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The Ohio State Buckeyes football team is a college football team that competes as part of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision, representing Ohio State University in the East Division of the Big Ten Conference. Ohio State has played their home games at Ohio Stadium in Columbus, Ohio since 1922.[3]

Ohio State Buckeyes football

The Buckeyes are recognized by the university and NCAA as having won eight national championships[4][5] along with 38 conference championships (including 36 Big Ten titles), six division championships, 10 undefeated seasons, and six perfect seasons of having no losses or ties.

The first Ohio State game was a 20-14 victory over Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio, on May 3, 1890. The team was a football independent from 1890 to 1901 before joining the Ohio Athletic Conference (OAC) as a charter member in 1902.[4] The Buckeyes won two conference championships while members of the OAC and in 1912 became members of the Big Ten Conference.[6]

Ohio State won their first national championship in 1942 under head coach Paul Brown.[4]

Following World War II, Ohio State saw sparse success on the football field with three separate coaches and in 1951 hired Woody Hayes to coach the team. Under Hayes, Ohio State won over 200 total games, 13 Big Ten championships and five national championships (1954, 1957, 1961, 1968 and 1970), and had four Rose Bowl wins in eight appearances.[4] Following Hayes' dismissal in 1978, Earle Bruce and later John Cooper coached the team to a combined seven conference championships between them.

Jim Tressel was hired as head coach in 2001 and led Ohio State to its seventh national championship in 2002 with a win in the Fiesta Bowl.[7] Ohio State won seven Big Ten championships under Tressel and appeared in eight Bowl Championship Series (BCS) games, winning five of them.

On November 28, 2011, two-time National Championship winning coach and Ohio native Urban Meyer became head coach.[8] Meyer led his team to five division championships in his first five seasons as well as a school record 24 straight victories, beginning with a perfect 12â€“0 in 2012. He led OSU to both the Big Ten and the first College Football Playoff National Championship of its kind in the 2014 season, giving Meyer his third national title overall and first at OSU.[9][10] OSU won the second Big Ten title in the Meyer era in 2017.

As of 2017, the football program is valued at $1.5 billion,[11] the highest valuation of any such program in the country.[12]

After early attempts at forming a team in 1886 (led by future Nebraska governor Chester Hardy Aldrich) and 1887, football was ultimately established at the university in 1890. On the site of the first OSU game, on the campus of Ohio Wesleyan University in Delaware, Ohio, on May 3, 1890, the Delaware County Historical Society has set an historical marker.[13]

Some histories of Ohio State football credit George Cole, an undergraduate, and Alexander S. Lilley with introducing the sport to the campus. More recent research has challenged that claim, stating that George Cole persuaded Lilley to coach the football team during its first full season that fall.[13]

OSU's first home game took place at 2:30 p.m. on November 1, 1890. The Ohio State University played the University of Wooster on this site, which was then called Recreation Park. Just east of historic German Village, the park occupied the north side of Schiller (now Whittier) between Ebner and Jaeger in what is now Schumacher Place. The weather was perfect, and the crowd cheered loudly. Nonetheless, OSU lost to Wooster, 64–0. Wooster, physically fit for the game, showed OSU that training is critical to winning. Thus, the tradition of training continues.

Over the next eight years, under a number of coaches, the team played to a cumulative record of 31 wins, 39 losses, and 2 ties. The first game against the University of Michigan, in Ann Arbor, was a 34–0 loss in 1897, a year that saw the low point in Buckeye football history with a 1–7–1 record. Jack Ryder was Ohio State's first paid coach, earning $150 per season, and lost his first game, against Oberlin College and John Heisman, on October 15, 1892.[14]

In 1899 the university hired John Eckstorm to bring professional coaching skills to the program and immediately went undefeated.[15] In 1901, however, center John Segrist was fatally injured in a game against Western Reserve University and the continuation of football at Ohio State was in serious question. Although the school's athletic board let the team decide its future, Eckstorm resigned.[16] In 1912 football underwent a number of developments that included joining the Western Conference, making football as part of a new Department of Athletics, and hiring Lynn W. St. John to be athletic director.

Chic Harley attended East High in Columbus and was one of the greatest players to attend an Ohio high school. He passed, ran, received, punted, kicked and played defense. Harley came to Ohio State in 1916 and Columbus fans instantly fell in love with the Chic. Harley and the Buckeyes won the very first Big Ten championship in school history in 1916 when the Buckeyes finished 7–0. He would repeat in 1917 finishing 8–0–1, giving the Buckeyes a second outright title. In 1918, he left to be a pilot in the air force for World War I. With Harley's return in 1919, the Buckeyes would only lose one game—to Illinois. Chic Harley left OSU with a career record of 22–1–1. At the time, OSU played at the small Ohio Field and Harley brought such record crowds it became necessary to open Ohio Stadium in 1922. The stadium was built entirely on fan donations and several stadium drives around the city where Harley would often appear. In 1951, when the College Football Hall of Fame opened, Harley was inducted as an inaugural member.

Ohio State's very first rival was Kenyon College, a small liberal arts college in Gambier, roughly 50 miles to the northeast. The Buckeyes first played them in their first season in 1890 on Nov 27, Kenyon won the first two meetings; however, Ohio State won 15 in a row and the rivalry diminished. Kenyon made it their season goal to defeat OSU. After the Bucks joined the Big Ten they stopped playing Kenyon. The all-time record stands at 18â€“6, OSU.

In hiring Francis Schmidt in March 1934 to coach its football team, Ohio State moved its program to a "big-time" level of competition. Schmidt was a well-established coach and an acknowledged offensive innovator. His offensive schemes were a "wide-open" style called "razzle-dazzle" and led him to be the first Buckeye football coach granted a multi-year contract. Schmidt's first four seasons saw victories over archrival Michigan, all by shut-out. The 1935 squad went 7–1, its sole loss was to Notre Dame, 18–13, in the first contest between the programs. However Schmidt's remaining seasons were less successful, except in 1939 when the Buckeyes won the Big Ten championship, and his popularity faded for a number of reasons.[17] On December 17, 1940, he resigned.

Ohio State hired the coach of Massillon Washington High School football team, Paul Brown, to succeed Schmidt. Brown's Tigers had just won their sixth straight state championship. Brown immediately changed Ohio State's style of offense, planned and organized his program in great detail, and delegated to his assistant coaches using highly structured practices. In 1942, Ohio State lost 22 veteran players to military service as the United States joined World War II, and with a team of mostly sophomores went on to lose only once in winning its first national championship.

Brown accepted a commission in the United States Navy in 1944 and directed his assistant Carroll Widdoes to head the team in his absence. The 1944 team fielded 31 freshmen but went undefeated and untied, including a victory over Paul Brown's Great Lakes Navy team. Ohio State finished second in the national rankings behind Army and Les Horvath became the first Buckeye to be awarded the Heisman Trophy. Also prominent on the 1942–44 teams was the first Buckeye African American star, Bill Willis.

Brown chose not to return to Ohio State after the war, going into professional football instead. Widdoes, despite having the highest two-year winning percentage of any Buckeye coach, asked to return to an assistant's position. Offensive coordinator Paul Bixler and Widdoes switched positions, and Bixler endured a mediocre 4–3–2 season. Bixler resigned and talk of Ohio State being a "graveyard of coaches" became commonplace, a reputation that lingered for decades.[18]

Wes Fesler became head coach in 1947 but finished last in the Big Ten for the only time in team history. Ohio State improved greatly in 1948, winning 6 and losing 3, then in 1949 enjoyed a successful season due to the play of sophomore Vic Janowicz. Ohio State received the Rose Bowl invitation, where they came from behind to defeat California. In 1950 Fesler, rumored to be resigning because of pressures associated with the position and abuse of his family by anonymous critics, returned to coach the Buckeyes, who won six games in a row to move into the top ranking in the AP poll. However, the season fell apart as the Buckeyes lost to Michigan during a blizzard, a game that came to be known as the "Snow Bowl". Two weeks later, citing concerns about his health and family, Fesler resigned.

Wayne Woodrow "Woody" Hayes beat out Paul Brown,[19] among others, to be named head coach on February 18, 1951. He instituted a demanding practice regimen and was both aggressive and vocal in enforcing it, alienating many players accustomed to Fesler's laid-back style. The 1951 Buckeyes won 4, lost 3, and tied 2, leaving many to question the ability of the new coach. In 1952 the team improved to 6â€“3, and recorded their first victory over Michigan in eight years, but after a 1953 loss to Michigan, critics called for the replacement of Hayes.

In 1954 the Buckeyes were picked to finish no higher than 10th in the Big Ten. Hayes, however, had the talents of Howard "Hopalong" Cassady, and a historic goal-line stand against Michigan propelled Ohio State to a perfect season. Hayes led the powerhouse Buckeyes to a shared national championship (his first and the team's second). In 1955 the team again won the Big Ten, set an attendance record, and won in Ann Arbor for the first time in 18Â years, while Hopalong Cassady was securing the Heisman Trophy. Ohio State passed only three times against Michigan (the sole reception was the only completion in the final three games of the year), leading to characterization of Hayes' style of offensive play as "three yards and a cloud of dust".

In a 1955 article in Sports Illustrated, Hayes admitted making small personal loans to financially needy players.[20] The article resulted in a furor over possible violations of NCAA rules, and the faculty council, followed by the Big Ten and NCAA, conducted lengthy investigations. Big Ten Commissioner Kenneth "Tug" Wilson found Hayes and the program guilty of violations and placed it on a year's probation in 1956. In 1957 Ohio State won all of its remaining games after an opening loss to claim the Big Ten championship, win the Rose Bowl over Oregon, and share a national title with Auburn, for which Hayes was named Coach of the Year.

In 1961 the team went undefeated to be named national champions by the FWAA but a growing conflict between academics and athletics over Ohio State's reputation as a "football school" resulted in a faculty council vote to decline an invitation to the Rose Bowl, resulting in much public protest and debate.[21] Over the next 6 seasons Ohio State finished no higher than 2nd, and had a losing season in 1966, and public speculation that Hayes would be replaced as coach grew to its highest point since 1953.

In 1968 Ohio State defeated the number one-ranked Purdue Boilermakers and continued to an undefeated season including a 50–14 rout of Michigan and a Rose Bowl victory over the USC Trojans that resulted in the national championship. The Class of 1970 became known as the "super sophomores" in 1968, and might have gone on to three consecutive national championships except for what may have been the most bitter loss in Buckeye history. The winning streak reached 22 games as Ohio State traveled to Michigan. The Buckeyes were 17-point favorites but directed by first-year coach Bo Schembechler, Michigan shocked the Buckeyes in a 24–12 upset.

The 1969 loss to Michigan initiated what came to be known as "The Ten Year War", in which the rivalry, which pitted some of OSU's and UM's strongest teams ever, rose to the uppermost level of all sports and the competition between Schembechler and Hayes became legendary.[22] Four times between 1970 and 1975, Ohio State and Michigan were both ranked in the top five of the AP Poll before their matchup. The Wolverines entered every game during those years undefeated and won only once, a 10â€“7 victory in Ann Arbor on November 20, 1971.

Both teams used the annual game as motivation for entire seasons and after the initial win by Michigan, played dead even at four wins and a tie apiece. Hayes had the upper hand during the first part of the war, in which Ohio State won the conference championship and went to the Rose Bowl four straight years, while Michigan won the final three. It was also an era in which through television Ohio State football again came to the forefront of national attention.

Hayes set the tone in spring practice in 1970, placing a rug at the entrance to the Buckeye dressing room emblazoned with the words: "1969 MICH 24 OSU 12 — 1970 MICH:__ OSU:__" as a constant reminder of their objective.[23] The "super sophomores", now seniors, used a strong fullback-oriented offense to smash their way through the season undefeated, struggling only with Purdue the week before the Michigan game. The return match in Columbus found both teams undefeated and untied, a "first" in the history of the rivalry, with Michigan ranked fourth and Ohio State fifth. Ohio State combined a powerful defense that held Michigan to only 37 yards rushing, a rushing offense employing two tight ends as blockers, and a 26-yard touchdown pass from Kern to Bruce Jankowski to win 20–9. The Buckeyes returned to the Rose Bowl to be upset by Stanford 27–17. The "super sophomores" had garnered a record of 27–2, the best winning percentage of any three-year period in team history, and won or shared the Big Ten title all three years. The National Football Foundation named Ohio State its national champion for 1970.

1971 was less successful than the preceding seasons, but the middle four years of the 10-year war saw the greatest success for Hayes against Michigan, although the teams fell short of repeating their 1968 national championship. Archie Griffin began his college football career in 1972, taking advantage of new NCAA eligibility rules that allowed freshmen to compete at the varsity level. In his second game, sent in against North Carolina late in the first quarter, Griffin set a new Buckeye rushing record with 239Â yards and led the team in rushing for the season with 867.

The following season Hayes installed an I-formation attack with Griffin at tailback and fellow sophomore Cornelius Greene at quarterback. The Buckeyes went undefeated with a powerful offense and equally impenetrable defense, achieving an average margin of victory of 31 points a game. The only blemish on their record was a 10â€“10 tie with Michigan after both teams had entered the game unbeaten. (The tie was more galling for the Wolverines, however, as the Big Ten selected Ohio State to represent the conference in the Rose Bowl.) Despite soundly defeating defending national champion USC, however, the tie with Michigan resulted in the Buckeyes finishing second to Notre Dame in the final AP rankings. Griffin, Randy Gradishar, Van DeCree, and John Hicks were named All-Americans; Hicks, an offensive tackle, not only won both the Outland and Lombardi Trophies, but placed second in the Heisman Trophy competition.

1974 and 1975 were seasons of both elation and frustration. The Buckeyes twice more defeated Michigan and went to two Rose Bowls, but lost both. The 1974 team seemed bound for another national championship when it was derailed by a loss to unranked Michigan State (Ohio State lost only twice in the regular season during Griffin's 4-year career, both to the Spartans), and the next year the #1-ranked Bucks lost 23–10 to 11th-ranked UCLA in the 1976 Rose Bowl. In all the Buckeyes were 40–5–1 from 1972–75, winning the Big Ten all four years and never losing to Michigan, but each loss and the tie were crucial in failing to win another championship. Archie Griffin, however, received the Heisman Trophy for both years, off-setting much of the frustration, and amassed 5,589 yards in his career.[citation needed]

The falloff in success of Hayes' last three years was not great. His teams forged records of 9–2–1, 9–3, and 7–4–1, and made bowl appearances in all three years (the rules had changed to allow appearances in other than the Rose Bowl). However frustrations in losing three straight years to Michigan, and other factors, resulted in growing criticism of Hayes and his methods, particularly his on-the-field fits of temper. Even so, his downfall was sudden and shocking when near the end of the nationally televised Gator Bowl, Hayes punched Clemson middle guard Charlie Bauman after Bauman intercepted a pass to kill Ohio State's last chance to win. Hayes was fired after the game by Ohio State president Harold Enarson and athletic director Hugh Hindman.[citation needed]

Hayes was replaced by a former protégé, Earle Bruce. Bruce inherited a strong team led by sophomore quarterback Art Schlichter but that had also lost eleven starters, and the 1979 squad exceeded pre-season expectations, ending the 3-year loss drought against Michigan and going to the Rose Bowl with an opportunity once again to be national champions. The Buckeyes lost both by a single point, 17–16, but Bruce was named Coach of the Year. His success was hailed by those in the media who saw it as a rebuke of Hayes and the start of a "new era".[24]

1980, however, saw the start of a trend that eventually brought criticism to Bruce, when Ohio State finished with a 9–3 record, the first of six consecutive years at 9–3. Though each of these seasons, and the 10–3 season that followed them, culminated in a bowl game, Ohio State did not appear to be any closer to a national championship than during the end of the Hayes era. Bruce's teams were not without impact players, however. All-Americans and future National Football League stars included Keith Byars, Cris Carter, Chris Spielman, John Frank, Jim Lachey, Tom Tupa, Marcus Marek, and Pepper Johnson. His program was also known for the number of notable assistant coaches on staff, including Jim Tressel, Glen Mason, Pete Carroll, Nick Saban, Urban Meyer and Dom Capers.

The 1980 team was selected as the top-ranked team of the pre-season AP poll and opened the season with four games at home, but were shocked in the fourth game by UCLA, shut out 17â€“0. The team rebounded to win its next six easily, but then were shut down by a ball-control Michigan team that allowed the Buckeyes only 23 minutes with the ball, then lost again to Penn State in the Fiesta Bowl.

In 1981, Ohio State opened strong, including a victory at Stanford in which senior Art Schlichter out-dueled John Elway, but then lost back-to-back games to Florida State and Wisconsin (their first victory over the Buckeyes in 22 games). The Buckeyes continued to struggle on defense, losing a third time, at Minnesota. Victories over Michigan to gain a share of the Big Ten championship and over Navy in the Liberty Bowl salvaged the season.

For the first time since 1922 the Buckeyes lost three in a row in Ohio Stadium in 1982, including rematches with Stanford and Florida State, and for the second year in a row to Wisconsin, but then won seven straight, the last over BYU in the Holiday Bowl. Sophomore running back Keith Byars had a stand-out season in 1983, rushing for 1,199 yards, and Ohio State defeated the Oklahoma Sooners in Norman, but three losses in conference meant a 4th-place finish. 1984 witnessed what Bruce called "the greatest comeback after the worst start" when Ohio State fell behind Illinois 24–0 at home but roared back on 274 yards rushing and five touchdowns by Byars to win 45–38. Ohio State also defeated Michigan to win an outright Big Ten championship. Byars led the nation in rushing and scoring but finished second in Heisman balloting.

Byars broke his toe just prior to the start of the 1985 season, ending his Heisman hopes and seriously handicapping the Buckeye attack. He returned against Purdue with Ohio State at 4–1 and scored twice, but then re-injured his foot the next week against Minnesota. Iowa was top-ranked nationally when they came into Ohio Stadium favored to end the longest home winning streak in the country, and were the first #1 team the Buckeyes faced since Purdue in 1968. Ohio State's defense dominated with four interceptions to win 22–13.

In 1986 Bruce received a 3-year contract, the first for the modern program but the team opened with two losses, which had not occurred in over 90 years. The Buckeyes then won 9 in a row before Michigan took a close game when kicker Matt Frantz missed a field goal with a minute to play. After the season Bruce was offered the position of head coach at the University of Arizona with a 5-year contract but was persuaded to stay at his alma mater by Athletic Director Rick Bay. Hopes for a standout season in 1987 suffered a serious setback when All-American wide receiver Cris Carter was dropped from the team for signing with an agent. Indiana defeated Ohio State for the first time since 1951, 31â€“10, in a game that came to be known as the "darkest day", and Ohio State lost three conference games in a row going into the Michigan game.

On the Monday of Michigan week, after a weekend of rumors and speculation, Ohio State President Edward Jennings fired Bruce but tried to keep the dismissal secret until after the end of the season. Bay, who had been instrumental in keeping Bruce at Ohio State, disregarded Jennings' orders and announced the firing and his own resignation in protest. Jennings made his own situation worse by refusing to give a reason for the firing and the circumstances have been the subject of controversy since.[25] The Buckeyes enjoyed an emotional come-from-behind victory over Michigan in Ann Arbor after the entire team wore headbands bearing the word "EARLE", then declined an invitation to play in the Sun Bowl.

John Cooper was hired as the 21st football head coach at Ohio State before the end of 1987 and before he had coached his last game at Arizona State University. Cooper's coaching record at ASU and at Tulsa prior to that stood out among his credentials, as did a victory over Michigan in the 1987 Rose Bowl.

Cooper's thirteen years as Buckeye head coach are largely remembered in the litany of negative statistics associated with him: a notorious 2–10–1 record against Michigan, a 3–8 record in bowl games, a 5-year losing streak to Illinois to start his term and a 6–7 record overall, and blowing a 15-point 3rd quarter lead in a 28–24 loss to unranked Michigan State when the Buckeyes were the top-ranked team in the nation and en route to a national championship. However his record also has many positives: back-to-back victories over Notre Dame, two finishes second-ranked in the polls, and three Big Ten championships (albeit shared). Cooper also recruited 15 players who were first-round draft picks in the National Football League.[26]

Both 1988 and 1989 began identically: an impressive season-opening win followed by an embarrassing loss to a highly regarded team (Pitt and USC); a rebound win against two other highly regarded programs (LSU and Boston College) followed by a loss to Illinois in the conference opener. However 1988 saw Ohio State lose its first three conference games and a close game at home against Michigan for a 4–6–1 record, its first losing season in 22 years. In 1989 the Buckeyes won 6 consecutive Big Ten games before losing its last two to go 8–4. The most noteworthy victory occurred in Minneapolis when Ohio State overcame a 31–0 deficit to Minnesota to win 41–37.

1990 continued the pattern with a 2-win 2-loss start and an overall 7–4–1 record that included an embarrassing loss to Air Force in the Liberty Bowl. 1991 was 8–4, notable primarily as the season that sophomore running back Robert Smith quit the team. 1992, with senior Kirk Herbstreit at quarterback, and Smith back on the team was 8–3–1, but the losing string to Michigan was broken with a 13–13 tie. Persistent rumors that Cooper would resign or be fired were laid to rest when University President Gordon Gee announced he would be back in 1993.[27]

The next 6 seasons were very successful, winning ten or more games in 5 of the 6 and sharing the conference championship in three. Eddie George won the Heisman Trophy in 1995 after a tremendous senior season, Ohio State defeated Notre Dame in 1995 and 1996, and won half its bowl games. But in three seasons (1993, 1995, and 1996) the Buckeyes entered the Michigan game undefeated, with the possibility of a national championship in at least one, and lost all three to underdog Wolverine teams. Ohio State had won 62 games and lost only 12, but a third of those were to Michigan.

After renewing his contract and becoming a member of the "million dollar coaching club",[28] Cooper started sophomore Austin Moherman against the Miami Hurricanes in the nationally televised Kickoff Classic and was soundly beaten. That presaged a mediocre season in which the Buckeyes finished 6–6, ending their successful 90's run. The 2000 team was more successful, going 8–4, but criticism of Cooper among fans had risen to a clamor again and touched on many areas of the program beyond specific game records. The negative publicity rose to a peak in the days leading up to Ohio State's matchup with South Carolina in the Outback Bowl, when wide receiver Reggie Germany was suspended for having a 0.0 GPA, team captain Matt Wilhelm publicly criticized fellow player Ken-Yon Rambo, and one Buckeye lineman sued another.[29]

In January 2001, the Ohio State University dismissed Cooper. His loss in the Outback Bowl to a team that had not even won a single game the year before was a factor in his subsequent firing, as was negative publicity regarding player behavior before and during the game. Other contributing factors included the record against Michigan (which was actually considered by most people to be the biggest reason for his firing), a reputation of inability to win "big games", the lack of a national championship, the perception of him as an outsider by many alumni, the poor bowl game record, and finally a perceived lack of discipline on the team.

Ohio State quickly sought a replacement for Cooper and after a nationwide search hired Jim Tressel. With four NCAA Division I-AA National Championships at Youngstown State University, Tressel, formerly an assistant coach for Earle Bruce, was an Ohioan who was considered to be appreciative of Buckeye football traditions. Although there were some doubts as to whether or not Tressel could repeat his earlier success at the Division 1A level, most fans and alumni met the coaching change with enthusiasm. On the day of his hiring, Jim Tressel, speaking to fans and students at a Buckeye basketball game, made a prophetic implication that he would lead the Buckeyes to beat Michigan in Ann Arbor the following November.[30]

Tressel's first season was difficult as the Buckeyes finished 7–5 (all but one loss was by a touchdown or less), but he made good on his promise, beating Michigan in Ann Arbor. While its fans were optimistic about the chance for success of the 2002 team, most observers were surprised by Ohio State's National Championship.[31][32] Ohio State used strong defense, ball-control play-calling, and field position tactics to win numerous close games, a style of play characterized as "Tresselball",[33] and disparaged by detractors as "the Luckeyes".[34] The 2006 and 2007 regular seasons ended with just one combined loss and consecutive appearances in the national championship game. The Buckeyes lost both by wide margins. On January 1, 2010, the Buckeyes defeated the Oregon Ducks in The Rose Bowl Game by a score of 26–17. This ended a 3-game BCS losing streak for Ohio State, having lost 2 national championships and one Tostitos Fiesta Bowl. Terrelle Pryor was named MVP of the contest with 2 touchdown passes for a career-high 266 passing yards. In addition, he had more total yards than the entire Oregon Ducks team.

In December 2010 it was announced that five student-athletes on the Ohio State University football team would be suspended for the first five games of the 2011 season for NCAA violations. The punishments stemmed from an incident when some of the Buckeye players received tattoos for their autographs, according to news reports. Other violations committed by the players included the selling of several items given to them by the University, such as Big Ten championship rings.[35]

On January 4, 2011, Ohio State completed its season with a 31–26 win over Arkansas in the Sugar Bowl. The Sugar Bowl win would have marked Ohio State's first bowl victory over a Southeastern Conference opponent in ten attempts, but the win was later vacated due to NCAA violations. Ohio State ended up with an 0–1 record (the lone loss from the Wisconsin Badgers) for the 2010 season after vacating its wins for NCAA violations.

On December 22, 2010, the NCAA announced that five players would be suspended for the first five games of the 2011 season due to receiving improper benefits. Mike Adams, Dan Herron, DeVier Posey, Solomon Thomas, and quarterback Terrelle Pryor were found to have signed autographs in return for tattoos, as well as selling memorabilia given to them by the university. In addition, Jordan Whiting was suspended for the season opener for his involvement. The scandal originated at Fine Line Tattoos and Piercings in Columbus whose owner, Edward Rife, was being investigated for felony drug trafficking. On January 4, 2011, with all the players allowed to participate by the NCAA, the Buckeyes defeated the Arkansas Razorbacks in the Sugar Bowl by a margin of 31–26.[36] The win along with every other one from the 2010 season would later be vacated due to the scandal. The Buckeyes finished the season 0–1, with their only official game being a loss to Wisconsin.

On March 8, 2011, OSU suspended head coach Jim Tressel for the first 2 games of the 2011 season and fined him $250,000 for not informing the university and the NCAA that he had knowledge of his players receiving improper benefits. Coach Tressel's suspension would later be increased to 5 games by the university. On May 30, 2011 Jim Tressel resigned as head coach of the Buckeyes.[37]

On June 6, 2011, a story in Sports Illustrated reported that at least 28 players, including Rob Rose, T. J. Downing, Louis Irizarry, Chris Vance, C. J. Barnett, Dorien Bell, Jamaal Berry, Bo DeLande, Zach Domicone, Storm Klein, Etienne Sabino, John Simon, Nathan Williams, Jermale Hines, Devon Torrence, Donald Washington, Thaddeus Gibson, Jermil Martin, Lamaar Thomas, and Doug Worthington traded team memorabilia or used equipment for tattoos or other merchandise or services between 2002 and 2010. The report alleged that Tressel had violated NCAA bylaw 10.1 â€“ unethical conduct, three times by not acting when told of the tattoo improprieties, by signing a statement saying he knew of no violations, and for withholding information on what was going on from university officials.[38]

On July 8, 2011, Ohio State University decided to vacate all victories from the 2010 football season as self-imposed punishment for major NCAA violations.[39] Former coach Jim Tressel received more than $52,000 from the university and won't have to pay a $250,000 fine for his involvement in the scandal. His status is also changed from 'Resigned' to "Retired" in keeping with his wishes to "remain a Buckeye for life."[40] Ohio State named Luke Fickell interim head coach for the 2011 season following Tressel's resignation, and Fickell coached the 2011 Buckeyes to a 6–7 record; going 6–6 in the regular season and losing in the Gator Bowl to Florida.

On November 28, 2011, former University of Florida head coach and ESPN college football analyst Urban Meyer accepted the position of Buckeyes head coach.[41] Meyer assumed head coaching responsibilities following the Buckeyes' January 2012 Gator Bowl appearance. Meyer's first season at Ohio State did not include a postseason contest, as the Buckeyes were sanctioned with a one-year bowl ban on December 20, 2011. The NCAA sanctions also included the loss of three scholarships each year for the following three years and three years' probation to end on December 19, 2014. Ohio State was required to vacate all wins from the 2010 season, the 2010 Big Ten Conference championship and their win in the 2011 Sugar Bowl. The school's share of the Sugar Bowl proceeds were forfeited as well.[9]

In Meyer's first year, the Buckeyes went a perfect 12â€“0, winning the 2012 Big Ten Leaders Division, though the previously mentioned sanctions kept them from playing in the 2012 Big Ten Football Championship Game and a postseason bowl game.[9]

The Buckeyes played their 2013 Spring game at Paul Brown Stadium in Cincinnati, home of the Bengals on April 13, 2013.[42][43] The Scarlet won 31â€“14.

On November 23, 2013, the Buckeyes clinched their second straight Leaders Division Championship, after defeating Indiana 42–14. With the victory over Indiana, Ohio State set a team record for all-time consecutive wins, with 23. The following week, Ohio State defeated Michigan 42–41 in Ann Arbor, to increase the streak to 24. The streak ended with Ohio State's 34–24 loss to Michigan State in the 2013 Big 10 Conference Championship game on December 7, marking Meyer's first loss as the Buckeyes' head coach. On January 3, 2014, the Buckeyes were defeated by Clemson in the Orange Bowl 40–35.

On November 22, 2014, the Buckeyes clinched the first ever Big Ten East Division Championship when they defeated Indiana 42-27, earning a berth in the 2014 Big Ten Championship Game, where they defeated West Division champion Wisconsin 59-0 to win the Big Ten Conference Championship and qualified for the four-team playoff to decide the National Champion. OSU defeated Alabama in the Sugar Bowl 42-35, on January 1, 2015, to qualify for the National Championship Game against Rose Bowl winner Oregon on January 12 (the Rose and Sugar Bowls were the designated semifinal games in 2014). OSU claimed the first ever College Football Playoff National Championship by defeating Oregon 42-20.[10][44][45]

The 2015 season for the Buckeyes began with a 10-0 start before losing on a last second field goal to Michigan State on November 21, ending the Buckeyes quest to repeat as National Champions. However, the Buckeyes recovered their 2 next games with dominating wins over Michigan and then over Notre Dame in the Fiesta Bowl to finish the season at 12-1.

Ohio State football is rich in traditions.[46][47] The following are football traditions in chronological order of longevity:

Begun in 1913 by head coach John Wilce, seniors on the team are recognized at the last practice of the season, either before the Michigan game or before departing Columbus to play in a bowl game, and hit the blocking sled a final time.[48]

The winner of the Ohio State-Illinois game has been awarded the Illibuck Trophy since 1925.[48] Until 1927 the teams played for a live turtle, however, since the 1928 season the trophy is a carved wooden likeness of a turtle.

A gold miniature charm depicting a pair of football pants is given to all players and coaches following a victory over the Michigan Wolverines. The tradition began as the result of a comment to reporters by newly hired head coach Francis Schmidt on March 2, 1934: "How about Michigan? They put their pants on one leg at a time, the same as we do!" The first gold pants, which were a creation of Simon Lazarus (president of the Lazarus chain of department stores) and Herbert Levy,[49] were awarded that year for a 34â€“0 defeat of the Wolverines.[50]

1934 also saw the first gathering of former team captains for breakfast on the Sunday following the Homecoming game. The event began when local businessman Walter Jeffrey invited twenty former captains to the Scioto Country Club to honor them, and continues to welcome new captains and award them mugs bearing their names and season.[48][51]

Begun in 1934, each player who wins "first-team All-America" honors is recognized by the planting of a buckeye tree and installation of a plaque in Buckeye Grove, now located near the southwestern corner of Ohio Stadium next to Morrill Tower. Trees are planted in ceremonies held prior to the Spring Game. All 126 Buckeye All-Americans dating back to 1914 have been so honored.

Since 1935 the annual game against Michigan (known as "that team up north" for Ohio State fans) has been the final meeting of the regular season for both teams. The week prior to "The Game", known as Michigan Week, is characterized by scheduled school spirit and public service events, such as rallies, touch football games, and blood drives;[52] and by massive displays of school colors and banners in much of Ohio. In an unofficial culmination to Michigan Week, since 1990 on the Thursday night before "The Game" students have participated in the "Mirror Lake jump", an unofficial gathering at Mirror Lake, a pond between Pomerene Hall and The Oval, in which masses of students jump into the water.[53]

Since 1938 the registered student organization Block O has been the "Official Cheering Section" of the Buckeyes. "Known for spreading spirit, starting cheers and performing card stunts, Block 'O' was founded...by Clancy Isaac."[54] They occupy Section 39A in the South grandstand of Ohio Stadium, next to the band.[55][56]

The Victory Bell is rung after every Ohio State victory by members of Alpha Phi Omega, a tradition that began after the Bucks beat California October 2, 1954. Reputedly the ringing can be heard five miles away "on a calm day." Located 150 feet high in the southeast tower of Ohio Stadium, the bell was a gift of the classes of 1943, 1944 and 1945, and weighs 2,420 pounds.[48] The bell is rung for 15 minutes following a victory and for 30 minutes following a victory over Michigan.

Beginning in 1965, Brutus Buckeye has appeared at all Ohio State football games as the live mascot of the Buckeyes. In 2007 he was inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame and is now one of the most recognized mascots in the United States.

First played at the Illinois game of October 9, 1965, the rock song Hang on Sloopy is now played by the marching band before the start of the fourth quarter, with fans performing an O-H-I-O chant in the intervals between the refrains. The song is also played to encourage the team's defensive players when opponents are moving the ball on offense late in a game. The 116th Ohio General Assembly designated "Hang On Sloopy" as the State rock song by House Concurrent Resolution 16 on November 20, 1985. It is also played before the fourth quarter at Cleveland Browns and Cincinnati Bengals games, as well as during Cleveland Indians, Cincinnati Reds, Cleveland Cavaliers, and Columbus Blue Jackets games.[48]

Since 1967, the helmets of Ohio State players have been adorned with white decals approximately the size of a quarter depicting a buckeye leaf, awarded for making significant plays and for consistency of performance.[48] In the 1970s, the decals were approximately the size of a Silver Dollar until the 1979 Season. Most believe that this practice began in 1968 when the Buckeyes switched to their present Silver Helmet design since the decals have become identified with that helmet.

Since 1990 as part of Michigan Week, OSU students typically jump into Mirror Lake – located on campus – the Thursday night before the game. The tradition is thought to bring good luck to the football team for the game.[57] Since the 2010 season, the Thursday before "The Game" has been Thanksgiving. With most of the student body leaving campus for the holiday, the jump has since occurred on the Tuesday of Michigan Week.[58]

The Tunnel of Pride began with the 1994 Michigan game when all former players who were in attendance formed a tunnel through which the team ran to take the field, and Ohio State beat its rival that day, 22â€“6. Rex Kern, quarterback of the 1968 National Championship team, and then Director of Athletics Andy Geiger together used the concept as a means of connecting current Buckeyes with those who played before them. The Tunnel of Pride was next formed for the 1995 Notre Dame game, which the Buckeyes also won. In each home game against Michigan since, the tradition has been repeated.[48][59]

Instituted by Coach Tressel in 2001, at the conclusion of all home games the coaches, players and cheerleaders gather in the south end zone next to the marching band to sing the university's alma mater, Carmen Ohio, to the student section.[60]

Tressel brought to the Buckeye football program two pre-game traditions he developed at Youngstown State. Prior to its warmup routine before every football game, the team exits the locker room as a unit in a controlled manner, linked arm-in-arm in a group known as "The Hive". After warmups the team returns to the locker room, and when it next appears, runs onto the field and forms a circle of players around the strength coach, then they go through their warmup routine.[61]

The Marching Band, often referred to as "The Best Damn Band In The Land" or by the acronym TBDBITL[62] is the most visible and possibly best-known tradition of Ohio State football.[63] Home games are preceded by three much-anticipated traditions, and a fourth, "dotting the 'i'" of Script Ohio, enjoys a reputation all its own:[48]

While its rivalry with the University of Michigan is its most renowned and intense, Ohio State has two other series marked by their longevity, both Big Ten Conference rivals, those of Indiana and Illinois. The series versus Indiana began as a non-conference matchup, with Indiana going undefeated at 4–0–1. In conference, however, the Buckeyes (despite losing the opening conference game) are 70-8-4 through the 2014 season, the most wins against any opponent. Illinois also began with non-conference games (0–1–1) but became the longest continuous series in 2002 when the schools played in their 89th consecutive year (that record was tied by Michigan in 2007). Through 2014 Ohio State's record against the Illini is 66-30–4. In 2007, Ohio State was given their only defeat of the regular season by the Illini.

When Penn State was added to the conference football play in 1993, every member was given two designated rivals, teams to be played every year, with the other conference teams rotated out of the schedule at regular intervals. For geographic convenience, the Big Ten named Penn State as Ohio State's new designated rival in addition to Michigan, and Illinois was set to be paired with in-state rival Northwestern and neighboring Indiana, and in doing so undermined Ohio State's historical rivalry with Illinois.

With Nebraska's entry to the Big Ten and the establishment of division play in football, Ohio State and Illinois played every season in the Leaders Division from 2011 to 2013. Michigan was the Buckeyes' permanent cross-division rival from the Legends Division.

With the addition of Maryland and Rutgers to the Big Ten, Ohio State and Illinois will be in separate divisions and will no longer meet every year. Ohio State and Michigan also became East Division rivals.[64]

The Buckeyes have had 24 head coaches in their 121-year history. Of the team's eight national championships to date, Woody Hayes won five. Paul Brown, Jim Tressel, and Urban Meyer also each have one.

The following is a list of Ohio State's national championships as recognized by both the university and the NCAA:

Ohio State joined the Big Ten in 1912; before that they were a member of the Ohio Athletic Conference and won two OAC titles. Ohio State has won a championship in the Big Ten 36 times, second most in the conference and third most conference titles of any school in any conference.

§ – Conference co-champions

Since 2011, Big Ten has moved to divisions to ultimately decide who would play for the conference championship. The divisions were known as Legends and Leaders from 2011 to 2013. In 2014, the divisions were realigned geographically into East and West.

â€ 2011 win vacated

This table reflects the results of Big Ten match-ups when both OSU and its opponent were members of the conference. Ohio State began Big Ten play in 1913. Examples of excluded results are Chicago after 1939, Michigan between 1907â€“1916, Michigan State before 1953, Penn State before 1993, and Nebraska before 2011 (see Big Ten History for further information). Ohio State's vacated wins from 2010 are NOT included (see 2010 Ohio State Buckeyes football team for further information).

Updated through Nov. 20, 2017 of the 2017 NCAA Division I FBS football season.

All Data from College Football Data Warehouse[66]

Through the 2006 season Ohio State players have by a significant margin won more trophies than any other NCAA Division 1A program. Ohio State players have won 34 of the listed major awards, with the next closest being 26 (Oklahoma). Ohio State is the only university to have received each of the awards at least once. Of the five awards created prior to 1980 (Heisman, Lombardi, Maxwell, Outland, and Walter Camp), Ohio State has received the most with 25 (Notre Dame follows with 23).

Ohio State players have won the Heisman Trophy seven times, which ties Notre Dame (7) for the most awards for any school. Archie Griffin is the only two-time recipient in the history of the award.

Ohio State players have won the Lombardi Award six times:

Four Ohio State players have won the Maxwell Award:

Four Ohio State players have won the Outland Trophy:

Walter Camp Award

Ohio State players have won the Walter Camp Award four times:

Dick Butkus Award

Ohio State players have won the Dick Butkus Award twice:

Jim Thorpe Award

Ohio State players have won the Jim Thorpe Award twice:

Dave Rimington Trophy

Ohio State players have won the Dave Rimington Trophy three times:

Through 2017, 199 Buckeyes have been named first team All-Americans since 1914. Of those 85 have been consensus picks. 388 have been named to the All-Big Ten team, and 16 have won the Chicago Tribune Silver Football, the Big Ten's Most Valuable Player award, including Troy Smith for 2006. The Athletic Directors of the Big Ten Conference voted Eddie George Big Ten-Jesse Owens Athlete of the Year for 1996.

On November 22, 2006, ten Buckeyes were named to either the Coaches or Conference media All-Big Ten First Team selections for the 2006 season, and seven were named to both. Troy Smith was named Big Ten Offensive Player of the Year. Four other Buckeyes received Second Team honors.

All records per OSU Athletics.[68]

1930: Wes Fesler – (E) – Big Ten MVP
1931: Robert Haubrich – (OT)
1932: Lew Hinchman – (HB)
1933: Mickey Vuchinich – (FB)
1934: Gomer Jones – (C)
1935: Gomer Jones – (C)
1936: Ralph Wolf – (C)
1937: Ralph Wolf – (C)
1938: Jim Langhurst – (FB)
1939: Steve Andrako – (C)
1940: Don Scott – (C)
1941: Jack Graf – (FB) – Big Ten MVP
1942: Chuck Csuri – (OT)
1943: Gordon Appleby – (C)
1944: Les Horvath – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
1945: Ollie Cline – (FB) – Big Ten MVP
1946: Cecil Souders – (E)
1947: Dave Templeton – (G)
1948: Joe Whisler – (FB)
1949: Jack Lininger – (C)
1950: Vic Janowicz – (HB) – Big Ten MVP
1951: Vic Janowicz – (HB)
1952: Fred Bruney – (HB)
1953: George Jacoby – (T)
1954: Howard Cassady – (HB)
1955: Howard Cassady – (HB) – Big Ten MVP
1956: Jim Parker – (G)
1957: Bill Jobko – (G)
1958: Jim Houston – (E)
1959: Jim Houston – (E)
1960: Tom Matte – (QB)
1961: Bob Ferguson – (FB)
1962: Billy Armstrong – (C)
1963: Matt Snell – (FB)
1964: Ed Orazen – (DL)
1965: Doug Van Horn – (OG)
1966: Ray Pryor – (C)
1967: Dirk Worden – (LB)
1968: Mark Stier – (LB)
1969: Jim Otis – (FB)
1970: Jim Stillwagon – (DL)
1971: Tom DeLeone – (C)
1972: George Hasenohrl – (DL)
1973: Archie Griffin – (RB) – Big Ten MVP
1974: Archie Griffin – (RB) – Big Ten MVP
1975: Cornelius Greene – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
1976: Bob Brudzinski – (DE)
1977: Dave Adkins – (LB)
1978: Tom Cousineau – (LB)
1979: Jim Laughlin – (LB)
1980: Calvin Murray – (TB)
1981: Art Schlichter – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
1982: Tim Spencer – (RB)
1983: John Frank – (TE)
1984: Keith Byars – (RB) – Big Ten MVP
1985: Jim Karsatos – (QB)
1986: Cris Carter – (WR)
1987: Chris Spielman – (LB)
1988: Jeff Uhlenhake – (C)
1989: Derek Isaman – (LB)
1990: Jeff Graham – (WR)
1991: Carlos Snow – (TB)
1992: Kirk Herbstreit – (QB)
1993: Raymont Harris – (TB)
1994: Korey Stringer – (OT)
1995: Eddie George – (TB) – Big Ten MVP
1996: Orlando Pace – (OT) – Big Ten MVP
1997: Antoine Winfield – (DB)
1998: Joe Germaine – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
1999: Ahmed Plummer – (DB)
2000: Derek Combs – (TB)
2001: Jonathan Wells – (TB)
2002: Craig Krenzel – (QB) / Chris Gamble – (WR/DB)
2003: Michael Jenkins – (WR)
2004: Mike Nugent – (PK)
2005: A. J. Hawk – (LB)
2006: Troy Smith – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
2007: Chris Wells – (TB)
2008: Chris Wells – (TB)
2009: Kurt Coleman – (SS)
2010: Dane Sanzenbacher – (WR)
2011: Daniel Herron – (TB)
2012: Braxton Miller – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
2013: Braxton Miller – (QB) – Big Ten MVP
2014: Evan Spencer – (WR)
2015: Ezekiel Elliott – (RB) – Big Ten MVP
2016: Malik Hooker – (SAF) / Pat Elflein – (C)

1952: John Borton (Quarterback)
1954: Dick Hilnski (Tackle)
1958: Bob White (Fullback)
1961: Tom Perdue (End)
1965: Bill Ridder (Middle guard)
1966: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle)
1967: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle)
1968: Dave Foley (Offensive tackle)
1969: Bill Urbanik (Defensive tackle)
1971: Rick Simon (Offensive tackle)
1973: Randy Gradishar (Linebacker)
1974: Brian Baschnagel (Running back)
1975: Brian Baschnagel (Running back)
1976: Pete Johnson (Fullback)
1977: Jeff Logan (Running back)
1980: Marcus Marek (Linebacker)
1982: Joe Smith (Offensive tackle)
1982: John Frank (Tight end)
1983: John Frank (Tight end)
1983: Dave Crecelius (Defensive tackle)
1984: Dave Crecelius (Defensive tackle)
1984: Mike Lanese (Wide receiver)

1984: Anthony Tiuliani (Defensive tackle)
1985: Mike Lanese (Wide receiver)
1987: Joe Staysniak (Offensive tackle)
1989: Joe Staysniak (Offensive tackle)
1990: Greg Smith (Defensive Line)
1992: Len Hartman (Offensive guard)
1992: Greg Smith (Defensive line)
1995: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker)
1996: Greg Bellisari (Linebacker)
1998: Jerry Rudzinski (Linebacker)
1999: Ahmed Plummer (Cornerback)
2002: Craig Krenzel (Quarterback)
2003: Craig Krenzel (Quarterback)
2006: Anthony Gonzalez (Wide receiver)
2006: Stan White, Jr. (Fullback)
2007: Brian Robiskie (Wide receiver)
2008: Brian Robiskie (Wide receiver)
2014: Jacoby Boren (Center)
2015: Jacoby Boren (Center)
2015: Jack Willoughby (Kicker)
2016: Sam Hubbard (Defensive line)

Ohio State's eighteen NFF Scholar-Athlete Awards rank second only to Nebraska's twenty among all college football programs.

Beginning with Chic Harley and Howard Jones in the 1951 inaugural class, Ohio State has had 32 former players and coaches inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame

The following are Ohio State football statistical leaders.[when?]

Former notable NFL players who played at Ohio State include: Lou Groza, Dante Lavelli, Jim Parker, Bill Willis, Paul Warfield, Jim Marshall, Jim Houston, Na'il Diggs, Jack Tatum, Randy Gradishar, Dick Schafrath, Jim Lachey, Tom Tupa, Chris Spielman, Robert Smith, Korey Stringer, Raymont Harris, A. J. Hawk, Cris Carter, Eddie George, James Laurunaitis, Mike Nugent, and Devier Posey.

Beginning with Paul Brown in 1967, Ohio State has had 11 former players, coaches and graduates enshrined into the Pro Football Hall of Fame third most behind Notre Dame (12) and USC (12).

Ohio State has 2 former players enshrined into the Canadian Football Hall of Fame.

The Buckeyes are covered on the radio by the Ohio State IMG Sports Network. WBNS/Columbus (1460 AM) and sister station WBNS-FM/Columbus (97.1 FM) serve as flagship stations, with more than 60 affiliates in Ohio, and two additional affiliates in West Virginia. Paul Keels is the current play-by-play announcer, while former Buckeye left guard Jim Lachey serves as color analyst. They are joined by sideline reporter Matt Andrews and Skip Mosic, host of the network pregame and halftime shows.[69]

WBNS-TV (channel 10) in Columbus is the long-standing "official TV home" of the Buckeyes, airing the official coach's show Game Time with Urban Meyer (simulcast statewide on Fox Sports Ohio).[70]

In addition, Ohio State football games are broadcast by their student radio organization, Scarlet and Gray Sports Radio on OhioStateSports.net

Announced schedules as of April 28, 2017.[71]

*2018 game versus TCU will be played at AT&T Stadium.

In 2011, New York Times reporter Nate Silver conducted a study of college football fans, and through his research determined that Ohio State has the most fans of any college football team in the country.[72]


when did the teton dam break in idaho

The Teton Dam was an earthen dam on the Teton River in Idaho, United States. It was built by the Bureau of Reclamation, one of eight federal agencies authorized to construct dams.[3] Located in the eastern part of the state, between Fremont and Madison counties, it suffered a catastrophic failure on June 5, 1976, as it was filling for the first time.

Teton Dam

The collapse of the dam resulted in the deaths of 11 people[4] and 13,000 cattle. The dam cost about $100 million to build and the federal government paid over $300 million in claims related to its failure. Total damage estimates have ranged up to $2 billion.[5] The dam has not been rebuilt.

There had been interest in building a dam in the eastern Snake River Plain for many years to control spring runoff and provide a more constant water supply in the summer. The area had suffered a severe drought in 1961, followed by severe flooding in 1962. The Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) proposed the Teton Dam in 1963 and Congress passed without opposition an authorizing bill the following year. The planned dam was to be an earthen structure 310 feet (94 m) high and 0.6 miles (1.0 km) long and create a reservoir 17 miles (27 km) in length. The impounded water would be used to generate hydroelectric power. An environmental impact statement was issued for the dam in 1971, but it did not raise the possibility of a collapse.[3] Lack of funding and of site prep work and questions surrounding the required environmental impact statement stalled the project. Barely 14 pages long, the statement quickly drew the ire of opponents of the project.[6]

On September 27, 1971, several environmental and conservation groups filed a lawsuit in Idaho District Court to stop the construction. Opponents of the dam questioned the project’s justifications. They argued that damming a wild and scenic river and destruction of its trout fishery and other wildlife habitat would “replace a unique resource with a vulgar one.” The suit questioned the economic return on investment, the Bureau’s compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act and the geologic soundness of the dam’s location.[6] Concerns over the seismic conditions of the dam site delayed the bid process pending further review by the Department of the Interior. Pressure from Idaho's congressional delegation stopped the review and in spite of the lawsuit, bids were taken in Idaho Falls on October 29, 1971.[6] The contract was awarded to Morrison-Knudsen Co. of Boise, assisted by Peter Kiewit Sons Co. of Omaha, Nebraska. The $39 million contract was awarded in December 1971. In spite of the lawsuit, work began in February 1972. After various motions, amended complaints, attempted injunctions and appeals, the suit was dismissed on December 23, 1974.[6]

The eastern Snake River Plain is almost entirely underlain by basalt erupted from large shield volcanos on top of rhyolitic ash-flow tuff and ignimbrites.[7] The tuff, a late-Cenozoic volcanic rock is 1.9 million years old. The dam site is composed of basalt and rhyolite, both of which are considered unsuitable for dam construction because of their high permeability. This was confirmed by long term pump-in tests at rates of 165 to 460 US gallons (620 to 1,740 litres) per minute.[8] Test cores, drilled by engineers and geologists employed by the Bureau of Reclamation, showed that the canyon rock at the dam site is highly fissured and unstable, particularly on the right side (as one faces the direction of flow). The widest fissures were determined to be 1.7 inches (4.3Â cm) wide. The Bureau planned to seal these fissures by injecting grout into the rock under high pressure to create a grout curtain in the rock.

In addition, an investigation of the area by geologists of the U.S. Geologic Survey indicated that it was seismically active: five earthquakes had occurred within 30 miles (50Â km) of the dam site in the previous five years, two of which had been of significant magnitude. This information was provided to the Bureau of Reclamation in a memorandum, but the geologists' concerns were considerably watered down in the six-month re-drafting process before the USGS sent the final version of the memo to the USBR in July 1973.[3]

In 1973, when the dam was only half built, but almost $5 million had already been spent on the project, large open fissures were encountered during excavation of the keyway trench near the right end of the dam, about 700 feet (210 m) from the canyon wall. The two largest, near-vertical fissures trended generally east-west and extended more than 100 feet (30 m) below the bottom of the key trench. Some of the fissures were lined with calcite, and rubble filled others. Several voids, as much as 6 inches (15 cm) wide, were encountered 60 to 85 feet (18 to 26 m) below the ground surface beyond the right end of the dam and grout curtain.[8] The largest fissures were actually caves large enough to enter. One of them was eleven feet (3.4 m) wide and a hundred feet (30 m) long. Another one was nine feet (2.7 m) wide in places and 190 feet (60 m) long. These were not grouted because they were beyond the keyway trench and beyond the area where the Bureau had decided grouting was required.[9] This necessitated using twice as much grouting as had been originally anticipated – 118,000 linear feet were used in total.

Later, the report of a committee of the House of Representatives which investigated the dam's collapse felt that the discovery of the caves should have been sufficient for the Bureau of Reclamation to doubt its ability to fill them in with grout, but this did not happen;  even after the dam had failed, the Bureau continued to insist that the grouting was appropriate.[3]

In December 1972, concerned about the geological conditions of the Teton River Canyon, USGS geologist David Schleicher wrote about the  Teton Dam, still under construction, “A final point is that flooding in response to seismic or other failure of the dam—probably most likely at the time of highest water—would make the flood of February 1962 look like small potatoes. Since such a flood could be anticipated, we might consider a series of strategically-placed motion-picture cameras to document the process.”[6]

The dam was completed in November 1975 and filling the reservoir began at the standard rate of 1 foot (0.30 m) a day. However, snows were heavy that winter and five months later the project's construction engineer requested permission to double the filling rate in order to deal with the additional spring run-off, while continuing to inspect for leaks and monitor the groundwater. A month later, even though monitoring showed that groundwater was flowing a thousand times faster than had been originally anticipated, the filling rate was doubled again, to 4 feet (1.2 m) a day.[3]

On June 3 and 4, 1976, three small springs were discovered downstream of the dam, although the water running through the leaks was clear and such leaks are not unexpected for an earthen dam. At the time, the reservoir was almost at capacity, with a maximum depth of 240 feet (73 m). The only structure that had been initially prepared for releasing water was the emergency outlet works, which could carry just 850 cubic feet per second (24 m3/s). The main outlet works and spillway gates were not yet in service: the gates were cordoned off by steel walls while they were being painted.

The dark brown streak on the dam face near the gray bedrock in the left half of the photo is a leak that formed on the morning of June 5. The speck above the leak near the top of the dam is a D-9 bulldozer that is heading down to the leak to push dirt into it.

Large amounts of mud are now spilling down the face of the dam, unchecked by the efforts of the bulldozer operators. The outlet works at the foot of the dam are flooding with muddy water.

The dam is now breached and muddy water flows violently over the dam face.

The breach has now widened to nearly its full extent. The outlet works are completely inundated with muddy water.

On Saturday, June 5, 1976, at 7:30 a.m. Mountain Daylight Time (MDT), a muddy leak appeared, suggesting sediment was in the water, but engineers did not believe there was a problem. By 9:30 a.m. the downstream face of the dam had developed a wet spot which began to discharge water at 20 to 30 cubic feet per second (0.57 to 0.85 m3/s) and the embankment material began to wash out. Crews with bulldozers were sent to plug the leak, but were unsuccessful. Local media appeared at the site and at 11:15 officials told the county sheriff's office to evacuate downstream residents. Work crews were forced to flee on foot as the widening gap, now larger than a swimming pool, swallowed their equipment. The operators of two bulldozers caught in the eroding embankment were pulled to safety with ropes.

At 11:55 a.m. MDT (UTC-17:55), the crest of the dam sagged and collapsed into the reservoir; two minutes later the remainder of the right-bank third of the main dam wall disintegrated. Over 2,000,000 cubic feet per second (57,000 m3/s) of sediment-filled water emptied through the breach into the remaining 6 miles (10 km) of the Teton River canyon, after which the flood spread out and shallowed on the Snake River Plain. By 8:00 p.m. that evening, the reservoir had completely emptied, although over two-thirds of the dam wall remained standing.

Study of the dam's environment and structure[10] placed blame for the collapse on the permeable loess soil used in the core and on fissured (cracked) rhyolite in the abutments of the dam that allowed water to seep around and through the earth fill dam. The permeable loess was found to be cracked. It is postulated that the combination of these flaws allowed water to seep through the dam and led to internal erosion, called piping, that eventually caused the dam's collapse.

An investigating panel had quickly identified piping as the most probable cause of the failure, then focused its efforts on determining how the piping started. Two mechanisms were possible. The first was the flow of water under highly erodible and unprotected fill, through joints in unsealed rock beneath the grout cap and development of an erosion tunnel. The second was "cracking caused by differential strains or hydraulic fracturing of the core material." The panel was unable to determine whether one or the other mechanism occurred, or a combination:

The fundamental cause of failure may be regarded as a combination of geological factors and design decisions that, taken together, permitted the failure to develop.

A wide-ranging controversy ensued from the dam's collapse. According to the Bureau of Reclamation, Bureau engineers assess all Reclamation dams under strict criteria established by the Safety of Dams program. Each structure is periodically reviewed for resistance to seismic activity, for internal faults, and for physical deterioration.[4] The dam safety program identified two other dangerous dams â€“ Fontenelle, which very nearly failed 11 years earlier, when it was filled, in a manner similar to the Teton Dam,[11] and again in May 1985;[12][13] and the Jackson Lake Dam which would have failed during an earthquake on the nearby Teton Fault.

Teton Canyon ends approximately six miles below the dam site, where the river flows onto the Snake River Plain. When the dam failed, the flood struck several communities immediately downstream, particularly Wilford at the terminus of the canyon, Sugar City, Salem, Hibbard and Rexburg. Thousands of homes and businesses were destroyed. The small agricultural communities of Wilford and Sugar City were wiped from the river bank. Five of the fourteen deaths attributed to the flood occurred in Wilford. The similar community of Teton, on the south bank of the river, is on a modest bench and was largely spared.[14] One Teton resident was fishing on the river at the time of the dam failure and was drowned. An elderly woman living in the city of Teton died as a result of the evacuation.[15]

One estimate placed damage to Hibbard and Rexburg area, with a population of about 10,000, at 80 percent of existing structures. The Teton River flows through the industrial, commercial and residential districts of north Rexburg. A significant reason for the massive damage in the community was the location of a lumber yard directly upstream. When the flood waters hit, thousands of logs were washed into town. Dozens of them hit a bulk gasoline storage tank a few hundred yards away. The gasoline ignited and sent flaming slicks adrift on the racing water.[16] The force of the logs and cut lumber and the subsequent fires practically destroyed the city.

The flood waters traveled west along the route of the Henrys Fork of the Snake River, around both sides of the Menan Buttes, significantly damaging the community of Roberts. The city of Idaho Falls, even further down on the flood plain, had time to prepare. At the older American Falls Dam downstream, engineers increased discharge by less than 5% before the flood arrived.[17] That dam held and the flood was effectively over, but tens of thousands of acres of land near the river were stripped of fertile topsoil.[5]

The force of the failure destroyed the lower part of the Teton River, washing away riparian zones and reducing the canyon walls. This seriously damaged the stream's ecology and impacted the native Yellowstone cutthroat trout population. The force of the water and excessive sediment also damaged stream habitat in the Snake River and some tributaries, as far downstream as the Fort Hall bottoms.

After the dam's collapse, debris clean-up began immediately and took the remainder of the summer. Rebuilding of damaged property continued for several years. Within a week after the disaster, President Gerald Ford requested a $200 million appropriation for initial payments for damages, without assigning responsibility for Teton Damâ€™s failure.[18]

The Bureau of Reclamation set up claims offices in Rexburg, Idaho Falls and Blackfoot. By January 4, 1977, disaster victims filed over 4,800 claims totalling $194 million. By that date, the federal government paid 3,813 of those claims, $93.5 million. Originally scheduled to end in July 1978, the claims program continued into the 1980s. At the end of the claims program in January 1987, the federal government had paid 7,563 claims for a total amount of $322 million.

No plans have been made for rebuilding the Teton Dam, but its reconstruction has been brought up on at least one occasion.[19]


what was the significance of baker v carr

Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962), was a landmark United States Supreme Court case that decided that redistricting (attempts to change the way voting districts are delineated) issues present justiciable questions, thus enabling federal courts to intervene in and to decide redistricting cases. The defendants unsuccessfully argued that redistricting of legislative districts is a "political question", and hence not a question that may be resolved by federal courts.

Baker v. Carr

Plaintiff Charles Baker was a Republican who lived in Shelby County, Tennessee, and had served as the mayor of Millington, Tennessee, near Memphis.[1] The Tennessee State Constitution required that legislative districts for the Tennessee General Assembly be redrawn every ten years according to the federal census to provide for districts of substantially equal population (as was to be done for congressional districts). Baker's complaint was that Tennessee had not redistricted since 1901, in response to the 1900 census.

By the time of Baker's lawsuit, the population had shifted such that his district in Shelby County had about ten times as many residents as some of the rural districts. The votes of rural citizens were overrepresented compared to those of urban citizens. Baker's argument was that this discrepancy was causing him to fail to receive the "equal protection of the laws" required by the Fourteenth Amendment. Defendant Joe Carr was sued in his position as Secretary of State for Tennessee. Carr was not the person who set the district lines – the state legislature had done that – but was sued ex officio as the person who was ultimately responsible for the conduct of elections in the state and for the publication of district maps.

The state of Tennessee argued that the composition of legislative districts was essentially a political question, not a judicial one, as had been held by Colegrove v. Green, a plurality opinion of the Court in which Justice Felix Frankfurter declared that "Courts ought not to enter this political thicket." Frankfurter believed that relief for legislative malapportionment had to be won through the political process.[2]

The decision of Baker v. Carr was one of the most wrenching in the Court's history. The case had to be put over for reargument because in conference no clear majority emerged for either side of the case. Associate Justice Charles Evans Whittaker was so torn over the case that he eventually had to recuse himself for health reasons. The arduous decisional process in Baker is often blamed for Whittaker's subsequent health problems, which forced him to retire from the Court in 1962.[3]

The opinion was finally handed down in March 1962, nearly a year after it was initially argued. The Court split 6 to 2 in ruling that Baker's case was justiciable, producing, in addition to the opinion of the Court by Justice William J. Brennan, three concurring opinions and two dissenting opinions. Brennan reformulated the political question doctrine, identifying six factors to help in determining which questions were "political" in nature. Cases that are political in nature are marked by:

Justice Tom C. Clark switched his vote at the last minute to a concurrence on the substance of Baker's claims, which would have enabled a majority which could have granted relief for Baker. Instead the Supreme Court remanded the case to the District Court.

The large majority in this case can in many ways be attributed to Justice Brennan, who convinced Potter Stewart that the case was a narrow ruling dealing only with the right to challenge the statute. Brennan also talked down Justices Black and Douglas from their usual absolutist positions to achieve a compromise.[4]

Frankfurter, joined by Justice John Marshall Harlan II, dissented vigorously and at length, arguing that the Court had cast aside history and judicial restraint, and violated the separation of powers between legislatures and Courts.[5] He wrote:

Appellants invoke the right to vote and to have their votes counted. But they are permitted to vote and their votes are counted. They go to the polls, they cast their ballots, they send their representatives to the state councils. Their complaint is simply that the representatives are not sufficiently numerous or powerful.

Having declared redistricting issues justiciable in Baker, the court laid out a new test for evaluating such claims. The Court formulated the famous "one person, one vote" standard under American jurisprudence for legislative redistricting, holding that each individual had to be weighted equally in legislative apportionment. This affected numerous state legislatures that had not redistricted congressional districts for decades, despite major population shifts. It also ultimately affected the composition of state legislative districts as well, which in Alabama and numerous other states had overrepresented rural districts and underrepresented urban districts with much greater populations.

This principle was formally enunciated in Reynolds v. Sims (1964). The Court decided that in states with bicameral legislatures, as had Alabama, the state in this suit, both houses had to be apportioned on this standard. This voided the provision of the Alabama Constitution which had provided for two state senators from each county and similar provisions elsewhere. (Similarly, the Tennessee Constitution had a provision that prevented counties from being split and portions of a county being attached to other counties or parts of counties in the creation of a legislative district. This was overridden under the principle of basing districts on population. Today counties are frequently split among districts in forming Tennessee State Senate districts.) "One person, one vote" was first applied as a standard for Congressional districts. State legislatures were supposed to redistrict according to changes in population but many had not for decades.

Baker v. Carr and subsequent cases fundamentally changed the nature of political representation in the United States, requiring not just Tennessee but nearly every state to redistrict during the 1960s, often several times. This re-apportionment increased the political power of urban areas with greater population and reduced the influence of more rural areas.[6] After he left the Court, Chief Justice Earl Warren called the Baker v. Carr line of cases the most important in his tenure as Chief Justice.[7]


who needs to know about the jet stream

Meteorologists use the location of some of the jet streams as an aid in weather forecasting. The main commercial relevance of the jet streams is in air travel, as flight time can be dramatically affected by either flying with the flow or against, which results in significant fuel and time cost savings for airlines. Often, the airlines work to fly 'with' the jet stream for this reason. Dynamic North Atlantic Tracks are one example of how airlines and air traffic control work together to accommodate the jet stream and winds aloft that results in the maximum benefit for airlines and other users. Clear-air turbulence, a potential hazard to aircraft passenger safety, is often found in a jet stream's vicinity, but it does not create a substantial alteration on flight times. These are narrow belts.

Jet stream

Jet streams are fast flowing, narrow, meandering air currents in the atmospheres of some planets, including Earth.[1] On Earth, the main jet streams are located near the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly winds (flowing west to east). Their paths typically have a meandering shape. Jet streams may start, stop, split into two or more parts, combine into one stream, or flow in various directions including opposite to the direction of the remainder of the jet.

The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, at 9–12 km (30,000–39,000 ft) above sea level, and the higher altitude and somewhat weaker subtropical jets at 10–16 km (33,000–52,000 ft). The Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere each have a polar jet and a subtropical jet. The northern hemisphere polar jet flows over the middle to northern latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia and their intervening oceans, while the southern hemisphere polar jet mostly circles Antarctica all year round.

Jet streams are the product of two factors: the atmospheric heating by solar radiation that produces the large scale Polar, Ferrel, and Hadley circulation cells, and the action of the Coriolis force acting on those moving masses. The Coriolis force is caused by the planet's rotation on its axis. On other planets, internal heat rather than solar heating drives their jet streams. The Polar jet stream forms near the interface of the Polar and Ferrel circulation cells; the subtropical jet forms near the boundary of the Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells.[2]

Other jet streams also exist. During the Northern Hemisphere summer, easterly jets can form in tropical regions, typically where dry air encounters more humid air at high altitudes. Low-level jets also are typical of various regions such as the central United States. There are also jetstreams in the thermosphere.

After the 1883 eruption of the Krakatoa volcano, weather watchers tracked and mapped the effects on the sky over several years. They labelled the phenomenon the "equatorial smoke stream".[3][4] In the 1920s, a Japanese meteorologist, Wasaburo Oishi, detected the jet stream from a site near Mount Fuji.[5][6] He tracked pilot balloons, also known as pibals (balloons used to determine upper level winds),[7] as they rose into the atmosphere. Oishi's work largely went unnoticed outside Japan because it was published in Esperanto. American pilot Wiley Post, the first man to fly around the world solo in 1933, is often given some credit for discovery of jet streams. Post invented a pressurized suit that let him fly above 6,200 metres (20,300 ft). In the year before his death, Post made several attempts at a high-altitude transcontinental flight, and noticed that at times his ground speed greatly exceeded his air speed.[8] German meteorologist Heinrich Seilkopf is credited with coining a special term, Strahlströmung (literally "jet current"), for the phenomenon in 1939.[9][10] (Modern German usage is "Strahlstrom".[citation needed]) Many sources credit real understanding of the nature of jet streams to regular and repeated flight-path traversals during World War II. Flyers consistently noticed westerly tailwinds in excess of 100 mph (160 km/h) in flights, for example, from the US to the UK.[11] Similarly in 1944 a team of American meteorologists in Guam, including Reid Bryson, had enough observations to forecast very high west winds that would slow bombers going to Japan.[12]

Polar jet streams are typically located near the 250 hPa (about 1/4 atmosphere) pressure level, or 7 to 12 kilometres (4.3 to 7.5 mi) above sea level, while the weaker subtropical jet streams are much higher, between 10 and 16 kilometres (6.2 and 9.9 mi). Jet streams wander laterally dramatically, and have large changes in their altitude. The jet streams form near breaks in the tropopause, at the transitions between the Polar, Ferrel and Hadley circulation cells, and whose circulation, with the Coriolis force acting on those masses, drives the jet streams. The Polar jets, at lower altitude, and often intruding into mid-latitudes, strongly affects weather and aviation.[13][14] The polar jet stream is most commonly found between latitudes 30° and 60° (closer to 60°), while the subtropical jet streams are located close to latitude 30°. The northern Polar jet stream is said to "follow the sun" as it slowly migrates northward as that hemisphere warms, and southward again as it cools.[15][16]

The width of a jet stream is typically a few hundred kilometres or miles and its vertical thickness often less than five kilometres (3.1 miles).[17]

Jet streams are typically continuous over long distances, but discontinuities are common.[18] The path of the jet typically has a meandering shape, and these meanders themselves propagate eastward, at lower speeds than that of the actual wind within the flow. Each large meander, or wave, within the jet stream is known as a Rossby wave (planetary wave). Rossby waves are caused by changes in the Coriolis effect with latitude.[citation needed] Shortwave troughs, are smaller scale waves superimposed on the Rossby waves, with a scale of 1,000 to 4,000 kilometres (620–2,490 mi) long,[19] that move along through the flow pattern around large scale, or longwave, "ridges" and "troughs" within Rossby waves.[20] Jet streams can split into two when it encounters an upper-level low, that diverts a portion of the jet stream under its base, while the remainder of the jet moves by to its north.

The wind speeds are greatest where temperature differences (gradient) between air masses are greatest, and often exceed 92 km/h (50 kn; 57 mph).[18] Speeds over 398 km/h (215 kn; 247 mph) have been measured.[21]

The jet stream moves from West to East bringing changes of weather.[22] Meteorologists now understand that the path of jet streams affects cyclonic storm systems at lower levels in the atmosphere, and so knowledge of their course has become an important part of weather forecasting. For example, in 2007 and 2012, Britain experienced severe flooding as a result of the polar jet staying south for the summer.[23][24][25]

The polar and subtropical jets merge at some locations and times, while at other times they are well separated.

In general, winds are strongest immediately under the tropopause (except locally, during tornadoes, tropical cyclones or other anomalous situations). If two air masses of different temperatures or densities meet, the resulting pressure difference caused by the density difference (which ultimately causes wind) is highest within the transition zone. The wind does not flow directly from the hot to the cold area, but is deflected by the Coriolis effect and flows along the boundary of the two air masses.[26]

All these facts are consequences of the thermal wind relation. The balance of forces acting on an atmospheric air parcel in the vertical direction is primarily between the gravitational force acting on the mass of the parcel and the buoyancy force, or the difference in pressure between the top and bottom surfaces of the parcel. Any imbalance between these forces results in the acceleration of the parcel in the imbalance direction: upward if the buoyant force exceeds the weight, and downward if the weight exceeds the buoyancy force. The balance in the vertical direction is referred to as hydrostatic. Beyond the tropics, the dominant forces act in the horizontal direction, and the primary struggle is between the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient force. Balance between these two forces is referred to as geostrophic. Given both hydrostatic and geostrophic balance, one can derive the thermal wind relation: the vertical gradient of the horizontal wind is proportional to the horizontal temperature gradient. If two air masses, one cold and dense to the North and the other hot and less dense to the South, are separated by a vertical boundary and that boundary should be removed, the difference in densities will result in the cold air mass slipping under the hotter and less dense air mass. The Coriolis effect will then cause poleward-moving mass to deviate to the East, while equatorward-moving mass will deviate toward the west. The general trend in the atmosphere is for temperatures to decrease in the poleward direction. As a result, winds develop an eastward component and that component grows with altitude. Therefore, the strong eastward moving jet streams are in part a simple consequence of the fact that the Equator is warmer than the North and South poles.[26]

The thermal wind relation does not explain why the winds are organized into tight jets, rather than distributed more broadly over the hemisphere. One factor that contributes to the creation of a concentrated polar jet is the undercutting of sub-tropical air masses by the more dense polar air masses at the polar front. This causes surface low pressure and higher pressure at altitude. At high latitudes, lack of friction allows air to respond freely to the steep pressure gradient with low pressure at high altitude over the pole. This results in the formation of planetary wind circulations that experience a strong Coriolis deflection and thus can be considered 'quasi-geostrophic'. The polar front jet stream is closely linked to the frontogenesis process in midlatitudes, as the acceleration/deceleration of the air flow induces areas of low/high pressure respectively, which link to the formation of cyclones and anticyclones along the polar front in a relatively narrow region.[18]

A second factor which contributes to a concentrated jet, that is more applicable to the subtropical jet, which forms at the poleward limit of the tropical Hadley cell and to first order this circulation is symmetric with respect to longitude. Tropical air rises to the tropopause, and moves poleward before sinking; this is the Hadley cell circulation. As it does so it tends to conserve angular momentum, since friction with the ground is slight. Air masses that begin moving poleward are deflected eastward by the Coriolis force (true for either hemisphere), which for poleward moving air implies an increased westward component of the winds[27] (note that leftward deflection in the southern hemisphere).

Jupiter's atmosphere has multiple jet streams, caused by the convection cells that form the familiar banded color structure; on Jupiter, these convection cells are driven by internal heating.[21] The factors that control the number of jet streams in a planetary atmosphere is an active area of research in dynamical meteorology. In models, as one increases the planetary radius, holding all other parameters fixed, the number of jet streams decreases.

The subtropical jet stream rounding the base of the mid-oceanic upper trough is thought[citation needed] to be one of the reasons most of the Hawaiian Islands have been resistant to the long list of Hawaii hurricanes that have approached. For example, when Hurricane Flossie (2007) approached and dissipated just before reaching landfall, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) cited vertical wind shear as evidenced in the photo.[28]

On Earth, the northern polar jet stream is the most important one for aviation and weather forecasting, as it is much stronger and at a much lower altitude than the subtropical jet streams and also covers many countries in the Northern Hemisphere, while the southern polar jet stream mostly circles Antarctica and sometimes the southern tip of South America. The term jet stream in these contexts thus usually implies the northern polar jet stream.

The location of the jet stream is extremely important for aviation. Commercial use of the jet stream began on 18 November 1952, when Pan Am flew from Tokyo to Honolulu at an altitude of 7,600 metres (24,900Â ft). It cut the trip time by over one-third, from 18 to 11.5 hours.[29] Not only does it cut time off the flight, it also nets fuel savings for the airline industry.[30] Within North America, the time needed to fly east across the continent can be decreased by about 30 minutes if an airplane can fly with the jet stream, or increased by more than that amount if it must fly west against it.

Associated with jet streams is a phenomenon known as clear-air turbulence (CAT), caused by vertical and horizontal wind shear caused by jet streams.[31] The CAT is strongest on the cold air side of the jet,[32] next to and just under the axis of the jet.[33] Clear-air turbulence can cause aircraft to plunge and so present a passenger safety hazard that has caused fatal accidents, such as the death of one passenger on United Airlines Flight 826.[34][35]

Scientists are investigating ways to harness the wind energy within the jet stream. According to one estimate, of the potential wind energy in the jet stream, only 1 percent would be needed to meet the world's current energy needs. The required technology would reportedly take 10â€“20 years to develop.[36] There are two major but divergent scientific articles about jet stream power. Archer & Caldeira[37] claim that the Earth's jet streams could generate a total power of 1700 terawatts (TW) and that the climatic impact of harnessing this amount would be negligible. However, Miller, Gans, & Kleidon[38] claim that the jet streams could generate a total power of only 7.5 TW and that the climatic impact would be catastrophic.

Near the end of World War II the Japanese fire balloon was designed as a cheap weapon intended to make use of the jet stream over the Pacific Ocean to reach the west coast of Canada and the United States. They were relatively ineffective as weapons, but they were used in one of the few attacks on North America during World War II, causing six deaths and a small amount of damage.[39]

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influences the average location of upper-level jet streams, and leads to cyclical variations in precipitation and temperature across North America, as well as affecting tropical cyclone development across the eastern Pacific and Atlantic basins. Combined with the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, ENSO can also impact cold season rainfall in Europe.[40] Changes in ENSO also change the location of the jet stream over South America, which partially affects precipitation distribution over the continent.[41]

During El Niño events, increased precipitation is expected in California due to a more southerly, zonal, storm track.[42] During the Niño portion of ENSO, increased precipitation falls along the Gulf coast and Southeast due to a stronger than normal, and more southerly, polar jet stream.[43] Snowfall is greater than average across the southern Rockies and Sierra Nevada mountain range, and is well below normal across the Upper Midwest and Great Lakes states.[44] The northern tier of the lower 48 exhibits above normal temperatures during the fall and winter, while the Gulf coast experiences below normal temperatures during the winter season.[45][46] The subtropical jet stream across the deep tropics of the Northern Hemisphere is enhanced due to increased convection in the equatorial Pacific, which decreases tropical cyclogenesis within the Atlantic tropics below what is normal, and increases tropical cyclone activity across the eastern Pacific.[47] In the Southern Hemisphere, the subtropical jet stream is displaced equatorward, or north, of its normal position, which diverts frontal systems and thunderstorm complexes from reaching central portions of the continent.[41]

Across North America during La Niña, increased precipitation is diverted into the Pacific Northwest due to a more northerly storm track and jet stream.[48] The storm track shifts far enough northward to bring wetter than normal conditions (in the form of increased snowfall) to the Midwestern states, as well as hot and dry summers.[49][50] Snowfall is above normal across the Pacific Northwest and western Great Lakes.[44] Across the North Atlantic, the jet stream is stronger than normal, which directs stronger systems with increased precipitation towards Europe.[51]

Evidence suggests the jet stream was at least partly responsible for the widespread drought conditions during the 1930s Dust Bowl in the Midwest United States. Normally, the jet stream flows east over the Gulf of Mexico and turns northward pulling up moisture and dumping rain onto the Great Plains. During the Dust Bowl, the jet stream weakened and changed course traveling farther south than normal. This starved the Great Plains and other areas of the Midwest of rainfall, causing extraordinary drought conditions.[52]

Climate scientists have hypothesized that the jet stream will gradually weaken as a result of global warming. Trends such as Arctic sea ice decline, reduced snow cover, evapotranspiration patterns, and other weather anomalies are expected to make the Arctic heat up faster than other parts of the globe. This in turn reduces the temperature gradient that drives jet stream winds, causing the jet stream to become weaker and more variable in its course.[53][54][55][56][57][58][59]

Since 2007, and particularly in 2012 and early 2013, the jet stream has been at an abnormally low latitude across the UK, lying closer to the English Channel, around 50°N rather than its more usual north of Scotland latitude of around 60°N.[not in citation given] However, between 1979 and 2001, it has been found that the average position of the jet stream has been moving northward at a rate of 2.01 kilometres (1.25 mi) per year across the Northern Hemisphere. Across North America, this type of change could lead to drier conditions across the southern tier of the United States and more frequent and more intense tropical cyclones in the tropics. A similar slow poleward drift was found when studying the Southern Hemisphere jet stream over the same time frame.[60]

The polar-night jet stream forms mainly during the winter months when the nights are much longer, hence polar nights, in their respective hemispheres at around 60° latitude. The polar night jet moves at a greater height of about 80,000 feet (24,000 m) than it does during the summer.[61] During these dark months the air high over the poles becomes much colder than the air over the Equator. This difference in temperature gives rise to extreme air pressure differences in the stratosphere, which, when combined with the Coriolis effect, create the polar night jets, that race eastward at an altitude of about 30 miles (48 km).[62] The polar vortex is circled by the polar night jet. The warmer air can only move along the edge of the polar vortex, but not enter it. Within the vortex, the cold polar air becomes increasingly cold with neither warmer air from lower latitudes nor energy from the Sun during the polar night.[63]

There are wind maxima at lower levels of the atmosphere that are also referred to as jets.

A barrier jet in the low levels forms just upstream of mountain chains, with the mountains forcing the jet to be oriented parallel to the mountains. The mountain barrier increases the strength of the low level wind by 45 percent.[64] In the North American Great Plains a southerly low-level jet helps fuel overnight thunderstorm activity during the warm season, normally in the form of mesoscale convective systems which form during the overnight hours.[65] A similar phenomenon develops across Australia, which pulls moisture poleward from the Coral Sea towards cut-off lows which form mainly across southwestern portions of the continent.[66]

A valley exit jet is a strong, down-valley, elevated air current that emerges above the intersection of the valley and its adjacent plain. These winds frequently reach a maximum of 20 m/s (45 mph or 72 km/h) at a height of 40–200 m above the ground. Surface winds below the jet may sway vegetation, but are significantly weaker.

They are likely to be found in valley regions that exhibit diurnal mountain wind systems, such as those of the dry mountain ranges of the US. Deep valleys that terminate abruptly at a plain are more impacted by these factors than are those that gradually become shallower as downvalley distance increases.[67]

The mid-level African easterly jet occurs during the Northern Hemisphere summer between 10°N and 20°N above West Africa, and the nocturnal poleward low-level jet occurs in the Great Plains of east and South Africa.[68] The low-level easterly African jet stream is considered to play a crucial role in the southwest monsoon of Africa,[69] and helps form the tropical waves which move across the tropical Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans during the warm season.[70] The formation of the thermal low over northern Africa leads to a low-level westerly jet stream from June into October.[71]


how does camp randall connect wisconsin to the civil war

Camp Randall is an historic U.S. Army site in Madison, Wisconsin, named after Wisconsin Governor Alexander Randall, who served from 1858-1861. It was a training facility of the Union army during the Civil War, where more than 70,000 recruits were trained. The Army also established a hospital and prisoner-of-war camp here.

Camp Randall

In 1893 the site was purchased by the state for use by the University of Wisconsin - Madison. Part was set aside as a park to memorialize the Army camp. Another portion was used for Camp Randall Stadium, built in 1917 as an outdoor football stadium for the university.

The camp was a training facility of the Union Army during the Civil War, with more than 70,000 recruits receiving training there. The 6th Regiment, Wisconsin Infantry, was organized here in 1861. Later, a hospital and a stockade for Confederate prisoners of war were located at the camp.[2]. The 140 prisoners of war who died at Camp Randall are buried at Confederate Rest.[3]

The site was purchased by the state of Wisconsin in 1893 and deeded to the University of Wisconsin. Of the original 53Â½ acres, a segment was set aside as Camp Randall Park. This now features a memorial arch, two Civil War cannons, and a stockade building.

Camp Randall Park is also the location of Camp Randall Stadium, opened in 1917 as the outdoor football stadium of the University of Wisconsin.

Camp Randall was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1971.

Memorial arch (1912)

Civil War cannon

Civil War cannon, plaque, and flagpole

Prisoner of war stockade under protective roof