what is the lowest note on a trombone

The higher in the harmonic series any two successive notes are, the closer they tend to be (as evidenced by the progressively smaller intervals noted above). A byproduct of this is the relatively few motions needed to move between notes in the higher ranges of the trombone. In the lower range, significant movement of the slide is required between positions, which becomes more exaggerated on lower pitched trombones, but for higher notes the player need only use the first four positions of the slide since the partials are closer together, allowing higher notes in alternate positions. As an example, F4 (at the bottom of the treble clef) may be played in first, fourth or sixth position on a B♭ trombone. The note E1 (or the lowest E on a standard 88-key piano keyboard) is the lowest attainable note on a 9-foot (2.7 m) B♭ tenor trombone, requiring a full 7 feet 4 inches (2.24 m) of tubing. On trombones without an F attachment, there is a gap between B♭1 (the fundamental in first position) and E2 (the first harmonic in seventh position). Skilled players can produce "falset" notes between these, but the sound is relatively weak and not usually used in performance. The addition of an F attachment allows for intermediate notes to be played with more clarity.

Trombone

The trombone is a musical instrument in the brass family. Like all brass instruments, sound is produced when the player's vibrating lips (embouchure) cause the air column inside the instrument to vibrate. Nearly all trombones have a telescoping slide mechanism that varies the length of the instrument to change the pitch. Many modern trombone models also utilize a rotary valve as a means to lower pitch of the instrument. Variants such as the valve trombone and superbone have three valves like those on the trumpet.

The word trombone derives from Italian tromba (trumpet) and -one (a suffix meaning "large"), so the name means "large trumpet". The trombone has a predominantly cylindrical bore like its valved counterpart the baritone and in contrast to its conical valved counterparts, the euphonium and the horn. The most frequently encountered trombones are the tenor trombone and bass trombone. The most common variant, the tenor, is a non-transposing instrument pitched in B♭, an octave below the B♭ trumpet and an octave above the B♭ tuba. The once common E♭ alto trombone became less widely used as improvements in technique extended the upper range of the tenor, but it is now enjoying a resurgence due to its lighter sonority which is appreciated in many classical and early romantic works. Trombone music, along with music for euphonium and tuba, is typically written in concert pitch in either bass or tenor clef, although exceptions do occur, notably in British brass-band music where tenor trombone is presented as a B♭ transposing instrument, written in treble clef.

A person who plays the trombone is called a trombonist or trombone player.

The trombone is a predominantly cylindrical tube bent into an elongated "S" shape. Rather than being completely cylindrical from end to end, the tube is a complex series of tapers with the smallest at the mouthpiece receiver and the largest just before the bell flare. The design of these tapers affects the intonation of the instrument. As with other brass instruments, sound is produced by blowing air through pursed lips producing a vibration that creates a standing wave in the instrument.

The detachable cup-shaped mouthpiece is similar to that of the baritone horn and closely related to that of the trumpet. It has the venturi: a small constriction of the air column that adds resistance greatly affecting the tone of the instrument, and is inserted into the mouthpiece receiver in the slide section. The slide section consists of a leadpipe, the inner and outer slide tubes, and the bracing, or stays. Modern stays are soldered, while sackbuts (medieval precursors to trombones) were made with loose, unsoldered stays (this remained the pattern for German trombones until the mid-20th century).

The'slide', the most distinctive feature of the trombone (cf. valve trombone), allows the player to extend the length of the air column, lowering the pitch. To prevent friction from slowing the action of the slide, additional sleeves were developed during the Renaissance, and these stockings were soldered onto the ends of the inner slide tubes. Nowadays, the stockings are incorporated into the manufacturing process of the inner slide tubes and represent a fractional widening of the tube to accommodate the necessary method of alleviating friction. This part of the slide must be lubricated frequently. Additional tubing connects the slide to the bell of the instrument through a neckpipe, and bell or back bow (U-bend). The joint connecting the slide and bell sections is furnished with a ferrule to secure the connection of the two parts of the instrument, though older models from the early 20th century and before were usually equipped with friction joints and no ancillary mechanism to tighten the joint.

The adjustment of intonation is most often accomplished with a tuning slide that is a short slide between the neckpipe and the bell incorporating the bell bow (U-bend); this device was designed by the French maker FranÃ§ois Riedlocker during the early 19th century and applied to French and British designs and later in the century to German and American models, though German trombones were built without tuning slides well into the 20th century. However, trombonists, unlike other instrumentalists, are not subject to the intonation issues resulting from valved or keyed instruments, since they can adjust intonation "on the fly" by subtly altering slide positions when necessary. For example, second position "A" is not in exactly the same place on the slide as second position "E". Many types of trombone also include one or more rotary valves used to increase the length of the instrument (and therefore lower its pitch) by directing the air flow through additional tubing. This allows the instrument to reach notes that are otherwise not possible without the valve as well as play other notes in alternate positions.

Like the trumpet, the trombone is considered a cylindrical bore instrument since it has extensive sections of tubing, principally in the slide section, that are of unchanging diameter. Tenor trombones typically have a bore of 0.450 inches (11.4 mm) (small bore) to 0.547 inches (13.9 mm) (large or orchestral bore) after the leadpipe and through the slide. The bore expands through the backbore to the bell, which is typically between 7 and 8 1⁄2 inches (18 and 22 cm). A number of common variations on trombone construction are noted below.

"Trombone" is the Italian word tromba (trumpet) plus the suffix -one (big). It literally means "big trumpet".

During the Renaissance, the equivalent English term was "sackbut". The word first appears in court records in 1495 as "shakbusshe" at about the time King Henry VII married a Portuguese princess who brought some musicians with her. "Shakbusshe" is similar to "sacabuche", attested in Spain as early as 1478. The French equivalent "saqueboute" appears a little earlier, in 1466.[1]

The German "Posaune" long predates the invention of the slide and could refer to a natural trumpet as late as the early fifteenth century.[2]

Eventually, both towns and noble courts sponsored bands of shawms and trombone. By far the most famous and influential served the Duke of Burgundy. The trombone's principal role was playing the contratenor part in a danceband.[3] The sackbut was used extensively across Europe from its appearance in the 15th century to a decline in most places by the mid-late 17th century. It was used in outdoor events, in concert, and in liturgical settings. Along with trumpeters, trombonists in German city-states were even occasionally employed as civil officials. As officials, these trombonists were often relegated to standing watch in the city towers but would also herald the arrival of important people to the city. This is similar to the role of a military bugler and was used as a sign of wealth and strength in 16th century German cities.

These trombonists were, however, often viewed separately from the more highly skilled trombonists who played in groups such as the alta capella wind ensembles as well as the first "orchestra"-type ensembles that performed in religious settings such as St Mark's Basilica in Venice in the early 17th century.[4] Famous composers writing for the trombone in this period include Giovanni Gabrieli and his uncle Andrea Gabrieli, Claudio Monteverdi and Heinrich Schütz. There are also some solo pieces written specifically for trombone in the early 17th century.

When the sackbut returned to common use again in England in the 18th century, Italian music was so influential that the instrument became known as the "trombone",[5] although in some countries the same name has been applied throughout its history, viz. Italian trombone and German Posaune. The 17th-century trombone was built in slightly smaller dimensions than modern trombones, and had a bell that was more conical and less flared.

During the later Baroque period, Johann Sebastian Bach and George Friderich Handel used trombones on a few occasions. Bach used it in some of his cantatas, even having written for four trombones (with the extremely rare soprano trombone playing the cantus firmus, which normally would be played on cornett).[citation needed] Handel used it in the Death March from Saul, Samson, and Israel in Egypt, all of which were examples of a new oratorio style, popular during the early 18th century. Distinct score notations are rare, since only a few professional "Stadtpfeiffer" or alta cappella musicians were available everywhere. Handel, for instance, had to import trombones to England from a Royal court in Hanover, Germany in order to perform one of his larger compositions.[citation needed] Therefore, trombone parts were rather seldom given "solo" roles that were not substitutable with other instruments.

Christoph Willibald Gluck was the first major composer to use the trombone in an opera overture, Alceste (1767), but he also used it in many other operas, like Orfeo ed Euridice, Iphigénie en Tauride (1779) and Echo et Narcisse.

The construction of the trombone changed relatively little between the Baroque and Classical periods with the most obvious feature being the slightly more flared bell.

The first use of the trombone as an independent instrument in a symphony was in the Symphony in Eâ™ (1807) by the Swedish composer Joachim Nicolas Eggert.[6] The composer typically credited with the trombone's introduction into the symphony orchestra, however, was Ludwig van Beethoven, who used it in the last movement of his Symphony No. 5 in C minor (1808). Beethoven also used trombones in his Symphony No. 6 in F major ("Pastoral") and Symphony No. 9 ("Choral").

Many composers were directly influenced by Beethoven's use of trombones, and they became fully integrated in the orchestra by the 1840s. Early to mid 19th-century composers such as Franz Schubert, Franz Berwald, Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Richard Wagner, Hector Berlioz, Gioacchino Rossini, Giuseppe Verdi, Franz Liszt, and Charles Gounod, included trombones in their operas, symphonies and other orchestral compositions.

The 19th century also saw the erosion of the traditional alto/tenor/bass trombone trio in the orchestra. While the trombone trio had been paired with one or two cornetts during the Renaissance and early Baroque periods, the disappearance of the cornett as a partner and eventual replacement by oboe and clarinet did not fundamentally alter the raison d'Ãªtre for the trombones, which was to support the alto, tenor and bass voices of the chorus (typically in an ecclesiastical setting), whose harmonic moving lines were more difficult to pick out than the melodic soprano line. The introduction of the trombones into the orchestra, however, allied them more closely with the trumpets and it did not take long for an additional tenor trombone to replace the alto. The Germans and Austrians held on to the alto trombone somewhat longer than the French, who came to prefer a section of three tenor trombones until after the Second World War. In other countries, the trio of two tenor trombones and one bass became standard by about the mid 19th century.

By the time the trombone gained a footing in the orchestra and opera, trombonists were no longer usually employed by a cathedral or court orchestra, and so were expected to provide their own instrument. Military musicians were provided with instruments, and instruments like the long F or E♭ bass trombone remained in military use until around the First World War. However, orchestral musicians adopted the trombone version with the widest range that they could easily apply to any of the three trombone parts that typically appeared in scores—the tenor trombone. The appearance of valve trombones in the mid-19th century did little to alter the make-up of the orchestral trombone section; though it was ousted from orchestras in Germany and France, the valve trombone remained popular almost entirely to the exclusion of the slide instrument in countries such as Italy and Bohemia, and composers such as Giuseppe Verdi, Giacomo Puccini, Bedřich Smetana, and Antonín Dvořák scored for a valve trombone section.

Especially with the ophicleide, or later the tuba subjoined to the trombone trio during the 19th century, parts scored for the bass trombone rarely descended as low as parts scored before the addition of either of these new low brass instruments. Only in the early 20th century did it regain a degree of independence. Experiments with different constitutions of the trombone section during the 19th and early 20th centuries, including Richard Wagner's addition of a contrabass trombone in Der Ring des Nibelungen and Gustav Mahler's and Richard Strauss' occasional augmentation by adding a second bass trombone to the usual trio of two tenor trombones and one bass trombone, have not had any lasting effect; the majority of orchestral works are still scored for the usual mid- to late-19th-century low brass section of two tenor trombones, one bass trombone and one tuba.

Trombones have been a part of the large wind band since its inception as an ensemble during the French Revolution of 1791. Over the course of the 19th century various wind band traditions were established, including military bands, brass bands (primarily in the UK), town bands (primarily in the US), and circus bands. Some of these groups, especially military bands in Europe, made use of rear-facing trombones, where the bell section pointed behind the player's left shoulder.

These different wind bands all played a limited repertoire with few original compositions that consisted mainly of orchestral transcriptions, arrangements of popular and patriotic tunes, and feature pieces for soloists (usually cornetists, singers, and violinists). A notable work originally for wind band is Hector Berlioz's 1840 Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale, which uses a trombone solo for the entire second movement.

Toward the end of the 19th century, trombone virtuosi began appearing as soloists in American wind bands. The most notable was Arthur Pryor, who played with the Sousa Band and later formed his own.

In the Romantic era, Leipzig became a centre of trombone pedagogy. The trombone began to be taught at the new Musikhochschule founded by Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy. Later, the Paris Conservatory and its yearly concours would also contribute to trombone education. At the Leipzig academy, Mendelssohn's bass trombonist, Karl Traugott Queisser, was the first in a long line of distinguished professors of trombone. Several composers penned works for Quiesser, including Ferdinand David (Mendelssohn's concertmaster) who wrote in 1837 the Concertino for Trombone and Orchestra, Ernst Sachse and Friedrich August Belcke, whose solo works all remain popular today in Germany. Queisser almost single-handedly helped to reestablish the reputation of the trombone in Germany and began a tradition in trombone playing that is still practised there today. He championed and popularised Christian Friedrich Sattler's new tenorbass trombone during the 1840s, leading to its widespread use in orchestras throughout Germany and Austria.

Sattler had a great influence on trombone design. He introduced a significant widening of the bore (the most important since the Renaissance), the innovations of Schlangenverzierungen (snake decorations), the bell garland, and the wide bell flareâ€”features still found on German-made trombones today that were widely copied during the 19th century.

The trombone was further improved in the 19th century with the addition of "stockings" at the end of the inner slide to reduce friction, the development of the water key to expel condensation from the horn, and the occasional addition of a valve that, intentionally, only was to be set on or off, but later was to become the now regular F-valve. Additionally, the valve trombone came around the 1850s shortly after the invention of valves, and was in common use in Italy and Austria in the second half of the century.

In the 20th century the trombone maintained its important place in the orchestra with prominent parts in works by Richard Strauss, Gustav Mahler, Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg, Maurice Ravel, Darius Milhaud, Olivier Messiaen, Igor Stravinsky, Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei Rachmaninov, Sergei Prokofiev, Ottorino Respighi, Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten, William Walton, Jean Sibelius, Carl Nielsen, Leoš Janáček, George Gershwin, Aaron Copland, Leonard Bernstein and Béla Bartók.

With the rise of recorded music and music schools, orchestral trombone sections around the world began to have a more consistent idea of a standard trombone sound. British orchestras abandoned the use of small bore tenors and G basses in favor of an American/German approach of large bore tenors and Bâ™ basses in the 1940s. French orchestras did the same in the 1960s.

During the first half of the century, touring and community concert bands lost their popularity in the United States and were greatly reduced in number. However, with the development of music education in the public school system, high school and university marching bands and concert bands became ubiquitous in the US. A typical concert band trombone section consists of two tenor trombones and one bass trombone, but using multiple players per part is common practice, especially in public school settings.

In the second half of the century, new composers began giving back to the trombone a level of importance in solo and chamber music. Pieces such as Edgard Varèse's Octandre, Paul Hindemith's Sonata, Charles Wuorinen's Trombone Trio and Luciano Berio's Sequenza V led the way for lesser-known composers to build a wider repertoire. Popular choices for recital music today include Stjepan Sulek's Vox Gabrieli, Jacques Casterède's Sonatine and Jean Michel Defaye's Deux Danses. Some well known trombone concertos from this period include works by Pascal Dusapin, Derek Bourgeois, Lars-Erik Larsson, Launy Grøndahl, Nino Rota, Christopher Rouse and Henri Tomasi. Jan Sandström composed two concertos to be performed by Christian Lindberg, his Trombone Concerto No. 1 (1990) is called Motorbike Odyssey or Motorbike Concerto. In 1995-6, Johan de Meij wrote his T-Bone Concerto for trombone and concert band. Artists such as Mark Hetzler have recorded works from Berg, Webern, and Stravinsky transcribed from other instruments (such as oboe, clarinet and strings) to show the difficulty, versatility and range of solo music the trombone can handle very sensitively.[7][not in citation given] The Solo for Sliding Trombone is one of the parts for John Cage's Concert for Piano and Orchestra (1958). It can be played as a solo or with any combination of the other parts of the Concert. The Solo employs a wide variety of standard and extended playing techniques. Due to the crossover ability of performers from the last 50 years being well trained in both the classical and jazz genres, more chamber works have appeared which blur those distinctions and also include improvisation. Several of those are the Improvisation No. 1 (O'Grady), Sonata for Trombone (Cooper), and the Arrows of Time (Peaslee). Other solo pieces for trombone and piano include Guy Ropartz's Piece for trombone (1908), J. E. Barat's Andante and Allegro, Camille Saint-Saens's (even though romantic) Cavatine (1915), and Boris Pigovat's Meditation.

In the Dixieland era of jazz in the 1900s the trombone was usually present in "Dixie" groups to assist in the bass or tuba player's job of outlining the chords for the other instruments, by playing a bassline for the higher-pitched instruments to improvise over. It was not until the "big band" era of swing came about in the mid-1920s that the trombone began to be used as a solo instrument. Prime examples of early trombone soloists are Jack Teagarden and J.J. Johnson. These are some of the players that brought jazz trombone into the spotlight as an instrument of soulful expression, but also one of technical skill.[8][9]

Numerous changes in construction have occurred during the 20th century, including the use of different materials, increases in mouthpiece, bore and bell dimensions, new valve types and different mute types. Despite the universal switch to a larger sized horn though, many European trombone makers still tend to prefer a slightly smaller bore than their American counterparts. One of the most significant changes to the trombone is the increased popularity of the F-Attachment trigger. All the way through the mid-20th century it was common to see orchestral trombone players using instruments that did not include the trigger mostly because of a lack of a need for one. However, as 20th century composers such as Mahler became more popular, tenor trombone parts began to extend down into lower ranges that necessitated the use of a trigger. While some trombonists still prefer "straight" trombone models that do not have triggers, most have adopted the new standard for its convenience and general versatility.

Today, the trombone can be found in wind ensembles/concert bands, symphony orchestras, marching bands, military bands, brass bands, and brass choirs. In chamber music, it is used in brass quintets, quartets, or trios, or trombone trios, quartets, or choirs. The size of a trombone choir can vary greatly from five or six to twenty or more members.

Trombones are also common in swing, jazz, merengue, salsa (e.g., Jimmy Bosch, Luis Bonilla, and Willie Colón), R&B, ska (e.g., Don Drummond), and New Orleans brass bands.

The most frequently encountered trombones today are the tenor and bass, though as with many other Renaissance instruments, the trombone has been built in sizes from piccolo to contrabass. Trombones are usually constructed with a slide that is used to change the pitch. Valve trombones use three valves (singly or in combination) instead of the slide. The valves follow the same schema as other valved instruments-the first valve lowers the pitch by one step, the second valve by a half-step, and the third valve by one and a half steps.

A superbone uses a full set of valves and a slide. These differ from trombones with triggers. Some slide trombones have one or (less frequently) two rotary valves operated by a left-hand thumb trigger. The single rotary valve is part of the F attachment, which adds a length of tubing to lower the instrument's fundamental pitch from Bâ™ to F. Some bass trombones have a second trigger with a different length of tubing. The second trigger facilitates playing the otherwise problematic low B. A buccin is a trombone with a round, zoomorphic bell section. They were common in 19th-century military bands.

The modern system has seven chromatic slide positions on a tenor trombone in B♭. It was first described by Andre Braun circa 1795.[10] In 1811 Joseph Fröhlich wrote on the differences between the modern system and an old system where four diatonic slide positions were used and the trombone was usually keyed to A.[11] To compare between the two styles the chart below may be helpful (take note for example, in the old system contemporary 1st-position was considered "drawn past" then current 1st).[11] In the modern system, each successive position outward (approximately 3 1⁄4 inches [8 cm]) will produce a note which is one semitone lower when played in the same partial. Tightening and loosening the lips will allow the player to "bend" the note up or down by a semitone without changing position, so a slightly out-of-position slide may be compensated for by ear.

As with all brass instruments, progressive tightening of the lips and increased air pressure allow the player to move to different partial in the harmonic series. In the first position (also called closed position) on a B♭ trombone, the notes in the harmonic series begin with B♭2 (one octave higher than the pedal B♭1), F3 (a perfect fifth higher than the previous partial), B♭3 (a perfect fourth higher), D4 (a major third higher), and F4 (a minor third higher).

F4 marks the sixth partial, or the fifth overtone. Notes on the next partial, for example A♭4 (a minor third higher) in first position, tend to be out of tune in regards to the twelve-tone equal temperament scale. A♭4 in particular, which is at the seventh partial (sixth overtone) is nearly always 31 cents, or about one third of a semitone, flat of the minor seventh. On the slide trombone, such deviations from intonation are corrected for by slightly adjusting the slide or by using an alternate position.[12] It should be noted that though much of Western music has adopted the even-tempered scale, it has been the practice in Germany and Austria to play these notes in position, where they will have just intonation (see harmonic seventh as well for A♭4).

The next higher partials—B♭4 (a major second higher), C5 (a major second higher), D5 (a major second higher)—do not require much adjustment for even-tempered intonation, but E♭5 (a minor second higher) is almost exactly a quarter tone higher than it would be in twelve-tone equal temperament. E♭5 and F5 (a major second higher) at the next partial are very high notes; a very skilled player with a highly developed facial musculature and diaphragm can go even higher to G5, A♭5, B♭5 and beyond.

The pedal tone on B♭ is frequently seen in commercial scoring but much less often in symphonic music while notes below that are called for only rarely as they "become increasingly difficult to produce and insecure in quality" with A♭ or G being the bottom limit for most trombonists.[12] However, some contemporary orchestral writing and solos will call for notes as low as a pedal F on the bass trombone.

The trombone is one of the few wind instruments that can produce a true glissando, by moving the slide without interrupting the airflow or sound production. Every pitch in a glissando must have the same harmonic number, and a tritone is the largest interval that can be performed as a glissando.[13] 'Harmonic', 'inverted', 'broken' or 'false' glissandos are those that cross one or more harmonic series, requiring a simulated or faked glissando effect.[14]

Trills, though generally simple with valves, are difficult on the slide trombone. Trills tend to be easiest and most effective higher in the harmonic series because the distance between notes is much smaller and slide movement is minimal. For example, a trill on B♭3/C4 is virtually impossible as the slide must move two positions (either 1st-to-3rd or 5th-to-3rd), however at an octave higher (B♭4/C5) the notes can both be achieved in 1st position as a lip trill. Thus, the most convincing trills tend to be above the first octave and a half of the tenor's range.[15] Trills are most commonly found in early Baroque and Classical music for the trombone as a means of ornamentation, however, some more modern pieces will call for trills as well.

Unlike most other brass instruments in an orchestral setting, the trombone is not usually considered a transposing instrument. Prior to the invention of valve systems, most brass instruments were limited to playing one overtone series at a time; altering the pitch of the instrument required manually replacing a section of tubing (called a "crook") or picking up an instrument of different length. Their parts were transposed according to which crook or length-of-instrument they used at any given time, so that a particular note on the staff always corresponded to a particular partial on the instrument. Trombones, on the other hand, have used slides since their inception. As such, they have always been fully chromatic, so no such tradition took hold, and trombone parts have always been notated at concert pitch (with one exception, discussed below). Also, it was quite common for trombones to double choir parts; reading in concert pitch meant there was no need for dedicated trombone parts.

Trombone parts are typically notated in bass clef, though sometimes also written in tenor clef or alto clef. The use of alto clef is usually confined to orchestral first trombone parts, with the second trombone part written in tenor clef and the third (bass) part in bass clef. As the alto trombone declined in popularity during the 19th century, this practice was gradually abandoned and first trombone parts came to be notated in the tenor or bass clef. Some Russian and Eastern European composers wrote first and second tenor trombone parts on one alto clef staff (the German Robert Schumann was the first to do this). Examples of this practice are evident in scores by Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich. Trombone parts may contain both bass and tenor clef or bass and alto clef sections. Trombone parts in band music are nearly exclusively notated in bass clef. The rare exceptions are in contemporary works intended for high-level wind bands.

An accomplished performer today is expected to be proficient in reading parts notated in bass clef, tenor clef, alto clef, and (more rarely) treble clef in C, with the British brass-band performer expected to handle treble clef in Bâ™ as well.

In brass-band music, the tenor trombone is treated as a transposing instrument in B♭ and reads the treble clef (while the bass trombone uses the bass clef in concert pitch, as in orchestral and concert-band music). This puts the notes in exactly the same staff position as they would be if the music were written in a (non-transposing) tenor clef, although the key signature and some accidentals must be adjusted. This is no mere coincidence, for brass bands used to employ a section of alto, tenor and bass trombones in the early to mid-19th century, later replacing the alto with a tenor trombone, all the while notated in the corresponding clefs. Eventually, in the early 20th century, musicians decided to replace the tenor clef with the transposing B♭ treble clef to aid new starters to integrate more quickly and effectively into the brass band—though the bass trombone, then in G, remained notated in concert pitch bass clef. (Company bands used B♭ and E♭ treble clef notation for many instruments in the band to allow players to more easily switch instruments when personnel changed.)

A variety of mutes can be used with the trombone to alter its timbre. Many are held in place with the use of cork grips, including the straight, cup, harmon and pixie mutes. Some fit over the bell, like the bucket mute. In addition to this, mutes can be held in front of the bell and moved to cover more or less area for a wah-wah effect. Mutes used in this way include the "hat" (a metal mute shaped like a bowler) and plunger (which looks like, and often is, the rubber suction cup from a sink or toilet plunger), a sound featured as the voices of adults in the Peanuts cartoons.

Trombone bells (and sometimes slides) may be constructed of different brass mixtures. The most common material is yellow brass (70% copper, 30% zinc), but other materials include rose brass (85% copper, 15% zinc) and red brass (90% copper, 10% zinc). Some manufacturers offer interchangeable bells. Tenor trombone bells are usually between 7 and 9 in (18–23 cm) in diameter, the most common being sizes from 7 1⁄2 to 8 1⁄2 in (19–22 cm). The smallest sizes are found in small jazz trombones and older narrow-bore instruments, while the larger sizes are common in orchestral models. Bass trombone bells can be as large as 10 1⁄2 in (27 cm) or more, though usually either 9 1⁄2 or 10 in (24 or 25 cm) in diameter. The bell may be constructed out of two separate brass sheets or out of one single piece of metal and hammered on a mandrel until the part is shaped correctly. The edge of the bell may be finished with or without a piece of bell wire to secure it, which also affects the tone quality; most bells are built with bell wire. Occasionally, trombone bells are made from solid sterling silver.

Many trombones have valve attachments to aid in increasing the range of the instrument while also allowing alternate slide positions for difficult music passages. In addition, valve attachments make trills much easier. Valve attachments appear on alto, tenor, bass, and contrabass trombones. It is rare on the alto, but when the instrument does have it, the valve attachment changes the key of the instrument from E♭ to B♭, allowing the alto trombone to play in the tenor trombone range. Tenor trombones commonly have valve attachments, the most common being the F-attachment, which changes the pitch of the instrument from B♭ to F, increasing the range of the instrument downward and allowing alternate slide positions for notes in 6th or 7th position.

Bass trombones also very commonly have F-attachments, which serve exactly the same function as on the tenor trombone. Some single valve bass trombones have E-attachments instead of F-attachments, or sometimes there is extra tubing on the F-attachment to allow it to be used as an E-attachment if desired. However, many bass trombones have a second valve attachment instead, which increases their range downward even more. The most common second valve attachment is the G♭-attachment, which changes the instrument's key to D when used in combination with the F-attachment (or D♭ if used with the less common E-attachment). There are other configurations other than the G♭-attachment however.

The two valves on a bass trombone can either be independent or dependent. Double rotor dependent valve bass trombones were created in the late 1950s, and double rotor independent valve bass trombones were created in the late 1960s/early 1970s. Dependent means that the second valve only works when used in combination with the first, as it is located directly on the F- or E-attachment tubing. Newer bass trombones have independent (in-line) valves instead, meaning that the second valve is located on the neckpipe of the instrument and can therefore operate independently of the other.[16] Contrabass trombones also can have valve attachments. Contrabass trombones in the key of F typically have two valves tuned to C and D♭ respectively. Contrabass trombones in B♭ on the other hand typically only have one valve, which is tuned to F, though some have a second valve tuned to G♭.

The most common type of valve seen for valve attachments is the rotary valve. Some trombones have piston valves used instead of rotary valves for valve attachments, but it is very rare and is today considered unconventional. Many variations of the rotary valve have been invented in the past half-century such as the Thayer valve or axial-flow Valve, the Hagmann valve, the Greenhoe rotor, and several others, all of which were designed to give the trombone a more open, free sound than a conventional rotary valve would allow. Many of these new trombone valve designs have enjoyed great success on the market, but the standard rotary valve remains the most common for trombone valve attachments.

Some trombones have valves instead of a slide (see valve trombone). These are usually rotary valves, or piston valves.

More often than not, tenor trombones with an F attachment, or trigger, have a larger bore through the attachment than through the'straight' section (the portion of the trombone through which the air flows when the attachment is not engaged). Typically, for orchestral instruments, the slide bore is 0.547 in (13.9 mm) and the attachment tubing bore is 0.562 in (14.3 mm). A wide variety of valve attachments and combinations are available. Valve attachment tubing usually incorporates a small tuning slide so that the attachment tubing can be tuned separately from the rest of the instrument. Most B♭/F tenor and bass trombones include a tuning slide long enough to lower the pitch to E with the valve tubing engaged, enabling the production of B2.

Whereas older instruments fitted with valve attachments usually had the tubing coiled rather tightly in the bell section (closed wrap or traditional wrap), modern instruments usually have the tubing kept as free as possible of tight bends in the tubing (open wrap), resulting in a freer response with the valve attachment tubing engaged. While open-wrap tubing does offer a more open sound, the tubing sticks out from behind the bell and is more vulnerable to damage. For that reason, closed-wrap tubing remains more popular in trombones used in marching bands or other ensembles where the trombone may be more prone to damage.

Some trombones are tuned through a mechanism in the slide section rather than via a separate tuning slide in the bell section. This method preserves a smoother expansion from the start of the bell section to the bell flare. The tuning slide in the bell section requires two portions of cylindrical tubing in an otherwise conical part of the instrument, which affects the tone quality. Tuning the trombone enables it to play with other instruments which is essential for the trombone.

Common and popular bore sizes for trombone slides are 0.500, 0.508, 0.525 and 0.547 in (12.7, 12.9, 13.3 and 13.9 mm) for tenor trombones, and 0.562 in (14.3 mm) for bass trombones. The slide may also be built with a dual-bore configuration, in which the bore of the second leg of the slide is slightly larger than the bore of the first leg, producing a stepwise conical effect. The most common dual-bore combinations are 0.481–0.491 in (12.2–12.5 mm), 0.500–0.508 in (12.7–12.9 mm), 0.508–0.525 in (12.9–13.3 mm), 0.525–0.547 in (13.3–13.9 mm), 0.547–0.562 in (13.9–14.3 mm) for tenor trombones, and 0.562–0.578 in (14.3–14.7 mm) for bass trombones.

The mouthpiece is a separate part of the trombone and can be interchanged between similarly sized trombones from different manufacturers. Available mouthpieces for trombone (as with all brass instruments) vary in material composition, length, diameter, rim shape, cup depth, throat entrance, venturi aperture, venturi profile, outside design and other factors. Variations in mouthpiece construction affect the individual player's ability to make a lip seal and produce a reliable tone, the timbre of that tone, its volume, the player's subjective level of comfort, and the instrument's playability in a given pitch range.

Mouthpiece selection is a highly personal decision. Thus, a symphonic trombonist might prefer a mouthpiece with a deeper cup and sharper inner rim shape in order to produce a rich symphonic tone quality, while a jazz trombonist might choose a shallower cup for brighter tone and easier production of higher notes. Further, for certain compositions, these choices between two such performers could easily be reversed. Some mouthpiece makers now offer mouthpieces that feature removable rims and cups allowing players to further customize and adjust their mouthpiece to their preference.

Instruments made mostly from plastic, including the pBone and the Tromba plastic trombone, emerged in the 2010s as a cheaper and more robust alternative to brass.[17][18] Plastic instruments could come in almost any colour but the sound plastic instruments produce is different from that of brass. While originally seen as a gimmick, these plastic models have found increasing popularity of the last decade and are now viewed as practice tools that make for more convenient travel as well as a cheaper option for beginning players not wishing to invest so much money in a trombone right away. Manufacturers now produce large-bore models with triggers as well as smaller alto models.

German trombones have been built in a wide variety of bore and bell sizes. The traditional German Konzertposaune can differ substantially from American designs in many aspects. The mouthpiece is typically rather small and is placed into a slide section with a very long leadpipe of at least 12 to 24 inches (30–60 cm). The whole instrument is often made of gold brass, and its sound is usually darker compared with British, French or American designs. While their bore sizes were considered large in the 19th century, German trombones have altered very little over the last 150 years and are now typically somewhat smaller than their American counterparts. Bell sizes remain very large in all sizes of German trombone and a bass trombone bell may exceed 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter.

Valve attachments in tenor and bass trombones were first seen in the mid 19th century, originally on the tenor B♭ trombone. Before 1850, bass trombone parts were mostly played on a slightly longer F-bass trombone (a fourth lower). The first valve was simply a fourth-valve, or in German "Quart-ventil", built onto a B♭ tenor trombone, to allow playing in low F. This valve was first built without a return spring, and was only intended to set the instrument in B♭ or F for extended passages.[citation needed] Since the mid-20th century, modern instruments use a trigger to engage the valve while playing.

As with other German and Austrian brass instruments, rotary valves are used to the exclusion of almost all other types of valve, even in valve trombones. Other features often found on German trombones include long water keys and snake decorations on the slide and bell U-bows.

Since around 1925, when jazz music became popular, Germany has been selling "American trombones" as well. Most trombones played in Germany today, especially by amateurs, are built in the American fashion, as those are much more widely available, and thus far cheaper.

French trombones were built in the very smallest bore sizes up to the end of the Second World War and whilst other sizes were made there, the French usually preferred the tenor trombone to any other size. French music, therefore, usually employed a section of three tenor trombones up to the mid–20th century. Tenor trombones produced in France during the 19th and early 20th centuries featured bore sizes of around 0.450 in (11.4 mm), small bells of not more than 6 in (15 cm) in diameter, as well as a funnel-shaped mouthpiece slightly larger than that of the cornet or horn. French tenor trombones were built in both C and B♭, altos in D♭, sopranos in F, piccolos in high B♭, basses in G and E♭, contrabasses in B♭.

In recent years,[when?] several makers have begun to market compact B♭/C trombones that are especially well suited for young children learning to play the trombone who cannot reach the outer slide positions of full-length instruments. The fundamental note of the unenhanced length is C, but the short valved attachment that puts the instrument in B♭ is open when the trigger is not depressed. While such instruments have no seventh slide position, C and B natural may be comfortably accessed on the first and second positions by using the trigger. A similar design ("Preacher model") was marketed by C.G. Conn in the 1920s, also under the Wurlitzer label. Currently, B♭/C trombones are available from many manufacturers, including German makers Günter Frost, Thein and Helmut Voigt, as well as the Yamaha Corporation.[19]

Trombones in slide and valve configuration have been made by a vast array of musical instrument manufacturers. For the brass bands of the late 19th and early 20th century, prominent American manufacturers included Graves and Sons, E.G. Wright and Company, The Boston Musical Instrument Company, E.A. Couturier Co., Ltd., H.N. White Company, J.W. York, and C.G. Conn, Ltd.. In the 21st century, leading mainstream manufacturers of trombones include F.E. Olds, Vincent Bach, King Musical Instruments, Conn, F.A. Reynolds, Yamaha Musical Instruments, Edwards Instrument Co., S.E. Shires Co., and Jupiter Band Instruments.


who played lt jones in band of brothers

In 1999, Hanks won the role of Alex Whitman in the science-fiction series Roswell, where he appeared for the first two seasons (making a brief appearance in the third). During that time, he acted in the teen comedies Whatever It Takes with Shane West and Get Over It with Ben Foster. Hanks also made an appearance in an episode of The OC. He appeared in part eight of HBO mini-series Band of Brothers as Lt. Hank Jones. In 2002, he starred in his first film as Shaun Brumder in Orange County, alongside Jack Black and Schuyler Fisk. The comedy features Hanks trying to get into Stanford University after his guidance counselor mistakenly sends out the wrong transcript. In 2005, he appeared in the remake of King Kong, playing the assistant to Jack Black's character. In 2006, Hanks had a cameo role in Black's Tenacious D in The Pick of Destiny, playing a drunken fraternity brother. He starred in the romantic comedy The House Bunny, playing Oliver, a charming manager of a nursing home and the love interest of Anna Faris' character.

Colin Hanks

Colin Lewes Hanks (born Colin Lewes Dillingham;[1] November 24, 1977)[2] is an American actor and documentary filmmaker. He is known for starring as characters in films such as Shaun Brumder in Orange County, Preston in King Kong, Oliver in The House Bunny, and Troy Gable in The Great Buck Howard. His television roles include Alex Whitman in Roswell, Hank Jones in Band of Brothers, Travis Marshall in Dexter, officer Gus Grimly in Fargo, Jack Bailey in The Good Guys, and Greg Short in Life in Pieces. He is the eldest son of actor Tom Hanks. In the Talking Tom and Friends animated series, he voices Tom, who is the title character.

Hanks was born and raised in Sacramento, California,[3] the eldest son of actor Tom Hanks and his first wife, producer and actress Susan Dillingham (known professionally as Samantha Lewes),[2] who died of bone cancer on March 12, 2002. His surname was changed to Hanks after his parents married in 1978. He has a younger sister, Elizabeth (born 1982), and two younger paternal half-brothers, Chester Marlon Hanks (born 1989/1990) and Truman Theodore Hanks (born 1995), from his father's second marriage to actress Rita Wilson. His paternal grandmother was of Portuguese descent, while his maternal grandfather's mother was of Austrian-Jewish and Polish-Jewish ancestry.[citation needed]

Hanks attended Sacramento Country Day School, and then Chapman University, before transferring to Loyola Marymount University. He left without earning a degree.[4]

In 2008, he appeared in The Great Buck Howard, which was produced by his father and also starred John Malkovich. He also played Father Gill, a young Roman Catholic priest, in season 2 of the TV show Mad Men.[5] In 2009, he made his Broadway debut, acting alongside Jane Fonda in the Moisés Kaufman play 33 Variations.[6] In 2009, Hanks began work as director on All Things Must Pass, a documentary about Tower Records, that premiered March 17, 2015 at South by Southwest in Austin, Texas.[7]

Hanks starred in the 2010 Fox TV series The Good Guys as young detective Jack Bailey, alongside Bradley Whitford who played an old school detective (Dan Stark). In 2011, he starred in the indie film Lucky, alongside Ari Graynor, Ann-Margret and Jeffrey Tambor.[8] He also joined the cast of Dexter for season six opposite Edward James Olmos, where he portrays an art historian Travis Marshall[9] who is involved in a murderous apocalyptic cult.[10]

In 2013, he starred as Allison in the second season of the web series Burning Love. The same year, he also portrayed Dr. Malcolm Perry in the historical film Parkland. In 2014, he played Officer Gus Grimly in the FX television series Fargo, for which he received Critics' Choice Television Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations.

In 2015, Hanks began a voice role in the show Talking Tom and Friends. He voices Talking Tom, the main character.

Hanks directed the documentary All Things Must Pass: The Rise and Fall of Tower Records, released in 2015. The film received funding of nearly $100,000 through a Kickstarter campaign.[11] Hanks also provided the voice of Luke in the series PAW Patrol.

In 2017, Hanks appears as the Adult Alex Vreeke in the film Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle.

Hanks dated Busy Philipps in the 1990s, while in college. In June 2009, Hanks became engaged to former New York publicist Samantha Bryant.[12] The couple married on May 8, 2010, in Los Angeles.[12] Together, they have two daughters, one born in 2011,[13] the other born in 2013.[14]

Hanks is a San Francisco Giants baseball fan, and attended their World Seriesâ€“clinching victory in Texas in November 2010. He also directed a 30 for 30 short about their disastrous Crazy Crab stint in the 1980s.[15] He is also a fan of the San Francisco 49ers, Sacramento Kings,[16] and Los Angeles Kings.[17] He was the official Kevin and Bean LA Kings playoff correspondent for the 2012 and 2013 seasons.[18]


what are the four stages of high school

At the secondary school level ("high school"), grades 9–12 are also known as freshman (or "first-year"), sophomore, junior, and senior. At the post-secondary level (college or university), these terms are used almost exclusively to refer to what would otherwise be grades 13–16, ending denoted as "college senior". Then come post-graduate levels.

Educational stage

Educational stages are subdivisions of formal learning, typically covering early childhood education, primary education, secondary education and tertiary (or higher) education. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognizes seven levels of education in its International Standard Classification of Education system (ISCED, from Level 0 (pre-primary education) through Level 6 (second stage of tertiary education)). UNESCO's International Bureau of Education maintains a database of country-specific education systems and their stages.[1]

Education during childhood and early adulthood is typically provided through either a two- or three-stage system of childhood school, followed by additional stages of higher education or vocational education for those who continue their formal education:

The following table introduces the main concepts, although terms and ages may vary in different places:

For additional ISCED stages of education, see ISCED.

Sudbury schools do not use formal grade levels or educational stages. Instead, students ages 4 through 18 are intermingled in a democratic educational system, relying on a series of certifications to use equipment that may require specialized knowledge or safety procedures. These certifications are not typically restricted by age, but rather by demonstrated ability.[2]

In Australia, children undergo thirteen years of formal education (plus non-compulsory preschool or kindergarten), usually starting at age 4, 5 or 6, and finishing at age 16, 17 or 18. The years are numbered from "Prep/Kindergarten" to 12.

In New South Wales (NSW), Western Australia (WA), Queensland (QLD) and Victoria (VIC), primary school is Kindergarten (NSW)/Prep (Vic & Qld)/Pre-primary (WA) and Years 1–6, and secondary school, Years 7–12 (see table below).

In the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and Tasmania (TAS), primary school is Kindergarten (ACT)/Prep (Tas) and years 1–6, secondary school is years 7–10 and college or Senior Secondary is years 11 and 12 (see table below).

In South Australia, primary school is Reception and Years 1–7, and secondary school is Years 8–12 (see table below).

In Belarus, education is guaranteed for everyone. Primary school lasts for 4 years, but some psycho-physically challenged children study for 5 years according to a special standard. Forms 1 to 9 are considered compulsory. After completing general basic school a person can study in a special establishment to get a job. To enter a higher educational establishment a person must complete general secondary school (all 11 forms) and pass three centralized tests.[3]

(nursery)

(kindergarten)

(secondary)

(high)

There are 2 formal stages of education in Iran: primary school (دبستان, Dabestãn) and high school (دبیرستان, Dabirestãn). The high school itself is broken into 2 parts: A and B.[further explanation needed] Preschool educations are informal, therefore Grade 1 is the first year. In Grade 1 (پایه‌ی 1, Paye 1) also known as the 1st class (کلاس اوّل, Klãs Avval), children learn the basics of reading and writing.

In Brazil, there are three levels of basic education: "Educação Infantil" (preschool), "Ensino Fundamental" (primary school) and "Ensino Médio" (high school), which are generally completed by age eighteen. Basic education is designed to provide the necessary minimum knowledge for the exercise of citizenship. It also serves to develop consciousness for choosing future professions. In Brazil, after the name of the grade one may use the names "série" or "ano." The educational stages in Brazil are divided as follows:

In Canada, schooling officially begins at Kindergarten (or Maternelle in Quebec), followed by grades, with some variations for certain levels in certain provinces/territories. When referred to as a grade, school years are usually referred to by their cardinal number ("Grade Three").

At the post-secondary level in (Anglophone) Canada, a student is usually referred to by the year of study they are in (i.e. First Year, Second Year, etc.). If they are pursuing something higher than an undergraduate degree, the designation usually refers to what year of study they are in since entering Graduate studies (i.e. First Year Graduate Student, etc.). Any student who has completed their first year of undergraduate studies is considered to be an Upper Year Student.

Each province and territory has its own autonomous education system. As such, the name of each level of education and what year each level begins at will vary across the country (as will the curriculum itself).

The following table shows how grades are organized in various provinces. Often, there will be exceptions within each province, both with terminology for groups, and which grades apply to each group.

In the People's Republic of China (excluding Hong Kong and Macau), the years are organized in three stages and renumbered within each stage: 6 years in elementary school (小学) years 1 to 6, then 3 years in lower secondary (初级中学, abbreviated 初中) years 7 to 9, then 3 years in higher secondary (高级中学, abbreviated 高中) years 1 to 3. The first nine years (elementary 1–6 and junior secondary 1–3) are compulsory, and the years in higher secondary school are voluntary. Completing higher secondary education or attaining an equivalent level is required before one may receive higher education (高等教育) at universities.

The Hong Kong system was based on the United Kingdom system, with an optional year at kindergarten, six years of primary school (小學) and six years of secondary school (中學), followed by four years at university. Primary 1 – 6 (小一 – 小六) corresponds to Years 1 – 6 in the UK, and Forms 1 – 6 (中一 – 中六) correspond to Years 7 – 12. Usually students begin Primary 1 at age 5 or 6 and complete Form 6 at age 17 or 18.

In Hong Kong, international schools follow the system of the country they are based upon, for example the English Schools Foundation uses the UK year system, and French International Schools use the French collège, école, lycée system. Also, the English term form followed by the English number is common usage even in otherwise Cantonese conversations.

Education is compulsory from age 6 to age 14 or 16.

At the end of the lycÃ©e cursus, is the French Baccalaureat exam. It is possible in France to fail a year, and need to resit (redoubler).

The central and most state boards uniformly follow the "10+2+3" pattern of education.In this pattern, study of 10 years is done in schools and 2 years in Junior colleges,and then 3 years of graduation for a bachelor's degree. The first 10 years is further subdivided into 4 years of primary education, 6 years of High School followed by 2 years of Junior colleges. This pattern originated from the recommendation of the Education Commission of 1964â€“66.

The Indian government lays emphasis on primary education, also referred to as elementary education, to children aged 6 to 14 years old. Because education laws are given by the states, duration of primary school visit alters between the Indian states. The Indian government has also banned child labour in order to ensure that the children do not enter unsafe working conditions.However, both free education and the ban on child labour are difficult to enforce due to economic disparity and social conditions.80% of all recognised schools at the elementary stage are government run or supported, making it the largest provider of education in the country.

Secondary education covers children aged 12 to 18, a group comprising 8.85 crore children according to the 2001 Census of India. The final two years of secondary is often called Higher Secondary (HS), Senior Secondary, or simply the "+2" stage. The two halves of secondary education are each an important stage for which a pass certificate is needed, and thus are affiliated by central boards of education under HRD ministry, before one can pursue higher education, including college or professional courses.

UGC, NCERT, CBSE and ICSE directives state qualifying ages for candidates who wish to take board exams. Those at least 15 years old by 30 May for a given academic year are eligible to appear for Secondary board exams, and those 17 by the same date are eligible to appear for Higher Secondary certificate board exams. It further states that upon successful completion of Higher Secondary, one can apply to higher education under UGC control such as Engineering, Medical, and Business Administration.

In Indonesia, children spend 12 years of formal education, but some children attend nursery playgroup (called Kelompok Belajar in 2 years) and attend kindergarten (Called Taman Kanak-Kanak in 2 years).

(Nursery Playgroup)

(Kindergarten)

(Elementary School)

(Junior High School)

(Senior High School)

The Iranian system has experienced several changes in the last seven to eight decades. Prior to 1940â€“1950, the education system had consisted of three levels, called in order: an optional year in kindergarten, six years of primary school, finally followed by six years of secondary school ending up with a diploma. After some improvements during Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, the system was changed to four consecutive periods: two optional years in kindergarten and pre-primary school, primary school consisting of 5 years, 3 years in middle school, and finally four years in high school. The system ended up by honoring a diploma in certain majors, e.g. math and physics.

Around 1996â€“1997, one year was reduced from the entire education system and one was honored with a diploma after three years in high school. However, if one would have liked to continue her/his education towards university degrees, one would have been required to take the last year, so called pre-university year. This year had been a requirement to participate in the Iranian University Entrance Exam for high school students. Again, around 2012, the system turned back to its previous system, consisting of two 6-year periods.

In the Republic of Ireland, there are two levels of compulsory education; primary school (ca.5–12 years of age) and secondary school (ca.12–18 years). The names of each class are as follows:

After Sixth Class, students move to secondary school, entering;

Junior Cycle:

Senior Cycle:

In some schools, Transition Year is compulsory, in others it is optional, and in others is not available.

In Italy, education is compulsory from the age of 6 to the age of 16. On parents' demand, children can start the Scuola primaria (see below) one year earlier.

Educazione Infantile:

Scuola primaria (informally: Scuola Elementare):

Scuola secondaria di primo grado (informally: Scuola Media):

Scuola secondaria di secondo grado (informally: Scuola Superiore):

In Japan, the years are organized in three stages and renumbered within each stage: 6 years in elementary school (小学校, shōgakkō) years 1 to 6, then 3 years in lower secondary (中学校, chūgakkō) years 1 to 3, then 3 years in higher secondary (高等学校, kōtōgakkō, abbreviated 高校, kōkō) years 1 to 3. The first nine years (elementary 1–6 and lower secondary 1–3) are compulsory, and the years in higher secondary school are voluntary. Completing higher secondary education or attaining an equivalent level is required before one may receive higher education at universities (大学, daigaku).

Compulsory education in Malaysia spans a period of 11 years and comprises both primary and secondary education. Kindergarten is optional.

Malaysian primary school consists of six years of education, referred to as Year 1 to Year 6 (formerly Standard 1 to Standard 6). Year 1 – 3 are classified as Level One (Tahap Satu in Malay) while Year 4 – 6 make up Level Two (Tahap Dua). Primary schooling usually begins at the age of 7 and ends at 12. Students take their first national examination, the UPSR, towards the end of the Year 6 school year. Performance in the UPSR has no effect on their resuming schooling; all students continue with their secondary education after leaving primary school.

Secondary schooling usually begins at age 13. Secondary schools offer education for a total of five years, starting with Form 1 and finishing at Form 5. Forms 1 – 3 are grouped together into the "Lower Form" and Forms 4 & 5 are considered the "Upper Form". Students in Form 3 will have to sit for their second national exam, the PT3. They are then streamed into sciences or humanities classes for the Upper Form according to their performance in this exam. At age 17 students in Form 5 sit for the final level of national examinations, the SPM (Malaysian Certificate of Education). Achieving a passing grade in the Bahasa Melayu (Malay Language) portion of the exams is compulsory; failure results in an automatic failing grade for all subjects taken in the examination and the student is held back to repeat Form 5. Completion of the examination signifies that the student has completed formal education in Malaysia; an SPM certificate remains the base requirement to secure most jobs in Malaysia.

After the SPM, students have a choice of either continuing with Form 6 (which comprises 2 years, Lower and Upper Six) or entering matriculation (pre-university programs). If they opt for Form 6, they will be required to take the STPM examination. Although generally taken by those desiring to attend public universities in Malaysia, an STPM certification is internationally recognized and may also be used, though rarely required, to enter private local universities for undergraduate courses.

In Nepal, the stages of education are primary education, secondary education, and higher secondary. Pre-primary education is also found in some areas. Generally, the pre-primary level covers nursery and kindergarten. Primary education consists of grades one through five, while lower secondary education covers grades six through eight and secondary education covers grades nine through ten. Higher secondary covers grades eleven and twelve. Students get Secondary Education Examination certificate in grade ten. According to the new Education Act, the national grade 12 Examination will result in the School Leaving Certificate (SLC).

In New Zealand children are required by law to attend 10 years of educational instruction, from the age of 6 to 16. The law also provides in the same legislation that all people are allowed to attend free education to the age of 18, this legislation is the Education Act 1989. Children enroll at primary school when they turn five years old. From years 1–6 students attend primary school. In years 7 and 8 students attend intermediate, or a joint school (years 1–8 or years 7–13). The final years of free education are spent in secondary school (years 9–13). New Zealand also has two older educational stage-numbering systems; standards 5 & 6 were largely unused with the introduction of intermediate schools in the 1950s, while "primmer" numbering was in use well into the 1970s, and some academically focused secondary schools still use "form" numbering.

Primary school (sometimes includes up to year 8):

Intermediate school:

Secondary school:

In Norway children start school at the age of six; before that kindergarten is voluntary. This school is called barneskole (childrenschool):

The second school is ungdomsskole (youth-school). At this level the students are rated with grades in each subject, in addition to behavior and orderliness:

The last school before higher education is called videregÃ¥ende skole (ongoing school) and is voluntary, though most choose to attend. At this level students decide among separate career-related schools. The most popular such school is designed to prepare one for further education,[citation needed] while others prepare students for such as mechanics, electricians, cooks and so on. Educational stages in these schools begin again at "one" and are named Vg1, Vg2, Vg3 and Vg4. Some of the more practical schools last only two years, and some students may choose to attend an extra year to study higher education. The typical duration is three years, though some schools offer a four-year program to enable students to engage in more athletics or gather real work experience.

Previously in the Philippines, there are only ten years of compulsory education. School starts on the first or second week of June, while school ends in the last week of March or first week of April. There are three stages of education in the Philippines — elementary, junior high school, and senior high school. The original ten years of compulsory education, was raised to twelve years of education. This policy was implemented in June, 2012. Here is the table:

In Russia, compulsory education lasts eight or nine years and begins the year the child turns seven (8 years) or, sometimes, six (9 years). The first stage of elementary school can last either 3 years (so called 1–3 programme for children starting at the age of 7) or 4 years (so called 1–4 programme for children starting at the age of 6). After of the first stage all pupils enter 5th grade, thus pupils that started at the age of 7 do not attend the 4th grade.

While it is not compulsory to remain in school after graduating from middle school, a student cannot progress to tertiary school without graduating from high school or vocational school.

In Singapore, compulsory education lasts ten years and begins the year the child turns seven. However, most children receive a preschool education spanning two to three years before entering primary school after which they will move on to a secondary school, where Sec 5 is only made compulsory for students who have achieved a determined score for their PSLE.

While it is not compulsory to remain in school after graduating from secondary school, most go on to receive their tertiary education at a junior college, a polytechnic, or an institute of technical education (ITE) before moving on to university.

In Sweden children start school at the age of seven; before that preschool is voluntary. It is unusual to skip a year of "preschool class", with most children attending at age six.

First set of grades are called "lÃ¥gstadiet" (low grades).

Second set of grades are called "mellanstadiet" (middle grades).

Third set of grades are called "hÃ¶gstadiet" (high grades).

The last school before higher education is called "gymnasiet" (ongoing school) and is voluntary, though most choose to attend. At this level students decide among separate career-related schools. Some of the more practical schools last only two years, and some students may choose to attend an extra year to study higher education. The typical duration is three years, though some schools offer a four-year program to enable students to engage in more athletics or gather real work experience.

In England and Wales education is divided into two stages: primary education and secondary education. Required assessment within the National Curriculum takes place in years 2 and 6 (National Curriculum assessments) and Year 11 (GCSEs). School education is generally followed by two years of further education – often in a 6th form or 6th form college and then three or four years at university by those who decide to stay in education.

Children begin school either in the school year or school term in which they reach their fifth birthday. Primary schools educate children from Reception through to Year 6, and may be subdivided into infant and junior schools. Alternatively, children may attend private prep schools.

Secondary education is compulsory to the age of 16. Schools have various possible names, such as grammar, comprehensive and secondary schools, which may or may not indicate selective admission or tuition fees (see main article). 6th form|6th form education is not compulsory at present, and not all secondary schools have a 6th form. There are also 6th form colleges just for Year 12 and 13 students.

Some secondary schools still use the 'form' system, with Year 7 being 1st Form (or "1st year"), Year 8 being Second Form, et cetera, up until Year 12 and Year 13, which together make up the 6th Form (namely lower and upper sixth form). Some independent schools use other naming systems.

In some areas in England, a three-tier system of education is used, in which students pass through three stages: First school/Lower school (Reception to Year 3/4), Middle school (Year 4/5 to Year 7/8) and finally High or Upper School (Year 8/9â€“Year 13)

In Scotland, education is divided into two stages: primary education and secondary education. Primary education is delivered almost exclusively through primary schools which offer education for pupils aged between 4 and 12. Children are entitled to pre-school education from their third birthday, and must enter compulsory education from the August after their 5th birthday. There is some leeway in the starting date or pupils.[6]

Education lasts 7 years in the primary school, before pupils move to a secondary school for between 4 and 6 years, the last two being optional. There is some variation in the phasing of education in more remote areas of Scotland, where provision may be made in a through school, or in other combinations of institutes.

In the United States (U.S.), the grades traditionally begin at 1 and run to 12; they are referred to by ordinal number (e.g. first grade, or 3rd grade to 12th grade). An additional preceding level called kindergarten ("K") is now standard in most areas, and a further preceding level called preschool education or nursery school is not uncommon. In some parts of the state of Wisconsin, kindergarten is split further into junior and senior kindergarten.

Before the term "middle school" became much more commonly applied, grades 7â€“8 were placed in "junior high school" (with grade 6 in some schools).

The Table US (at left) outlines the ages, in years, of each grade level in the US. However, students are sometimes older because of grade retention or younger because of grade skipping.

In some classes, students from various grades might attend together as a multi-grade class, to offer more variety in course subjects, rather than have only a single grade attend those classes.


what does the ablative case do in latin

In Latin grammar, the ablative case (in Latin, cāsus ablātīvus) is one of the six cases of nouns. Traditionally, it is the sixth case (Latin: cāsus sextus, cāsus latīnus). It has forms and functions derived from the Proto-Indo-European ablative, instrumental, and locative. It expresses concepts similar to those of the English prepositions from; with, by; and in, at.[1]  It is sometimes called the adverbial case, since phrases in the ablative can be translated as adverbs: incrēdibilī celeritāte, "with incredible speed", or "very quickly"

Ablative (Latin)

Some uses of the ablative descend from the Proto-Indo-European ablative case.

Some uses of the ablative descend from the Proto-Indo-European instrumental case.

Some meanings of the ablative descend from the Proto-Indo-European locative case.

Some Latin prepositions, like ex "from" or dÄ“ "about", take a noun in the ablative.  Four prepositions (in "in/into", sub "under/to the foot of", subter "under", super "over") may take either an accusative or an ablative. In the case of the first two, the accusative indicates motion, and the ablative indicates no motion. For instance, in urbe means "in the city"; in urbem, "into the city".[14] In the case of super, the accusative means "above" or "over", and the ablative means "concerning".[15]

"SIDSPACE" and any of its anagrams, including "IS SPACED" and "PASS DICE",[16] may be used as a mnemonic to remember the most common prepositions which use the ablative case:


when was the grand burstin hotel folkestone built

In the following 10 years the group acquired 16 more hotels in locations such as Birmingham, Aberdeen and Newcastle. In November 2004 it acquired four hotels from the Grand Leisure Group: the Grand Hotel in Scarborough, the Grand Hotel in Llandudno, the Grand Burstin Hotel in Folkestone and the Grand Metropole in Blackpool. In January 2011, the company bought North West holiday camp business Pontins out of administration in a Â£18.5m deal which safeguarded about 1,000 jobs. Following the acquisition Britannia had to deal with a series of complaints.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16]

Britannia Hotels

Britannia Hotels is a United Kingdom hotel group with 53 hotels across the country. It includes the Pontins Holiday Park portfolio. Britannia operates at the budget end of the market with hotels varying in price and star ratings.

Britannia Hotels, was founded in 1976 with the purchase of the Britannia Country House Hotel in Didsbury, Manchester. Its Chief Executive, founder, and largest shareholder remains Alex Langsam. Langsam is a non-domiciled taxpayer, registered as living in Austria for tax-purposes since 1999.[2] His net personal worth was valued at Â£90 million in 2013 by The Sunday Times.[3]

Its head office is based in the old town hall in Hale, Manchester. A large cluster of the company's hotels are located in and around Manchester.

Soon after its foundation Britannia began making a number of further acquisitions.

The second purchase in 1981 was a derelict listed building in central Manchester (the former Watts Warehouse standing on Portland Street, Manchester). After redeveloping the unit it opened in May 1982 as the Britannia Hotel Manchester. At the end of 1982 British Rail sold off its hotel division - British Transport Hotels. From this sale, in 1983 Britannia bought the Britannia Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool.

In 1987 Britannia Hotels converted an unused building in Manchester that had been the city's C&A department store - this became the Sachas Hotel.[4][5] Later in the same year Bosworth Hall, a country house style hotel in Market Bosworth Leicestershire, was purchased. Bosworth Hall was being converted from a hospital/nursing home into a hotel and Britannia took over the development from the builders who went bankrupt. In 1988 the company purchased and began development of the International Hotel adjacent to Canary Wharf in the London's Docklands. The hotel opened on 9 June 1992. A year later, Britannia took over a 187-bedroom hotel in Stockport. After a period of refurbishment the Britannia Stockport Hotel opened in 1993. In the summer of the same year the group also purchased the Europa Hotel situated close to Gatwick Airport.

From 2005 to 2015 the Group enjoyed its most rapid period of expansion acquiring 23 hotels - including the Palace Hotel in Buxton and the Basingstoke Country Hotel acquired from the Hotel Collection[17][18] and the Trecarn Hotel Torquay[19] and Cavendish Hotel in Eastbourne. In 2017, Britannia Hotels also acquired the Royal Hotel in Hull from the Mercure Hotel Group expanding the empire to 53 Hotels.[20]

The 1988 Philip Saville film The Fruit Machine featured interior and main entrance scenes of the Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool, including a vertical pan shot past the lit marquee at night.

In 2008 as part of the Capital of Culture celebrations, a musical based on the Adelphi Hotel, written and directed by Phil Willmott, Once Upon A Time At The Adelphi, ran at the Liverpool Playhouse from 30 June until 2 August.[21]

In early 2014 Michael Palin and Mark Addy were filmed within the Grand Scarbrough Hotel for scenes for the BBC drama Remember Me.[citation needed]

In the mid-1980s, Alex Langsam, owner of the Britannia Hotel Group, acquired the Grade II* listed London Road Fire Station in Manchester. Proposals have been made to redevelop it into a hotel and offices, however the plans have been delayed. In 2006 it was placed on English Heritage's register of "at risk" historical buildings.[22] The city council has attempted to compulsorily purchase the building[23] but on 29 November 2011, it was rejected.[24]

In 2005 and 2006 the Grand Hotel in Scarborough and the Adelphi were investigated by the BBC over theft and hygiene.[25][26]

In 2007 the Britannia hotel in Stockport was listed on TripAdvisor as among Britain's dirtiest.[27] Whilst others have been prosecuted, for example Coventry[28] and the Britannia Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool.[29] In November 2015, the Liverpool Echo investigated a guest's complaints about the Adelphi[30] In June 2017, the Adelphi was prosecuted for breaches of food safety and hygiene regulations.[31]

In 2013 the chain was successfully prosecuted for putting guests and construction workers at risk of asbestos fibre exposure at the Grand Burstin Hotel in Folkestone.[32]


who sang can't get enough of your love baby

"Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe" is a song written, recorded, and produced by Barry White. Released as the first single from his album Can't Get Enough in 1974, the song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 and R&B charts[1] and has since become one of his signature tunes. It was his second US chart-topper, after "Love's Theme". It became a gold record.

Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe

White performed this song live on The Midnight Special in 1974, and on Soul Train on May 24, 1975.[2]

In 1993 the song was covered – as "Can't Get Enough of Your Love" – by Taylor Dayne. When Dayne submitted her planned third album to Arista Records, label president Clive Davis strongly suggested that she remake the Barry White classic to serve as the album's lead single (replacing Dayne's choice, the self-penned "I'll Wait" which was the planned title cut; the album's title was amended to Soul Dancing).

Produced by David Cole and Robert Clivillés of C+C Music Factory, Dayne's "Can't Get Enough of Your Love" became a smash dance club hit peaking at #2.[11] However, the track evinced a sharp drop in Dayne's profile on the Billboard Hot 100 with a #20 peak; Dayne's first seven singles had all reached the Top Ten but her eighth single "Heart of Stone" peaked at #12. "Can't Get Enough of Your Love" was her final Top 40 hit with the follow-up single, "Send Me a Lover", being her last Hot 100 entry.

The track had more impact for Dayne internationally; in Australia, it spent three weeks at #2 in August 1993.

Mainstream Top 40