abigail). Beginning a secret relationship, the affair becomes public and David's marriage breaks down. Mary Margaret becomes an outcast in the town,[9][10][11] and is arrested for Kathryn's "murder" after fake evidence is discovered.[12] Kathryn is later found alive, though Mary Margaret's relationship with David becomes strained as he did not believe her innocence.[13] He decides to leave Storybrooke, but the two are reunited when the curse is broken, and they regain their memories.[14]

The two find Emma, only for Mary Margaret to be transported with her back to the remaining Enchanted Forest through a portal, though they manage to return to Storybrooke.[15] After Regina and her mother Cora attempt to gain power by killing Mr. Gold, Mary Margaret curses Cora's heart with the same candle that Cora used to kill her mother Eva and tricks Regina into killing her. She pleads for Regina to kill her when she cannot deal with what she has done, but she instead tearfully taunts her.

When Henry is kidnapped and taken to Neverland, she travels with Emma, David, Regina, Mr. Gold, and Captain Hook to rescue him. Upon returning to the town with Henry, Peter Pan enacts Regina's curse again,[16] leading Mary Margaret to be returned to the Enchanted Forest with the other inhabitants, while Emma and Henry escape to New York City.[17] Back in the Enchanted Forest, Snow learns she is pregnant again but discovers that Zelena, the Wicked Witch of the West wants her baby. After a year of battling, Snow and Charming realize they must enact a new curse to return to Emma who can stop Zelena. A reassuring David lets Snow crush his heart, though she later requests Regina split Snow's heart to give to both of them. Once they return with their memories of the past year erased, Emma returns to Storybrooke, learning her mother is pregnant. Zelena plots to steal the baby by becoming her mid-wife,[18] though she is ultimately defeated and Mary Margaret gives birth to a son, whom she names after Henry's father and Rumplestiltkin's son, Neal.

Mary Margaret later becomes Mayor of Storybrooke but after the Snow Queen's defeat Regina is given back the position and Mary Margaret becomes a teacher again. Following the Queen's of Darkness's arrival in Storybrooke, Mary Margaret and David battle to keep their secret (being the reason Maleficent lost her child) from Emma. However, they eventually tell Emma the truth, who finds it hard to forgive them. After Mary Margaret is almost killed by Maleficent's daughter Lily, Emma reunites with her parents and forgives them, and after everything is return to normal after the alternate reality is erased but this is short lived when Emma sacrifices herself to become the new Dark One.

With the other residents, Mary Margaret is transported to the Enchanted Forest, taking Emma to Camelot in order to find Merlin and remove her darkness. However, weeks later, they return to Storybrooke with missing memories as to how they failed. She would later have her memories restored after Emma transfers her powers of the Dark One to Hook, who then sacrifice himself. Mary Margaret later joined Emma in the quest to rescue Hook in the Underworld, where she encountered Hercules, a childhood romance of hers. In the past, it had been Hercules who helped her become an accomplished archer. When she realized that he never completed his twelve labors before he died, she returned the favor by helping him defeat the three-headed hellhound Cerberus, and in the process allowed him to join his father Zeus on Mount Olympus. Her actions would result in Hades picking her as one of three souls he wants to keep behind. Following this, she discovered that she no longer wanted to be known as Mary Margaret and returned to being Snow White. She and David later learned that her brother-in-law James was in the Underworld, bitter at the fact that David had stolen his life, following his death. Later, Snow and David found a way to contact their son Neal from the Underworld, only to have Cruella de Vil and her henchman Claude tear out the phones after they succeed. As a sacrifice to keep one soul in the Underworld, David traded places with Snow, so she could return to Storybrooke. Before arriving back home, Snow witnessed her friend Red's awaking Dorothy Gale with true love's kiss. Following the defeat of Hades at the hands of Zelena, Snow was transported, along with David, Zelena, and Hook, to the Land of Untold Stories, led by the sinister Mr. Hyde. Fortunately, with the assistance of Dr. Jekyll, the heroes escaped. Then with further help from their family in New York City, Snow, David, Zelena, and Hook were safely returned to the Land Without Magic, accompanied by Jekyll (who had now separated himself from Hyde). Upon her return, Snow witnesses Regina's use of Jekyll's serum to separate herself from the Evil Queen, as well as Regina's subsequent attempt to destroy her.

After the people from the Land of Untold Stories arrive in town, Snow and her family stop Hyde and decide to help these new people with finding their happy endings but find themselves in repeating battles as the Evil Queen arrives and has Regina kill the Count of Monte Cristo. Afterwards when trying to figure out why the Evil Queen survived Regina crushing her and a way to destroy her, Snow wishes to become a teacher again and for things to return to normal which they start to do but this is short lived when the Evil Queen threatens Storybrooke with water from the River of Lost Souls unless Snow and David give up their shared heart which they do. But the Evil Queens decides to give them her pain of loneliness so she places a sleeping curse on their shared heart so when one is awake, the other will be asleep meaning Snow and David cannot be together. As they try to continue life without each other Snow starts to lose hope as she cannot stand being without David.

As Regina works feverishly to waken Snow and Charming from the Sleeping Curse, Gold comes face to face with the Black Fairy, the powerful enemy Emma must fight in the Final Battle. Hook, still in Neverland, meets up with Tiger Lily, who gives him a piece of an ancient fairy wand to give Emma, to aid her in defeating the Black Fairy. Gold learns that the Black Fairy had been manipulating Gideon with his heart, and confronts her about it, with her saying that if they should fight, Storybrooke would be destroyed.In 1993, a pixie flower awakens Snow and Charming from their cursed selves, but an awakened Rumplestiltskin tells them they must make a difficult decision, to ensure that Emma fulfills her destiny as the Savior. In the present A Pixie flower allows Emma to open a doorway to Neverland and rescue Hook, who re-proposes.

Goodwinn's portrayal of Snow/Mary Margaret has met with positive reviews. Prior to accepting the role, Goodwin had stated in interviews that she'd always wanted to play Snow White and called her acceptance of the role "a no-brainer.[4] Kitsis and Horowitz are self-described big fans of Goodwin's previous series, Big Love, and wrote the part of Snow with Goodwin in mind.


who is maria going to marry in west side story

Maria is in her late teens when she arrives on the US mainland. Her older brother Bernardo is the leader of the Puerto Rican gang, the Sharks. He has a girlfriend, Anita, who Maria is friends with and looks up to. Maria is eager to start a new life in New York, but Bernardo is protective and keeps a close eye on her. He intends for Maria to marry his friend Chino, but Maria is uninterested. She meets Tony who used to be part of the Sharks’ enemy gang, the Jets, at a community dance at the gym. They immediately fall in love. The couple meet several times after (on her balcony, at Anita’s shop, and at Doc’s, Tony’s workplace) before deciding to run away together after the rumble. They are about to leave when Chino shoots Tony for killing Bernardo. Whatever happens to Maria after Tony dies is left a mystery.

Maria (West Side Story)

Maria is the leading female character in the film and theatrical version of West Side Story, the award winning adaptation of William Shakespeare's romantic tragedy Romeo and Juliet.

Maria is based on Shakespeareâ€™s Juliet, who falls in love with Romeo after their first encounter, just like Maria did with Tony.

The best known portrayal of Maria was by Natalie Wood in the 1961 film, although the singing voice was provided by Marni Nixon.[1][2]

The songs sung by Maria include:

"Tonight, tonight / It all began tonight!"[3]

"I'm loved / By a pretty wonderful boy."[4]

"Now it begins, Now we start / One Hand, One Heart. / Even death won't part us now."[5]

"Peace and quiet and open air"[6]

"I have a love and it's all that I have / Right or wrong, what else can I do?"[7]

In both the film and the play is a song named "Maria", which is sung by Tony in both. He sings this right after he meets and kisses Maria for the first time. Her name is sung 29 times in total.[8]

Natalie Wood was not the first choice to play Maria in the 1961 film version. Audrey Hepburn was considered, but she did not take it due to her pregnancy.[9] Like Wood, Hepburn was not Puerto Rican; she was British, Dutch, and Austrian.[10]

“Oh Maria, Maria / She remind me of a West Side story.”[11]


what is triple test for pregnancy in hindi

The triple test, also called  triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test, is an investigation performed during pregnancy in the second trimester to classify a patient as either high-risk or low-risk for chromosomal abnormalities (and neural tube defects).

Triple test

The term "multiple-marker screening test" is sometimes used instead.[1][2] This term can encompass the "double test" and "quadruple test" (described below).

The Triple screen measures serum levels of AFP, estriol, and beta-hCG, with a 70% sensitivity and 5% false-positive rate.  It is complemented in some regions of the United States, as the Quad screen (adding inhibin A to the panel, resulting in an 81% sensitivity and 5% false-positive rate for detecting Down syndrome when taken at 15â€“18 weeks of gestational age)[3] and other prenatal diagnosis techniques, although it remains widely used in Canada[4] and other countries. A positive screen indicates an increased risk of chromosomal abnormalities (and neural tube defects), and such patients are then referred for more sensitive and specific procedures to receive a definitive diagnosis, often prenatal diagnosis via amniocentesis, although the stronger screening option of cell-free fetal DNA screening (also popularly known as noninvasive prenatal screening) is frequently offered. The Triple test can be understood as an early predecessor to a long line of subsequent technological improvements.  In some American states, such as Missouri, Medicaid reimburses only for the Triple test and not other potentially more accurate screening tests, whereas California offers Quad tests to all pregnant women.[5]

The most common abnormality the test can screen is trisomy 21 (Down syndrome). In addition to Down syndrome, the triple and quadruple screens assess risk for fetal trisomy 18 also known as Edward's syndrome, open neural tube defects, and may also detect an increased risk of Turner syndrome, triploidy, trisomy 16 mosaicism, fetal death, Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, and steroid sulfatase deficiency.[6]

The triple test measures the following three levels in the maternal serum:[7]

The levels may indicate increased risk for certain conditions or may be benign:

An estimated risk is calculated and adjusted for the expectant mother's age;[8] if she's diabetic; if she's having twins or other multiples, and the gestational age of the fetus. Weight and ethnicity may also be used in adjustments.[9] Many of these factors affect the levels of the substances being measured and the interpretation of the results:[9]

The test is for screening, not for diagnosis,[10] and does not have nearly the same predictive power of amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling. The screening test carries a much lower risk to the fetus, however, and in conjunction with the age-related risk of the patient it is useful to help determine the need for more invasive tests.

If only two of the hormones above are tested for, then the test is  called a double test. A quad test tests an additional hormone, inhibin. Furthermore, the triple test may be combined with an ultrasound measurement of nuchal translucency.[citation needed]

Free beta hCG and PAPP-A are measured. However, the maternal age, weight, ethnicity etc. are still included. In the UK the double test is part of the combined test for prenatal diagnostics.[11]

A test of levels of dimeric inhibin A (DIA) is sometimes added to the other three tests, under the name "quadruple test."[12] Other names used include "quad test", "quad screen", or "tetra screen."  Inhibin A will be found high in cases of trisomy 21 and low in cases of trisomy 18.


who played the devil in the movie constantine

In 1998, he appeared in "The Frogger", a Seinfeld episode where he played a rogue electrician known as Slippery Pete. He portrayed Uli Kunkel in the 1998 film The Big Lebowski, as well as playing Lev Andropov, a Russian cosmonaut in the 1998 film Armageddon, where his unique performance cemented his status amongst top tier actors. In 1999, he appeared as a villainous producer and director of hardcore porn in the film 8mm. He also portrayed Gunny in the 2002 film Windtalkers and Alexei in the 2003 film Bad Boys II. In 2003, he played Ernst Röhm in Hitler: The Rise of Evil. In the 2005 film Constantine, he played Lucifer. He played the torturer Cavaldi in the 2005 film The Brothers Grimm. His first major character in television was on the Fox series Prison Break in 2005 for the first two seasons, where he played the inmate mob boss John Abruzzi. He was originally cast in Fido, but opted out of the film upon being cast in Prison Break.

Peter Stormare

Rolf Peter Ingvar Storm (born 27 August 1953), known professionally as Peter Stormare (Swedish pronunciation: [ˈpeːtɛr ²stɔrːmarɛ] ( listen)), is a Swedish actor, voice actor, theatre director, playwright and musician active in the United States. He is best known for playing the roles of Gaear Grimsrud in the 1996 film Fargo, John Abruzzi in the Fox TV series Prison Break and Ingmar in the comedy web television series Swedish Dicks.

Stormare was born in Kumla,[1] Sweden, and grew up in Arbrå. He changed his surname when he discovered that he shared it with a senior student at an acting academy. Like "storm" (a word which has the same meaning in Swedish and English), "stormare" is a Swedish word, meaning "stormer". Before settling on "Stormare", he briefly contemplated changing his name to "Mrots Retep", which is simply "Peter Storm" backwards.[citation needed]

Stormare began his career with the Royal Dramatic Theatre, to which he belonged for 11 years. In 1990, he took a leading position as associate artistic director at the Tokyo Globe Theatre, and made a name for himself through various Shakespeare performances, including Hamlet. Three years later, he moved to New York City and mainly took part in English-language productions there. He played Carl Hamilton, a fictional Swedish secret agent. He was discovered by international audiences for his critically acclaimed role as one of the kidnappers in Fargo (1996). He portrayed Dieter Stark in the 1997 film The Lost World: Jurassic Park and later played sleazy, unlicensed "eye-doctor" Solomon Eddie in Minority Report.

Stormare voiced Mattias Nilsson in the video games Mercenaries: Playground of Destruction and Mercenaries 2: World in Flames, Isair in the computer game Icewind Dale 2, and Johann Strauss in Quake 4. In February 2006, he starred as Wolfgang in Volkswagen's VDub series of television commercials. He played the main character in the film Svartvattnet, which was filmed in Sweden and Norway in 2007.[2] He was offered a role in the ABC television series Lost for a period of one year,[3] which he declined.[4] In the 2007 film Premonition, he played Dr. Roth. In April 2007, he appeared in the CSI: Crime Scene Investigation episode "Ending Happy".

In December 2007, Stormare participated in the Swedish reality show Stj채rnorna p책 slottet. He appears in the video game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 3 as Dr. Zelinsky, a Russian scientist who builds a time machine. He starred as Walter in the Canadian independent crime thriller Small Town Murder Songs (2010). He appeared in the music video of the song "Uprising" by the Swedish power metal band Sabaton.[5] He plays himself in the 2011 Norwegian comedy Hjelp, vi er i filmbransjen and appeared as a psychiatrist in the Swedish horror film Marianne (2011). He appeared in a trailer for the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops II, made for the "Revolution" DLC pack. He has since reappeared in most trailers for the game.

In 2014, Stormare appeared in episodes of Longmire, Arrow, and The Blacklist. In the same year, he also starred in the Eli Roth-produced film Clown,[6] in which he portrayed Karlsson. He played mob boss Frank O'Connell, in Rage directed by Paco Cabezas. He also voices Arach Jalal in the Destiny video game franchise.

In 2015, Stormare voiced and motion captured the character Dr. Alan Hill, in the video game Until Dawn. In 2016, he played Rutger Burlin in the Swedish television series Midnattssol; he also co-created, and starred as Ingmar in, the web television series Swedish Dicks which was renewed for a second season in October 2016. In 2017, he played a minor role in John Wick: Chapter 2 and the part of Czernobog on the Starz series American Gods.

After Bono of U2 heard some of Stormare's music, he encouraged Stormare to make an album. In 2002, Stormare released his first album, Dallerpölsa och småfåglar. He plays in a band called Blonde from Fargo and runs a record label called StormVox.[7]

Stormare divides his time between the United States and Sweden.[8] He married actress Karen Sillas in 1989; they divorced in 2006. He married Toshimi, a native of Japan, in 2008.[8] Their daughter Kaiya Bella Luna Stormare was born on May 9, 2009.

Stormare is the godfather of Gustaf Skarsg책rd, the son of Swedish actor Stellan Skarsg책rd. While working on a Disney film in Prague, he was introduced to Bob Dylan after Dylan's concert by bassist Tony Garnier. His nephew is The Sound of Arrows singer-songwriter Stefan Storm.

Stormare is a Christian and has said that he has had contact with God.[8][9] When he was young, he participated in Baptist meetings in ArbrÃ¥.[9][10] He has a strong spiritual side, inherited from his mother, whom he has said was a medium, and who inherited that ability from her own father.[9][10]


where does the formation of ribosomal subunits occur

The rRNA is transcribed, at a high speed, in the nucleolus, which contains all 45S rRNA genes. The only exception is the 5S rRNA which is transcribed outside the nucleolus. After transcription, the rRNAs associate with the ribosomal proteins, forming the two types of ribosomal subunits (large and small). These will later assemble in the cytosol to make a functioning ribosome. See nuclear export for more about the movement of the ribosomal subunits out of the nucleus.[4]

Ribosome biogenesis

Ribosome biogenesis is the process of making ribosomes. In prokaryotic cells, it takes place in the cytoplasm with the transcription of many ribosome gene operons. In eukaryotes, it takes place both in the cytoplasm and in the nucleolus. It involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the three prokaryotic or four eukaryotic rRNAs, as well as assembly of those rRNAs with the ribosomal proteins. Most of the ribosomal proteins fall into various energy-consuming enzyme families including ATP-dependent RNA helicases, AAA-ATPases, GTPases, and kinases.[1] Ribosome biogenesis is a very tightly regulated process, and it is closely linked to other cellular activities like growth and division.[2]

Some have speculated that in the origin of life, ribosome biogenesis predates cells, and that genes and cells evolved to enhance the reproductive capacity of ribosomes.[3]

Ribosomes are the macromolecular machines that are responsible for mRNA translation into proteins. The eukaryotic ribosome, also called the 80S ribosome, is made up of two subunits â€“ the large 60S subunit (which contains the 25S (in plants) or 28S (in mammals), 5.8S, and 5S rRNA) and a small 40S subunit (which contains the 18S rRNA and 33 R proteins) as well as 46 ribosomal proteins. The ribosomal proteins are encoded by ribosomal genes or rDNA.

There are 52 genes that encode the ribosomal proteins, and they can be found in 20 operons within prokaryotic DNA. Regulation of ribosome synthesis hinges on the regulation of the rRNA itself.

First, a reduction in aminoacyl-tRNA will cause the prokaryotic cell to respond by lowering transcription and translation. This occurs through a series of steps, beginning with stringent factors binding to ribosomes and catalyzing the reaction:
GTP + ATP --> pppGpp + AMP

The Î³-phosphate is then removed and ppGpp will bind to and inhibit RNA polymerase. This binding causes a reduction in rRNA transcription. A reduced amount of rRNA means that ribosomal proteins (r-proteins) will be translated but will not have an rRNA to bind to. Instead, they will negatively feedback and bind to their own mRNA, repressing r-protein synthesis. Note that r-proteins preferentially bind to its complementary rRNA if it is present, rather than mRNA.

The ribosome operons also include the genes for RNA polymerase and elongation factors (used in RNA translation). Regulation of all of these genes at once illustrate the coupling between transcription and translation in prokaryotes.

Ribosomal protein synthesis in eukaryotes is a major metabolic activity. It occurs, like most protein synthesis, in the cytoplasm just outside the nucleus. Individual ribosomal proteins are synthesized and imported into the nucleus through nuclear pores. See nuclear import for more about the movement of the ribosomal proteins into the nucleus.

Eukaryotic cells co-transcribe three of the mature rRNA species though a series of steps. The maturation process of the rRNAs and the process of recruiting the r-proteins happen in precursor ribosomal particles, sometimes called pre-ribosomes, and takes place in the nucleolus, nucleoplasm, and cytoplasm. The yeast, S. cerevisiae is the eukaryotic model organism for the study of ribosome biogenesis. Ribosome biogenesis starts in the nucleolus. There, the 18S, 5.8S, and 25S subunits of the rRNA are cotranscribed from ribosomal genes as a polycistronic transcript by RNA polymerase I,[2] and is called 35S pre-RNA.[1]

Transcription of polymerase I starts with a Pol I initiation complex that binds to the rDNA promoter. The formation of this complex requires the help of an upstream activating factor or UAF that associates with TATA-box binding protein and the core factor (CF). Together the two transcription factors allow the RNA pol I complex to bind with the polymerase I initiation factor, Rrn3. As the pol I transcript is produced, approximately 75 small nucleolar ribonucleoparticles (snoRNPs) facilitate the co-transcriptional covalent modifications of >100 rRNA residues. These snoRNPs control 2’-O-ribose methylation of nucleotides and also assist in the creation of pseudouridines.[1] At the 5’ end of rRNA transcripts, small subunit ribosomal proteins (Rps) and non-ribosomal factors assemble with the pre-RNA transcripts to create ball-like knobs. These knobs are the first pre-ribosomal particles in the small (40S) ribosomal subunit pathway.[1] The rRNA transcript is cleaved at the A2 site, and this separates the early 40S pre-ribosome from the remaining pre-rRNA that will combine with large subunit ribosomal proteins (Rpl) and other non-ribosomal factors to create the pre-60S ribosomal particles.[1]

The transcriptional assembly of the 40S subunit precursor, sometimes referred to as the small subunit processome (SSU) or 90S particle happens in a hierarchical fashion – essentially a stepwise incorporation of the UTP-A, UTP-B, and UTP-C subcomplexes. These subcomplexes are made up of over 30 non ribosomal protein factors, the U3 snoRNP particle, a few Rps proteins, and the 35S pre-rRNA. Their exact role, though has not been discovered.[2] The composition of the pre-40S particle changes drastically once cleavage at the U3 snoRNPA dependent sites (sites A0, A1, and A2) are made. This cleavage event creates the 20S pre-rRNA and causes ribosomal factors to dissociate from the pre-40S particle. At this point in the ribosome biogenesis process, the 40S pre-ribosome already shows the “head” and “body” structures of the mature 40S subunit. The 40S pre-ribosome is transported out of the nucleolus and into the cytoplasm. The cytoplasmic 40S pre-ribosome now contains ribosomal proteins, the 20s rRNA and a few non-ribosomal factors. The final formation of the 40S subunit “beak” structure occurs after a phosphorylation and dephosphorylation event involving the Enp1-Ltv1-Rps3 complex and the kinase, Hrr25. Cleavage of the 20S pre-rRNA at the D-site creates the mature 18s rRNA. This cleavage event is dependent on several non-ribosomal factors such as Nob1, Rio1, Rio2, Tsr1 and Fap7.[1]

The maturation of the pre-60S subunit into a mature 60S subunit requires many biogenesis factors that associate and disassociate. In addition, some assembly factors associate with the 60S subunit while others only interact with it transiently. As an overall trend, the maturation of the pre-60S subunit is marked a gradual decrease in complexity. The subunit matures as it moves from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm and gradually the number of trans-acting factors are reduced.[2] The maturation of the 60S subunit requires the help of about 80 factors. Eight of these factors are directly involved with the processing of the 27S A3 pre-rRNA, which actually completes the formation of the mature 5â€™end of the 5.8S rRNA. The A3 factors bind to distant sites on the pre-RNA as well as to each other. Subsequently, they bring areas of rRNA close together and promote the processing of pre-rRNA and the recruitment of ribosomal proteins. Three AAA-type ATPases work to strip the factors from the maturing 60S pre-ribosome. One of the ATPases is a dynein-like Rea1 protein made up of 6 different ATPase domains that form a ring structure. The ring structure is attached to a flexible tail that happens to have a MIDAS (Metal ion-dependentant adhesion site) tip. The Rea1 interacts with the 60S pre-ribosome via its ring while two substrates, Ytm1 and Rsa1, interact with Rea1 through its MIDAS tip. The role of these substrates has not yet been defined. Both though, along with their interactions, are removed in the maturation process of the 60S pre-ribosome. The other two ATPases, Rix7 and Drg1 also function to remove assembly factors from the maturing 60S subunit. Helicases and GTPases are also involved in the removal of assembly factors and the rearrangement of RNA to form the completed 60S subunit. Once in the cytoplasm (see nuclear export), the 60S subunit further undergoes processing in order to be functional. The rest of the large subunit ribosomal particles associate with the 60S unit and the remaining non-ribosomal assembly factors disassociate. The release of the biogenesis factors is mediated mostly by GTPases such as Lsg1 and ATPases such as Drg1. The precise sequence of these events remains unclear. The pathway of 60S cytoplasmic maturation remains incomplete as far as current knowledge is concerned.[2]

In order for the pre-ribosomal units to fully mature, they must be exported to the cytoplasm. To effectively move from the nucleolus to the cytoplasm, the pre-ribosomes interact with export receptors to move through the hydrophobic central channel of the nuclear pore complex.[2] The karyopherin Crm1 is the receptor for both ribosomal subunits and mediates export in a Ran-GTP dependent fashion. It recognizes molecules that have leucine-rich nuclear export signals. The Crm1 is pulled to the large 60S subunit by the help of an adapter protein called Nmd3. The adapter protein for the 40S unit is unknown. In addition to Crm1, other factors play a role in nuclear export of pre-ribosomes. A general mRNA export receptor, called Mex67, as well as a HEAT-repeating-containing protein, Rrp12, facilitate the export of both subunits. These factors are non-essential proteins and help to optimize the export of the pre-ribosomes since they are large molecules.[2]

Because ribosomes are so complex, a certain number of ribosomes are assembled incorrectly and could potentially waste cellular energy and resources when synthesizing non-functional proteins. To prevent this, cells have an active surveillance system to recognize damaged or defective ribosomes and target them for degradation. The surveillance mechanism is in place to detect nonfunctional pre-ribosomes as well as nonfunctional mature ribosomes. In addition, the surveillance system brings the necessary degradation equipment and actually degrades the nonfunctional ribosomes.[1] Pre-ribosomes that build up in the nucleus are destroyed by the exosome, which is a multisubunit complex with exonuclease activity. If perhaps defective ribosomal subunits do make it to the cytoplasm, there is an additional surveillance system in place to target their degradation in the cytoplasm. Certain mutations in residues of the large ribosome subunit will actually result in RNA decay and thus degradation of the unit. Because the amount of defects that are possible in ribosome assembly are so extensive, it is still unknown as to how the surveillance system detects all defects, but it has been postulated that instead of targeting specific defects, the surveillance system recognizes the consequences of those defects â€“ such as assembly delays. Meaning, if there is a disruption in the assembly or maturation of a mature ribosome, the surveillance system will act as if the subunit is defective.[2]

Mutations in ribosome biogenesis are linked to several human ribosomopathy genetic diseases, including inherited bone marrow failure syndromes, which are characterized by a predisposition to cancer and a reduced number of blood cells. Ribosomal dysregulation may also play a role in cancer.


who won the 2014 australian open women's singles badminton championship

Li Na won the title, defeating Dominika Cibulková in the final, 7–6(7–3), 6–0, becoming the first Asian Australian Open champion and sixth woman to win the title after being match point down (in the third round against Lucie Šafářová).[2][3][4]

2014 Australian Open – Women's Singles

Victoria Azarenka was the two-time defending champion, but lost to Agnieszka Radwańska in the quarterfinals.[1]

By winning her third round match, women's top seed Serena Williams broke Margaret Court's record of 60 match victories at the Australian Open. She lost to Ana Ivanovic in the fourth round.[5]


when is the last time a hurricane hit the west coast

Since 1850, only seven tropical cyclones have brought gale-force winds to the Southwestern United States. They are: The 1858 San Diego hurricane that was reconstructed as just missing landfall in 1858, the 1939 Long Beach tropical storm that made landfall near San Pedro in 1939, the remnants of Tropical Storm Jennifer-Katherine in 1963, the remnants of Hurricane Emily in 1965, the remnants of Hurricane Joanne in 1972, the remnants of Hurricane Kathleen in 1976, and Hurricane Nora after being downgraded to a tropical storm in 1997.

List of California hurricanes

A California hurricane is a tropical cyclone that affects the state of California. Usually, only the remnants of tropical cyclones affect California. Since 1900, only two tropical storms have hit California, one by direct landfall from offshore, another after making landfall in Mexico.

In most cases, rainfall is the only effect that these cyclones have on California. Sometimes, the rainfall is severe enough to cause flooding and damage. For example, floods from Hurricane Kathleen devastated Ocotillo, California and killed several people. Precipitation other than rainfall is unusual[1] in tropical cyclones, because of their weak updrafts and lack of supercooled water.[2]

There are two reasons why tropical cyclones rarely strike California: sea surface temperatures, and the usual upper level steering winds in the eastern Pacific, with sea surface temperatures being more important.

Tropical cyclones usually require very warm water to depth, generally above 26.5 °C (80 °F) extending to a depth of 50 meters (160 ft).[3] However, the waters off California are cold even in summer. They rarely rise above 24 °C (75 °F) in near-shore southern California,[4] and usually remain below 17 °C (63 °F) along most of the rest of the coast and outer coastal waters, although El Niño events may warm the waters somewhat. This is due primarily to the extensive upwelling of colder sub-surface waters caused by the prevailing northwesterly winds acting through the Ekman Effect. The winds drive surface water to the right of the wind flow, that is offshore, which draws water up from below to replace it. The upwelling further cools the already cool California Current which runs north to south along coastal California and even much of coastal Baja California. This is the same mechanism which produces coastal California's characteristic fog.

The second reason is the general path of tropical cyclones in the eastern Pacific. They generally move north-westward or westward due to steering by the prevailing upper level winds, which takes them far out to sea and away from land.[4]

These factors make eastern Pacific landfalls improbable north of about central Baja California. In those instances when upper level steering winds do allow a more northerly path, much cooler sea surface temperatures quickly weaken tropical cyclones that approach California, although torrential rainfall can still occur. For example, the September 24-hour rainfall record for Los Angeles is held by the 1939 Long Beach Tropical Storm, as of January 2007.[5]

Hurricanes that affect California are mainly the remnants of hurricanes or tropical storms. In the twentieth century, only four eastern Pacific tropical cyclones have brought tropical storm-force winds to the Continental United States: the 1939 Long Beach Tropical Storm, Tropical Storm Joanne in 1972, Tropical Storm Kathleen in 1976, and Tropical Storm Nora in 1997.[6]

Most tropical cyclones impacting California do so in the month of September. September 1939 was "unprecedented" in having four tropical cyclones impact the state.[50]

The following is a list of all known tropical cyclone-related deaths in California.

While rare, tropical cyclones do affect California, occasionally very seriously as far as rainfall is concerned.

A modern repeat of the 1858 storm is estimated to cause damages of hundreds of millions of dollars.[6] A repeat of the 1939 tropical storm would cause around 200Â million dollars in damage.[6] The most serious damage would be due to rains rather than winds or storm surge, although distant hurricanes may still create heavy surf,[24] possibly injuring or killing people. Nora caused millions in damage and skirted extreme southeastern California.

When Linda was forecast to make landfall, statements about its possible impact were issued by the Oxnard, California office of the National Weather Service. They stressed the uncertainty of a forecast that far in the future.

When Nora was threatening, "unprecedented coordination" was required between the NHC and several other agencies. The coordination was "smooth and effective".[25] However, no inland tropical storm warnings were issued for any area in the United States as Nora was approaching from the south.[25]

There are seven Pacific Coast breakpoints in the United States. They are, from north to south, Point Piedras Blancas, Point Sal, Point Conception, Point Mugu, the mouth of the San Gabriel River, San Mateo Point, and the mouth of the Tijuana River (although places outside this area can be selected if conditions warrant).[51] Should there be the threat of landfall, warnings or watches would be issued for those sections of coast. It is highly unlikely that any tropical cyclone will threaten areas farther north due to the stronger influence of the California Current.


multan was named by arab as city of

During the early period, Multan was known as the city of gold for its large and wealthy temples. The Sun temple, Suraj Mandir, was considered one of the largest and wealthiest temples in the entire sub-continent. Numerous historians have written about this extremely large Hindu temple that housed over 6,000 people within it. Other famous sites included the Suraj Kund ("pool of the Sun") and Temple of Prahladapuri. Story of Prahlada from whom the temple took its name.[citation needed]

History of Multan

Multan (Urdu: تاريخ مُلتان), is a city located in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It is one of the oldest cities in South Asia, though the exact age has yet to be determined. Its modern name comes from its old Sanskrit name Mūlasthān.[citation needed] It has seen a lot of warfare because of its location on a major invasion route between South Asia and Central Asia. It is famous for its Sufi shrines.

Multan was ruled by the various native empires[1] before the invasion of Alexander the Great. It is said that when Alexander was fighting for the city, a poisoned arrow struck him, making him ill and eventually leading to his death. The exact place where Alexander was hit by the arrow can be seen in the old city premises. It is believed to be the same city as "Maii-us-than", where Alexander's forces stormed the citadel after seeing their king injured and unconscious on the field of battle. Multan was part of the Mauryan and the Gupta empires that ruled much of northern India. In the mid-5th century, the city was attacked by a group of nomads led by Toramana. These nomads were successful in taking the city, but did not stay, and the long-standing Hindu rule over the city was re-established. The noted Chinese traveller Huen Tsang visited Multan in 641.

According to native legends and mythology, Multan was the capital of ancient Trigarta Kingdom at the time of Mahabharta and ruled by Katoch Clan of Kshatriya Rajputs. Prahlada was the son of King Hiranyakashipu. Hiranyakashipu held sway over this country and condemned the gods and forbade the paying of homage in their name. Prahlada was recognized as being a very devoted follower of Vishnu, much to his father's disappointment. As Prahlada grows in age, his father Hiranyakashipu becomes upset at his devotion to Vishnu, who he sees as his mortal enemy. Eventually his anger leads him to attempt to kill the boy Prahlada in many ways, but each time Prahlada is protected by Vishnu's mystical power. Finally in disgust Hiranyakashipu points to a particular pillar and asks if his Vishnu is in it? Prahlada answers "He is". Hiranyakashipu, unable to control his anger, smashes the pillar with his mace, it burst in two and out sprang the god Vishnu in the form of a man-lion form called Narasimha Avatar who laid the King across his knees and ripped his stomach open with his claws. A temple devoted to Narasimha Avatar of Vishnu is built. The temple of Prahladpuri Temple is situated close to the shrine of Bahawal Huk. Currently its roof and surrounding building have been damaged but the pillar is no more. The Idol was shifted from temple to a new place near old fruit market. Now it has been relocated at Haridwar, where it was brought in 1947 by Narayan Das Baba.

In the 7th century, Multan had its first arrival of the Muslim armies. Armies led by Al Muhallab ibn Abi Suffrah launched numerous raids from Persia into India in 664 for inclusion of the area into their empires.[non-primary source needed]

However, only a few decades later, Muhammad bin Qasim would come on behalf of the Arabs, and take Multan along with Sindh. His conquest was accompanied by much plundering[non-primary source needed]:

Following bin Qasim's conquest, the city was securely under Muslim rule, although it was in effect an independent state, but around the start of the 11th century, the city was attacked twice by Mahmud of Ghazni who destroyed the Sun Temple and broke its giant Idol. A graphic detail is available in Al-Biruni's writings:

During this era, the Multan Sun Temple was noted by the 10th century Arab geographer Al-Muqaddasi to have been located in a most populous part of the city,[5] between the city's ivory and coppersmith bazaars.[6] The Hindu temple was noted to have accrued the Muslim rulers large tax revenues,[7][8] by some accounts up to 30% of the state's revenues.[9][10]

By the mid 10th century, Multan had come under the influence of the Qarmatians. The Qarmatians had been expelled from Egypt and Iraq following their defeat at the hands of the Abbasids there. Qarmatians zealots had famously sacked Mecca,[11] and outraged the Muslim world with their theft and ransom of the Kaaba's Black Stone, and desecration of the Zamzam Well with corpses during the Hajj season of 930 CE.[12] They wrested control of the city from the pro-Abbasid Amirate of Banu Munabbih,[13] and established the Amirate of Multan, and pledged allegiance to the Fatimid Dynasty based in Cairo.[6][8][14]

Jalam bin Shayban, a proselytizing Da'i that had been dispatched to the region by the Fatimid Caliph Imam al-Mu'izz,[15] was dispatched to replace the city's previous Da'i who had been accused of promoting a syncretic version of Islam that incorporated Hindu rites[9] â€“ though his replacement was likely the result of doctrinal differences regarding succession in the Ismaili Imamate.[5][16]

Jalam bin Shayban, established newly converted Katara Rajputs as its rulers. Soon after, Multan was attacked by the Ghaznavids, destabilizing the Ismaili state. Mahmud of Ghazna invaded Multan in 1005, conducting a series of campaigns during which some Ismailis were massacred while most later converted to Sunni Hanafi fiqh.[17] The city was surrendered, and Abdul Fateh Daud was permitted to retain control over the city with the condition that he adhere to the Sunni interpretation of Islam.[18] Mahmud appointed a Hindu-convert, Nawasa Khan, to rule the region in Mahmud's absentia. After being granted power, Niwasa Khan renounced Islam, and attempted to secure control of the region in collusion with Abdul Fateh Daud.[18] Mahmud of Ghazni then led another expedition to Multan in 1007 C.E. against Niwasa Khan, who was then captured and forced to relinquish his personal fortune to Ghazni.[18]

In an effort to gain his allegiance, the Fatimid Ismaili Imam-caliph al-Hakim dispatched an envoy to Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi two years later. This attempt appeared to be unsuccessful and the Ghaznawids continued to attack other Ismaili strongholds in Sindh to suppress any resurgence of the community in the region. In 1032, Mahmudâ€™s very own vizier, Hasanak was executed for having accepted a cloak from the Imam-caliph on suspicions that he had become an adherent of the Ismaili fiqh.[17]

Mahmud’s purges of the region led several scholars including Stern to believe that the Ghaznawid purges of the region drove out Ismailism from the area, however, recently discovered letters dating to 1083 and 1088 demonstrate continued Ismaili activity in the region, as the Imam-caliph Mustansir dispatched new da’is to replace those who were killed in the attacks.[17]

Like his predecessor, Mahmud of Ghazni, Muhammad of Ghor first took, in 1178, the Ismaili Multan sultans in northern Sindh, which had regained independence from Ghaznavid rule.[19] Muhammad Ghori as a part of his campaigns to conquer north India, again massacred them.[20]

After Sultan Muhammad Ghori's victories in India, and his establishment of a capital in Delhi, Multan was made a part of his empire. However, the rise of the Mongols would again give it some independence, albeit requiring it to be vigilant against Mongol raids from Central Asia.

The Qarmatians came to Multan in the 10th century and were expelled in 1175 by Sultan Muhammad Ghori.

The Mughals controlled the Punjabi region from 1524 until around 1739. Padshah (emperor) Akbar established at Multan one of his original twelve subahs (imperial top-level provinces) roughly covering Punjab, bordering Kabul, Lahore, (Old) Delhi, Ajmer, Thatta (Sindh) subahs, the Persian Safavid empire[citation needed] and shortly Qandahar subah.

Under the Mughal Empire, Multan enjoyed over 200 years of peace, and became known as Dar al-Aman (Abode of Peace). The Khakwani Nawabs of Multan gave it a lot of financial stability and growth to the local farming sector. It was at this time that Multan was ruled by Nawab Ali Mohammad Khan Khakwani. As governor of Multan, he built the famous Mosque Ali Mohammad Khan in 1757 which remains to this day. Many buildings were constructed in this time, and agricultural production grew rapidly. The Khakwani Nawabs of Multan at this time were paying homage to the Afghan king but due to lack of power in Delhi and Kabul they had free rein and were the de facto absolute rulers of Multan. Multan at that time included areas which are part of Vehari, Bahawalpur, and Dera Ghazi Khan districts. The city escaped the destruction brought upon India by the armies of Nadir Shah. Afterwards it was ruled from Kabul by numerous Afghan dynasties for a while. The Delhi Sultanate and later Mughal Empire ruled the region. The Multan region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of Punjab region. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Maratha and Sikh invaded and occupied Multan.

In 1758, the Maratha Empire's general Raghunathrao marched onwards, conquered Lahore and Attock and defeated Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of Ahmad Shah Abdali. Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the eastern side of Attock were under the Maratha rule for the most part. In Punjab and Kashmir, the Marathas plundered the prosperous Mughal cities.[21][22] Maratha general Bapuji Trimbak was given the charge of guarding Multan and Dera Ghazi Khan from Afghans. Maratha rule in Multan was short-lived as Durrani re-captured the city in November 1759.[23]

After Ahmad Shah Durrani's dynasty went into decline, it was ruled locally by the Pashtun Khakwani and Sadozai chieftains. The Sadozais having gained the favour of the king and having the Khakwani Nawab removed. This period saw the rise of Sikh power, who attacked Multan, killeing the Sadozai Nawab, took over the city. The Khakwanis had moved out of the city at that time and lived in small walled cities around main Multan.

The Khokhars and Khatri Muslims occupied Multan intermittently between 1756 and 1763 displacing replacing ruling Sadozai member by Khakwani nawab or his brother, son or even son-in-law, this was most turbulent period in history of Multan resulting administration getting paralyzed and inviting attack from misl from Gujranwal. Jhanda Singh and Ganda Singh attacked again in 1764. However, attempts to take the Multan fort failed and they retreated after collecting several million rupees loot from the ruler Muzaffar Khan Saddozai.

In the 19th century, the Sikh ruler Maharaja Ranjit Singh with his capital at Lahore occupied Multan. Sikh armies under General Hari Singh Nalwa defeated the ruler of Multan, Muzaffar Khan Saddozai. The death of Muzaffar Khan was in fact the death of Muslim rule in Multan.

The Siege of Multan began on 19 April 1848 when local Sikhs murdered two emissaries of the British Raj who were present at the reception of the new governor of Multan who had been selected by the British East India Company.[24] Rebellion engulfed the Multan region under the leadership of Diwan Mulraj Chopra.[24] The British soon launched expeditions against Mulraj, capturing the nearby town of Dera Ghazi Khan.[24] The British then defeated Mulraj's forces at a settlement 4 miles from Multan on 1 July 1848, and captured most guns belonging to Mulraj's army.[24] General William S. Whish was ordered in July 1848 to take 7,000 men with him into order to capture Multan, where Mulraj had been encircled. Much of the force was Sikhs, who in October 1848 defected to Mulraj's forces, forcing General Whish to abandon his first attempt to conquer Multan.[24] By December 1848, the British had captured portions of Multan city's outskirts. In January 1849, the British had amassed a force of 12,000 to conquer Multan.[24] On 22 January 1849, the British had breached the walls of the Multan Fort, leading to the surrender of Mulraj and his forces to the British.[24]

After a long and bloody battle, Multan was made part of the British Raj. During this time, Sardar Karan Narain's son became an icon during the British Raj and was awarded titles 'Rai Bahadur' and Knighted 'Sir' by Her Majesty. The British built some rail routes to the city, but its industrial capacity was never fully developed.

The predominantly Muslim population supported Muslim League and Pakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, the minority Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India while the Muslim refugees from India settled in the Multan. It initially lacked industry, hospitals and universities. Since then, there has been some industrial growth, and the city's population is continually growing. Today, it is one of the country's largest urban centres and remains an important settlement in the Southern Punjab.


what does the song mona lisa and mad hatters mean

"Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters" is a song from the Elton John album Honky Château. The lyrics were written by Bernie Taupin and is his take on New York City after hearing a gun go off near his hotel window during his first visit to the city.[citation needed] The song's lyrics were partly inspired by Ben E. King's "Spanish Harlem," written by Jerry Leiber and Phil Spector, in which he sings "There is a rose in Spanish Harlem."[1][2] In response to this, Taupin writes,

Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters

Now I know
Spanish Harlem are not just pretty words to say
I thought I knew,
but now I know that rose trees never grow in New York City.

Allmusic critic Stewart Mason noted that the song is "less saccharine than many similar Elton John and Bernie Taupin ballads" and praised the "somewhat uncharacteristic emotional directness" of its lyrics.[3] It was released as the B-side of the "Harmony" U.K. single in 1980.

Rolling Stone magazine's Jon Landau praised the song when it was released, writing:

Elton John himself has called the song "one of my all-time favourites,"[5] upon introducing it at his 60th-birthday concert in New York's Madison Square Garden. He also delivered a heartfelt rendition at "The Concert for New York City" at Madison Square Garden on October 20, 2001. The concert was meant primarily as a tribute for family members and fellow workers of New York's Fire and Police and Emergency Medical Services departments, who had been participating in the ongoing recovery efforts at the demolished World Trade Center complex following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. John dedicated the song to the emergency workers and their families, as well as to New York City.

The song was also used in the film Almost Famous, in a scene in New York City, highlighting the loneliness of Kate Hudson's character, who overdoses on quaaludes and champagne.[3]

The song was used in the finale of the American version of Life on Mars. It was also used for the bridal dance in the final episode of the TV series Brothers and Sisters entitled "Walker Down the Aisle".

A more upbeat sequel to the song called "Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters (Part Two)" was recorded about 15 years later for John's album Reg Strikes Back.