who plays jim's dad in american pie

Levy's career received a tremendous boost in 1999, when he was cast as the clueless but loving dad in the blockbuster American Pie. Reprising the role in three film sequels and starring in four straight-to-video sequels made him something of a cult hero. Levy has been quoted as saying the American Pie series was a particular turning point in his career, affording him "a new perspective on his career at the time". Since working on the first two American Pie movies, Levy has worked with Steve Martin and Queen Latifah in Bringing Down the House, and most recently appeared with Martin in Cheaper by the Dozen 2. Levy again appeared as his famous character, Noah Levenstein, in the fourth theatrical film in the American Pie series, American Reunion. He is the only actor to appear in all eight American Pie films.

Eugene Levy

Eugene Levy, CM (born December 17, 1946) is a Canadian actor, comedian, producer, director, musician and writer. He is the only actor to have appeared in all eight of the American Pie films, in his role as Noah Levenstein. He often plays nerdy, unconventional figures, with his humour often deriving from his excessive explanations of matters and the way in which he deals with sticky situations. Levy is a regular collaborator of actor-director Christopher Guest, appearing in and co-writing four of his films, commencing with Waiting for Guffman (1997).

Levy received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award, Canada's highest honour in the performing arts, in 2008.[1] He was appointed to the Order of Canada on June 30, 2011.[2]

Levy was born to a Russian Jewish family[3] in Hamilton, Ontario. His mother was a housewife and his father was a foreman at an automobile plant.[4] He went to Westdale Secondary School, and attended McMaster University. He was vice-president of the McMaster Film Board, a student film group, where he met moviemaker Ivan Reitman.[citation needed]

An alumnus of both the Second City, Toronto and the sketch comedy series Second City Television, Levy often plays unusual supporting characters with nerdish streaks. Perhaps his best-known role on SCTV is the dimwitted Earl Camembert, a newsanchor for the "SCTV News" and a parody of real-life Canadian newsman Earl Cameron. Celebrities impersonated by Levy on SCTV include: Perry Como, Ricardo Montalban, Alex Trebek, Sean Connery, Howard Cosell, Henry Kissinger, Menachem Begin, Bud Abbott, Milton Berle, John Charles Daly, Gene Shalit, Judd Hirsch, Jack Carter, Muammar al-Gaddafi, Tony Dow, James Caan, Lorne Greene, Rex Reed, Ralph Young (of Sandler and Young), F. Lee Bailey, Ernest Borgnine, former Ontario chief coroner Dr. Morton Schulman, Norman Mailer, Neil Sedaka and Howard McNear as Floyd the Barber.

Original Levy characterizations on SCTV are comic Bobby Bittman, scandal sheet entrepreneur Dr. Raoul Withers, "report on business" naïf Brian Johns, 3-D horror auteur Woody Tobias Jr., cheerful Leutonian accordionist Stan Schmenge, lecherous dream interpreter Raoul Wilson, hammer-voiced sports broadcaster Lou Jaffe, diminutive union patriarch Sid Dithers ("San Francisckie! Did you drove or did you flew?"), fey current-events commentator Joel Weiss, buttoned-down panel show moderator Dougal Currie, smarmy Just for Fun emcee Stan Kanter, energetic used car salesman Al Peck, guileless security guard Gus Gustofferson, Phil the Garment King (also of Phil's Nails), and the inept teen dance show host Rockin’ Mel Slirrup.

Though he has been the "above the title" star in only two films, Armed and Dangerous (1986) and The Man (2005), he has featured prominently in many films. He is the co-writer and frequent cast member of Christopher Guest’s mockumentary features, particularly A Mighty Wind, where his sympathetic performance as emotionally unstable folksinger Mitch Cohen won kudos; his accolades included a Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor - Musical or Comedy and the prestigious New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor. In the 1980s and 1990s, he appeared in Splash, National Lampoon’s Vacation, Club Paradise, Stay Tuned, Multiplicity and other comedies. Levy was the creator of Maniac Mansion, a television sitcom based on the LucasArts video game of the same name. He was also seriously considered for the role of Toby Ziegler on The West Wing, a role that went to actor Richard Schiff.

Levy, along with his son Dan Levy, is co-creator of the popular CBC/PopTV sitcom, Schitt's Creek. He also stars in the show alongside his son as head of the Rose family, Johnny Rose. And also his daughter Sarah Levy who portraits Twyla Sands, the waitress at the Schittâ€˜s Creek diner.[5]

Levy, along with Christopher Guest and Michael McKean, was awarded the 2003 Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture, Television, or Other Visual Media for the title song from A Mighty Wind. Levy appeared in the corner of a poster hanging outside the movie theatre in Springfield in the "See Homer Run" episode of The Simpsons. (The poster was advertising for Princess Rock Star and featured a girl with an electric guitar, with Levy in the corner wearing a royal crown. A liner note under him read “Eugene Levy as the King”).

In March 2006, it was announced that he would receive a star on Canada's Walk of Fame. In 2002, the entire cast of SCTV was given a group star, and although Levy is not mentioned on the actual star, he was still inducted as a part of the group. This makes him one of only four two-time honourees, alongside fellow SCTV alumni John Candy, Martin Short and Catherine O'Hara.

Levy is one of only a handful of people who have won at least five Canadian Comedy Awards, including two for Best Writing (Best in Show in 2001 and A Mighty Wind in 2004) and three for Best Male Performer (Best in Show, American Pie 2 in 2002, and A Mighty Wind).

On May 3, 2008, the Governor General of Canada presented Levy with the Governor Generalâ€™s Performing Arts Awards (GGPAA), a lifetime achievement award considered Canada's "most prestigious artistic honour".[6] In 2010, Levy was awarded the ACTRA Award by the union representing Canada's actors.[7]

In 2011, Levy was made a Member of the Order of Canada "for his contributions as a comic actor and writer, and for his dedication to charitable causes."[8]

On May 22, 2012, Levy delivered a commencement address at Dalhousie University, in Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was awarded the degree Doctor of Laws (honoris causa).

On June 11, 2012, Levy was presented with the Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal by the Lieutenant Governor of Ontario.[9]

On March 13, 2016, Levy took home the award for "Best Performance by an Actor in a Continuing Leading Comedic Role" at the 4th Annual Canadian Screen Awards, for his performance as Johnny Rose in the CBC/PopTV sitcom, Schitt's Creek.[10]

Levy married Deborah Divine in 1977 and together have two children: Dan and Sarah.

Levy is an advocate for autism awareness and treatment.[11] He was a close friend of John Candy, who died of a heart attack in 1994.


a classification that involves values beliefs interests and the like

Psychographics can be defined as a quantitative methodology used to describe consumers on psychological attributes.[1] Psychographics has been applied to the study of personality, values, opinions, attitudes, interests, and lifestyles.[2] While psychographics is often equated with lifestyle research, it has been argued[who?] that psychographics should apply to the study of cognitive attributes such as attitudes, interests, opinions, and beliefs while lifestyle should apply to the study of overt behavior (e.g., activities).[3] Because this area of research focuses on activities, interests, and opinions, psychographic factors are sometimes abbreviated to 'AIO variables'.

Psychographic

Psychographic studies of individuals or communities can be valuable in the fields of marketing, demographics, opinion research, prediction, and social research in general. Psychographic attributes can be contrasted with demographic variables (such as age and gender), behavioral variables (such as purchase data or usage rate), and organizational descriptors (sometimes called firmographic variables), such as industry, number of employees, and functional area.

Psychographic methods gained prominence in the United States presidential election, 2016 due to its use in microtargetting advertisements to narrow constituencies by Cambridge Analytica.

Psychographics is often confused with demographics, where historical generations may be defined both by demographics, such as the years in which a particular generation is born or even the fertility rates of that generation's parents, but also by psychographic variables like attitudes, personality formation, and cultural touchstones. For example, the traditional approaches to defining the Baby Boom Generation or Generation X or Millennials have relied on both demographic variables (classifying individuals based on birth years) and psychographic variables (such as beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviors).

Infusionsoft published an article arguing than customer psychographic segmentation is more useful than demographic information.[4]

When a relatively complete profile of a person or group's psychographic make-up is constructed, this is called a "psychographic profile". Psychographic profiles are used in market segmentation as well as in advertising. Some categories of psychographic factors used in market segmentation include:

Psychographic can also be seen as an equivalent of the concept of "culture" when it is used for segmentation at a national level.[5]


how many episodes in the inbetweeners season 2

The first series consists of six episodes, starting with the first episode "First Day", which was shown on E4 on 1 May 2008, and ran until 29 May 2008. The second series began on 2 April 2009 with "The Field Trip" and ran for six episodes, also on E4.[2] The third series began on 13 September 2010 with "The Fashion Show" and ended on 18 October 2010 with "The Camping Trip".

List of The Inbetweeners episodes

The Inbetweeners is a BAFTA Award-winning British sitcom created by Damon Beesley and Iain Morris,[1] and broadcast on E4. The series follows the lives of four suburban sixth form student friends â€“ protagonist Will McKenzie (Simon Bird), his best friend Simon Cooper (Joe Thomas), Jay Cartwright (James Buckley) and Neil Sutherland (Blake Harrison). The series is narrated by Will, who is the programme's central character.

The boys end up at a dull Friday night house party and, amazingly, Will ends up pulling Charlotte Hinchcliffe, one of the most attractive and popular girls in the entire school. They get into some heavy petting, but the experience is short-lived as Charlotte's psychopathic ex-boyfriend Mark Donovan shows up, forced to leave when Charlotte insists their relationship is over for good. The next day, when Charlotte brings up sex in conversation, Will lies about how many girls he has had sex with and so she suggests they have meet up again soon to have sex themselves. Will brags to the rest of the boys about this, but Simon explains to him that Charlotte is obviously just using him to get back at Mark following their relationship issues, leading Will to angrily insult him and storm off. That Friday, Will joins Charlotte at her house to have sex, but his lack of experience is made evident the more it goes on, and Charlotte eventually abandons the idea and requests he leave shortly. The next day at school, after Neil wins an unwanted date with geeky girl Susie at the school's charity Blind Date event, Will is then dumped in front of the school when Charlotte abruptly takes part in the event in an effort to find a man "who really knows what he's doing". Will rushes back home in tears, his mother comforting him, worried that he now has nothing after falling out with his friends over a girl who has now broken up with him. However, Simon and Jay come to visit Will after witnessing what happened at the Blind Date event, and so invite him to come join them as they watch Neil on his blind date with Susie, who is revealed to be around thirteen years old, meaning he has had to go to a fast food restaurant with her whilst the two are supervised by her parents.

Will's mum goes away for the weekend with an old college friend, Fergus, whom she recently caught up with on Facebook. Afraid to be alone at home for the night, Will asks Simon if he wants to stay over, but Simon is unable to due to a father and son golf tournament he is attending. Will instead asks Neil, refusing to asks Jay due to his sexual obsession with Will's mum, angering Jay who is keen for some privacy to masturbate as his dog Benji continues to pester him whenever he tries. Jay easily makes it into Will's house regardless due to Neil leaving the front door open, and they both begin to make a mess of the place, causing Will to force them all to go outside. They take Will on a "pussy patrol", though simply end up driving around the estate very slowly, during which Jay runs angrily over a squirrel after it continues to slyly avoid him at the last minute. When they return to the house, they find Simon waiting for them, having made his way in as the back door was left open by Neil also. Jay uses the credit card details left by Will's mum for emergencies only to order a supply of Foster's Lager, and blackmails Will by posting inappropriate content on his Facebook profile and changing the password, refusing to reveal the new one unless Will lets him stay at the house. Will finally does so, but after Neil blocks the toilet and, alongside the others, vandalises the back garden with Simon's golf club, he demands they all go out again and begins walking around the estate with them whilst they all drink. Eventually they begin vandalising a front garden which Jay and Neil had previously vandalised earlier that day, which even Will soon enjoys, but run away when the house owner spots them and threatens to call the police. Upon returning home, Jay and Neil masturbate in private whilst Simon and Neil take shots whilst playing Pro Evo. The next morning, they all find themselves hungover, Simon over an hour late to his golf tournament, as the man whose front garden they previously vandalised tries to get into their house and apprehend them. Will's mother soon returns home and the man angrily explains to her what the boys have done; meanwhile, Jay enters the room in tears, explaining that his father had Benji put down after Jay lied about Benji defecating in the house so that he would be locked outside more often and no longer disturb him from masturbating, with his father believing dogs are near death at that point anyway. It is also revealed Will's mum was eventually dumped by Fergus as he did not want to be dealing with a "problem child".


actress who plays jill on the young and the restless

Jess Walton (born February 18, 1949) is an American actress, best known for her role as Jill Abbott on the CBS soap opera, The Young and the Restless.

Jess Walton

Mary Jess Walton was born in Grand Rapids, Michigan, but raised in Toronto, Canada,[1] where she attended Loretto Abbey Catholic Secondary School. She left home at the age of 17 and joined a Toronto theater company.[2] In 1969, she moved to Hollywood and in next year, signed with Universal Studios.[2]

In 1970s, Walton guest-starred in a number of television shows, such as Medical Center, Kojak, Marcus Welby, M.D., Ironside,The Rockford Files, Gunsmoke, Cannon, and Barnaby Jones. She co-starred in film The Strawberry Statement (1970), and portrayed the female lead roles of The Peace Killers (1971) and Monkeys in the Attic (1974). She also appeared in The Hunted Lady (1977) starring Donna Mills. During that time her social life also heated up and she was briefly wed to actor Bruce Davison from 1972â€“73; the marriage was annulled within the year.[3] However, her life began to spiral out of control when she turned to alcohol and drugs. In 1980, she battled her addiction and completed rehab.[1]

In 1984, Walton returned to acting with the role of Kelly Harper on the CBS daytime soap opera, Capitol. The show was cancelled in 1987.[1] Later in that year, Walton joined the cast of another CBS soap opera, The Young and the Restless, in the role as Jill Foster Abbott. The role was originally portrayed by Brenda Dickson, who departed in 1980, and the role was first recast with Deborah Adair. In 1983, Dickson returned to the role, and though she stated that she would never leave, she was replaced by Walton in 1987. Walton won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1997 for Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her portrayal of Jill,[4] and was nominated in 1996 and 2000.[5][6] She also won the Daytime Emmy for Outstanding Supporting Actress in 1991,[7] after a nomination in 1990.[8]

Walton is married to John James, an author and founder of The Grief Recovery Institute.[1] In an interview, Walton stated that "[B]efore [John James], I had always gone for bohemian, rock and roll types. John didn't fit the image; he was straighter". The couple have two children and reside in Oregon.

Walton briefly dated one of the managers for Joni Mitchell and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, and for a time, she associated with them and other musicians, including Laura Nyro and Neil Young. In an interview, Walton recalled a memorable occasion where Nyro taught Walton and Mitchell how to belly dance. Walton says that one of the houses featured on Joni Mitchell's Ladies of the Canyon cover belonged to her.[9]

Walton was good friends with her Y&R co-star Jeanne Cooper, who portrayed her character Jill's arch-rival Katherine Chancellor from 1973 up until her death in May 2013.[10]


how do you say young lady in german

Fräulein is the diminutive form of Frau, which was previously reserved only for married women. Frau is in origin the equivalent of "Mylady" or "Madam", a form of address of a noblewoman. But by an ongoing process of devaluation of honorifics, it came to be used as the unmarked term for "woman" by about 1800. Therefore, Fräulein came to be interpreted as expressing a "diminutive of woman", as it were implying that a Fräulein is not-quite-a-woman. By the 1960s, this came to be seen as patronising by proponents of feminism, and during the 1970s and 1980s, the term Fräulein became nearly taboo in urban and official settings, while it remained an unmarked standard in many rural areas. This process was somewhat problematic, at least during the 1970s to 1980s, since many unmarried women of the older generation insisted on Fräulein as a term of distinction, respecting their status, and took the address of Frau as offensive or suggestive of extra-marital sexual experience.

Fräulein

Fräulein (German: [ˈfʁɔɪ̯laɪ̯n] ( listen)) is the German language honorific previously in common use for unmarried women, comparable to Miss in English.

Since the 1970s, Fräulein has come to be used less often, and was banned from official use in West Germany in 1972 by the Minister of the Interior.[2] Nowadays, style guides and dictionaries recommend that all women be addressed as Frau regardless of marital status, particularly in formal situations.[3][4] A newsletter published on the website of the German dictionary Duden in 2002, for instance, noted that women should only be addressed as Fräulein when they specifically request this form of address.[5]

Despite its less common everyday use nowadays, FrÃ¤ulein has seen a revival in recent years as a vogue term, especially in popular culture. [6][7] The term has also seen a rise in use by antiquarians, traditionalists and reactionaries.


who declared that every creature is subject to the pope for salvation

On 18 November 1302, Pope Boniface VIII issued the papal bull Unam sanctam[a] which some historians[1] consider one of the most extreme statements of papal spiritual supremacy ever made.[not in citation given (See discussion.)] The original document is lost but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives.[2] The Bull lays down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the pope as supreme head of the Church, and the duty thence arising of submission to the pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The pope further emphasizes the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order.

Unam sanctam

The bull was promulgated during an ongoing dispute between Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair, King of France.[3]

As long as England and France were at war with each other, neither was likely to participate in any expedition to the Holy Land. Benedict sent cardinal nuncios to each court to broker a truce.[4] When this failed he then tried to get the parties to come to terms by cutting off some of the revenues financing the conflict. On 5 February 1296, Boniface issued the papal bull Clericis laicos forbidding clerics, without authority from the Holy See, to pay to laymen any part of their income or of the revenue of the Church; and likewise all emperors, kings, dukes, counts, etc. to receive such payments, under pain of excommunication.[5]

Edward I of England responded with outlawry, a concept known from Roman law. This effectively withdrew the protection of the English Common Law from the clergy,[6] and confiscated the temporal properties of bishops who refused his levies. As Edward was demanding an amount well above the tenth offered by the clergy, Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Winchelsey left it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit.[7]

In August 1296 Philip of France countered with an embargo. A common wartime precaution, disallowing the export of horses, arms, and money, the embargo served primarily to keep the French clergy from sending taxes to the pope. By prohibiting the export of gold, silver, precious stones, or food from France to the Papal States, this had the effect of blocking a main source of papal revenue. Philip also banished from France papal agents raising funds for a new crusade in the Middle East.

In September 1296 the pope sent a protest to Philip headed Ineffabilis Amor, declaring that he would rather suffer death than surrender any of the rightful prerogatives of the Church. On the one hand he threatened a papal alliance with England and Germany. At the same time he explained in conciliatory terms that his recent bull had not been intended to apply to any of the customary feudal taxes due the King from the lands of the Church, indicating that the clergy could indeed be taxed if the king would only obtain papal permission. In light of the Anglo-Flemish alliance, French bishops asked permission to make contributions for the defense of the kingdom. In February 1297, Boniface issued Romana mater eccelsia which declared that in a situation where the clergy had consented to make payment and delay could cause grave danger, the process of requesting permission could be dispensed with.[4] Later that month Boniface issued Corum illo fatemur which allowed the grant from the French bishops. While insisting the clerical consent was required for subsidies to the state, he recognized that the clergy themselves must evaluate the justice of a claim for aid.[4]

At the same time Boniface was contending with a suspiciously convenient uprising in Rome by the staunchly Ghibelline (pro-emperor) Colonna family.[8] In July 1297 Boniface issued the bull Etsi de statu which was essentially a retrenchment from his position the previous year, in Clericis laicos. Etsi de statu allowed the taxation of clerical property by lay authorities in cases of emergency.[9] Determining what constituted an emergency was conceded to the authorities.

Then came the Jubilee year of 1300, that filled Rome with the fervent masses of pilgrims and made up for the lack of French gold in the treasury. The following year, Philip's ministers overstepped their bounds. Bernard Saisset, the Bishop of Pamiers in Foix, the farthest southern march of Languedoc was recalcitrant and difficult. There was no love between the south, that had suffered so recently with the Albigensian Crusade, and the Frankish north. Pamiers was one of the last strongholds of the Cathars. Saisset made no secret of his disrespect for the King of France. Philip's ministry decided to make an example of the bishop. He was brought before Philip and his court, on 24 October 1301, where the chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high treason, and he was placed in the keeping of the archbishop of Narbonne, his metropolitan. Before they could attack him in the courts, the royal ministry needed the Pope to remove him from his See and strip him of his clerical protections, so that he could be tried for treason. Philip IV tried to obtain from the pope this "canonical degradation". Instead, Boniface ordered the king in December 1301 to free the bishop to go to Rome to justify himself. In the Bull, Ausculta Fili ("Give ear, my son") he accused Philip of sinfully subverting the Church in France, and not in terms that were conciliatory:

Let no one persuade you that you have no superior or that you are not subject to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, for he is a fool who so thinks.

At the same time, Boniface sent out a more general bull Salvator mundi that strongly reiterated some of the same ground of Clericis laicos.

Then, at the end of the year, Boniface, with his customary tactlessness having criticized Philip for his personal behavior and the unscrupulousness of his ministry (that being an assessment with which many modern historians would agree[citation needed]), summoned a council of French bishops for November 1302, intended to reform Church matters in France â€” at Rome. Philip forbade Saisset or any of them to attend and forestalled Boniface by organizing a counter-assembly of his own, held in Paris in April 1302. Nobles, burgesses, and clergy met to denounce the Pope and pass around a crude forgery titled Deum Time ("Fear God"), which made out that Boniface claimed to be feudal overlord of France. The French clergy politely protested against Boniface's "unheard-of assertions". Boniface denied the document and its claims, but he reminded them that previous popes had deposed three French kings.

This was the atmosphere in which Unam sanctam was promulgated weeks later. Reading of the "two swords" in the Bull, one of Philip's ministers is alleged to have remarked, "My master's sword is steel; the Pope's is made of words." As Matthew Edward Harris writes, "The overall impression gained is that the papacy was described in increasingly exalted terms as the thirteenth century progressed, although this development was neither disjunctive nor uniform, and was often in response to conflict, such as against Frederick II and Philip the Fair."[10]

Most significantly, the bull proclaimed, "Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus": "outside of the Church, there is no salvation". It is a form of the concept known as plenitudo potestatis (plenitude of power); it declares that those who resist the Roman Pontiff are resisting God's ordination.[11] The bull declares that the Church must be united and the Pope was its sole and absolute head: "Therefore, of the one and only Church there is one body and one head, not two heads like a monster."[12]

The Bull also states, "We are informed by the texts of the gospels that in this Church and in its power are two swords; namely, the spiritual and the temporal."[12] The swords being referred to are a customary reference to the swords yielded by the Apostles upon Christ's arrest (Luke 22:38; Matthew 26:52).[2] Early theologians believed that if there are two swords, one must be subordinate to the other. This then became a spiritual hierarchal ladder, the spiritual judges the secular "on account of its greatness and sublimity,[2] while the lower spiritual power is judged by the higher spiritual power, etc.[11] Thus, it was concluded, the temporal authorities must submit to the spiritual authorities, not merely on matters concerning doctrine and morality: "For with truth as our witness, it belongs to spiritual power to establish the terrestrial power and to pass judgment if it has not been good." The bull ends, "Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff."[12]

In the bull, Boniface reiterates what popes since the time of Pope Gregory VII had been declaring.[13] Much of what is said can be taken from the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux, Hugh of Saint Victor, and Thomas Aquinas.[2] The bull also contains writing from the letters of Pope Innocent III, who mainly reasserted the spiritual power and the "plenitudo potestatis" of the papacy.[13] A voice heavily noticed in the bull is Giles of Rome, who some hold might have been the actual writer of the bull.[14][pageÂ needed] Giles, in On Ecclesiastical Power, voices the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff over the material world. His line of argument states that since the body is governed by the soul and the soul is governed by the ruler of the spiritual, the Roman Pontiff therefore is governor of both soul and body.

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia in the registers, on the margin of the text of the record, the last sentence is noted as its real definition: "Declaratio quod subesse Romano Pontifici est omni humanae creaturae de necessitate salutis";[2] thus this phrase, like some in canonic scripture, may have moved from an original position as a marginal gloss to an integral part of the text as it has been accepted. Some believe that this is the only dogmatic definition in the bull because the rest is based on differing "papal claims of the thirteenth century".[11]

Boniface's reputation for always trying to increase the papal power made it difficult to accept such an extreme declaration. His assertion over the temporal was seen as hollow and misguided and it's said[by whom?] the document was not seen as authoritative because the body of faith did not accept it.[11][page needed][13][page needed]

In response to the bull, Philip had the Dominican John of Paris issue a refutation. Pope Boniface reacted by excommunicating the king. Philip then called an assembly in which twenty-nine accusations against the pope were made, including infidelity, heresy, simony, gross and unnatural immorality, idolatry, magic, loss of the Holy Land, and the death of Pope Celestine V. Five archbishops and twenty-one bishops sided with the king.

Boniface VIII could only respond by denouncing the charges; but it was already too late for him. On 7 September 1303, the king's advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a band of two thousand mercenaries on horse and foot. They joined locals in an attack on the palaces of the pope and his nephew at the papal residence at Anagni, later referred to as the Outrage of Anagni. The Pope's attendants and his beloved nephew Francesco all soon fled; only the Spaniard Pedro Rodríguez, Cardinal of Santa Sabina, remained at his side to the end.

The palace was plundered and Boniface was nearly killed (Nogaret prevented his troops from murdering the pope). Boniface was subjected to harassment and held prisoner for three days during which no one brought him food or drink. Eventually the townsfolk, led by Cardinal Luca Fieschi, expelled the marauders. Boniface pardoned those who were captured. He was escorted back to Rome on 13 September 1303.[15]

Despite his stoicism, Boniface was shaken by the incident. He developed a violent fever and died on 11 October 1303. In A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous Fourteenth Century, Barbara W. Tuchman states that his close advisors would later maintain that he died of a "profound chagrin".

Boniface VIII's successor, Pope Benedict XI, reigned only nine months. He removed himself and the Roman Curia from the violence of Rome as soon as the Easter celebrations of 1304 were completed. But, on 7 June 1304, from Perugia, he excommunicated Guillaume de Nogaret, Reynald de Supino, his son Robert, Thomas de Morolo, Peter of Gennazano, his son Stephen, Adenulph and Nicolas, the sons of a certain Matteo, Geoffrey Bussy, Orlando and Pietro de Luparia of Anagni, Sciarra Colonna, John the son of Landolph, Gottifredus the son of John de Ceccano, Maximus de Trebes, and other leaders of the factions who had attacked Pope Boniface.[16][17] He died on 7 July 1304. The Conclave to pick his successor[18] was in deadlock for eleven months before deciding, under the intimidation of King Charles II of Naples, on Archbishop Bertrand de Got of Bordeaux, who took the name Pope Clement V.[19] To please Philip IV of France, Clement moved his residence to Avignon. From this point until around 1378, the Church, in an effort to keep tensions with France minimal, fell under the immense pressure of the French monarchy. Some theologians[clarification needed][who?] feel this stemmed from Boniface VIII's and Philip IV's battle against each other. Philip was said to have held a vendetta against the Holy See until his death.[13]

It was not just the French monarchy and clergy who disapproved of Boniface and his assertions. There were many texts circulating around Europe that attacked the bull and Boniface's bold claims for the power of the Papacy over the temporal. One of the more notable writers who opposed Boniface and his beliefs was the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, who expressed his need for another strong Holy Roman Emperor. His treatise De Monarchia attempted to refute the pope's claim that the spiritual sword had power over the temporal sword.[20] Dante pointed out that the Pope and Roman Emperor were both human, and no peer had power over another peer. Only a higher power could judge the two "equal swords", as each was given power by God to rule over their respected domains.


according to corax what are the three parts of a speech

Under the Deinomenids, the land and property of many common citizens had been seized; these people flooded the courts in an attempt to recover their property.  Corax devised an art of rhetoric to permit ordinary men to make their cases in the courts.  His chief contribution was in helping structure judicial speeches into various parts: proem, narration, statement of arguments, refutation of opposing arguments, and summary. This structure is the basis for all later rhetorical theory.  His pupil Tisias is said to have developed legal rhetoric further, and may have been the teacher of Isocrates.  As in the case of Socrates, all we know of the work of Corax is from references made by later writers, such as Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero.  He never wrote any of his teachings himself; they were all recorded and published by his pupil, Tisias.[4]

Corax of Syracuse

Corax (Greek: Κόραξ, Korax; fl. 5th century BC) was one of the founders (along with Tisias) of ancient Greek rhetoric.  Some scholars contend that both founders are merely legendary personages, others that Corax and Tisias were the same person, described in one fragment as "Tisias, the Crow" (corax is ancient Greek for "crow"). And according to Aristotle, Empedocles was the actual founder of rhetoric, but this is also unlikely.[1] It is believed that William Shakespeare derived the name Sycorax from Corax of Syracuse.[2] Corax is said to have lived in Sicily in the 5th century BC, when Thrasybulus, tyrant of Syracuse, was overthrown and a democracy formed.

Corax originated some of the basic principles and laid the groundwork for the Greek scholars to follow- particularly Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. They took these properties and applied them to other rhetorical uses, particularly in government. However, Corax developed these methods specifically for the law court, not the assembly.[3]

The famous but apocryphal story of how Tisias tried to cheat his teacher is passed down in the introductions to various rhetorical treatises.[5]  According to this tale, Tisias convinced Corax to waive his customary teacher's fee until Tisias won his first lawsuit; however, Tisias conspicuously avoided going to court.  Corax then sued Tisias for the fee, arguing that if Corax won the case, he would get his pay, but if Tisias won (his first lawsuit) he would then have to fulfill the terms of their original agreement.  Some versions of the tale end here.  Others attribute a counterargument to Tisias: that if he lost the case, he would escape paying under the terms of the original agreement (having not yet won a lawsuit), and if he won there would still be no penalty, since he would be awarded the money at issue.  At this point, the judge throws both of them out of court, remarking "κακοῦ κόρακος κακὸν ᾠόν" ("a bad egg from a bad crow").[6]

Corax is probably best known for developing the “reverse-probability argument," also known as the Art of Corax. If a person is accused of a crime which he is not likely to have committed (for example, a small man physically attacking a large man, against whom he is almost certainly doomed to fail), his defense will be that it is unlikely that the crime occurred. His argument draws on the lack of means of the accused. However, if a person is accused of a crime which he is likely to have committed (in the case of a larger man attacking a smaller man), he can also use the defense that it is unlikely that he did it, for the very reason that it appears too probable. This man draws on the lack of prospect of getting away unsuspected. It works by anticipating the audience’s expectations, and then combatting that expectation with a countermove. This pattern of anticipating and then contradicting an audience’s expectation has continued to be a typical move in reverse probability arguments to this day.[7]

Of course, another countermove of this same type can also be employed (it could be argued that the large man could have committed the crime precisely because he thought he would be too obvious a suspect), and then another, and then another. For this reason, the Art of Corax has been labeled a “logical paradox.” This method of argumentation has also been called quasi-logical: “it maintains that self-referential logic that is typical of the human mind even if it is circular.”[8]


when does sigma factor normally dissociate from rna polymerase

The core RNA polymerase (consisting of 2 alpha (α), 1 beta (β), 1 beta-prime (β'), and 1 omega (ω) subunits) binds a sigma factor to form a complex called the RNA polymerase holoenzyme. It was previously believed that the RNA polymerase holoenzyme initiates transcription, while the core RNA polymerase alone synthesizes RNA. Thus, the accepted view was that sigma factor must dissociate upon transition from transcription initiation to transcription elongation (this transition is called "promoter escape"). This view was based on analysis of purified complexes of RNA polymerase stalled at initiation and at elongation. Finally, structural models of RNA polymerase complexes predict that, as the growing RNA product becomes longer than ~15 nucleotides, sigma must be "pushed out" of the holoenzyme, since there is a steric clash between RNA and a sigma domain. However, a recent study has shown that σ70 can remain attached in complex with the core RNA polymerase, at least during early elongation.[5] Indeed, the phenomenon of promoter-proximal pausing indicates that sigma plays roles during early elongation. All studies are consistent with the assumption that promoter escape reduces the lifetime of the sigma-core interaction from very long at initiation (too long to be measured in a typical biochemical experiment) to a shorter, measurable lifetime upon transition to elongation.

Sigma factor

A sigma factor (Ïƒ factor) is a protein needed only for initiation of transcription.[1] It is a bacterial transcription initiation factor that enables specific binding of RNA polymerase to gene promoters. It is homologous to archaeal transcription factor B and to eukaryotic TFIIB.[2] The specific sigma factor used to initiate transcription of a given gene will vary, depending on the gene and on the environmental signals needed to initiate transcription of that gene. Selection of promoters by RNA polymerase is dependent on the sigma factor that associates with it.[3]

Every molecule of RNA polymerase holoenzyme contains exactly one sigma factor subunit, which in the model bacterium Escherichia coli is one of those listed below. The number of sigma factors varies between bacterial species.[1][4] E. coli has seven sigma factors. Sigma factors are distinguished by their characteristic molecular weights. For example, Ïƒ70 is the sigma factor with a molecular weight of 70 kDa.

RNA polymerase holoenzyme complex consisting of core RNA polymerase and a sigma factor executes transcription of a DNA template strand. Once initiation of RNA transcription is complete, the sigma factor can leave the complex.

Different sigma factors are utilized under different environmental conditions. These specialized sigma factors bind the promoters of genes appropriate to the environmental conditions, increasing the transcription of those genes.

Sigma factors in E. coli:

There are also anti-sigma factors that inhibit the function of sigma factors and anti-anti-sigma factors that restore sigma factor function.

Sigma factors have four main regions that are generally conserved:

The regions are further subdivided (e.g. 2 includes 2.1, 2.2, etc.)

One exception to this organization is in σ54-type sigma factors. Proteins homologous to σ54/RpoN are functional sigma factors, but they have significantly different primary amino acid sequences.

It long has been thought that the σ factor obligatorily leaves the core enzyme once it has initiated transcription, allowing the free σ to link to another core enzyme and initiate transcription at another site. Thus, the σ cycles from one core to another. However, Richard Ebright and coworkers, using fluorescence resonance energy transfer, later showed that the σ does not obligatorily leave the core.[5] Instead, the σ changes its binding with the core during initiation and elongation. Therefore, the σ cycles between a strongly bound state during initiation and a weakly bound state during elongation.


what form of measurement does the uk use

British law now defines each imperial unit in terms of the metric equivalent. The metric system is in official use within the United Kingdom for most official applications with Imperial units remaining in widespread use amongst the public.[36] All UK roads use the imperial system except for weight limits, and newer height or width restriction signs give metric alongside imperial.[37]

Imperial units

The system of imperial units or the imperial system (also known as British Imperial[1] or Exchequer Standards of 1825) is the system of units first defined in the British Weights and Measures Act of 1824, which was later refined and reduced. The Imperial units replaced the Winchester Standards, which were in effect from  1588 to 1825.[2] The system came into official use across the British Empire. By the late 20th century, most nations of the former empire had officially adopted the metric system as their main system of measurement, although some imperial units are still used in the United Kingdom, Canada and other countries formerly part of the British Empire. The imperial system developed from what were first known as English units, as did the related system of United States customary units.

The Weights and Measures Act of 1824 was initially scheduled to go into effect on 1 May 1825.[3] However, the Weights and Measures Act of 1825 pushed back the date to 1 January 1826.[4] The 1824 Act allowed the continued use of pre-imperial units provided that they were customary, widely known, and clearly marked with imperial equivalents.[3]

Apothecaries' units are mentioned neither in the act of 1824 nor 1825. At the time, apothecaries' weights and measures were regulated "in England, Wales, and Berwick-upon-Tweed" by the London College of Physicians, and in Ireland by the Dublin College of Physicians. In Scotland, apothecaries' units were unofficially regulated by the Edinburgh College of Physicians. The three colleges published, at infrequent intervals, pharmacopoeiae, the London and Dublin editions having the force of law.[5][6]

Imperial apothecaries' measures, based on the imperial pint of 20 fluid ounces, were introduced by the publication of the London Pharmacopoeia of 1836,[7][8] the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia of 1839,[9] and the Dublin Pharmacopoeia of 1850.[10] The Medical Act of 1858 transferred to The Crown the right to publish the official pharmacopoeia and to regulate apothecaries' weights and measures.[11]

Metric equivalents in this article usually assume the latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the imperial Standard Yard was 6999914398415000000â™ 0.914398415 metres.[12]

In 1824, the various different gallons in use in the British Empire were replaced by the imperial gallon, a unit close in volume to the ale gallon. It was originally defined as the volume of 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 inches of mercury (102 kPa) at a temperature of 62 °F (17 °C). In 1963, the gallon was redefined as the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water of density 7002998859000000000♠0.998859 g/mL weighed in air of density 7000121700000000000♠0.001217 g/mL against weights of density 7003813599999999999♠8.136 g/mL, which works out to 6997454609600000000♠4.546096 l or 6997454609601746720♠277.4198 cu in. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 switched to a gallon of exactly 6997454609000000000♠4.54609 L (approximately 6997454608946264160♠277.4194 cu in).[17]

These measurements were in use from 1826, when the new imperial gallon was defined, but were officially abolished in the United Kingdom on 1 January 1971.[19][20] In the USA, though no longer recommended, the apothecaries' system is still used occasionally in medicine, especially in prescriptions for older medications.[21][22]

In the 19th and 20th centuries, the UK used three different systems for mass and weight:[29]

The troy pound (6999373241721600000♠373.2417216 g) was made the primary unit of mass by the 1824 Act; however, its use was abolished in the UK on 1 January 1879,[30] with only the troy ounce (6998311034768000000♠31.1034768 g) and its decimal subdivisions retained.[31] The Weights and Measures Act 1855 (18 & 19 Victoria C72) made the avoirdupois pound the primary unit of mass.[32] In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the pound, and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.

Although the 1824 act defined the yard and pound by reference to the prototype standards, it also defined the values of certain physical constants, to make provision for re-creation of the standards if they were to be damaged. For the yard, the length of a pendulum beating seconds at the latitude of Greenwich at Mean Sea Level in vacuo was defined as 7001390139300000000♠39.01393 inches. For the pound, the mass of a cubic inch of distilled water at an atmospheric pressure of 30 inches of mercury and a temperature of 62° Fahrenheit was defined as 252.458 grains, with there being 7,000 grains per pound.[3]  However, following the destruction of the original prototypes in the 1834 Houses of Parliament fire, it proved impossible to recreate the standards from these definitions, and a new Weights and Measures Act (18 & 19 Victoria. Cap. 72) was passed in 1855 which permitted the recreation of the prototypes from recognized secondary standards.[32]

The imperial system is one of many systems of English units. Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other. The distinctions between these systems are often not drawn precisely.

One such distinction is that between these systems and older British/English units/systems or newer additions. The term imperial should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in the Weights and Measures Act 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions, such as the slug or poundal.

The US customary system is historically derived from the English units that were in use at the time of settlement. Because the United States was already independent at the time, these units were unaffected by the introduction of the imperial system.

Units of measurement regulations require all measuring devices used in trade or retail to display measurements in metric quantities. Almost all traders in the UK will accept requests from customers specified in imperial units, and scales which display in both unit systems are commonplace in the retail trade. Metric price signs may be accompanied by imperial price signs provided that the imperial signs are no larger and no more prominent than the metric ones.

The United Kingdom completed its official partial transition to the metric system in 1995, with some imperial units still legally mandated for certain applications such as draught beer and cider,[38] road-signs,[39] and therefore the speedometers on vehicles sold in the UK must be capable of displaying miles per hour. Even though the troy pound was outlawed in the UK in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the troy ounce may still be used for the weights of precious stones and metals. The original railways (many built in the Victorian era) are a big user of imperial units, with distances officially measured in miles and yards or miles and chains, and also feet and inches, and speeds are in miles per hour, although more recent systems are metric, and London Underground uses metric.[40]

Most British people still use imperial units in everyday life for distance (miles, yards, feet and inches) and volume in some cases (especially milk and beer in pints) but rarely for canned or bottled soft drinks or petrol.[36][41] Though use of kilograms is increasing, most British people also still use imperial units in everyday life for body weight (stones and pounds for adults, pounds and ounces for babies).[citation needed] Some government documents aimed at the public give body weight and height not only in metric units (kilograms centimetres) but also in imperial units (stones and pounds, feet and inches).[42] A survey in 2015 found that many people did not know their body weight or height in one system or the other.[43] People under the age of 40 preferred the metric system but people aged 40 and over preferred the imperial system. [44] The height of horses in some English-speaking countries, including Australia,[1] Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States is usually measured in hands, standardized to 4 inches (101.6 mm). Fuel consumption for vehicles is commonly stated in miles per gallon, though official figures always include litres per 100 km equivalents. When sold draught in licensed premises, beer and cider must be sold in pints and half-pints. Cow's milk is available in both litre- and pint-based containers in supermarkets and shops. Areas of land associated with farming, forestry and real estate are commonly advertised in acres and square feet, but for official government purposes the units are always hectares and square metres.

Office space and industrial units are usually advertised in square feet. Steel pipe sizes are sold in increments of inches, while copper pipe is sold in increments of millimetres. Road bicycles have their frames measured in centimetres, while off-road bicycles have their frames measured in inches. The size (diagonal) of television and computer monitor screens is always denominated in inches. Food sold by length or width e.g. pizzas or sandwiches, is generally sold in inches. Clothing is always sized in inches, with the metric equivalent often shown as a small supplementary indicator. Gas is usually measured by the cubic foot or cubic metre, but is billed like electricity by the kilowatt hour.[45]

Some pre-packaged products show both metric and imperial measures and it is also common to see imperial pack sizes with metric only labels e.g. a 1 lb (i.e., 454 g) tin of Lyle's Golden Syrup is always labelled 454 g with no imperial indicator. Similarly most jars of jam and packs of sausages are labelled 454 g with no imperial indicator.

India's conversion to the metric system from the imperial system occurred in stages between 1955 and 1962. The metric system in weights and measures was adopted by the Indian Parliament in December 1956 with the Standards of Weights and Measures Act, which took effect beginning 1 October 1958. The Indian Coinage Act was passed in 1955 by the Government of India to introduce decimal coinage in the country. The new system of coins became legal tender on April 1957, where the rupee consists of 100 paise. For the next five years, both the previous and new systems were legal. In April 1962, all other systems were banned. This process of metrication is called "big-bang" route, which is to simultaneously outlaw the use of pre-metric measurement, metricise, reissue all government publications and laws, and change education systems to metric.[46]

Today all official measurements are made in the metric system. However, in common usage some older Indians may still refer to imperial units. Some measurements, such as the heights of mountains, are still recorded in feet. Additionally, the Indian numbering system of crores and lacs is used alongside otherwise metricated currency units, while tyre rim diameters are still measured in inches, as used worldwide.  Road widths are popularly measured in feet but official documents use metres. Body temperature is still sometimes measured in degrees Fahrenheit. Industries like the construction and the real estate industry still use both the metric and the imperial system though it is more common for sizes of homes to be given in square feet and land in acres. Bulk cotton is sold by the candy (0.35 imperial tons, or 355.62 kg) or the bale (170 kg).[46][47]

In Standard Indian English, as in Australian, Singaporean, and British English, metric units such as the litre (liter), metre (meter), and metric tonne (ton) utilise the traditional spellings brought over from French, which differ from those used in the United States and the Philippines. The imperial long ton is invariably spelt with one 'n'. (See English in the Commonwealth of Nations for more information).[47]

Hong Kong has three main systems of units of measurement in current use:

In 1976 the Hong Kong Government started the conversion to the metric system, and as of 2012 measurements for government purposes, such as road signs, are almost always in metric units. However, all three systems are officially permitted for trade,[48] and in the wider society a mixture of all three systems prevails.

The Chinese system's most commonly used units for length are 里 (li), 丈 (tseung/cheung), 尺 (tsek/chek), 寸 (tsun/chun), 分 (fen/fan) in descending scale order. These units are now rarely used in daily life, the imperial and metric systems being preferred. The imperial equivalents are written with the same basic Chinese characters as the Chinese system. In order to distinguish between the units of the two systems, the units can be prefixed with "Ying" (Chinese: 英) for the Imperial system and "Wa" (Chinese: 華) for the Chinese system. In writing, derived characters are often used, with an additional 口 (mouth) radical to the left of the original Chinese character, for writing imperial units. The most commonly used units are the mile or "li" (Chinese: 哩), the yard or "ma" (Chinese: 碼), the foot or "chek" (Chinese: 呎), and the inch or "tsun" (Chinese: 吋).

The traditional measure of flat area is the square foot (Chinese: 方呎, 平方呎) of the imperial system, which is still in common use for real estate purposes. The measurement of agricultural plots and fields, however, is traditionally conducted in 畝 (mau) of the Chinese system.

For the measurement of volume, Hong Kong officially uses the metric system, though the gallon (加侖, ka-lun) is also occasionally used.

During the 1970s, the metric system and SI units were introduced in Canada to replace the imperial system. Within the government, efforts to implement the metric system were extensive; almost any agency, institution, or function provided by the government uses SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately owned signs, such as the height warnings at the entrance of a parkade. In the 1980s, momentum to fully convert to the metric system stalled when the government of Brian Mulroney was elected. There was heavy opposition to metrication and as a compromise the government maintains legal definitions for and allows use of imperial units as long as metric units are shown as well.[49][50][51]
The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although an imperial price can be shown if a metric price is present.[52][53] However, there tends to be leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables being priced in imperial units only.
Environment Canada still offers an imperial unit option beside metric units, even though weather is typically measured and reported in metric units in the Canadian media. However, some radio stations near the United States border (such as CIMX and CIDR) primarily use imperial units to report the weather. Railways in Canada also continue to use Imperial units.

Imperial units are still used in ordinary conversation. Today, Canadians typically use a mix of metric and imperial measurements in their daily lives. However, the use of the metric and imperial systems varies by age. The older generation mostly uses the imperial system, while the younger generation more often uses the metric system. Newborns are measured in SI at hospitals, but the birth weight and length is also announced to family and friends in imperial units. Drivers' licences use SI units. In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Imperial units still dominate in recipes, construction, house renovation and gardening.[54][55][56][57][58] Land is now surveyed and registered in metric units, although initial surveys used imperial units. For example, partitioning of farm land on the prairies in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was done in imperial units; this accounts for imperial units of distance and area retaining wide use in the Prairie Provinces. The size of most apartments, condominiums and houses continues to be described in square feet rather than square metres, and carpet or flooring tile is purchased by the square foot. Motor-vehicle fuel consumption is reported in both litres per 100Â km and statute miles per imperial gallon,[59] leading to the erroneous impression that Canadian vehicles are 20% more fuel-efficient than their apparently identical American counterparts for which fuel economy is reported in statute miles per US gallon (neither country specifies which gallon is used). Canadian railways maintain exclusive use of imperial measurements to describe train length (feet), train height (feet), capacity (tons), speed (mph), and trackage (miles).[60]

Imperial units also retain common use in firearms and ammunition. Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even when the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g.,.204 Ruger,.17 HMR, where the calibre is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). However, ammunition that is already classified in metric is still kept metric (e.g., 9×19mm). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are expressed in terms of grains for both metric and imperial cartridges.

As in most of the western world, air navigation is based on nautical units, e.g., the nautical mile, which is neither imperial nor metric, though altitude is still measured in imperial feet[61] in keeping with the international standard.

Metrication in Australia has largely ended the use of imperial units, though for particular measurements (such as flight altitudes[citation needed] and nominal sizes of computer and television screens) international use of imperial units is still followed.  In licensed venues, draught beer and cider is sold in glasses and jugs with sizes based on the imperial fluid ounce though rounded to the nearest 5Â mL.

Although New Zealand completed metrication in the 1970s, a study of university students undertaken in 1992 found a continued use of imperial units for birth weight and human height alongside metric units.[62]

The aviation industry is one of the last major users of the imperial system:  Altitude and airport elevation are measured in feet. Navigation is done in nautical miles (a unit accepted for use with the SI[63]); all other aspects (fuel quantity, aircraft weight, runway length, etc.) use metric.

LCD screen size found in Televisions and Computer Monitors, and rim size in automotive applications are also sold in inches, as is convention with the rest of the world.

Ireland has officially changed over to the metric system since entering the European Union, with distances on new road signs being metric since 1997 and speed limits being metric since 2005. The imperial system remains in limited use – for sales of beer in pubs (traditionally sold by the pint). All other goods are required by law to be sold in metric units, although old quantities are retained for some goods like butter and sausages, which are sold in 454-gram (1 lb) packaging. The majority of cars sold pre-2005 feature speedometers with miles per hour as the primary unit, but with a kilometres per hour display as well.

Some imperial measurements remain in limited use in Malaysia, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and South Africa. Measurements in feet and inches, especially for a person's height, are frequently encountered in conversation and non-governmental publications.

Prior to metrication, it was a common practice in Malaysia for people to refer to unnamed locations and small settlements along major roads by referring to how many miles the said locations were located from the nearest major town. In some cases, these eventually became the official names of the locations; in other cases, such names have been largely or completely superseded by new names. An example of the former is Batu 32 (literally "Mile 32" in Malay), which refers to the area surrounding the intersection between Federal Route 22 (the Tamparuli-Sandakan highway) and Federal Route 13 (the Sandakan-Tawau highway). The area is so named because it is 32 miles west of Sandakan, the nearest major town.

Petrol is still sold by the imperial gallon in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Myanmar, the Cayman Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, St Kitts and Nevis and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. The United Arab Emirates Cabinet in 2009 issued the Decree No. (270 / 3) specifying that, from 1 January 2010, the new unit sale price for petrol will be the litre and not the gallon. This in line with the UAE Cabinet Decision No. 31 of 2006 on the national system of measurement, which mandates the use of International System of units as a basis for the legal units of measurement in the country.[64][65] Sierra Leone switched to selling fuel by the litre in May 2011.[66]

In October 2011, the Antigua and Barbuda government announced the re-launch of the Metrication Programme in accordance with the Metrology Act 2007, which established the International System of Units as the legal system of units. The Antigua and Barbuda government has committed to a full conversion from the imperial system by the first quarter of 2015.[67]


when did general choi hong hi founded taekwondo

Choi combined elements of Taekkyeon and Karate to develop a martial art that he called "Taekwon-Do" (태권도; 跆拳道), which means "foot, fist, art" or "the way of hand and foot" and it was so named on 11 April 1955.[8][11] Choi founded the Oh Do Kwan, and held an honorary 4th dan ranking in the Chung Do Kwan. Due to accusations of dishonesty, Choi was stripped of his rank and position in the Chung Do Kwan.[7] During the 1960s, Choi and Nam Tae Hi led the original masters of taekwondo in promoting their martial art around the world, though these would be only the first of many such endeavors.[citation needed]

Choi Hong Hi

General Choi Hong Hi (9 November 1918 – 15 June 2002) was a South Korean Army general and martial artist who is a controversial figure in the history of the Korean martial art of taekwondo.[a] Choi is regarded by many as the "Founder of Taekwondo"—most often by International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF) organizations.[1][2][3][4][5] Others, such as the South Korean World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) organization, portray Choi as either an unimportant or a dishonorable figure in taekwondo history, whether by omitting him from their versions of taekwondo history[6] or through explicit statements.[7]

Choi was born on 9 November 1918 in Hwa Dae, Myŏngch'ŏn county, in what is now North Korea, which was then under Japanese rule.[8] At the time, the place was named Meigawa-gun (Myongchon-kun), Kankyo-hokudo (Hamgyong-Pukto), Chosen, as part of the Empire of Japan. Choi's father sent him to study calligraphy under Han Il Dong, who was also "a master of Taek Kyon, the ancient Korean art of foot fighting" (Park, 1993, p. 241).[8] Choi travelled to Japan, where he studied English, mathematics, and karate.[8][9] In Kyoto, he met a fellow Korean with the surname Kim, who was a karate instructor and taught Choi this martial art.[8] Choi also learned Shotokan karate under Funakoshi Gichin.[10] Just before he had left Korea, Choi apparently had a disagreement with a wrestler named Hu, and the possibility of a future confrontation inspired him to train; in his own words, "I would imagine that these were the techniques I would use to defend myself against the wrestler, Mr. Hu, if he did attempt to carry out his promise to tear me limb from limb when I eventually returned to Korea" (Park, 1993, p. 242).[8] Choi attained the rank of 1st dan in karate in 1939, and then 2nd dan soon after.[8][b]

Choi had been forced to serve in the Japanese army during World War II, but was implicated in a rebellion and imprisoned, during which time he continued practicing martial arts.[8] Following the war, in January 1946, Choi was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Korean army.[8] From 1946 to 1951, Choi received promotions to first lieutenant, captain, major, lieutenant colonel, colonel, and then brigadier general.[8] Choi was promoted to major general in 1954.[citation needed]

ITF taekwondo organizations credit Choi with starting the spread of taekwondo internationally by stationing Korean taekwondo instructors around the world,[8] and have consistently claimed that ITF-style taekwondo is the only authentic style of taekwondo, most notably in early sections of its textbooks.[12] He was also the author of the first English taekwondo syllabus book, Taekwon-Do, published by Daeha Publication Company in 1965. In 1972, Choi went into exile in Canada after the South Korean government objected to his introduction of the sport into North Korea, and the South Korea government formed the WTF in 1973.[9] He moved again in 1979 to North Korea where he was welcomed by the government and supported in his project of spreading Taekwondo to the world.[13] He was remembered as the founder and champion of taekwondo.[citation needed]

Choi died of cancer on 15 June 2002 in Pyongyang, North Korea. Choi is listed in the Taekwondo Hall of Fame with various titles: "Father of Taekwon-Do," "Founder and First President of the International Taekwon-Do Federation," and "Founder of Oh Do Kwan."[14] Choi is survived by his wife, Choi Joon Hee; his son, Choi Jung Hwa; two daughters, Sunny and Meeyun; and several grandchildren.[9]


a primary purpose of the international conference on harmonisation (ich) is to

The purpose of ICH is to reduce or eliminate the need to duplicate the testing carried out during the research and development of new medicines by recommending ways to achieve greater harmonisation in the interpretation and application of technical guidelines and requirements for product registration. Harmonisation would lead to a more economical use of human, non-human animal and material resources, and the elimination of unnecessary delay in the global development and availability of new medicines while maintaining safeguards on quality, safety, and efficacy, and regulatory obligations to protect public health.

The International Council for Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) is a project that brings together the regulatory authorities of Europe, Japan and the United States and experts from the pharmaceutical industry in the three regions to discuss scientific and technical aspects of pharmaceutical product registration.

ICH guidelines have been adopted as law in several countries, but are only used as guidance for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.[1]

In the 1980s, what is today the European Union began harmonising regulatory requirements. In 1989, Europe, Japan, and the United States began creating plans for harmonisation; International Council of Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) was created in April 1990 at a meeting in Brussels.

In 2015, International Conference on Harmonisation changed its name to the International Council for Harmonisation while becoming a legal entity in Switzerland.[2][3] On 23 October 2015 ICH conducted the initial meeting of their new assembly.[3]

The ICH has four major parts:[4]

The Steering Committee, made of six ICH Parties, governs the ICH, determining the policies and procedures, selecting topics for harmonisation and monitoring progress of harmonisation initiatives. The ICH consists of:

The ICH Coordinators represents each ICH Party to the ICH Secretariat on a day-to-day basis.

The ICH Secretariat is primarily concerned with preparations for, and documentation of, meetings of the Steering Committee as well as coordination of preparations for Working Group (EWG (Expert Working Group), IWG (Implementation Working Group), Informal WG) and Discussion Group meetings.

The ICH Working Groups are created by the Steering Committee when a new topic is accepted for harmonisation, and is charged with developing a harmonised guideline that meets the objectives outlined in the Concept Paper and Business Plan.

Face-to-face meetings of the EWG will normally only take place during the biannual SC meetings. Interim reports are made at each meeting of the SC.

If consensus is reached the EWG will sign the Step 2 Experts Signoff sheet and submit it to the SC to request adoption. If there is no agreement in the EWG within the time frame the SC may extend the time frame, suspend or abandon the harmonization project.

Step 2 is reached when the SC agrees, based on the report of the EWG, that there is sufficient scientific consensus on the technical issues for the draft guideline. This text is signed off by the SC as Step 2 Final Document.

The draft becomes subject of consultation in the three regions. It is published in the European Union (as draft CHMP or CVMP guideline), Japan (after translation by MHLW), and the USA (as draft guideline in the Federal Register) and everybody within these regions can comment on it. There is also an opportunity for companies, associations and authorities in non-ICH regions to comment on the draft, which is distributed by IFPMA and WHO. After obtaining all consultation results, the EWG will be resumed. A new rapporteur will be appointed from the regulatory party, preferably from the same region as the previous rapporteur. The same procedure described in Step 1 is used to address the consultation results into the Step 2 Final Document. The draft document to be generated as a result of the Step 3 phase is called Step 4 Experts Document.

If industry and regulatory EWG members agree on the alterations as a result of the consultation, the Step 4 Experts Document is signed by the EWG regulatory experts only (Step 4 Experts Signoff) and submitted to the SC to request adoption as Step 4 of the ICH process.

Step 4 is reached when the SC agrees that there is sufficient scientific consensus on the technical issues. If one industry party has strong objections to the adoption of the guideline due to deviations of the revised draft from the original consensus the regulatory parties may agree that a revised document should be submitted for further consultation. In this case, the EWG discussion may be resumed.

The Step 4 Final Document is signed off by the SC signatories for the regulatory parties of ICH as an ICH Harmonised Tripartite Guideline.

The ICH Harmonised Tripartite Guideline moves immediately to the final step of the process that is the regulatory implementation. This step is carried out according to the same national/regional procedures that apply to other regional regulatory guidelines and requirements, in the European Union, Japan, and the United States.

Information on the regulatory action taken and implementation dates are reported back to the SC and published by the ICH Secretariat on the ICH website and in the annual press statement.


what is the value of standard pressure in torr

The torr (symbol: Torr) is a unit of pressure based on an absolute scale, now defined as exactly 1/760 of a standard atmosphere. Thus one torr is exactly 7005101325000000000♠101325/760 pascals (≈ 133.32 Pa).

Torr

Historically, one torr was intended to be the same as one "millimeter of mercury". However, subsequent redefinitions of the two units made them slightly different (by less than 6993150000000000000♠0.000015%). The torr is not part of the International System of Units (SI), but it is often combined with the metric prefix milli to name one millitorr (mTorr) or 0.001 Torr.

The unit was named after Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian physicist and mathematician who discovered the principle of the barometer in 1644.[1]

The unit's name torr is written in lower case, while its symbol ("Torr") is always written with upper-case initial; including in combinations with prefixes and other unit symbols, as in "mTorr" (millitorr) or "TorrÂ·L/s" (torr-litres per second).[2] The symbol (uppercase) should be used with prefix symbols (thus, mTorr and millitorr are correct, but mtorr and milliTorr are not).

The torr is sometimes incorrectly denoted by the symbol "T", which is the SI symbol for the tesla, the unit measuring the strength of a magnetic field. The misspelled symbol "Tor" is also encountered, and is incorrect.

Torricelli attracted considerable attention when he demonstrated the first mercury barometer to the general public. He is credited with giving the first modern explanation of atmospheric pressure. Scientists at the time were familiar with small fluctuations in height that occurred in barometers. When these fluctuations were explained as a manifestation of changes in atmospheric pressure, the science of meteorology was born.

Over time, 760 millimeters of mercury at 0 °C came to be regarded as the standard atmospheric pressure. In honour of Torricelli, the torr was defined as a unit of pressure equal to one millimeter of mercury at 0 °C. However, since the acceleration due to gravity—and thus the weight of a column of mercury—is a function of elevation and latitude (due to the rotation of the Earth), this definition is imprecise and varies by location.

In 1954, the definition of the atmosphere was revised by the 10e Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (10th CGPM)[3] to the currently accepted definition: one atmosphere is equal to 7005101325000000000♠101325 pascals. The torr was then redefined as 1/760 of one atmosphere. This yields a precise definition that is unambiguous and independent of measurements of the density of mercury or the acceleration due to gravity on Earth.

Manometric units are units such as millimeters of mercury or centimeters of water that depend on an assumed density of a fluid and an assumed acceleration due to gravity. The use of these units is discouraged.[4] Nevertheless, manometric units are routinely used in medicine and physiology, and they continue to be used in areas as diverse as weather reporting and scuba diving.

The millimeter of mercury by definition is 7002133322387415000♠133.322387415 Pa[citation needed] (7004135951000000000♠13.5951 g/cm3 × 7000980665000000000♠9.80665 m/s2 × 6997100000000000000♠1 mm), which is approximated with known accuracies of density of mercury and standard gravity.

The torr is defined as 1/760 of one standard atmosphere, while the atmosphere is defined as 7005101325000000000♠101325 pascals. Therefore, 1 Torr is equal to 7005101325000000000♠101325/760 Pa. The decimal form of this fraction (133.322(368421052631578947)...) is an infinitely long, periodically repeating decimal (repetend length: 18).

The relationship between the torr and the millimeter of mercury is:

The difference between one millimeter of mercury and one torr, as well as between one atmosphere (101.325 kPa) and 760 mmHg (7005101325014435400♠101.3250144354 kPa), is less than one part in seven million (or less than 6993150000000000000♠0.000015%). This small difference is negligible for most applications outside metrology.

Other units of pressure include:

These four pressure units are used in different settings. For example, the bar is used in meteorology to report atmospheric pressures.[5] The torr is used in high-vacuum physics and engineering.[6][7]

≡ 106 dyn/cm2

≈ 1 mmHg


what is pressed to death in the salem witch trials

According to the law at the time, a person who refused to plead could not be tried. To avoid persons cheating justice, the legal remedy for refusing to plead was "peine forte et dure". In this process the prisoner is stripped naked, with a heavy board laid on his body. Then rocks or boulders are laid on the plank of wood. This was the process of being pressed:[10]

Giles Corey

Giles Corey (c. September 11, 1611 – September 19, 1692) was accused of witchcraft along with his wife Martha Corey during the Salem witch trials. After being arrested, Corey refused to enter a plea of guilty or not guilty. He was subjected to execution by pressing in an effort to force him to plead—the only example of such a sanction in American history—but instead died after three days of torture.

Corey is believed to have died in the field adjacent to the prison that had held him, in what later became the Howard Street Cemetery in Salem, which opened in 1801. His exact grave location in the cemetery is unmarked and unknown. There is a memorial plaque to him in the nearby Charter Street Cemetery.

Giles Corey was born in Northampton, England, sometime before 16 August 1611, the date on which he was baptized in the church of the Holy Sepulchre. Giles was the son of Giles and Elizabeth Corey. His birth is recorded in the parish records.[1] His name is quite often spelled "Corey", but the baptismal record is "Cory." It is not certain when exactly he arrived in the Americas, but there is evidence he was living in Salem in 1640.[2] He originally lived in Salem Town, but later moved to nearby Salem Village to work as a farmer. There are quite a few entries in the court documents as to his behavior, which was not completely good, but in those times, any accusation was an offense against the state.[3]

Giles Corey was a prosperous land-owning farmer in Salem and married three times.[4] He is believed to have married his first wife, Margaret, in England.[5] Margaret was the mother of his daughter, Deliverance.[1] His second wife was Mary Bright; they were married on April 11, 1664, when Corey was 43 years old.[6]

In 1676, at the age of 65, Corey was brought to trial in Essex County, Massachusetts for allegedly beating to death one of his indentured farm workers, Jacob Goodale, son of Robert Goodale and Catherine Kilham Goodale from Dennington, Suffolk, England. According to witnesses, Corey had severely beaten Goodale with a stick after he was allegedly caught stealing apples from Corey's brother-in-law, and though Corey eventually sent him to receive medical attention 10 days later, Goodale died shortly thereafter. "Jacob was employed by Giles Corey, and in a quarrel with the latter was so badly beaten that he died, according to a coroner's jury, of blood clots about the heart caused by the blows. Corey was fined for the offense. Longfellow, in New England Tragedies, takes advantage of poetic license to substitute Robert' in his account" (Bowen: "Goodell Memorial Tablets"). Since corporal punishment was permitted against indentured servants, Corey was exempt from the charge of murder, and instead charged with using "unreasonable" force. Numerous witnesses and eyewitnesses testified against Corey, as well as the local coroner, and he was found guilty and fined.[7]

Mary Bright died at age 63 on August 27, 1684, according to her gravestone in Salem. Corey later married his third wife, a woman referred to as "Lady Martha Perkins". Martha was admitted to the church at Salem Village (now Danvers), where Giles had lived.

At the time of the witch trials, Corey was 80 years old and living with Martha in the southwest corner of Salem Village, in what is now Peabody.[8] Martha had a son from a previous marriage named Thomas; he showed up as a petitioner for loss and damages resulting from his mother being hanged illegally during the witch trials. He was awarded Â£50 on June 29, 1723.

Giles Corey was arrested on April 18, 1692, along with Mary Warren, Abigail Hobbs and Bridget Bishop. The following day, they were examined by the authorities, during which Abigail Hobbs confessed to Giles being a warlock.

Corey refused to plead (guilty or not guilty), was sentenced to prison, and subsequently arraigned at the September sitting of the court.

The records of the Court of Oyer and Terminer, September 9, 1692, contain a deposition by one of the girls who accused Giles of witchcraft..

Mercy Lewis v. Giles Corey: The Deposition of Mercy Lewis aged about 19 years who testified and said that on the 14th of April 1692 "I saw the Apparition of Giles Corey come and afflict me urging me to write in his book and so he continued most dreadfully to hurt me by times beating me & almost breaking my back tell the day of his examination being the 19th of April and then also during the time of his examination he did affect and tortor me most greviously: and also several times sense urging me vehemently to write in his book and I veryly believe in my heart that Giles Corey is a dreadful wizard for sense he had been in prison he or his appearance has come and most greviously tormented me." Mercy Lewis affirmed to the jury of Inquest. that the above written evidence: is the truth upon the oath: she has formerly taken in court of Oyer & Terminer: Septr 9: 1692

(property of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, Division of Archives and Records Preservation, on deposit at the Essex Institute)

Again, in this court, Corey refused to plead.[9]

...remanded to the prison from whence he came and put into a low dark chamber, and there be laid on his back on the bare floor, naked, unless when decency forbids; that there be placed upon his body as great a weight as he could bear, and more, that he hath no sustenance, save only on the first day, three morsels of the worst bread, and the second day three draughts of standing water, that should be alternately his daily diet till he died, or, till he answered.

As a result of his refusal to plead, on September 17, Sheriff George Corwin led Corey to a pit in the open field beside the jail and in accordance with the above process, before the Court and witnesses, stripped Giles of his clothing, laid him on the ground in the pit, and placed boards on his chest. Six men then lifted heavy stones, placing them one by one, on his stomach and chest. Giles Corey did not cry out, let alone make a plea.

After two days, Giles was asked three times to plead innocent or guilty to witchcraft. Each time he replied, "More weight." More and more rocks were piled on him, and the Sheriff from time to time would stand on the boulders staring down at Corey's bulging eyes. Robert Calef, who was a witness along with other townsfolk, later said, "In the pressing, Giles Corey's tongue was pressed out of his mouth; the Sheriff, with his cane, forced it in again."[11]

Three mouthfuls of bread and water were fed to the old man during his many hours of pain. Finally, Giles Corey cried out "More weight!" and died. Supposedly, just before his death, he cursed Sheriff Corwin and the entire town of Salem.[12] He was 81.

Samuel Sewall's diary states, under date of Monday, September 19, 1692:

About noon at Salem, Giles Cory  [sic] was pressed to death for standing mute; much pains was used with him two days, one after another, by the court and Captain Gardner of Nantucket who had been of his acquaintance, but all in vain.[13]

It is unusual for people to refuse to plead, and extremely rare to find reports of persons who have been able to endure this painful form of death in silence. Since Corey refused to plead, he died in full possession of his estate, which would otherwise have been forfeited to the government.[14] It passed on to his two sons-in-law, in accordance to his will.[15]

The pressing of Giles Corey is unique in New England. It is similar to the case, in England, of Margaret Clitherow, who was arrested on March 10, 1586 for the crime of harboring priests, hearing Mass, and secretly being of the Catholic faith.[16]

According to a local legend, the apparition of Giles Corey appears and walks his graveyard each time a disaster is about to strike the city. Notably, he was said to have appeared the night before the Great Salem Fire of 1914.[17] The position of Sheriff of Essex County was also said to have suffered from the "curse of Giles Corey", as the holders of that office since George Corwin had either died or resigned as a result of heart or blood ailments (Corwin himself died of a heart attack in 1696). The curse was said to have been broken when the Sheriff's office was moved from Salem to Middleton in 1991.[12][17]

Giles Corey is the subject of a Henry Wadsworth Longfellow play entitled Giles Corey of the Salem Farms and an 1893 play Giles Corey, Yeoman by Mary Eleanor Wilkins Freeman.

Corey is a character in Arthur Miller's play The Crucible (1953), in which he is portrayed as a hot-tempered but honorable man, giving evidence critical to the witch trials. His wife Martha (executed on September 22, 1692) was one of the 19 people hanged during the hysteria on Proctor's Ledge. In The Crucible, Giles feels guilty about the accusation of his wife because he had told a minister that Martha had been reading strange books, which was discouraged in that society. Corey also appears in Robert Ward's operatic treatment of the play, in which his role is assigned to a tenor. A movie of the same name was released in 1996, featuring Corey's character.

British alternative and post-rock band I Like Trains wrote a song entitled "More Weight" about the execution of Corey.

American recording artist Dan Barrett has released solo material using the stage name Giles Corey.

American metalcore band Unearth wrote a song titled "Giles", which is about Corey's execution. Swedish progressive metal band Evergrey also wrote a song about Giles Corey and the aforementioned curse that followed, titled "The Corey Curse" and released it on their 1999's album Solitude, Dominance, Tragedy.

Actor Kevin Tighe portrayed Giles Corey in the pilot episode of the WGN television series Salem, in which he is executed in a more-or-less historically accurate manner.

In chapter 3 of Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, Corey is portrayed as an actual warlock who became a martyr and hero to his people when he died.