appointment of bishops by anyone who is not a member of the clergy

When it comes to a concrete appointment for a particular see, the papal representative (apostolic nuncio or delegate) asks either the outgoing bishop, or in case of a sede vacante, the vicar general or diocesan administrator, to draw up a report on its situation and the needs. That person will be the bishop who has presented his resignation or, if the see is vacant, the diocesan administrator or apostolic administrator. The papal representative is also obliged to consult the metropolitan archbishop and the other bishops of the province, the president of the bishops conference, and at least some members of the college of consultors and the cathedral chapter. He may also consult others, whether clergy, diocesan or religious, and "lay persons of outstanding wisdom".[10][11]

Appointment of Catholic bishops

The appointment of bishops in the Catholic Church is a complicated process. Outgoing bishops, neighbouring bishops, the faithful, the apostolic nuncio, various members of the Roman Curia, and the pope all have a role in the selection. The exact process varies based upon a number of factors, including whether the bishop is from the Latin Church or one of the Eastern Catholic Churches, the geographic location of the diocese, what office the candidate is being chosen to fill, and whether the candidate has previously been ordained to the episcopate.

Initially, bishops were chosen by the local clergy with approval from nearby bishops. "A newly elected bishop was installed in office and given his authority [...] by the bishops who supervised the election and performed the ordination."[1] The bishops of the most important sees sought acceptance from Rome. The early church fathers attest to the fact that the Church of Rome - in effect its diocese - was the central point of authority. They attest to the Church's reliance on Rome for advice, for mediation of disputes, and for guidance on doctrinal issues. They note, as Ignatius of Antioch (ca 1st century) does, that Rome "holds the presidency" among the other churches, and that, as Irenaeus (ca 2nd century) explains, "because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree" with Rome. They are also clear on the fact that it is full communion with Rome and the bishop of Rome that causes one to be in communion with the Catholic Church. This displays a recognition that, as Cyprian of Carthage (3rd century) puts it, Rome is "the principal church, in which sacerdotal unity has its source."[2] By the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, the metropolitan bishop had a role of the greatest importance in the selection. The Council decreed that the consent of the metropolitan bishop was normally required.[3]

Later, state authorities demanded their consent for the election of bishops. In medieval times, rulers demanded not only their consent to an election made by others but the right to choose the bishops directly. The Investiture Controversy changed that to some extent, but later concessions meant that many kings and other secular authorities exercised a right of appointment or at least of veto until the second half of the 20th century. In the early 19th century, this was still so normal that, in spite of the opposition of the Church in Ireland to the proposed royal veto of the appointment of bishops, the Holy See was prepared to grant it to the British king.

It was in 1871 that a radical shift in law and practice began to take place. In that year the Law of guarantees enacted by prime minister Camillo Cavour gave the pope the right to choose the bishops of the Kingdom of Italy, all 237 of them, appointments that through the unification of Italy had fallen into the hands of King Victor Emmanuel II of Italy. Although the pope denounced the law, he nevertheless profited by it to appoint, within the first seven months that followed, 102 new Italian bishops.[4][5][6] Before the unification of Italy the various rulers made the appointments, with the pope doing so only for the Papal States. The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State had a similar effect for appointing bishops in the territories ruled by France. In the early 20th century papal appointment of Catholic bishops was an almost universal practice except where, in virtue of the Spanish patronato real and the Portuguese padroado, the appointment of Catholic bishops remained in the hands of the civil authorities.

Thus the 1917 Code of Canon Law was able to affirm that, in the Latin Church, the decision rests with the pope. In the course of the 20th century, remaining privileges enjoyed by secular authorities gradually diminished, especially since the Second Vatican Council (1962â€“1965), which declared that the right of nominating and appointing bishops belongs per se exclusively to the competent ecclesiastical authority and requested the civil authorities who still had rights and privileges in this field to renounce them voluntarily.[7]

Canon 401 ยง1 of the Code of Canon Law states that diocesan bishops must submit their resignation to the pope on reaching the age of 75 years. Some do so earlier with a view to having the resignation take effect immediately on reaching 75. Bishops should also offer their resignation if ill-health or other grave problems render them unsuited for fulfilling their office.[8] The letter of resignation goes first to the apostolic nuncio or apostolic delegate, the pope's representative in the country or region. He forwards it to whichever department of the Holy See has particular responsibility for the selection of bishops for the country in question: the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples in the case of mission countries, the Congregation for the Oriental Churches in the case of even Latin bishops in certain Middle Eastern countries and Greece, the Secretariat of State if the country's government has been given the right to present objections of "a general political nature" (not of a party-political kind) or is involved in some other way, but generally the Congregation for Bishops. The Congregation presents the bishop's offer of resignation to the pope, who has a range of options from rejecting the offer of resignation to accepting it with immediate effect. In the case of diocesan bishops who have reached 75 years of age, the usual decision is to accept the resignation but with effect only from the date of publication of the appointment of a successor, a decision known as acceptance nunc pro tunc (now for then).

If the resignation is accepted with immediate effect, the episcopal see becomes vacant on publication of the pope's decision. Vacancy of a see may occur also because of a bishop's transfer to another see or position, or because of his death. In the case of a nunc pro tunc acceptance, the see does not become vacant immediately, but the process that leads to the appointment of a successor begins without delay.

One important element in selecting a bishop is the list of priests, of both the diocesan and the religious clergy, that the bishops of the ecclesiastical province or the whole Episcopal Conference judge to be suitable generically (without reference to any particular see) for appointment as bishops. They are required to draw up this list at least once every three years, so that it is always recent.[9]

Canon law insists on enabling those consulted to provide information and express their views confidentially, requiring that they be consulted "individually and in secret".[12] Accordingly, when the Irish Times of 12 April 2007 published the text of the letter with which Archbishop Giuseppe Lazzarotto, Nuncio to Ireland, consulted certain priests on the choice of their next bishop, he said, "All aspects relating to the process of episcopal appointments should be dealt with in the strictest confidentiality. I trust that you will understand that I cannot depart from this practice."

The nuncio then decides on a short list, or terna, of three candidates for further investigation and seeks precise information on each of them. Since if it were widely known that a priest who was not the one who was finally chosen for the post had been under consideration, people might think he had been excluded because of some fault found in him (a groundless conclusion, since all those examined may be eminently worthy and suitable, but only one can be selected), the nuncio will ask those consulted about individual candidates to observe the strictest confidentiality on the fact of the consultation. He will then send to the Holy See a list (known as a "terna") of the (usually) three candidates that seem to be the most appropriate for consideration, together with all the information that has been gathered on them and accompanying the information with the conclusions that he himself draws from the evidence.[13]

The qualities that a candidate must have are listed in canon 378 ยง1. As well as being at least 35 years old and a priest for at least 5 years, he should be "outstanding in strong faith, good morals, piety, zeal for souls, wisdom, prudence and human virtues", and should possess the other qualities needed for fulfilling the office in question; and he should be well versed in sacred Scripture, theology and canon law and, preferably, hold a doctorate in one of these fields.

The congregation of the Roman Curia responsible for the appointment (one of the four indicated above) studies the documentation provided by the nuncio, taking into consideration his opinion, but not necessarily accepting it. It might even reject all the candidates he has proposed and ask him to prepare another list, or it might ask him to provide more information on one or more of the priests who have already been presented. When the Congregation decides on which priest should be appointed, it presents its conclusions to the pope, asking him to make the appointment. If he agrees, the papal act is communicated to the nuncio for him to obtain the consent of the priest to his appointment and to choose a date for its publication. The newly appointed bishop is obliged to get episcopal consecration within three months of the arrival the papal bull of his appointment, which is usually prepared only at least a month after the publication. If the consecration takes place within the diocese, he takes charge immediately. If it occurs elsewhere, a separate act is required, after the consecration, for taking possession of his new post.[14]

Bringing the process to a conclusion obviously requires much time, usually taking at least nine months, and it may on occasions take up to two years.

The procedure described above is the normal one for the appointment of a diocesan bishop. In the case of an auxiliary bishop, the diocesan bishop chooses the three priests to be presented for the appointment, but the nuncio still has the duty of gathering information and opinions on the candidates, and the Congregation can either select one of them or ask for a different list of candidates to be presented.[15]

In some countries, the diocesan chapter or some other body decides on the three names to send, through the nuncio, to the Holy See. With the names, the nuncio sends the information he has gathered on the candidates. If none of the three candidates is acceptable to the Holy See, the chapter is asked for another list. However, the Holy See can reject the list in its entirety and appoint someone not proposed by the chapter.[16] In other cases the cathedral chapter chooses the bishop from among a list of three presented to them by the Holy See.[17]

The chapter participates in the election of bishops of 13 of the 27 German dioceses (Aachen, Cologne, Essen, Freiburg, Fulda, Hildesheim, Limburg, Mainz, Münster, Osnabrúck, Paderborn, Rottenburg-Stuttgart, Trier), 3 Swiss dioceses (Basel, Chur, Sankt Gallen), and 1 Austrian (Salzburg).[18]

For the Personal Ordinarates established under the apostolic constitution Anglicanorum Coetibus,[19] out of respect for the synodal tradition of Anglicanism, the Ordinary will be appointed by the Roman Pontiff from a terna of names presented by the Governing Council (CN Art. 4 ยง 1)[20]

In the past, privileges regarding the appointment of bishops were granted to kings and other civil authorities. In accordance with the decision of the Second Vatican Council,[21] the Code of Canon Law lays down that "for the future, no rights or privileges of election, appointment, presentation or designation of Bishops are conceded to civil authorities."[22] In about a dozen countries, the civil government still has the right of consultation or even of presentation.[23]

There are 23 Eastern Catholic Churches totalling about 20 million people that are in communion with the Holy See but their liturgy and other practices are different. A patriarchal Eastern Catholic church itself elects its bishops who are to serve within its own territory, but other bishops are appointed by the Pope.[24] Before the election of a bishop, the patriarchal synod considers the names proposed by its members and draws up a list of those it considers to be valid candidates for episcopacy; this is communicated to the Pope and any name for which he refuses his assent is removed from the list.[25] When the synod then comes to elect a bishop, no further procedure is required if the person chosen is on the list; but if he is not on the list, the assent of the Pope is needed before asking the newly elected to accept his appointment.[26] The same arrangement holds for a Church headed by a Major Archbishop.[27] In the official bulletins and news media of the Holy See, these appointments are published as decisions of the Eastern Church in question, not of the Pope. The procedure for appointing bishops of other Eastern Churches and those bishops of patriarchal and major archiepiscopal Churches who are to serve outside the territory of the Church in question is similar to that for Latin bishops, and the appointments are published as acts of the Pope.


when is the british open played this year

The 2017 Open Championship was a men's major golf championship and the 146th Open Championship, held from 20â€“23 July at Royal Birkdale Golf Club in Southport, England. It was the tenth Open Championship at Royal Birkdale, which held its first in 1954.[3]

2017 Open Championship

Jordan Spieth shot four rounds under 70 for a score of 268, three strokes ahead of runner-up Matt Kuchar. It was Spieth's second wire-to-wire win at a major, following his 2015 Masters win. In the third round, Branden Grace scored 62, which set a new major championship record.[4]

This was the first year that the prize money was paid in U.S. dollars rather than British pounds.[5]

This was the second Open Championship televised domestically by Sky Sports.[6] In the United States, it is the second Open Championship to be televised by NBC (Golf Channel's parent network).[7]

The 2017 event was the tenth Open Championship played at the Royal Birkdale Golf Club.[8] Before 2017 the most recent was in 2008, where Pádraig Harrington successfully defended his 2007 title from Carnoustie.

Lengths of the course for previous Opens:[9]

Each player is classified according to the first category in which he qualified, but other categories are shown in parentheses.

1. The Open Champions aged 60 or under on 23 July 2017

Stewart Cink (2), Darren Clarke (2), John Daly, David Duval, Ernie Els (2), Todd Hamilton, Pádraig Harrington (2), Zach Johnson (2,17), Paul Lawrie, Tom Lehman, Sandy Lyle, Rory McIlroy (2,3,4,5,10,12,17), Phil Mickelson (2,3,4,12,17), Mark O'Meara, Louis Oosthuizen (2,4,5), Henrik Stenson (2,3,4,5,17)

2. The Open Champions for 2007â€“2016

3. Top 10 finishers and ties in the 2016 Open Championship

Sergio García (4,5,9,17), Bill Haas (4), Tyrrell Hatton (4,5), J. B. Holmes (4,12,17), Dustin Johnson (4,8,12,17), Andrew Johnston (5), Søren Kjeldsen (5), Steve Stricker

4. Top 50 players in the Official World Golf Ranking (OWGR) for Week 21, 2017

Daniel Berger (12), Wesley Bryan, Rafael Cabrera-Bello (5,17), Paul Casey (12), Kevin Chappell (12), Jason Day (10,11,12), Ross Fisher (5), Matthew Fitzpatrick (5,17), Tommy Fleetwood, Rickie Fowler (11,17), Branden Grace (5), Emiliano Grillo (12), Adam Hadwin, Billy Horschel, Kim Si-woo (11,12), Kevin Kisner (12), Russell Knox (12), Brooks Koepka (8,17), Matt Kuchar (12,17), Marc Leishman, Hideki Matsuyama (12,21), William McGirt (12), Francesco Molinari (5), Ryan Moore (12,17), Alexander Norén (5,6), Pat Perez, Thomas Pieters (5,17), Jon Rahm, Patrick Reed (12,17), Justin Rose (8,14,17), Charl Schwartzel (5,12), Adam Scott (9,12), Jordan Spieth (8,9,12,17), Hideto Tanihara (22), Justin Thomas (12), Jimmy Walker (10,12,17), Bubba Watson (9,12), Bernd Wiesberger (5), Danny Willett (5,9,17), Gary Woodland (12)

5. Top 30 on the 2016 Race to Dubai

Richard Bland, Scott Hend (18), David Horsey, Thongchai Jaidee, Martin Kaymer (8,17), Li Haotong, Shane Lowry, Joost Luiten, Thorbjørn Olesen, Andy Sullivan (17), Wang Jeung-hun, Lee Westwood (17), Chris Wood (6,17)

6. Last three BMW PGA Championship winners

An Byeong-hun

7. Top 5 players, not already exempt, within the top 20 of the 2017 Race to Dubai through the BMW International Open

Dylan Frittelli, Pablo Larrazábal, Alexander Lévy, David Lipsky, Fabrizio Zanotti

8. Last five U.S. Open winners

9. Last five Masters Tournament winners

10. Last five PGA Championship winners

Jason Dufner (12)

11. Last three Players Championship winners

12. The 30 qualifiers for the 2016 Tour Championship

Roberto Castro, Kevin Na, Sean O'Hair, Jhonattan Vegas

13. Top 5 players, not already exempt, within the top 20 of the 2017 FedEx Cup points list through the Travelers Championship

Brian Harman, Russell Henley, Charley Hoffman, Brendan Steele

14. Winner of the 2016 Olympic Golf Tournament

15. Winner of the 2016 Open de Argentina

16. Winner and runner-up from the 2017 Korea Open

Chang Yi-keun, Kim Gi-whan

17. Playing members of the 2016 Ryder Cup teams

18. Winner of the 2016 Asian Tour Order of Merit

19. Winner of the 2016 PGA Tour of Australasia Order of Merit

20. Winner of the 2016â€“17 Sunshine Tour Order of Merit

21. Winner of the 2016 Japan Open

22. Top 2 on the 2016 Japan Golf Tour Official Money List

23. Top 2, not already exempt, on the 2017 Japan Golf Tour Official Money List through the Japan Golf Tour Championship

Yūsaku Miyazato, Shaun Norris

24. Winner of the 2016 Senior Open Championship

25. Winner of the 2017 Amateur Championship

Harry Ellis (a)

26. Winner of the 2016 U.S. Amateur

Curtis Luck forfeited his exemption after turning professional in April 2017.

27. Winners of the 2016 and 2017 editions of the European Amateur

Luca Cianchetti (a), Alfie Plant (a)

28. Recipient of the 2016 Mark H. McCormack Medal

Maverick McNealy (a)

Open Qualifying Series

The Open Qualifying Series (OQS) consists of 10 events from the six major tours. Places are available to the leading players (not otherwise exempt) who finish in the top n and ties. In the event of ties, positions go to players ranked highest according to that week's OWGR.

The Final Qualifying events were played on 4 July at five courses covering Scotland and the North-West, Central and South-coast regions of England. Three qualifying places were available at each location.

To make up the full field of 156, additional places are allocated in ranking order from the Official World Golf Ranking at the time that these places are made available by the Championship Committee.

Thursday, 20 July 2017

Three Americans – Brooks Koepka, Matt Kuchar, and Jordan Spieth – shared the lead after the first round on five under par, a shot clear of England's Paul Casey and Charl Schwartzel, with Ian Poulter a further shot back.[14] Reigning champion Henrik Stenson was one under after a 69. Rory McIlroy was five over par after six holes but recovered to finish with a one-over-par 71.[15][16]

Friday, 21 July 2017

In difficult conditions, Jordan Spieth followed his first round 65 with a 69 to lead by two strokes from Matt Kuchar.[17] Only eight players scored under par for their second rounds, Zach Johnson's 66 being the best round of the day. Alfie Plant was the only amateur to make the cut. He eagled the par-five 15th on his way to a 73 and a 36-hole total of 144.[18]

Amateurs: Plant (+4), Syme (+9), Cianchetti (+11), Ellis (+12), McNealy (+12)

Saturday, 22 July 2017

Jordan Spieth shot a 65 to take a three-stroke lead over Matt Kuchar, who shot a 66. On an easier day of scoring, Branden Grace scored 62, breaking the long-standing men's major championship record of 63.[19] There were also low rounds from Dustin Johnson, with a 64, and Henrik Stenson, with a 65, both getting into a tie for 7th place.[20]

Sunday, 23 July 2017

Beginning the round with a three-shot lead, Jordan Spieth bogeyed three of his first four holes to fall into a tie with Matt Kuchar.[21] A birdie at the 5th combined with a bogey by Kuchar at the 6th allowed Spieth to re-open a two-stroke advantage, but a bogey-birdie swing at the 9th evened the score heading to the back-nine. The score remained level until the 13th, when Spieth hit his tee shot well to the right of the fairway. Forced to take an unplayable lie and drop from the practice area, he managed to get up-and-down to save bogey while Kuchar parred the hole to take the lead.[22] At the par-3 14th, however, Spieth nearly holed his tee shot and converted the birdie attempt to tie Kuchar.[23] Then at the par-5 15th, Spieth made a 48-foot (15 m) eagle putt to take the lead once again. With birdies on the next two holes Spieth played 14–17 in five-under to take a two-stroke lead heading to the last. When Kuchar found a greenside bunker and made bogey, Spieth was able to tap in for par and win the championship by three strokes.[24] Li Haotong birdied his last four holes for 63 (−7) and jump into third place at 274 (−6), the best finish for an Asian player at the Open Championship since Lu Liang-Huan in 1971, also at Royal Birkdale.[25] With the victory, Spieth joined Jack Nicklaus as the only golfers to win three legs of the career Grand Slam before the age of 24.[26]

Amateurs: Plant (+6)

Cumulative tournament scores, relative to par


where is the flexor carpi ulnaris tendon located

The tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris can be seen on the anterior of the distal forearm. On a person's distal forearm, right before the wrist, there will be either two or three tendons. The tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris is the most medial (closest to the little finger) of these. The most lateral one is the tendon of flexor carpi radialis muscle, and the middle one, not always present, is the tendon of palmaris longus.

Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle

The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (or FCU) is a muscle of the human forearm that acts to flex and adduct (medial deviation) the hand.

Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle arises by two heads, humeral and ulnar, connected by a tendinous arch beneath which the ulnar nerve and artery pass.

Its insertion is into the pisiform bone, into the hamate bone via the pisohamate ligament and into the fifth metacarpal bone via the pisometacarpal ligament.

The muscle acts to flex and adduct the wrist joint.

The flexor carpi ulnaris muscle is innervated by the ulnar nerve which has its roots in the C8 and T1 spinal nerves.

The muscle, like all flexors of the forearm, can be strengthened by exercises that resist its flexion. A wrist roller can be used and wrist curls with dumbbells can also be performed. These exercises are used to prevent injury to the ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint.[citation needed]

Ulnar entrapment by the aponeurosis of the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle may cause cubital tunnel syndrome.

Bones of left forearm. Posterior aspect.

Bones of the left hand. Volar surface showing its insertion into the pisiform bone and then via ligaments into the hamate bone and 5th metacarpal bone, acting to flex and adduct the wrist joint.

Cross-section through the middle of the forearm.

Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle


our brand is crisis where was it filmed

Principal photography on the film began on September 29, 2014 in New Orleans, Louisiana, using 35mm film.[16][17] Filming also took place in the Bonnet Carré Spillway in Norco in St. Charles Parish.[18] Additional filming occurred in Puerto Rico and Bolivia.[19]

Our Brand Is Crisis (2015 film)

Our Brand Is Crisis is a 2015 American comedy-drama film directed by David Gordon Green and written by Peter Straughan. Based on the 2005 documentary film of the same name by Rachel Boynton, it is a fictionalized account of the involvement of American political campaign strategists Greenberg Carville Shrum (GCS) in the 2002 Bolivian presidential election. The film stars Sandra Bullock, Scoot McNairy, Billy Bob Thornton, Anthony Mackie, Ann Dowd and Joaquim de Almeida.

Principal photography began on September 29, 2014, in New Orleans, Louisiana. George Clooney and Grant Heslov produced. The film was screened in the Special Presentations section of the 2015 Toronto International Film Festival.[4] It was theatrically released by Warner Bros. on October 30, 2015, to mixed reviews and was a box office disappointment.

In 2002, Bolivian politician Pedro Castillo (a fictionalized version of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada) hires an American political consulting firm (based on James Carville's Greenberg Carville Shrum firm) to help him win the 2002 Bolivian presidential election. The firm brings in Jane Bodine (Sandra Bullock) to manage the campaign in Bolivia. The opposition's political consultant is her nemesis, fellow American Pat Candy (Billy Bob Thornton). In Bolivia the situation is tense: the indigenous people, who are a majority in the country, are protesting for a constitutional reform, to get proper representation.

The American consultants, not knowing the language or the culture, are persuaded by Bodine, a burned out political strategist, to follow a strategy of smear campaigning. However, Castillo refuses to give permission for the team to do so. It is only after publishing a flyer accusing Castillo of a long ago affair (and blaming it on the opposition) does Castillo agree to smear his opponents likewise.

In the following months, the team exercises a strategy of declaring a crisis. They are planning on frightening the people, so they would be persuaded to vote for the unsympathetic but known Castillo rather than the younger oppositions' candidates. Also they publish photos of their enemy with a wanted Nazi war criminal in the background, so that he has to deny being a Nazi. Castillo's bus is stopped by a group of protesters who don't want the International Monetary Fund in Bolivia. Castillo promises not to invite the IMF without a referendum. Eduardo, a young volunteer of the Castillo campaign, is deeply impressed by this. His loyalty comes mostly from the fact that Castillo, who was President at the time, took Eduardo on his arm, during a rally in his town. Nevertheless, his brothers are much more skeptical about Castillo.

During the final debate, Bodine cites a quote in her conversation with Candy, which he gives to Rivera in his speech, saying that "a great man" said it. Unfortunately the quote is actually from Goebbels, the Nazi minister of propaganda and one of Hitler's closest allies. Castillo wins the vote by a small margin. As one of his first actions, he invites the IMF, thereby breaking his promise. The deeply disappointed Eduardo visits Bodine in her hotel, who says that she is not responsible for Castillo's actions. In her eyes, her job is done.

The disillusioned Eduardo joins his brothers at a demonstration of people demanding change. The police arrive and the demonstration quickly turns into a riot. Bodine and her crew are with Candy on the way to the airport. All of them, except Bodine, already have jobs as political consultants in other countries. When Bodine realizes that she brought a liar into office, she leaves the car. At the demonstration she meets Eduardo. In a final clip of the TV interview she has been shown giving throughout the movie, it's revealed that she is now the head of an organization that promotes Latin American solidarity.

On April 22, 2007, it was announced that George Clooney would produce a dramatization of the 2005 documentary Our Brand Is Crisis, along with Grant Heslov, and Warner Bros. would handle American distribution rights.[13] Peter Straughan was set to write the script, with Clooney attached as a potential director and star for the film, about the 2002 Bolivian presidential election's campaign by James Carville's Washington, D.C.-based political consulting firm Greenberg Quinlan Rosner, which was hired by candidate Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada.[13] On December 11, 2013, Sandra Bullock was in early talks to star in the film, while Clooney chose not to direct, and his starring in the film was also unconfirmed at that time.[14] On August 21, 2014, Bullock's casting was confirmed, playing a retired political consultant called 'Calamity' Jane Bodine,[15] and David Gordon Green was set to direct the film.[5] On September 11, Scoot McNairy was added to the cast.[6] On September 15, Billy Bob Thornton joined the film,[7] and on September 18, Anthony Mackie joined the cast.[8] On September 24, Ann Dowd joined the film.[9] On October 10, Joaquim de Almeida and Zoe Kazan joined the cast, with Almeida playing Castillo, the former president of Bolivia, and Kazan playing a young woman who finds dirt on political candidates.[10] On October 13, 2014, Participant Media announced that they would co-finance the film with Warner, while Jeffrey Skoll and Jonathan King would executive produce, along with Bullock and Stuart M. Besser.[11] More casting was also announced, which included Reynaldo Pacheco, Dominic Flores, Louis Arcella, and Octavio Gómez.[11]

In July 2015, Warner Bros. scheduled the film for an October 30, 2015 release, during the awards season.[20] It had a wide release in 2,202 theaters for 21 days.[21]

Our Brand Is Crisis grossed $7 million in North America and $1.6 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $8.6 million, against a budget of $28 million.[3]

The film opened on October 30, 2015, alongside Burnt and Scouts Guide to the Zombie Apocalypse. In its opening weekend, it was projected to make $5â€“7 million from 2,202 theaters,[22] however only ended up grossing $3.2 million, finishing eighth at the box office. This was the lowest wide release opening of Bullock's career, beating 1996's Two If by Sea ($4.7 million).[23]

On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 35% based on 147 reviews, with an average rating of 5.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Our Brand Is Crisis offers sporadic amusement and benefits from a talented cast, but ultimately lacks enough of a bite to add much of interest to the political satire genre."[24] On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 53 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[25] On CinemaScore, audiences gave the film an average grade of "C+" on an A+ to F scale.[22]

Eric Kohn from Indiewire wrote that the movie is all about Bullock's performance, saying "she imbues her part with a ferocious energy that constantly elevates the straightforward material".[26] Peter Debruge from Variety thought that Jane Bodine, played by Bullock, "is easily one of the best female roles of the last 10 years,"[27] while Benjamn Lee from The Guardian wrote that "Bullock seems blissfully unaware of the filmâ€™s faults and delivers a performance that expertly plays on her strengths - her comic timing, wasted in lesser, plane-ready comedies, is on top form and she imbues her neurotic character with more than the thinly sketched quirks provided on the page; she commands a room when needed, perfects scenes of physical comedy and even turns a climax of forced sentiment into something poignant and believable"; he concluded that "while the film is patchy, Bullock's brand is confidently crisis-free".[28]


where do partial seizures originate in the brain

Jacksonian seizures are named after their discoverer, John Hughlings Jackson, an English neurologist, whose studies led to the discovery of the seizures' initiation point (in the primary motor cortex) in 1863.[19]

Focal seizure

Focal seizures (also called partial seizures[1] and localized seizures) are seizures which affect initially only one hemisphere of the brain.[2][3] The brain is divided into two hemispheres, each consisting of four lobes – the frontal, temporal, parietal and occipital lobes. A focal seizure is generated in and affects just one part of the brain – a whole hemisphere or part of a lobe. Symptoms will vary according to where the seizure occurs. In the frontal lobe symptoms may include a wave-like sensation in the head; in the temporal lobe, a feeling of déjà vu; in the parietal lobe, a numbness or tingling; and in the occipital lobe, visual disturbance or hallucination.[4]

As of 2017, focal seizures are split into two main categories, focal onset aware, and focal onset impaired awareness.[5][6] What was previously termed a secondary generalised seizure is now termed a focal to bilateral seizure.[6]

In focal onset aware seizures, a small part of one of the lobes may be affected and the person remains conscious. This can often be a precursor to a larger focal onset impaired awareness seizure. When this is the case, the focal aware seizure is usually called an aura.

A focal impaired awareness seizure affects a larger part of the hemisphere and the person may lose consciousness.

If a focal seizure spreads from one hemisphere to the other side of the brain, this will give rise to a focal to bilateral seizure.[5][6] The person will become unconscious and may well have a tonic clonic seizure. When people have multiple focal seizures they generally have a condition known as temporal lobe epilepsy. (A generalized seizure is one that involves both sides of the brain from the onset).[6]

Focal aware seizures are seizures which affect only a small region of the brain, often the temporal lobes or structures found there such as the hippocampi. People who have focal aware seizures remain conscious.[7] Focal aware seizures often precede larger focal impaired awareness seizures, where the abnormal electrical activity spreads to a larger area of the brain. This can result in a tonic-clonic seizure.[8]

Focal onset aware seizures are a very subjective experience, and the symptoms vary greatly between people. This is due to the varying locations of the brain the seizures originate in e.g.: Rolandic. A focal aware seizure may go unnoticed by others or shrugged off by the sufferer as merely a "funny turn." Focal aware seizures usually start suddenly and are very brief, typically lasting 60 to 120 seconds.[9]

Some common symptoms of a focal onset aware seizure, when the person is awake, are:[7]

When the seizure occurs during sleep, the person will often become semi-conscious and act out a dream they were having while engaging with the real environment as normal. Objects and people usually appear normal or only slightly distorted to them, and will be able to communicate with them on an otherwise normal level. However, since the person is still acting in the dream-like state from which they woke, they will assimilate any hallucinations or delusions into their communication, often speaking to a hallucinatory person or speaking of events or thoughts normally pertaining to the dream they were having or other hallucination.

While asleep symptoms include:

Although hallucinations may occur during focal aware seizures they are differentiated from psychotic symptoms by the fact that the person is usually aware that the hallucinations are not real.[9]

Jacksonian march or Jacksonian seizure is a phenomenon where a focal aware seizure spreads from the distal part of the limb toward the ipsilateral face (on same side of body). They involve a progression of the location of the seizure in the brain, which leads to a "march" of the motor presentation of symptoms.[10][citation needed]

Jacksonian seizures are initiated with abnormal electrical activity within the primary motor cortex. They are unique in that they travel through the primary motor cortex in succession, affecting the corresponding muscles, often beginning with the fingers. This is felt as a tingling sensation, or a feeling of waves through the fingers when touched together. It then affects the hand and moves on to more proximal areas on the same side of body. Symptoms often associated with a Jacksonian seizure are sudden head and eye movements, tingling, numbness, smacking of the lips, and sudden muscle contractions. Most of the time any one of these actions can be seen as normal movements, without being associated with the seizure occurring[citation needed]. They occur at no particular moment and last only briefly. They may result in secondary generalized seizure involving both hemispheres. They can also start at the feet, manifesting as tingling or pins and needles, and there are painful cramps in the foot muscles, due to the signals from the brain. Because it is a partial seizure, the postictal state is of normal consciousness[citation needed].

A focal impaired awareness seizure is a seizure that is associated with unilateral cerebral hemisphere involvement and causes impairment of awareness or responsiveness, i.e. alteration of consciousness.[11][6]

Focal impaired awareness seizures are often preceded by an aura.[12] The seizure aura is a focal aware seizure.[12] The aura may manifest itself as a feeling of déjà vu, jamais vu, fear, euphoria or depersonalization.[13][better source needed] The aura might also occur as a visual disturbance, such as tunnel vision or a change in the perceived size of objects.[14] Once consciousness is impaired, the person may display automatisms such as lip smacking, chewing or swallowing.[13] There may also be loss of memory (amnesia) surrounding the seizural event.[12] The person may still be able to perform routine tasks such as walking, although such movements are not purposeful or planned. Witnesses may not recognize that anything is wrong.

Focal impaired awareness seizures might arise from any lobe of the brain.[12] They most commonly arise from the mesial temporal lobe, particularly the amygdala, hippocampus, and neocortical regions.[15] A common associated brain abnormality is mesial temporal sclerosis.[13] Mesial temporal sclerosis is a specific pattern of hippocampal neuronal loss accompanied by hippocampal gliosis and atrophy.[16] Focal onset impaired awareness seizures occur when excessive and synchronous electrical brain activity causes the impaired awareness and responsiveness.[17] The abnormal electrical activity might spread to the rest of the brain and cause a focal to bilateral seizure or a generalized tonic–clonic seizure.[18] The newer classification of 2017 groups only focal and generalized seizures, and generalised seizures are those that involve both sides of the brain from the onset.[6][5]


who explored the west coast of north america

In 1513, Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the west coast of North America, on the Pacific coast of the Panama isthmus.  From the point of view of European powers in the age of sailing ships, the west coast of North America was among the most distant places in the world.  The arduous journey around Cape Horn at the tip of South America and then north meant nine to twelve months of dangerous sailing.  These practical difficulties discouraged all but the Spanish Empire from making regular visits and establishing settlements and ports until the second half of the 18th centuryâ€”some 200 years after Europeans first reached the east coast of North America.

History of the west coast of North America

The human history of the west coast of North America[1] is believed to stretch back to the arrival of the earliest people over the Bering Strait, or alternately along a now-submerged coastal plain, through the development of significant pre-Columbian cultures and population densities, to the arrival of the European explorers and colonizers.  The west coast of North America today is home to some of the largest and most important companies in the world,[2] as well as being a center of world culture.

As used in this article, the  term "west coast of North America" means a contiguous region of that continent bordering the Pacific Ocean: all or parts of the U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California; all or parts of British Columbia and the Yukon in Canada; all or part of the Mexican states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas; and the Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.  The eastern islands of the Pacific Ocean off the west coast, such as the coastal islands of the Californias, are also important.

The west coast of North America likely saw the first sustained arrival of people to the continent.  Although there are other theories, most scientists believe that the first significant groups of people came from Asia, through today's Bering Strait area, then through modern Alaska, and from there spread throughout North America and to South America.

Although the cultures on the west coast of today's Canada and United States are not known to have developed substantial urban centers and sophisticated writing or scientific systems, it is likely that, before European contact, the population density was significantly higher than in the rest of the northern part of the continent.  For example, it has been estimated that in 1492, one-third of all Native Americans in the United States were living in California.[3]

In the western half of Mesoamerica (that is, western portions of today's Mexico and northern Central America), the oldest known settlements date to approximately 2000 BCE.[4] A succession of cultures started with the very early Capacha culture, which appeared on the Pacific coast of modern Mexico about 1450 BC and spread into the interior.[5]  The following cultures developed into "high civilizations" in Mesoamerica, with extensive urban areas, writing, astronomy and fine arts:

Farther south, Panama was home to some of the earliest pottery-making, such as the Monagrillo culture dating to about 2500–1700 BC; this culture evolved into significant populations best known for spectacular burial sites (dating to c. 500–900 AD) and polychrome pottery of the Coclé style.

Each of these cultures rose, flourished, and was then conquered by a more militarily developed culture.  While not all of these civilizations had large settlements along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, their influence extended to the Pacific coast.

Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica—and especially along the west coast—have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated along the west coast with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600–900 CE).

Explorers flying the flag of Spain reached the New World beginning in 1492 with the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus.  Spanish expeditions colonized and explored vast areas in North and South America following the grants of the Pope (contained in the 1493 papal bull Inter caetera) and rights contained in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas and 1529 Treaty of Zaragoza. These formal acts gave Spain the exclusive rights to colonize the entire Western Hemisphere (excluding eastern Brazil), including all of the west coast of North America. The first European expedition to actually reach the west coast was led by the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who reached the Pacific coast of Panama in 1513.  In an act of enduring historical importance, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean for the Spanish Crown, as well as all adjoining land and islands. This act gave Spain exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights over the entire west coast of North America.

The commonly held belief at the time was that the west coast of North America was in modest sailing distance of Asia to the west, or the two might actually physically connect.  To the north was imagined a narrow Northwest Passage, known as the Strait of Anián, which some believed reached the Pacific Ocean at 42° north latitude (the latitude of today's border between Oregon and California) and connected to the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of St. Lawrence.  Confirmation of the land connection, and discovery of this Strait of Anián, were key elements in Spain's efforts to establish direct trade routes with China and other countries in Asia. See Early knowledge of the Pacific Northwest.

The Pacific Coast of Mexico and Central America was not especially conducive to economic development during this era. The northern Mexican coast (including the Baja California Peninsula) was generally too dry for substantial agriculture or ranching that would support settlements. South of the deserts, the jungles of the Pacific Coast in Mexico and Central America, and the tropical diseases found there,  were major obstacles to large-scale development.

Notable exceptions were the development of important Spanish ports at Puerto de Navidad and Acapulco in today's Mexico. While Navidad faded in importance, Acapulco became the primary port of the Spanish Empire on the west coast of North America, and was used as a base for exploratory expeditions north and trade routes with the Far East.[6]

From 1533–1535, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés personally sponsored and financed exploratory sailing voyages north from Acapulco, in a search for legendary riches reported to be in the site of today's California.  In the third of these voyages, Cortés accompanied the voyage, and likely reached the site of today's La Paz on the Baja California peninsula.[7]

In 1539, another voyage financed and sponsored by Cortés, and led by Francisco de Ulloa, embarked on an expedition in three small vessels, sailing north from Acapulco to explore the Pacific Coast, and to seek the Strait of Anián.  The expedition sailed northwards along the west coast of the Mexican mainland, and reached the Gulf of California six weeks later. Ulloa named the Gulf the "Sea of Cortés" in honor of his patron. When one of his ships was lost in a storm, Ulloa paused to repair the other two ships, and then resumed his voyage, eventually reaching the northern end of the Gulf.  Unable to find the Strait of Anián, Ulloa turned south and sailed along the eastern coast of the Baja California peninsula, landing at the Bay of La Paz. After taking on supplies of wood and water, Ulloa rounded the tip of the peninsula with great difficulty and sailed northward along the western shore of the peninsula, in the Pacific Ocean. The progress of his small ships was hampered by the fierce winds and high seas he encountered, eventually forcing him to turn back to Acapulco. The voyage eventually reached 28° north latitude (near the Isla de Cedros).

Voyages in 1540 and 1541 to Baja California were sponsored by Cortés's rival, the Viceroy of New Spain.  These voyages were led by Hernando de Alarcón (1540) and by Francisco de Bolaños (1541).  The voyage by Alarcón was meant to be coordinated with Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's overland expedition; Alarcón penetrated the lower Colorado River, perhaps as far as the modern California-Arizona boundary (but did not meet up with Coronado's expedition). The voyage of Bolaños provided little new information not already known in New Spain.  Application of the name California to this part of the west coast of North America is attributed by some to Bolaños,[8][9] however other insist that the name first appears in work written by Alarcón.[10]

The governor of Guatemala also determined to build a Pacific fleet on the west coast of Guatemala, for use in an attempt to cross the Pacific to Asia.  Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer sailing for Spain, had shown in 1521 that the Pacific Ocean could be crossed from South America.  Hence, beginning in 1536, using hardware from Spain (such as anchors) hauled across the isthmus of Central America, and local hardwoods, a flotilla of some thirteen ships was built over the next four years.  After much difficulty, the larger number of these ships (under the command of Ruy López de Villalobos) was ordered to make the first crossing of the Pacific Ocean from North America to the Philippines.  A smaller number was placed under the command of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown.  Cabrillo was ordered north along the west coast of North America to explore the expected coastal route to reach the Asian mainland, as well as attempt to find the Strait of Anián.[6][11]

In 1542, Cabrillo became the first European to explore the west coast of today's United States, leading the expedition that landed at San Diego Bay, and continued north along the coast up to Punta del Año Nuevo, 37° 10' north of Monterrey. But Cabrillo died on January 3, 1543, and the remainder of the exploration was led by Bartolomé Ferrer, who sailed perhaps as far north as the Rogue River in today's western coast of Oregon.[12][13]

Importantly beginning in 1565, Acapulco was a home of the vital Manila Galleons.  The Manila Galleons crossed the Pacific Ocean to the Spanish possession of the Philippines, laden with silver and gemstones from Mexico.  There, the wealth was used to purchase Asian trade goods such as spices, silk, and porcelain.  These goods were then carried across the Pacific by the Manila Galleons to Acapulco; from there, the goods were transshipped across Mexico, for delivery to the Spanish treasure fleet, for shipment to Spain.  The income provided to Spain by the Manila Galleons was essential to the Spanish Crown and to the Spanish economy of the era.[14][15]

When Miguel López de Legazpi completed the conquest of the Philippines in 1565, he sent his flagship, the San Pedro, back to New Spain, with orders to survey and chart a practicable route for ships returning from the Islands. The San Pedro sailed from Cebu, headed roughly northeast, followed the Kuroshio Current (also known as the Japan Current), and made landfall on the coast of California about the latitude of Cape Mendocino. A sail of two thousand five hundred miles down the coasts of California and New Spain brought the voyagers to the port of Acapulco. This route was charted by the Basque navigator and friar Andrés de Urdaneta,[16] on board the San Pedro, and for nearly three centuries was the one followed by the galleons of Spain sailing from Manila to Acapulco. This return voyage across the Pacific could take up to seven months. A harbor on the coast of California where ships could find shelter and repair damage was greatly desired. A survey of the unknown northern Pacific coast of North America was ordered, and it was also suggested that the explorations be extended north of 42° north latitude.[15][17][18]

In 1585, Captain Francisco de Gali, on the return voyage from the Philippines, via Macao,[19] was directed to sail as far north as the weather would permit, and then east, and upon reaching the coast of California to make maps on his journey south. However, Gali accomplished only limited chart-making. He reached the California coast at latitude 37° 30' (Pillar Point—just south of today's San Francisco), and noted that the land was high and fair; that the mountains were without snow, and that there were many indications of rivers, bays, and havens along the coast.[6][17]

In 1594, Captain Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho, a Portuguese sailor in the service of Spain, sailed from the Philippines in the San Agustin with orders similar to those of Gali. In this attempt, he reached land between Point St. George and Trinidad Head on November 4, 1595. Following the line of the coast southwards, Cermeñon's ship became wrecked and was beached in Drake's Bay, north of San Francisco. Using salvaged and local materials, the crew constructed an open boat, and the ship's company of more than seventy persons continued the homeward voyage. This open vessel reached Acapulco in early 1596—a  remarkable voyage of nearly twenty-five hundred miles in an open boat. With the loss of the San Agustin, exploration of the California coast by ships loaded with cargo from the Philippines came to an end.[15][17]

In 1602, the Basque captain Sebastián Vizcaíno, sailing for Spain, explored the coastline from Mexico as far north as Monterey Bay in today's California, where he went ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast, and recorded a visit to what is likely Carmel Bay. His major contributions were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years); however no settlements in today's California were established for the next 150 years.[20]

In the late 17th century, Spain sent the first missionaries into today's Baja California, founding the first mission there in 1683 at San Bruno on the east coast of the Baja peninsula (San Bruno was abandoned as unsuccessful after two years).  In 1697, the first "permanent" mission was established at Loreto, about 20 miles (32 km) away from San Bruno, also on the east coast of the peninsula.  During this period (until 1750), some 16 missions were established on the peninsula—mostly on the east coast of the peninsula, with a handful on the Pacific coast, in the northwestern part of the peninsula.[21]

Although it wasn't until 1579 that the west coast of North America was visited by an English explorer, the privateer Sir Francis Drake who landed north of today's San Francisco and claimed the area for England, calling it "New Albion" or New England, the English claim to this territory  dates back to John Cabot's landing on the Americas. The officially-accepted location for Drake's landing is at Drake's Estero (also known as "Drakes Bay," just north of San Francisco, in Marin County).[22][23]  Despite the facts that no permanent settlements were ever established by Drake, and that the next official visit by the British would be some two hundred years later, Drake's action and Cabot's original claim in 1497 were the foundations of British claims to portions of the west coast of North America in the late 18th century. One of the most important consequences of these claims is that charters for the British colonies on the Atlantic coast went from sea to sea, and this was the foundation of the United States claim to its current territory.

While the Spanish had dominated development on the west coast of North America for over 200 years since the early 16th century, beginning in the mid-18th century, this period saw the advent of British and Russian rivals, and the establishment of the California missions, followed by the independence of Mexico and the Central American countries.  Much later in this period, the United States started on its path to become the dominant power on the west coast of North America.

In the 1760s, a decision was made to create a harbor at San Blas (in today's Mexican state of Nayarit), for the purpose of building ships, supplying them, and being the expeditionary base for voyages north along the west coast of North America, from Baja California to Alaska.  Today it remains unclear exactly why the Viceroy of New Spain decided to create an entirely new shipbuilding port along the west coast of Mexico, when the port at Acapulco already existed.  It has been speculated that the reasons San Blas was chosen included that it was a week's sailing closer than Acapulco to the intended destination sites in California, that it was not far from the capital of New Spain, and perhaps more importantly, it had ready access to tropical hardwoods that would be needed to build the ships for the strenuous voyages as far north as today's Alaska.  San Blas built the ships and was the home port for these exploration and supply voyages beginning in 1769 and continuing to 1820.[24]

It was not until 1769 that the first missions were established in today's California (then called Las Californias), including the first mission, at San Diego in 1769, the mission at Monterey in 1770, and the mission at San Francisco in 1776.  These missions eventually stretched from the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula to Sonoma, California, north of San Francisco.  The purpose of the missions, which typically had an accompanying pueblo (town) and presidio (military outpost), was to solidify the 250-year-old Spanish claim to the region.  This need became more urgent as the Russians and British were encroaching on the far northern part of the west coast of North America.  In addition, there continued the long-standing interest in creating a safe anchorage for seaworn Manila Galleons on their return to Acapulco.

Explorers and fur trappers from the Russian Empire (beginning with Semyon Dezhnev expedition of 1630) arrived on the Pacific coast of today's Alaska, and after establishing settlements there (beginning in 1784), expanded hunting and trading down the west coast of North America. In the early 19th century, fur trappers of the Russian Empire explored the west coast of North America, hunting for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego. In 1812, the Russian-American Company set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross, located north of present-day Bodega Bay some sixty miles north of San Francisco, with the never-materialized hope of using that area to develop a source of agricultural products needed for their settlements in Alaska.

In the late 18th century, Spain reacted to the expanding Russian and British presence in the Pacific Northwest by sending exploratory expeditions along the coast as far north as Alaska. In 1774 Juan José Pérez Hernández was commissioned to explore the coast up to 60° N, but only made it as far as 55°30´ N. Off Langara Island in Haida Gwaii he made contact with the Haida, and on the homeward journey, the Nuu-chah-nulth.[25] In 1775, a two-ship exploration expedition led by Spanish Captain Don Bruno de Heceta landed on the coast of today's Washington—the first European to have sailed this far north along the coast. The expedition re-asserted Spanish claims to all the coastal lands, including to the Russian settlements in the north.  The two ships sailed together as far north as Point Grenville, named Punta de los Martires (or "Point of the Martyrs") by Heceta in response to an attack by the local Quinault Indians. He was the first European to sight the mouth of the Columbia River.

By design, the two vessels separated with one continuing to what is today the border between Washington state and Canada. The other (now with second officer Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra at the helm) moved up the coast according to its orders, ultimately reaching a position at 59Â° north latitude on August 15, 1775, entering Sitka Sound near the present-day town of Sitka, Alaska. It is there that the Spaniards performed numerous "acts of sovereignty," naming and claiming Puerto de Bucareli (Bucareli Sound), Puerto de los Remedios, and Mount San Jacinto (renamed Mount Edgecumbe by British explorer James Cook three years later).

In 1790, Spanish explorer Salvador Fidalgo led an expedition that included visits to the sites of today's Cordova, Alaska and Valdez, Alaska, where acts of sovereignty were performed.  Fidalgo went as far as today's Kodiak Island, visiting the small Russian settlement there.  Fidalgo then went to the Russian settlement at Alexandrovsk (today's English Bay or Nanwalek, Alaska), southwest of today's Anchorage on the Kenai Peninsula, where again, Fidalgo re-asserted the Spanish claim to the area by conducting a formal ceremony of sovereignty.

In 1791, the Malaspina Expedition undertook a search for the Northwest Passage, surveying the Alaska coast from Yakutat Bay to Prince William Sound. At Yakutat Bay, the expedition made contact with the Tlingit. The expedition's scientists made a study of the tribe, recording information on social mores, language, economy, warfare methods, and burial practices. Artists with the expedition, Tomas de Suria and José Cardero, produced portraits of tribal members and scenes of Tlingit daily life. A glacier between Yakutat Bay and Icy Bay was subsequently named after Malaspina. The botanist Luis Née also accompanied the expedition, during which he collected and described numerous new plants.

During the return to Mexico, Malaspina's expedition spent a month at the Spanish outpost in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island (see below). The expedition made a study of the Nootka. The two ships then sailed south to Mexico, stopping at the Spanish settlement and mission at Monterey, California on the way. Simultaneously an expedition under Francisco de Eliza, exploring the Strait of Juan de Fuca, discovered an entrance to the Strait of Georgia, which prompted further investigation. In Acapulco, Malaspina took over two schooners, the Sutil and Mexicana, placed them under the command of one of his officers, Dionisio Alcalá Galiano, and had them sail north to explore the Strait of Georgia. Galiano's expedition took place in 1792 at the same time as that of George Vancouver. The two expeditions met in the Strait of Georgia and worked together to map the waters and establish the insularity of Vancouver Island.[26]

Today, Spain's legacy endures as dozens of Spanish place names.  In Alaska these include the Malaspina Glacier and Cordova Glacier, the towns of Valdez, Cordova and Port Gravina, as well as Orca Bay, Cordova Peak, and Revillagigedo Island.[27]  In British Columbia some of the better-known Spanish names (of many) include Quadra Island, Galiano Island, Gabriola Island, and Haro Strait.

In 1778, the British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration, sailed along the west coast of North America, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait.  The northern stretch of the west coast of North America was claimed by the British, but the region was not occupied by any British subject until 1788, when John Meares first small trading post in Nootka Sound in today's British Columbia. His post was torn down at the end of 1788 although he claimed otherwise.

Spain established its own competing fortified trading post at Nootka Sound (Santa Cruz de Nutka, maintained between 1789 and 1795[28]) on Vancouver Island, in today's British Columbia, and sought forcibly to remove British traders by seizing ships, triggering the Nootka Crisis.

War between Spain and Great Britain over control of the Pacific Northwest was averted by the three Nootka Conventions, signed in 1790, 1793, and 1794. Spain gave up its claim that it alone could establish settlements in the Pacific Northwest (a claim that dated back to the 1493 papal bull and Balboa's actions in 1513), and conceded the British right to establish settlements in any area nominally claimed by Spain but never occupied. This agreement effectively allowed a greatly expanded British presence in the Pacific Northwest, including today's British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington.

The primary beneficiary of this agreement was the Hudson's Bay Company, which, in 1825, established a major trading post at Fort Vancouver across the Columbia River just north of today's Portland, Oregon.  From this headquarters, British-employed fur trappers spread throughout the Pacific Northwest, extending as far east as the Rocky Mountains and, by using the Siskiyou Trail, as far south as California's Central Valley.

After the Spanish possession now known as Mexico (first known as "AmÃ©rica Septentrional" or "Northern America") won its War of Independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico initially retained Spain's missions and settlements along the Pacific coast, and continued Spain's claims to territory as far north as today's border between California and Oregon.  In the 1830s, Mexico ended Church control of the missions in California and opened the land to secular development, particularly ranching.  By the 1840s, there were small Mexican settlements at San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and the territorial capital at Monterey.  These settlements primarily traded cattle hides and tallow with American and European merchant vessels.  This period is vividly portrayed in Bostonian Richard Henry Dana, Jr.'s famous seafaring memoir, Two Years Before the Mast and the culture of the great Mexican landowners of this period is often harked back to as exemplifying the height of California's romantic pastoral era. Mexican control of the territory ended after only 25 years, when attempts by local Mexican officials to expropriate the property of American ranchers  and drive them out of California in the winter lead to the successful uprising known as the Bear Flag Revolt.

During the 1820s, the Central American possessions of Spain gained their independence, and the boundaries of the young nations shifted in alliances and configurations. For example, what was to become the nation of Panama was simply a province of Colombia, and Guatemala was variously part of a confederation with Mexico, and part of the United Provinces of Central America, before becoming a separate nation in 1838.  Almost all of these Central American nations saw continuing political strife throughout this period (and into the 20th century), as struggles continued between indigenous peoples and elites, and among factions of the elites.

In 1786, Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse led a group of French scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey, California. They compiled an account of the California mission system, the land and the people.

The leader of a further French scientific expedition to California, Eugène Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840 "...it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man-of-war and two hundred men."[29] In 1841, the Mexican military commander in Northern California, General Mariano Vallejo, wrote "there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California."

In 1805, the first official party of Americans to arrive on the west coast of North America, the fabled expedition of Lewis and Clark, came down the Columbia River to the river's mouth on the border between today's Oregon and Washington.  In 1819, the United States acquired the Spanish claims to the Pacific Northwest (as negotiated in the Nootka Convention) in the Adams-Onís Treaty. The United States argued that it acquired the Spanish rights to exclusive ownership of the Pacific Northwest as far north as Alaska, even though Spain had in fact relinquished any claim to exclusive rights as a result of the Nootka Conventions.  This position led to a dispute with Britain known as the Oregon boundary dispute, remembered for the slogan "54-40 or fight!"  The two countries agreed to defer resolution of the dispute, and to allow settlement by both British and American immigrants in what became known in the United States as the Oregon Country (today's Oregon, Washington, and Idaho; much of today's British Columbia; and parts of Montana and Wyoming).

In 1841, the United States Exploring Expedition visited the west coast of North America by ship, and sent an overland party down the Siskiyou Trail, from the site of today's Portland, Oregon, to San Francisco.

Americans continued arriving on the west coast of North America in significant numbers in the mid-1830s.  They first came overland along the Oregon Trail, settling primarily in the rich Willamette Valley south of today's Portland.  By 1841, the first overland party of American settlers reached California along what became the California Trail, and by the mid-1840s significant numbers of Americans were arriving in California.

In addition, the long-standing dispute between the United States and Great Britain over the Oregon Country was resolved in 1846, with the signing of the Oregon Treaty; the Oregon Treaty divided the disputed territory along what later became the current international boundary between Canada and the United States.

In this era, much of the west coast of North America transformed from an area still largely populated by indigenous peoples to widespread population of non-natives.  In particular, the west coast of the United States showed the most dramatic change, beginning with the California Gold Rush and the subsequent opening of the transcontinental railroads, through the development of Hollywood in Southern California, and increased industry and agriculture in the U.S. Pacific Northwest.  Canadian and Mexican development also proceeded during this time, but at a slower pace.[30]

Americans in California rebelled against Mexico, and in 1846 established the short-lived California Republic. However, the Mexican–American War had already been declared, and the American military quickly took control of California. At the end of the war, Mexico ceded control of California to the United States. Things began to change dramatically in 1848 with the California Gold Rush which brought an influx of immigrants from around the world. While few found much gold, many stayed, founding communities and turning to farming and other practices. Despite these increases in population the west coast was still on the periphery. The American Civil War had little effect. This began to change as the first transcontinental railroads (completed in 1869) stretched across the United States. For the first time, it was relatively cheap and easy to move to the west coast.

In 1867, the United States acquired Alaska from the Russian Empire, capping American westward expansion on the North American continent.

The next 75 years saw monumental change on the west coast of the United States. Successive booms of agriculture, oil, entertainment, and industry greatly increased California's population. Logging, fishing, and industry drove the economies of California north of the San Francisco Bay Area, and Oregon and Washington.

The gold rush fever spread progressively north; in 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush began in British Columbia, and at the end of the century, the Klondike Gold Rush saw the Yukon hit by masses of prospectors.

The formal delineation of the international border had not completely allayed Britain's fears of losing its Pacific territories, especially as it continued to lag behind the western United States in population and development.  As a condition of British Columbia's joining Canadian Confederation in 1871, the Canadian government promised British Columbia a railway, though due to the Pacific Scandal and controversies over the location of the Pacific port and railhead and the use of importing Chinese rather than British labour, the Canadian Pacific Railway was not completed until 1885.  The new line became an important link in what was known as the All Red Route around the world, linking global travel through territories exclusively British.

While the Pacific Coast of Mexico remained relatively undeveloped economically, exceptions were tobacco cultivation in the coastal territory of Nayarit, tourism at Acapulco, and local-scale fishing all along the coast.

The countries of Central America continued to struggle politically during this time (with perhaps the notable exception of Costa Rica), and began to expand agriculture, particularly in coffee and bananas with investment and substantial control by the United States.  The establishment in 1903 of the newly independent nation of Panama (under pressure from the United States) led to the creation of the Canal Zone and opening of the Panama Canal in 1914.  The opening of the Canal benefited the region economically as trade with the Eastern United States and Europe became far easier.

Both the gold rushes and the building of the railroads required vast amounts of labor.  One available source that was used on both sides of the border were immigrants from East Asia, largely from China and Japan.  These immigrants were willing to work for very little and played a crucial role in building the infrastructure of the west coast.  However, they faced constant discrimination.  Asians were deprived of their civil rights in both the United States and Canada. There was also pressure to restrict Asian immigration, opinions that were acted on with quotas, head taxes, and finally a complete ban in both nations in the 1920s. Because of discrimination, and also a desire to remain a community, Chinatowns developed in all the major cities along the west coast.

The rise of the Japanese economy also benefited the region as the ability to trade across the Pacific continued to show its great potential.

However, only a few decades later, Japan would become a major threat.   During World War II, there were few attacks against North America, but the occasional Japanese submarine lurked off the shores. Japan tried to damage the region by sending over thousands of Fu-Go balloon bombs in an attempt to light forest fires.  These were generally ineffective; a few landed in either Canada or the United States but they caused no great destruction.  More destructive was the internment of ethnic Japanese, who were expropriated and sent into internal exile merely for their descent.

The post-war years would be ones of great prosperity and growth on the west coast of North America.  The quick reemergence of Japan and its stunning growth over the next decades meant great wealth for the west coast ports.  Japan became the second largest trading partner of both Canada and the United States, and this trade was almost entirely based in the west coast (the United States and Canada are each other's largest trading partners).  Later the other Asian economies would add to this trade.  Throughout the northwest the primary extractive activities of logging, mining, and fishing remained the central industries. California became a centre of entertainment, aerospace engineering, and electronics.

Unlike other areas of the United States, the western economies were not based upon manufacturing and the great deindustrialization of the 1970s and 1980s did little to hurt the regionâ€”creating an imbalance between rapid growth in the west and stagnation or decline in the east.

During this period, the west coast departed from positions held in the FDR years and moved toward the direction of conservatism with the population favoring lower taxes.  In the United States, this manifested itself in support for the Republican Party, especially for the two Republican California-based presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan.  In British Columbia, the right wing Social Credit Party governed for over thirty years.  Nonetheless, the great port cities of San Francisco and Vancouver both fostered alternative views, acting as centres for environmentalism, unions, feminism, and gay rights.

The general economic revival of North America in the late 1990s brought growth in Northern California due to the high-tech industry.  The region was hurt, however, by the decade-long economic slump of Japan beginning at the same time.  This was made up for by the rapid growth of Southeast Asia, South Korea, and especially China.  The entire region shifted quite dramatically politically, however.  Westerners diverged from conservatism over social issues such as gay rights, abortion, and the legalization of soft drugs.  In 1991, British Columbia threw out Social Credit electing the social democratic British Columbia New Democratic Party.  California, Washington, and Oregon were pivotal in Bill Clinton's two victories and Al Gore and John Kerry's near wins in 2000 and 2004.  This change was mainly in the urban coastal areas.  Inland, rural regions of California remained staunchly Republican, and although once full of labour strongholds, the Interior of British Columbia has voted solidly for the Reform Party and its successors.


who played el guapo in the three amigos

Alfonso Arau InchÃ¡ustegui (born January 11, 1932) is a Mexican actor and director.[1]

Alfonso Arau

Arau was born in Mexico City, the son of a doctor.[2] He directed the films Zapata: The Dream of a Hero, Like Water for Chocolate (adapted from the novel written by his ex-wife Laura Esquivel), A Walk in the Clouds with Keanu Reeves and Anthony Quinn, and the Hallmark Hall of Fame production A Painted House, adapted from the John Grisham novel of the same name. Among a plethora of roles in his career, Arau has played "Captain Herrera", a lieutenant of Federal general "Mapache", in Sam Peckinpah's 1969 western, The Wild Bunch, chief bandit "El Guapo" in Three Amigos (USA, 1986), a comedy with Martin Short, Steve Martin, and Chevy Chase, shady businessman Manuel in the comedy Used Cars (USA, 1980), and the smuggler "Juan" in Romancing the Stone which starred Michael Douglas and Kathleen Turner. Arau appeared in the 1972 Mexican film El rincón de las vírgenes ("The Virgins' Corner"), where he played the assistant of a fake mystical doctor traveling from town to town, who reminisce about their travels, when a group of women decide to propose the doctor for sainthood. The movie was set in 1920s rural Mexico.

Arau has made many appearances as a character actor in American and TV series and plays. In the 1972 episode of Gunsmoke titled "Hidalgo", Arau portrayed the bandit "Mando" who shoots and wounds marshal Matt Dillon.[3]

In 1973, Arau acted in and directed Calzónzin Inspector ("Cazonci" or "Caltzontzin" was the term used in the Purépecha culture, to name their emperors[citation needed]), a movie based on a character from the Mexican comic Los Supermachos of Rius, a cartoonist, who co-wrote the screenplay.[4] The movie, which is influenced by Nikolai Gogol's The Government Inspector, centers around two Mexicans who are mistaken for government inspectors from Mexico City by the corrupt mayor of a small town. It is a humorous political critique, aimed squarely at the then ruling party Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) and its paramilitary caciques, at a time when freedom of speech in politics was highly restricted. There are at least two versions of the movie, with one having some scenes deleted by State censors, the most notable of which depicts the killing of a renegade farmer by a police officer, who shoots the farmer in the back.

In December 2004, the Santa Fe Film Festival honored Alfonso Arau for his work in cinema.[5]

In 2010 he directed the Italian-language film, The Trick in the Sheet.

In January 2011, he starred in Chad, Matt & Rob's "The Treasure Hunt: An Interactive Adventure."

Arau also became a supporter of SENS Research Foundation, a nonprofit organization that conducts rejuvenation research.[6]


you never even call me by my name meaning

The song is a satirical response and kiss-off to the country music industry in Nashville. Coe was an ideal choice to convey Steve Goodman's message to the country music industry due to his non-conformist ("outlaw") style; Coe had little love for the Nashville industry.

You Never Even Called Me by My Name

"You Never Even Called Me by My Name" is a song written and recorded by Steve Goodman and John Prine; and recorded by country music singer David Allan Coe. It was the third single release of Coe's career, included on his album Once Upon a Rhyme. The song was Coe's first Top Ten hit, reaching a peak of number eight on the Billboard country singles charts. The song, over five minutes long, is known for its humorous self-description as "the perfect country and western song."

The country music industry of the era blatantly refused to acknowledge the writers' and artist's fringe style; Goodman, despite success penning the folk-pop crossover "City of New Orleans," was still considered an outsider and neophyte. Coe's and Goodman's response to Nashville was not to sell out; the song name-drops Waylon Jennings, Charley Pride and Merle Haggard (as well as his song "The Fightin' Side of Me;" Coe also uses loose impersonations of each artist in doing so) and also makes reference to Faron Young's "Hello Walls" in the background vocals, noting that "you" (industry executives) "don't have to call me" any of those names anymore. In the third verse, Coe notes "the only time I know I'll hear David Allan Coe is when Jesus has his final Judgment Day," noting that he never expected the industry to recognize him by his individual merits.

In a spoken epilogue preceding the song's iconic closing verse, Coe explains that "a friend of mine named Steve Goodman" wrote the song and considered it "the perfect country and western song". Coe, upon receiving the song, explained to Goodman that he was wrong, there was no way a song could be "the perfect country and western song" without mentioning a laundry list of clichés: “mama, or trains, or trucks, or prison, or getting drunk.” Goodman then proceeded to add the final verse, incorporating all five of Coe's facetious "requirements," whereupon Coe agreed that now it was "the perfect country-and-western song" and felt obliged to add it to the end of the record:

I was drunk the day my mom got out of prison
And I went to pick'er up in the rain
But before I could get to the station in my pickup truck
She got runned over by a damned ol' train

Goodman and Prine's versions had a different list in the final verse.

"You Never Even Called Me by My Name" is accompanied mainly by resonator guitar, pedal steel guitar and electric guitar.

"You Never Even Called Me by My Name" by David Allan Coe spent seventeen weeks on the Billboard country singles charts, peaking at number eight.[1]

In 1994, Doug Supernaw recorded a cover version on his second studio album, Deep Thoughts from a Shallow Mind.[3] Supernaw's rendition features a guest vocal from Coe himself, as well as guest appearances by Waylon Jennings, Merle Haggard and Charley Pride,[3] all of whom are mentioned in the original song's second verse. It was the second single release from Supernaw's album.

Alanna Nash of Entertainment Weekly considered Supernaw's cover the "most interesting" cut on the album, but thought that it was in too high of a key for the guest vocalists involved.[3]

This version spent seven weeks on the Billboard country charts, peaking at number 60. Only Supernaw was credited for it on the charts.[2]