when was the last time the crusaders won a super rugby title

The Crusaders (formerly the Canterbury Crusaders and officially called the BNZ Crusaders due to a sponsorship deal with the Bank of New Zealand) are a New Zealand professional rugby union team based in Christchurch that competes in the Super Rugby competition. They are the most successful team in Super Rugby history with eight titles (1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2017). The franchise represents the Buller, Canterbury, Mid-Canterbury, South Canterbury, Tasman and West Coast provincial Rugby Unions. The Crusaders are the worldâ€™s most successful non-international professional rugby team. Their main home ground is AMI Stadium,[n 1] formerly known as Jade Stadium and before that, Lancaster Park.

Crusaders (rugby union)

Formed in 1996 to represent the upper South Island of New Zealand in the Super 12, the Crusaders struggled in their first season and finished last. Their performance improved in 1997 and the team finished sixth (out of twelve teams). The team went on to win all three titles from 1998 to 2000 despite each final being played away from home. They again won the competition in 2002 after going through the season unbeaten. In the following two seasons, they again reached the final, although they were beaten on both occasions. 2005 was the last season of the Super 12 before its expansion. After finishing top of the table in that season, the Crusaders went on to host the final in which they defeated the Waratahs. As a result of winning their fifth Super 12 title, the Crusaders were given the trophy to keep. In 2006, the Crusaders hosted the Hurricanes in the inaugural Super 14 final and won 19–12. In 2008 the Crusaders hosted the final at AMI Stadium against the Waratahs, and won the match 20–12 to claim their seventh title. In 2017 the Crusaders travelled to Johannesburg to play the Lions for the Super Rugby final, the Crusaders won their eighth title 25-17.

In addition to winning more Super Rugby titles than any other team, the franchise also holds several competition records, including most points in a game and most tries in a game, both achieved in their 96–19 victory over the Waratahs in 2002. Ironically the Crusaders also hold the record for the least points scored in a game when they were defeated by the Highlanders 6–0 in 2009. They have also scored the most points (541) and most tries (71) in one season, both achieved in 2005.

Individual players also hold records: Andrew Mehrtens for most points in a Super 12 season (206 in 1998), and Rico Gear for most tries in a season (15 in 2005). Twelve players have played over 100 games for the franchise: Justin Marshall, Reuben Thorne, Caleb Ralph, Greg Somerville, Leon MacDonald, Richie McCaw, Chris Jack, Dan Carter, Andrew Ellis, Kieran Read, Wyatt Crockett and Sam Whitelock. They also have three International Rugby Board Players of the Year: Dan Carter (2005), (2012), (2015), Richie McCaw (2006), (2009) and (2010) and Kieran Read (2013)

The 1996 Season

The Crusaders franchise was created as one of five New Zealand teams in the Super 12. Originally named the Canterbury Crusaders, the Crusaders' franchise area encompassed the upper South Island of New Zealand (see Super Rugby franchise areas), and was formed from the Buller, Canterbury, Marlborough, Mid-Canterbury, Nelson Bays, South Canterbury, and West Coast rugby unions.[3][n 2] The original Crusaders team of 1996 was captained by All Blacks prop Richard Loe and coached by Vance Stewart.[4] The Crusaders struggled in the inaugural season and finished bottom of the table with only two wins.[5] Their eight losses included a 49–18 loss to the Blues and a 52–16 loss to the Queensland Reds.[6] And the First ever tour was a pre-visit to South Africa prior start of Super 12.[7]

The 1997 Season

The following season saw a change in captain and coach, with Todd Blackadder succeeding Loe as captain and Wayne Smith taking over as coach.[4] With five wins, the team finished the round-robin stage in sixth place.[8] The improvement was particularly illustrated by the Crusaders' 29–28 loss to the defending champions, the Blues, which contrasted with their 49–18 loss the previous season. (The Blues also went on to win the 1997 title).[9] During this loss, Leon MacDonald was taken out with a shoulder charge by Robin Brooke. While the Crusaders attempted to get MacDonald back on the field, the Blues scored two tries, including one by Brooke, who was later suspended for two weeks for the shoulder charge.[9] In their last game of 1997, the Crusaders beat the Queensland Reds 48–3 at Lancaster Park, now known as AMI Stadium.[8]

The 1998 Season

The Crusaders won their first title in 1998, despite starting the season with three losses in their first four games. They finished the round-robin by winning their last seven games, culminating in a last-round win over the Coastal Sharks (now the Sharks) that gave them second place in the round-robin phase of the competition.[10] Their second-placing allowed them to host their semi-final at Lancaster Park, where they won the match 36â€“32 against the Coastal Sharks.[11]

In the final at Eden Park, the Crusaders faced the Blues, who were heavy favourites. According to Crusaders' hooker Mark Hammett, "If we'd been polled in that week, and had to give an honest answer, most of the boys, deep down, would probably have thought that the Blues would beat us."[12] The Crusaders were ahead 3–0 at half time, but the Blues scored first after half time to take a 10–3 lead after 53 minutes.[13] After Crusader Norm Maxwell scored a try, the game was tied 10 all. Then, after a penalty each, the two teams were tied 13 all with one minute of regulation time remaining.[14] At that moment, Andrew Mehrtens chipped the ball for James Kerr to run onto and score, giving the Crusaders a 20–13 win after the try was converted.[15] The ten points scored by Andrew Mehrtens in the final contributed to his total of 206 points for the season − a record for the Super 12.[16] Upon the Crusaders' return to Christchurch, they were given a parade through the city that drew 100,000 people.[14]

The 1999 Season

The 1999 season was equally successful for the Crusaders despite struggling to make the play-offs in fourth place after winning their last four round-robin matches.[18][19] They defeated the favoured Queensland Reds (who had finished top in the round-robin) in their semi-final to advance to the final against the Otago Highlanders (since renamed the Highlanders).[19] The all-South Island final in Dunedin was promoted as "the party at Tony Brown's house" after Highlanders first five-eighths Tony Brown.[18] Again playing away from home, the Crusaders won 24â€“19. The decisive try of the match was scored by Crusaders winger Afato So'oalo when he chipped the ball, then out-sprinted All Blacks winger Jeff Wilson to collect the ball and score.[20][21]

The 2000 Season

Following the All Blacks' semi-final loss in the 1999 Rugby World Cup, Wayne Smith succeeded John Hart as All Blacks coach.[22] Crusaders manager Robbie Deans replaced Smith as Crusaders coach. In Deans' first year in charge, the Crusaders won their third title in a row − a feat that has not since been repeated.[4] The Crusaders finished second in the round-robin, earning them the right to host a semi-final in which they faced the Highlanders at Jade Stadium.[23][24] Two tries in the final 20 minutes by Marika Vunibaka helped the Crusaders to a 37–15 win.[25] The 2000 Super 12 Final was played against the Brumbies in Canberra, Australia, where the weather for the final was icy, with sleet and snow.[26] The game was low-scoring, with only one try each. Four penalties by Mehrtens gave the Crusaders a 12–6 half time lead. Following a Brumbies penalty four minutes from time, the Brumbies led 19–17.[26] However, the Crusaders were awarded a penalty from the resulting kick-off, and after Mehrtens converted the penalty, the Crusaders went on to win the game 20–19.[27]

The 2001 Season

After winning three consecutive Super 12 titles, the Crusaders finished tenth in 2001 â€“ their worst finish since 1996. The season was the last for captain Todd Blackadder before he left to play for Edinburgh in Scotland.[28][n 3]

The 2002 Season

The Crusaders bounced back dramatically in 2002 when they went through the Super 12 season unbeaten, achieving their fourth title. Although the Crusaders won all eleven of their round-robin matches, six of them were won by a margin of seven points or less.[n 4][29] Their eleven round-robin games also included a record 96â€“19 win over the Waratahs in the final match of the round-robin stage, which was especially noteworthy given that both teams finished at the top of the table.

The Crusaders met the Highlanders in their 2002 semi-final, which they eventually won 34–23 after being ahead 18–6 at half time. The following week, they faced the Brumbies in the first final to be hosted at Jade Stadium. The Brumbies trailed 11–3 after the first half, having had only 30 per cent possession.[30] Although the Brumbies closed the gap to 14–13 with eight minutes to go, the Crusaders held on and steadied to win 31–13 with a last-minute try to Caleb Ralph.[30][31] The season was their first under the captaincy of Reuben Thorne, who went on to captain the All Blacks until the end of the 2003 Rugby World Cup.

The 2003 Season

The Crusaders' winning run finally came to an end when they were beaten 39–5 by the Blues in the third round of the 2003 Super 12 season.[32] Although their 15-match unbeaten streak had ended, Richie McCaw said of the loss, "...in some ways it was almost a relief. We'd finally been beaten, the run was over, so people could stop talking about it and we could get on with playing it week by week."[33] The Crusaders recovered to finish second on the table with eight wins.[34] They hosted a semi-final against the Hurricanes, who were coached by Colin Cooper, a former assistant coach for the Crusaders. Despite this inside knowledge of the team by the Wellington coach, the Crusaders won the match 39–16.[34] In the final, the Crusaders met the Blues, another team coached by a former Crusaders assistant coach, Peter Sloane. Hooker Mark Hammett scored two tries to give the Crusaders a 10–6 lead at half-time.[35] The Blues hit back to lead 21–10 with ten minutes to go. The Crusaders managed another converted try, but it was not enough, and the Blues won 21–17.[35]

The 2004 Season

The Crusaders' 2004 season began with two losses: first to the Waratahs, then to the Blues.[36] They recovered to again finish second on the table with seven wins.[37] They played the Stormers at Jade Stadium in their semi-final, and won 27–16.[37] They met the Brumbies at Canberra Stadium in a replay of the 2000 final. The Brumbies dominated in the final, scoring 33 unanswered points in the first 19 minutes.[38] The Crusaders managed to salvage some pride by narrowing the loss to a 47–38 finish.[37]

The Season 2005

The 2005 season started with a repeat of the previous year's final: a Brumbies victory over the Crusaders in Canberra.[39] There was a win the following week at home over the Chiefs, followed by a win over the Reds at Trafalgar Park.[40] Although there was a 35–20 loss to the Bulls after Crusaders captain Richie McCaw was knocked unconscious, they eventually finished the regular season top of the table.[41][42] McCaw returned from his five weeks on the sideline to lead the Crusaders in their semi-final victory over the Hurricanes.[41][42] They faced the Waratahs in the final at Jade Stadium. Leading 14–6 at halftime, the Crusaders then moved out to a 29-point lead.[43] Despite three late tries by the Waratahs, the Crusaders won their fifth title with a 35–20 win.[43][44]

As a reward for their seventh finals appearance and fifth title, the Crusaders were allowed to keep the Super 12 trophy.[45] After the 2005 season, the franchise saw the departure of stalwarts Andrew Mehrtens and Justin Marshall, both of whom had played for the team since its formation in 1996.

The 2006 Season

In 2006, the Super 12 expanded to form the Super 14 when the Western Force from Perth, Australia, and the Cheetahs from the Free State and Northern Cape Provinces, South Africa joined the competition. An unbeaten run of sixteen matches was nearly halted when the Crusaders drew with the Western Force in Perth in round eleven.[46] The following week, the unbeaten run was ended when the Crusaders lost to the Stormers in Cape Town.[47] That loss was their only one of the year, as they finished top of the table with eleven wins.[48] After beating the Bulls in their semi-final, the Crusaders faced the Hurricanes in the final at Jade Stadium that was played in a thick fog, causing poor visibility.[49] Sections of the crowd could not see the field, and many spectators left during the match.[49] The scorers were tied 9–9 going into the game's last 20 minutes. The Crusaders' Casey Laulala then scored the game's only try before the match finished 19–12.[49]

The 2007 Season

In the 2007 Super 14 season, seven Crusaders players missed the first seven rounds of the competition to participate in an All Black "conditioning programme".[50] The conditioning programme was part of the All Blacks' 2007 Rugby World Cup preparations; 22 players were selected for the programme. The Crusaders' seven players in the programme was more than any other New Zealand Super 14 franchise. The Crusaders players were Chris Jack, Richie McCaw, Greg Somerville, Reuben Thorne, Dan Carter, Leon MacDonald, and Aaron Mauger.[50][51][52] All but one of the seven returned to play for the Crusaders in their eighth round match against the Stormers (Greg Somerville did not return due to injury).[53] The Crusaders climbed to second on the table before defeating the Western Force 53–0 at Jade Stadium in the tenth round.[54] The victory over the Force was the one hundredth Super rugby win for the Crusaders – the first franchise to reach the milestone.[54][n 5]

The Crusaders were top of the table going into the last round of the Super 14 before the play-offs. To guarantee a home semi-final they needed to defeat the Chiefs at Jade Stadium. The Chiefs won 30–24 – and ended the Crusaders 26 game winning streak at home.[55] As the Bulls defeated the Reds 92–3 in the same round, they overtook the Crusaders to finish second in the round robin.[56] The Crusaders then travelled to Pretoria to face the Bulls in their semi-final where they lost 27–12.[57]

The 2008 Season

The 2008 season was another highly successful one for the Crusaders. After finishing top of the table at the end of the last round,[58] they comfortably defeated the Hurricanes 33–22 in the semi-final,[59] and went on to beat the Waratahs in the final 20–12.[60] It was a fitting way to send off long-serving coach Robbie Deans before he departed to coach Australia.[61] It was also the last game for Crusaders stalwarts Caleb Ralph and former captain Reuben Thorne.[62] In July that year former captain Todd Blackadder was appointed Crusaders coach, and his former teammates Mark Hammett and Daryl Gibson were appointed as assistants.[63]

The 2009 Season

The 2009 season started with a sole win and a draw from the Crusaders' first five matches; this included a 6—0 loss to the Highlanders.[64][65] The side found its feet later in the season, and won key away games which ultimately saw them finish in fourth place on the table – just ahead of the Waratahs.[66] Both the Crusaders and Waratahs finished the season with 41 competition points, but the Crusaders advanced through to the semi-finals due to a greater 'points for and against' difference.

The Crusaders lost their semi-final to the Bulls 36–23 at Loftus Versfeld, Pretoria in front of a capacity 52,000 crowd.[67] The Bulls went on to win the 2009 Super 14 title beating the Chiefs 61–17.[68] Statistically, the Crusaders had the best defensive record of the 2009 competition – conceding just 198 points. However, points for, and total tries scored was the second lowest in the competition with just 231 points and 27 tries.

The 2010 Season

In 2010 the Crusaders had a very good start to the season before a poor finish with three losses in four games caused them to have to travel to Orlando Stadium, Soweto to face the Bulls. They lost the semi-final 39â€“24.

The 2011 Season

The 2011 season had a minor hiccup at the very beginning with a two-point loss to the Blues. Their second round match against the Hurricanes was cancelled, and match declared a draw after the Christchurch earthquake on 22 February which caused 182 deaths. In their first match after the earthquake they played the Waratahs, a team that had only conceded six points in their previous two games. The Crusaders triumphed 33–18 in a convincing display in front of a sold-out stadium. They next played the Brumbies and brushed them aside in a 52–10 demolition. They next played the Highlanders who had previously only lost one match in the season, to the undefeated and table-topping Stormers. The Crusaders won comfortably 44–13 in Dunedin. The next team they played, the Sharks, had like the Highlanders previously only lost one match in the season before the Crusaders won 44–28 at Twickenham for a one off match due to earthquake damage at their own ground. They played the second match in Timaru Alpine Stadium against the Bulls in a sell out crowd winning 27–0. Round 9 they played the Chiefs in Mt Maunganui and gained four tries winning 34–16 with Richie McCaw returning after eight weeks off with injury.

The Crusaders defeated the Sharks 36-8 in the qualifier round. For the semi-final the Crusaders had to cross the Indian Ocean to Cape Town to play the Stormers. Despite travelling 11,000 km the Crusaders defeated the Stormers 29-10 in a convincing display. The Crusaders faced the Reds in the Final and yet more travel. The Crusaders and Reds were matched evenly at 13-13 after exchanging a try apiece and two penalty's. However, Will Genia scored a crucial try for the Reds in the 68th minute to help them to an 18–13 win. The Crusaders lost the final to the Queensland Reds at the Suncorp Stadium.[69] Despite not winning the title in 2011, the trials the Crusaders overcame to even make the final, made this season one of the Crusaders finest.

The 2012 Season

The 2012 season was the first in the new home ground of Christchurch Stadium, saw the Crusaders again reach the playoffs, with a record of 11 wins and 5 losses. In the qualifier round the Crusaders defeated the Bulls 28-13. However, they were defeated by the (eventual champion) Chiefs 20-17 in the semi-final, played in Hamilton.

The 2013 Season

The 2013 season saw a nearly identical season to 2012. The Crusaders made the playoffs with a record of 11 wins and 5 losses. In the qualifier round the Crusaders crushed the Reds 38-9. However, they were defeated again by the (eventual champion) Chiefs 20-19 in the semi-final, played in Hamilton.

The 2014 Season

The 2014 season was a more successful season, with the Crusaders making a Grand Final appearance. The Crusaders made the playoffs with a record of 11 wins and 5 losses. For the second time the Crusaders won the New Zealand Conference, as a result, they earned a first round bye. The Crusaders then defeated the Sharks 38-6 in the semi-final. In the Grand Final against the Waratahs played in Sydney, the Crusaders fell short by 32-33. The Waratahs started strong with a 14-0 early lead before the Crusaders hit back, entering halftime down 13-20. In the 76th minute Colin Slade got his sixth penalty to put the Crusaders up 32-30, looking to steal the game at the end. However, Craig Joubert awarded a controversial penalty in the 78th minute to the Waratahs. Bernard Foley calmly made the championship winning kick, ensuring a 33-32 Waratahs victory. The following day Joubert contacted both Crusaders Coach Todd Blackadder and Crusaders Captain Richie McCaw to apologise, announcing to both that he got the final call wrong.[citation needed]

The 2015 Season

The 2015 season was a disappointing one for the Crusaders, who missed the playoffs for the first time since 2001. This broke a 13 year old streak of consecutive playoff appearances. The Crusaders had a record of 9 wins and 6 losses. Despite the poor record the Crusaders (46) had more points than the Stormers (45), but owing to the playoff structure missed the playoffs. The Crusaders fare-welled Crusaders and All Black legends Richie McCaw and Dan Carter at the seasons end.[citation needed]

The 2016 Season

The 2016 season saw a return to the playoffs for the Crusaders, who posted a record of 11 wins and 4 losses, Despite the Crusaders having a good record they still finished 6th in the last spot of the Australasian Group. This occurred because the Hurricanes, Highlanders and Chiefs all posted a record of 11 wins and 4 losses. However, the other teams earned more points than the Crusaders (50) so finished higher Hurricanes (53), Highlanders (52) and Chiefs (51). The Crusaders had to travel to Johannesburg to face the Lions. The Crusaders were well beaten by the (Runners-up) Lions 42-25 in the qualifier round.

The 2017 Season

The 2017 season was a good season for the Crusaders, who won a record eighth championship. The Crusaders made the playoffs with a record of 14 wins and 1 loss. During the regular season a standout moment occurred in Round 15 vs the Highlanders. With 82:22 on the clock and the score tied at 22-22, the Crusaders had the ball on the 40m line. Up stepped Mitchell Hunt who calmly slotted a 45m drop goal to win the game and preserve a 14 match-winning streak. The Crusaders lost to the British and Irish Lions 3-12 at Christchurch, during the Lions tour to New Zealand. The Crusaders attack was shut down by a defensive display by the Lions. The Lions squad contained many test players and was the strongest Lions team faced by any Super Rugby team. For the first time the Crusaders won the Australasian Group. However, the Johannesburg-based Lions finished top of the combined table with 65 points to the Crusaders 63.

In the qualifier round, in atrocious conditions the Crusaders defeated the Highlanders 17-0. The game was notable for the Crusaders defence, which kept the highly-talented Highlanders scoreless. The Crusaders then defeated the Chiefs comfortably 27-13, repaying earlier playoff losses to the team. The Crusaders faced the Lions in the final, and owing to the Lions holding home advantage, had to fly nearly 12,000Â km. The Crusaders confronted a daunting task to win the 2017 title. The Crusaders would have to battle a formidable Lions team, altitude and 61,000 Lions fans in the fortress of Ellis Park Stadium. The Crusaders started strongly with two tries, jumping out to a 12-0 lead. In the 38th minute Kwagga Smith took out David Havili in the air, causing Havili to fall dangerously. Smith was given a red card. At half time the Crusaders led 15-3. Kieran Read scored a try immediately after half time to extend the lead to 22-3. However, the travel, altitude and fast pace of the game took a toll on the Crusaders. The attacking Lions scored two tries to reduce the deficit to 25-17. But the defence of the Crusaders held out giving the Crusaders a record eighth title 25-17, while avenging last years result.

The Crusaders achieved history in a variety of ways with the 2017 title. It was the first time a Super Rugby team crossed the Indian Ocean and won the title. Scott Robertson became the first former Super Rugby player and Head Coach to win a championship. The Crusaders became the first Super Rugby team to win a title in three different countries New Zealand (Christchurch, Auckland, Dunedin), Australia (Canberra) and South Africa (Johannesburg).

The Crusaders' name was chosen to reflect the crusading nature of Canterbury rugby.[70] A potential name was also the Plainsmen; however, this was not chosen, as "Crusaders" recalled the English heritage of the city of Christchurch.[70] Christchurch was established by English emigrants in the 19th century and is often described as the most English city outside England.[71][72] The club adopted Canterbury's traditional sporting colours of red and black, as worn by Canterbury.

The Crusaders' franchise area consists of the regions controlled by the Buller, Canterbury, Mid-Canterbury, South Canterbury, Tasman and West Coast rugby unions.[3] Before 2006, when the NPC was reorganised, Canterbury was the only union playing division one (now ITM Cup) within the Crusaders' catchment. As a result, the majority of Crusaders players were also listed with Canterbury. Today, the Crusaders' catchment contains two Mitre 10 Cup sides â€“ Canterbury and Tasman.

The Crusaders' main home ground was the 36,000-capacity AMI Stadium in Christchurch.[73] However, they stopped playing there during the 2011 Super Rugby season due to damage inflicted by the February Christchurch earthquake. The Crusaders usually took one game each year to another part of the franchise area, most often when the New Zealand cricket team was playing at AMI Stadium.[74] Previous venues included Trafalgar Park in Nelson, and Alpine Energy Stadium in Timaru.[74][75]

With AMI Stadium still out of commission, the Crusaders adopted Rugby League Park (which has been renamed Christchurch Stadium temporarily) in Addington as their home ground for that and future seasons to recentralise their games in one location as opposed to the road show that was the 2011 season. The ground had a limited makeover, taking it to an 18,600 capacity stadium and bringing its facilities to the minimum standards required by the Super Rugby competition.

The Crusaders' management proposed playing a 2005 regular season match in Melbourne when Jade Stadium was unavailable.[76] Although five of the seven unions within the Crusaders region[n 6] supported having the regular season game in Melbourne, the New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) vetoed the proposal.[76] In 2006, the Crusaders did play a pre-season match in Melbourne against the Western Force at Olympic Park Stadium.[77] They did the same in the 2008 preseason as well, also against the Force.

Due to the 2011 earthquake, the Crusaders played four games at Trafalgar Park, and two in Timaru during their 2011 season. They also played a "home" game in Wellington in Round 18 against Hurricanes, and a special home match against the Sharks at Twickenham in London. The London match was a fundraiser for earthquake relief, and was the first Super Rugby match ever contested outside of the three participating countries.[78] In the first 30 hours of ticket sales, over 30,000 were purchased; a spokesman for United Ticketmaster indicated that the response was the strongest he had experienced for a rugby match outside of internationals.[79]

The Crusaders have fielded a development team in competitions such as the Pacific Rugby Cup and in matches against other representative teams for several seasons. Known as the Crusaders Development XV or Crusaders Knights, the squad is selected from the best emerging rugby talent in the Crusaders catchment area and is composed of Crusaders contracted players, wider training group members, under 20s, and selected club players.[80]

The Crusaders oldest rivalry is with the Blues. At the start of Super Rugby the teams originally represented 'old foes' Canterbury and Auckland. The two teams have meet twice in the Grand Final, with the Crusaders winning the first meeting in 1998, 20-13. This victory denied the Blues a three-peat. However, the Blues exacted revenge in 2003, winning the rematch 21-17. However, in recent times the rivalry has cooled, with the Blues no longer threatening title challenges, as they did in their glory days.

In the early to mid 2000's the Crusaders and Brumbies had a rivalry like no other. In the space of five years, the Crusaders and the Brumbies contested three finals. In 2000 the Crusaders defeated the Brumbies 20-19, in 2002 the Crusaders also claimed the second meeting 31-12. However, in 2004, the Brumbies would defeat the Crusaders in the final meeting 47-38 in a high scoring match. Likewise with the Blues, the rivalry has dwindled in recent times, with the Brumbies only sporadically title threats.

The Crusaders and Chiefs rivalry has only existed recently. In 2012 and 2013 the Chiefs defeated the Crusaders in the semi-final, 20-17 and 20-19 respectively. All matches between the two sides are characterised by high intensity matches and altercations throughout. The Chiefs have identified and recruited large amounts of talent from traditional Crusaders territory, causing more friction between the fan bases. In the 2017 semi-final, the Crusaders repaid the Chiefs in kind, defeating the Chiefs 27-13.

The rivalry between the Crusaders and Highlanders is primarily built around the location of the two franchises. The two teams are the only Super Rugby teams in the South Island of New Zealand. In 1999, the Highlanders hosted the Crusaders in the Grand Final. The game was promoted as "the party at Tony Brown's house" after Highlanders first five-eighth Tony Brown. The Crusaders prevailed 24-19 in a sew-sawing battle. In 2017, the Crusaders defeated the Highlanders 17-0 in the qualifier round.

1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2017

2003, 2004, 2011, 2014

2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013

2011, 2014, 2017

(Record updated as of 2017 final)

The squad for the 2017 Super Rugby season:[81]

Halfbacks (Scrum-halves)

First Five-Eighths (Fly-halves)

Midfielders (Centres)

Due to the unparalleled success of the Crusaders throughout the history of the Super Rugby since its inaugural year in 1996, many players that have represented the Crusaders since 1996 have gone on to play international test rugby for the All Blacks

List of All Blacks that have represented the Crusaders

Ten players have played over 100 games for the franchise: Justin Marshall, Reuben Thorne, Caleb Ralph, Greg Somerville, Leon MacDonald, Richie McCaw, Chris Jack, Dan Carter, Wyatt Crockett and Andrew Ellis. Half-back Justin Marshall was the first player to achieve the feat, playing for the Crusaders between 1996 and 2005.[82] Both Thorne and Ralph achieved the 100-game mark at the same time. However, Ralph had played nine of his matches for other franchises: three for the Chiefs and six for the Blues.[83][84] Ralph achieved the "100 Crusaders games" feat later that season; remarkably, they were played consecutively.[85] Greg Somerville became the next player to contribute 100 games for the franchise, achieving this in the 2006 semi-final against the Bulls.[86] The first match of the 2008 season was Leon MacDonald's 100th game,[87] and on 11 March 2011 Chris Jack started against the Brumbies to play his 100th match for the Crusaders.[88] The Crusaders also boast three winners of the IRB International Player of the Year Award: Dan Carter (2005, 2012 and 2015), Kieran Read (2013) and Richie McCaw (2006, 2009 and 2010).[89]

On the eve of the last Super 12 final in 2005, a panel of experts picked the Crusaders team of the decade, which was published by the Christchurch Press. The experts chosen to select the team were: Tane Norton (former All Blacks captain), Vance Stewart (first Crusaders coach), Dick Tayler (president of supporters club), Bob Schumacher (former Christchurch Press rugby writer) and Tony Smith (Christchurch Press rugby writer).[90]

The most notable omissions from the team were Dan Carter, Richard Loe, and Reuben Thorne.[90] Daniel Carter was omitted due to the strength of Andrew Mehrtens and Aaron Mauger who occupied the first and second five-eighth positions respectively, and because he was regarded as "the star of the next decade". Despite being considered one of Canterbury's best ever props, Richard Loe missed out as he was only in the team for the unsuccessful 1996 season.[90] The former All Black captain Reuben Thorne was omitted due the quality of players in the lock and blindside flanker positions. The most unlikely inclusion was for Norm Berryman at right wing.[90] Berryman was picked over Marika Vunibaka and Afato So'oalo due to his crucial tries late in the 1998 and 1999 seasons that helped the Crusaders qualify for the semi-finals.[90] The team:

The Crusaders were coached in their first season by Vance Stewart, who was assisted by Aussie Mclean".[4] Stewart was replaced by Wayne Smith in 1997; McLean too was replaced, by Peter Sloane. Smith continued as coach until he was appointed All Blacks coach after the 1999 season. Robbie Deans took over the reins for the 2000 season. Deans has had several assistants: in 2000 and 2001 his assistant was Steve Hansen; in 2002, Colin Cooper; in 2003 and 2004, Don Hayes; and in 2005 and 2006, Vern Cotter.[4] Deans' assistant for the 2007 season was former Crusader Mark Hammett.[91] Deans was appointed coach of Australia in December 2007, but was allowed to continue coaching the Crusaders in the 2008 season. Former captain, Todd Blackadder was appointed his successor in July 2008, with Hammett continuing as assistant coach.[92] Hammett was appointed Hurricanes coach from the beginning of the 2011 season,[93] and consequently former prop Dave Hewett was appointed assistant forwards coach.[94] In June 2016, Scott Robertson, former Crusaders player and current head coach of the Canterbury national provincial team and the New Zealand Under 20 rugby team, was announced as the Crusaders head coach from 2017 through to 2019.[95][96]


who led the tejano confederate troops against cortina in 1861

In May 1861, the much shorter Second Cortina War took place. The American Civil War had just begun, and Cortina, who had aligned himself with the Federal Government of the United States, invaded Zapata County. He was defeated by Confederate Capt. Santos Benavides at the battle of Carrizo, and retreated into Mexico after losing eighteen men. No longer would Cortina conduct large-scale military incursions within the territory of the United States, albeit accusations of promoting guerrilla actions against the richer Texan landowners in the area were numerous throughout the following years.

Juan Cortina

Juan Nepomuceno Cortina Goseacochea (May 16, 1824 – October 30, 1894), also known by his nicknames Cheno Cortina, the Red Robber of the Rio Grande and the Rio Grande Robin Hood, was a Mexican rancher, politician, military leader, outlaw and folk hero. He was an important caudillo, military general and regional leader, who effectively controlled the Mexican state of Tamaulipas as governor.[1] In borderlands history he is known for leading a paramilitary mounted Mexican Militia in the failed Cortina Wars. The "Wars" were raids targeting Anglo-American civilians whose settlement Cortina opposed near the several leagues of land granted to his wealthy family on both sides of the Rio Grande. Anglo families began immigrating to the Lower Rio Grande Valley after the Mexican Army was defeated by the Anglo-Mexican rebels of the Mexican State of Tejas, in the Texas Revolution. From 1836 to 1848 when Cortina was 12–24 years old, parts of the Cortina Grant North of the Rio Grande River was in the disputed territory between the Rio Grande and the Nueces Rivers, claimed by both Mexico and the Republic of Texas. The situation had a big impact on Cortina and his perspective on government and power. When the United States defeated Mexico in the Mexican-American War in 1848, Mexico was forced to concede the disputed territory to Texas. Cortina opposed this concession. However, Cortina's Mexican militia was easily defeated and forced to flee into Mexico when the Texas Rangers, the United States Army and the local militia of Brownsville, Texas and Matamoros, Tamaulipas. According to Robert Elman, author of Badmen of the West, Cortina was the first "socially motivated border bandit," similar to Catarino Garza and Pancho Villa of later generations. His followers were known as the "Cortinistas."[2]

Juan Cortina was born in Camargo, Tamaulipas, the son of EstÃ©fana Goseacochea and Trinidad Cortina, a wealthy cattle-ranching family. When he was 3, his family moved to the Rio Grande Valley, as his mother had inherited vast tracts of land in the area surrounding Matamoros and Brownsville. In 1846, at age 22, he joined the Mexican Army under the orders of Gen. Mariano Arista, who had arrived at Matamoros in an attempt to stop the advancing forces of Gen. Zachary Taylor. Arista asked Cortina to form a force from the local Vaqueros (Mexican antecedent of Cowboys) who worked for him and the nearby ranches. This irregular cavalry regiment (called the "Tamaulipas") was placed under his command, and as the Mexican-American War began, it took part in the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma.

With the end of the war and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, the Cortina family estates were divided by the new frontier, leaving a vast portion of their lands inside the United States territory. Cortina became an important political boss for the South Texas Democratic Party, and although the new local authorities invalidated many of his land claims, he remained a large rancher. Many landowners of Mexican descent suffered from this situation as well, and eventually Cortina came into conflict with an influential group of lawyers and judges of Brownsville, whom he accused of expropriating land from Mexican Texans or "Tejanos", who were unfamiliar with the American legal system. "Flocks of vampires, in the guise of men," he wrote, robbed Mexicans "of their property, incarcerated, chased, murdered, and hunted them like wild beasts". Cortina's own skirmishes with the law steadily escalated, and he was indicted twice on charges of cattle theft. However, he was not arrested due to his already considerable popularity among the poorer Tejanos, who considered this attempt to be nothing but another demonstration of legal harassment by the "Anglos" (the Texans of American origin) to their class. With the self-appointed purpose of defending the rights of this social group, Cortina gathered, trained and armed a private army, and on many occasions he used this force to resist the eviction of Tejanos from their lands. As a result, he became a popular leader among the poorer local population, who viewed him as a hero against the abuse of power by the Anglos.

In 1858, a rumor was circulated that the last of the Karankawa were killed by Cortina. This was propaganda maneuvering by the Texas Rangers to anger the local Indians so they would reveal Cortina's location. The Karankawa consistently evaded Cortina and his men. The Karankawa were the native tribe who saved him and his mother after being left for dead when the newly arrived anglos attacked Cortina, and his family's villa (his first wife Maria Delores Tijerina, and their children were killed in this raid). Cortina had refused to sell his family's remaining land to outsiders, being embittered by his previous treatment from the anglo encroachers. He was determined to dwell on the land peaceably regardless of the incoming pressure of foreign settlers.

The tension between Cortina and the Brownsville authorities finally broke into violence, and in July 1859, during Mexico's civil conflict known as the War of the Reform (1858-60) between Liberals and Conservatives, when Mexico. On 13 July 1859, Brownsville town marshal Robert Shears was brutalizing Cortina's 60-year-old former ranch hand. Cortina happened to pass by, and asked Shears to let him handle the situation; Shears is said to have yelled at him in reply, "What is it to you, you damned Mexican?" Cortina fired a warning shot, then when Shears did not stop, he intervened and shot him in the shoulder. Tension grew higher in the following weeks, and on 28 September he raided and occupied the town with a posse of between 40 and 80 men. Cortina's enemies had fled in the meantime, and during the occupation of Brownsville, he issued a famous proclamation to reveal his intentions to both communities. "(...) There is no need of fear. Orderly people and honest citizens are inviolable to us in their persons and interests. Our object, as you have seen, has been to chastise the villainy of our enemies, which heretofore has gone unpunished. These have connived with each other, and form, so to speak, a perfidious inquisitorial lodge to persecute and rob us, without any cause, and for no other crime on our part than that of being of Mexican origin, considering us, doubtless, destitute of those gifts which they themselves do not possess. (...) Mexicans! Peace be with you! Good inhabitants of the State of Texas, look on them as brothers, and keep in mind that which the Holy Spirit saith: "Thou shalt not be the friend of the passionate man; nor join thyself to the madman, lest thou learn his mode of work and scandalize thy soul."

Cortina retained control over Brownsville until 30 September 1859, when he evacuated the town at the urging of influential residents of Matamoros. The following days, the townsfolk of Brownsville formed a 20 man group in order to fight Cortina, called "the Brownsville Tigers". In November, the Brownsville Tigers learned that Cortina was at his mother's ranch in the nearby town of Santa Rita, five miles west of Brownsville. They immediately launched an attack, only to be sent into retreat in disarray by Cortina's forces.

Later the same month, the Brownsville Tigers were joined by a group of Texas Rangers, and Cortina decided to attack them. The offensive was unsuccessful, and on December, a second group of Rangers led by Capt. John "Rip" Ford arrived, larger and better organized. Because of appeals from Brownsville citizens, the U.S. Army sent troops from San Antonio to the nearby Fort Brown, which had been abandoned a few years ago. The fort's new commander, Maj. Samuel Heintzelman, united and coordinated all armed groups to put an end to the Cortina threat. Cortina retreated up the Rio Grande, until on December 27, 1859 Heintzelman and Ford engaged him in the Battle of Rio Grande City. Cortina's forces were decisively defeated, losing sixty men and all their equipment. Pursued and defeated by Ford again a few days later, Cortina retreated into the Burgos Mountains. The First Cortina War had finished, and with increasing pressure from both the United States and Mexican Government to cease all hostile activities, Cortina remained away from the scene for more than a year.

In the following years, Cortina focused on his political career within the state of Tamaulipas. President Benito Juárez appointed him military commander of the forces stationed at the southeastern frontier.[citation needed]

When the French intervention in Mexico began in 1862, Cortina sided with Juárez at first, and took part in the Battle of Puebla on May 5. However, as the French eventually defeated the Mexican forces led by the Gen. Ignacio Zaragoza and succeeded to establish Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg as Maximilian I, sovereign of Mexico, Cortina sensed the opportunity to consolidate his power in the Tamaulipas region and switched sides by joining the invaders. This alliance was short-lived, and soon Cortina rose against the French. Commanding a large army that he had personally gathered and equipped, he engaged the interventionist forces that had landed near Tampico and defeated them. His further military actions along Central Mexico helped in the effort against the invasion, and he was present at the execution of Maximilian in Querétaro (June 1867). During this time, in the absence of a legal national authority, he appointed himself Governor of Tamaulipas twice - in 1864 and in 1865. He resigned from the office in 1866 in favor of Generals José María Carvajal and Santiago Tapia.

The attitude of the American Texans towards Cortina changed completely with the defeat of the Confederacy and his important role in the defense of the Mexican Government, and after returning to his estates in Matamoros in 1870 he was formally invited on several occasions as guest of honor of the city of Brownsville. His support to the Union motivated many notable residents of the Rio Grande Valley (including a former mayor of Brownsville) to endorse a petition to the Texas Legislature, asking for a formal pardon for his crimes during the Cortina Troubles. Although this motion didn't prosper and was eventually rejected, Cortina had earned the lasting sympathy of most of the local population of both Hispanic and American descent. The Mexican authorities also honored him: he was appointed Brigadier General, and the largest battalion of the state of Tamaulipas was renamed "el BatallÃ³n Cortina" (the "Cortina Battalion").

Cortina's days of glory didn't last. He supported General Porfirio Díaz, military hero of the French intervention in Mexico and political rival of Benito Juárez and his successor Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. Cortina attempted to raise an army from the local population and sheltered Díaz following his failed rising. Repeated accusations against Cortina by wealthy landowners in Texas of conducting cross-border raids against their cattle and properties were eventually heeded by the Lerdo's administration, and used as public justification to detain him. In 1875, Cortina was arrested and brought to Mexico City.

On 29 November 1876, Díaz overthrew President Lerdo in the Plan of Tuxtepec, which saw his re-election as a violation of the Constitution of 1857. Cortina was allowed to return to Tamaulipas, where he once again tried to raise an armed force. But before he could put this new army to any use, Díaz ordered his arrest and confinement within Mexico City for the second time.

Many factors contributed to Díaz decision, the main ones being Cortina's ambition to power within Tamaulipas above anything, and the consequent unreliability and instability of his support, as he had already demonstrated many times in his life. Díaz had also received a large sum of money, estimated from anywhere between $50,000 to $200,000 from the wealthy South Texas ranchers to finance his seizure of power with the condition that, in turn, he would take care of stopping Cortina's raids on United States territory. Most important, Díaz was determined to remain in absolute control of the Government (as he did for the subsequent 33 years), no matter the means involved, and he systematically removed all traces of opposition that could have challenged his will. Also, with diplomatic pressure coming from the United States Government, which was concerned about Cortina's ambitions in Cameron County and his behavior in the past, the President decreed the arrest and execution of his former ally.

Gen. JosÃ© Canales, a longtime enemy of Cortina who was sent to carry out the order, decided to bring him to Mexico City instead, fearing the popular reprisals from the people of Tamaulipas. His old nemesis, John S. Ford, also interceded on his behalf. He was kept at the military prison of Santiago Tlaltelolco, without being tried or sentenced. He remained there until 1890, when he was paroled to a big hacienda below Mexico City. Cortina never again regained power in Mexico. He died in Azcapotzalco, Mexico City on October 30, 1894.

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which condition is known as bone marrow depression anemia

Aplastic anemia is a rare disease in which the bone marrow and the hematopoietic stem cells that reside there are damaged.[1] This causes a deficiency of all three blood cell types (pancytopenia): red blood cells (anemia), white blood cells (leukopenia), and platelets (thrombocytopenia).[2][3] Aplastic refers to inability of the stem cells to generate mature blood cells.

Aplastic anemia

It is more frequent in people in their teens and twenties, but is also common among the elderly. It can be caused by heredity, immune disease, or exposure to chemicals, drugs, or radiation. However, in about half the cases, the cause is unknown.[2][3]

The definitive diagnosis is by bone marrow biopsy; normal bone marrow has 30â€“70% blood stem cells, but in aplastic anemia, these cells are mostly gone and replaced by fat.[2][3]

First line treatment for aplastic anemia consists of immunosuppressive drugs, typically either anti-lymphocyte globulin or anti-thymocyte globulin, combined with corticosteroids and ciclosporin. Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is also used, especially for patients under 30 years of age with a related matched marrow donor.[2][3]

Anemia may lead to malaise, pallor and associated symptoms such as palpitations.[4]

Low platelet counts (thrombocytopenia) if present is associated with an increased risk of hemorrhage, bruising and petechiae. Low white blood cell counts (leukocytopenia) if present leads to an increased risk of infections which can be severe.[4]

Aplastic anemia can be caused by exposure to certain chemicals, drugs, radiation, infection, immune disease; in about half the cases, a definitive cause is unknown. It is not a familial line hereditary condition, nor is it contagious. It can be acquired due to exposure to other conditions but if a person develops the condition, their offspring would not develop it by virtue of their gene connection.[2][3]

Aplastic anemia is also sometimes associated with exposure to toxins such as benzene, or with the use of certain drugs, including chloramphenicol, carbamazepine, felbamate, phenytoin, quinine, and phenylbutazone. Many drugs are associated with aplasia mainly according to case reports, but at a very low probability. As an example, chloramphenicol treatment is followed by aplasia in less than one in 40,000 treatment courses, and carbamazepine aplasia is even rarer.[citation needed]

Exposure to ionizing radiation from radioactive materials or radiation-producing devices is also associated with the development of aplastic anemia. Marie Curie, famous for her pioneering work in the field of radioactivity, died of aplastic anemia after working unprotected with radioactive materials for a long period of time; the damaging effects of ionizing radiation were not then known.[5]

Aplastic anemia is present in up to 2% of patients with acute viral hepatitis.[6]

One known cause is an autoimmune disorder in which white blood cells attack the bone marrow.[citation needed]

Short-lived aplastic anemia can also be a result of parvovirus infection.[7] In humans, the P antigen (also known as globoside), one of the many cellular receptors that contribute to a person's blood type, is the cellular receptor for parvovirus B19 virus that causes erythema infectiosum (fifth disease) in children. Because it infects red blood cells as a result of the affinity for the P antigen, Parvovirus causes complete cessation of red blood cell production. In most cases, this goes unnoticed, as red blood cells live on average 120 days, and the drop in production does not significantly affect the total number of circulating red blood cells. In people with conditions where the cells die early (such as sickle cell disease), however, parvovirus infection can lead to severe anemia.[citation needed]

More frequently parvovirus B19 is associated with aplastic crisis which involves only the red blood cells ( despite the name). Aplastic anemia involves all different cell lines.

In some animals, aplastic anemia may have other causes. For example, in the ferret (Mustela putorius furo), it is caused by estrogen toxicity, because female ferrets are induced ovulators, so mating is required to bring the female out of heat. Intact females, if not mated, will remain in heat, and after some time the high levels of estrogen will cause the bone marrow to stop producing red blood cells.[citation needed]

The condition needs to be differentiated from pure red cell aplasia. In aplastic anemia, the patient has pancytopenia (i.e., leukopenia and thrombocytopenia) resulting in decrease of all formed elements. In contrast, pure red cell aplasia is characterized by reduction in red cells only. The diagnosis can only be confirmed on bone marrow examination. Before this procedure is undertaken, a patient will generally have had other blood tests to find diagnostic clues, including a complete blood count, renal function and electrolytes, liver enzymes, thyroid function tests, vitamin B12 and folic acid levels.

The following tests aid in determining differential diagnosis for aplastic anemia:

Treating immune-mediated aplastic anemia involves suppression of the immune system, an effect achieved by daily medicine intake, or, in more severe cases, a bone marrow transplant, a potential cure.[8] The transplanted bone marrow replaces the failing bone marrow cells with new ones from a matching donor. The multipotent stem cells in the bone marrow reconstitute all three blood cell lines, giving the patient a new immune system, red blood cells, and platelets. However, besides the risk of graft failure, there is also a risk that the newly created white blood cells may attack the rest of the body ("graft-versus-host disease"). In young patients with an HLA matched sibling donor, bone marrow transplant can be considered as first-line treatment, patients lacking a matched sibling donor typically pursue immunosuppression as a first-line treatment, and matched unrelated donor transplants are considered a second-line therapy.

Medical therapy of aplastic anemia often includes a course of antithymocyte globulin (ATG) and several months of treatment with ciclosporin to modulate the immune system. Chemotherapy with agents such as cyclophosphamide may also be effective but has more toxicity than ATG. Antibody therapy, such as ATG, targets T-cells, which are believed to attack the bone marrow. Corticosteroids are generally ineffective,[citation needed] though they are used to ameliorate serum sickness caused by ATG. Normally, success is judged by bone marrow biopsy 6 months after initial treatment with ATG.[9]

One prospective study involving cyclophosphamide was terminated early due to a high incidence of mortality, due to severe infections as a result of prolonged neutropenia.[9]

In the past, before the above treatments became available, patients with low leukocyte counts were often confined to a sterile room or bubble (to reduce risk of infections), as in the case of Ted DeVita.[10]

Regular full blood counts are required on a regular basis to determine whether the patient is still in a state of remission.

Many patients with aplastic anemia also have clones of cells characteristic of the rare disease paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH, anemia with thrombopenia and/or thrombosis), sometimes referred to as AA/PNH. Occasionally PNH dominates over time, with the major manifestation intravascular hemolysis. The overlap of AA and PNH has been speculated to be an escape mechanism by the bone marrow against destruction by the immune system. Flow cytometry testing is performed regularly in people with previous aplastic anemia to monitor for the development of PNH.[citation needed]

Untreated, severe aplastic anemia has a high risk of death. Modern treatment, by drugs or stem cell transplant, has a five-year survival rate that exceeds 85%, with younger age associated with higher survival.[11]

Survival rates for stem cell transplant vary depending on age and availability of a well-matched donor. Five-year survival rates for patients who receive transplants have been shown to be 82% for patients under age 20, 72% for those 20â€“40 years old, and closer to 50% for patients over age 40. Success rates are better for patients who have donors that are matched siblings and worse for patients who receive their marrow from unrelated donors.[12]

Older people (who are generally too frail to undergo bone marrow transplants), and people who are unable to find a good bone marrow match, undergoing immune suppression have five-year survival rates of up to 75%.[citation needed]

Relapses are common. Relapse following ATG/ciclosporin use can sometimes be treated with a repeated course of therapy. In addition, 10-15% of severe aplastic anemia cases evolve into MDS and leukemia.[citation needed] According to a study, for children who underwent immunosuppressive therapy, about 15.9% of children who responded to immunosuppressive therapy encountered relapse.[13]

Milder disease can resolve on its own.[citation needed]


what is the qualification to become a professor

A professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In most Commonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the title professor is the highest academic rank at a university. In the United States and Canada, the title of professor applies to most post-doctoral academics, so a larger percentage are thus designated. In these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees (typically Ph.D. degrees) or equivalent qualifications who teach in four-year colleges and universities. An emeritus professor is a title given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature and ongoing research. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, and so on.

Professor

Professor (commonly abbreviated as Prof.)[1] is an academic rank at universities and other post-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences, a teacher of the highest rank.[1]

In most systems of academic ranks the word "professor", and particularly the unqualified word, only refers to the most senior academic position, sometimes informally known as "full professor".[2][3] In some countries or institutions, the word professor is also used in titles of lower ranks such as associate professor and assistant professor; this is particularly the case in the United States, where the word professor is sometimes used colloquially to refer to anyone in an academic post.[4] This colloquial usage would be considered incorrect nearly everywhere else.

Professors conduct original research and commonly teach undergraduate, professional and postgraduate courses in their fields of expertise. In universities with graduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for a thesis or dissertation. In many universities, 'full professors' take on senior managerial roles, leading departments, research teams and institutes, and filling roles such as president, principal or vice-chancellor.[5] The role of professor may be more public facing than that of more junior staff, and professors are expected to be national or international leaders in their field of expertise.[5]

The term "professor" was first used in the late 14th century to mean "one who teaches a branch of knowledge."[1] The word comes "...from Old French professeur (14c.) and directly from [the] Latin professor[, for] "person who professes to be an expert in some art or science; teacher of highest rank,"; the Latin term came from the "...agent noun from profiteri "lay claim to, declare openly." As a title that is "prefixed to a name, it dates from 1706." The "[s]hort form prof is recorded from 1838." The term "professor" is also used with a different meaning: "[o]ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from the Elizabethan period, but is obsolete in England."[1]

The term professor is also used in the titles assistant professor and associate professor,[7] which are not considered professor-level positions in European countries. In Australia, the title associate professor is used in place of reader, ranking above senior lecturer and below full professor.[8]

Beyond holding the proper academic title, universities in many countries also give notable artists, athletes and foreign dignitaries the title honorary professor, even if these persons do not have the academic qualifications typically necessary for professorship and they do not take up professorial duties. However, such "professors" usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution. In general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis.

Professors are qualified experts in their field who generally perform some or all the following tasks:

Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place (country), and time. For example, professors at research-oriented universities in North America and, generally, at European universities, are promoted primarily on the basis of research achievements and external grant-raising success.

Many colleges and universities and other institutions of higher learning throughout the world follow a similar hierarchical ranking structure amongst scholars in academia; the list above provides details.

A professor typically earns a base salary and a range of benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in their institution (e.g., department chair, dean, head of graduate studies, etc.) earns additional income. Some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such as consulting, publishing academic or popular press books, giving speeches, or coaching executives. Some fields (e.g., business and computer science) give professors more opportunities for outside work.

A report from 2005 by the "Deutscher Hochschulverband DHV",[9] a lobby group for German professors, the salary of professors, the annual salary of a German professor is €46,680 in group "W2" (mid-level) and €56,683 in group "W3" (the highest level), without performance-related bonuses. The anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The anticipated average earnings of a professor working in Switzerland vary for example between 158,953 CHF (€102,729) to 232,073 CHF (€149,985) at the University of Zurich and 187,937 CHF (€121,461) to 247,280 CHF (€159,774) at the ETH Zurich; the regulations are different depending on the Cantons of Switzerland.

The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed in a nationwide basis, but there are some bonus related to performance and seniority and a number of bonus granted by regional governments. These bonus mean significant differences in the final salary. Some of the bonuses are the "trienios" (depending on seniority, one for each three years), "quinquenios" (depending on the accomplishment of teaching criteria defined by the university, one for each five years of seniority) and "sexenios" (depending on the accomplishment of research criteria defined by the national government, one for each six years of seniority). These bonifications are quite small. However, the total number of "sexenios" is a requisite for being a member of different committees. The importance of these "sexenios" as a prestige factor in the university was increased by the LOU 2001. Some indicative numbers can be interesting, in spite of the variance in the data. We report net monthly payments (after taxes and social security fees), without bonifications: Ayudante, 1,200 euros; Ayudante Doctor, 1,400; Contratado Doctor; 1,800; Profesor Titular, 2,000 euros; CatedrÃ¡tico, 2,400 euros. There are a total of 14 payments per year, including 2 extra payments in July and December (but for less than a normal monthly payment).

Professors in teacher education sometimes earn less than they would if they were still elementary classroom teachers. In one case study report, it was shown that a beginning full-time tenure-track assistant professor in elementary teacher education at California State University, Northridge was hired in 2002 at a salary of $53,000., which was $15,738. less than she would have earned in her previous position as a 9-month public school kindergarten teacher, ($68,738). See Gordon, L. M. (2004, January 6). From kindergarten teacher to college professor: A comparison chart of salaries, work load, and professional preparation requirements. Published proceedings of the Hawaii International Conference on Education. ISSNÂ 1541-5880.

In 2007 the Dutch social fund for the academic sector SoFoKleS[10] commissioned a comparative study of the wage structure of academic professions in the Netherlands in relation to that of other countries. Among the countries reviewed are the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, France, Sweden and the Netherlands. To improve comparability, adjustments have been made to correct for purchasing power and taxes. Because of differences between institutions in the US and UK these countries have two listings of which one denotes the salary in top-tier institutions (based on the Shanghai-ranking).

The table below shows the final reference wages expressed in net amounts of Dutch Euros in 2007. (i.e. converted into Dutch purchasing power).[11]

In a number of countries, the title "research professor" refers to a professor who is exclusively or mainly engaged in research, and who has few or no teaching obligations. For example, the title is used in this sense in the United Kingdom (where it is known as research professor at some universities and professorial research fellow at some other institutions) and in northern Europe. Research professor is usually the most senior rank of a research-focused career pathway in those countries, and regarded as equal to the ordinary full professor rank. Most often they are permanent employees, and the position is often held by particularly distinguished scholars; thus the position is often seen as more prestigious than an ordinary full professorship. The title is used in a somewhat similar sense in the United States, with the exception that research professors in the United States are often not permanent employees and often must fund their salary from external sources,[12] which is usually not the case elsewhere.

Traditional fictional portrayals of professors, in accordance with a stereotype, are shy, absent-minded individuals often lost in thought. In many cases, fictional professors are socially or physically awkward. Examples include the 1961 film The Absent-Minded Professor or Professor Calculus of The Adventures of Tintin stories. Professors have also been portrayed as being misguided into an evil pathway, such as Professor Metz, who helped Bond villain Blofeld in the film Diamonds Are Forever; or simply evil, like Professor Moriarty, archenemy of British detective Sherlock Holmes. The modern animated series Futurama has Professor Hubert Farnsworth, a typical absent-minded but genius-level professor. A related stereotype is the mad scientist.

Vladimir Nabokov, author and professor of English at Cornell, frequently used professors as the protagonists in his novels. Professor Henry Higgins is a main character in George Bernard Shaw's play Pygmalion. In the popular Harry Potter series, set in a wizard's school called Hogwarts, the protagonists' magic and wizarding teachers are known as professors, many of whom play important roles, notably Professor Dumbledore, Professor Minerva McGonagall, and Professor Severus Snape. In the board game Cluedo, Professor Plum has been depicted as an absent-minded academic. Christopher Lloyd played Plum's film counterpart, a psychologist who had an affair with one of his patients.

Since the 1980s and 1990s, various stereotypes were re-evaluated, including professors. Writers began to depict professors are just normal human beings and might be quite well-rounded in abilities, excelling both in intelligence and in physical skills. An example of a fictional professor not depicted as shy or absent-minded is Indiana Jones, a professor as well as an archeologist-adventurer, who is skilled at both scholarship and fighting. The popularity of the Indiana Jones movie franchise had a significant impact on the previous stereotype, and created a new archetype which is both deeply knowledgeable and physically capable. The character generally referred to simply as the Professor on the television sit com series, Gilligan's Island, although described alternatively as a high-school science teacher or research scientist, is depicted as a sensible advisor, a clever inventor, and a helpful friend to his fellow castaways. John Houseman's portrayal of law school professor Charles W. Kingsfield, Jr., in The Paper Chase (1973) remains the epitome of the strict, authoritarian professor who demands perfection from students. Annalise Keating (played by Viola Davis) from the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) legal drama mystery television series How to Get Away with Murder is a law professor at the fictional Middleton University.[13] Early in the series, Annalise is a self-sufficient and confident woman, respected for being a great law professor and a great lawyer, feared and admired by her students,[14] whose image breaks down as the series progresses.[15]

Mysterious, older men with magical powers (and unclear academic standing) are sometimes given the title of "Professor" in literature and theater. Notable examples include Professor Marvel in The Wizard of Oz[16] and Professor Drosselmeyer (as he is sometimes known) from the ballet The Nutcracker. Also, the magician played by Christian Bale in the film, The Prestige,[17] adopts 'The Professor' as his stage name. A variation of this type of non-academic professor is the "crackpot inventor," as portrayed by Professor Potts in the film version of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang or the Jerry Lewis-inspired Professor Frink character on The Simpsons. Other professors of this type are the thoughtful and kind Professor Digory Kirke of C.S. Lewis' Chronicles of Narnia.

The title has been used by comedians, such as "Professor" Irwin Corey and Soupy Sales in his role as "The Big Professor." In the past, pianists in saloons and other rough environments have been called "professor."[18] The puppeteer of a Punch and Judy show is also traditionally known as a "professor."


who is the voice of fisher price toys

Lyons has recorded with acclaimed composer Yuki Kajiura on the album Fiction, as well as several songs (including the image theme) for the video game Xenosaga Episode II. Through remixes, her voice has appeared in Xenosaga Episode III. She has sung on jingles for Toyota, JetBlue, Milky Way, and is the voice of several Fisher Price toys. In addition, Lyons has recorded with The Chieftains (Further Down the Old Plank Road) and children's artists Yosi Levin and Mr. Scott the Music Man.

Deb Lyons

Deb Lyons is a singer-songwriter from New York City. She is most associated with her work in Broadway,[1] and is well-recognized for her multiple performances in clubs such as The Bitter End and The Bottom Line.

Other people Lyons has performed and recorded with include Donna Summer, The Mamas & the Papas, Lee Ann Womack, Rosanne Cash, Carrie Underwood, Emily Bindiger, Carolee Goodgold, Jim Barbaro, Margaret Dorn, Bingoboys, Gigi on the Beach, and the Ed Palermo Big Band.

Lyons has been in several stage productions, including a national tour of Jekyll & Hyde, and Smokey Joe's Cafe on Broadway and West End of London and regional productions of Hairspray, Side by Side by Sondheim, and Pump Boys and Dinettes.


what breed of dog is in fox and the hound

The Fox and the Hound is a 1967 novel written by American novelist Daniel P. Mannix and illustrated by John Schoenherr. It follows the lives of Tod, a red fox raised by a human for the first year of his life, and Copper, a half-bloodhound dog owned by a local hunter, referred to as the Master. After Tod causes the death of the man's favorite hound, man and dog relentlessly hunt the fox, against the dual backdrops of a changing human world and Tod's normal life in hunting for food, seeking a mate, and defending his territory. As preparation for writing the novel, Mannix studied foxes, both tame and wild, a wide variety of hunting techniques, and the ways hounds appear to track foxes, seeking to ensure his characters acted realistically.

The Fox and the Hound (novel)

The novel won the Dutton Animal Book Award in 1967, which resulted in its publication on September 11 that year by E.P. Dutton. It was a 1967 Reader's Digest Book Club selection and a winner of the Athenaeum Literary Award. It was well received by critics, who praised its detail and Mannix's writing style. Walt Disney Productions purchased the film rights for the novel when it won the Dutton award, though did not begin production on an adaptation until 1977. Heavily modified from the source material, Disney's The Fox and the Hound was released to theaters in July 1981 and became a box office success.

Copper, a bloodhound crossbred, was once the favorite among his Master's pack of hunting dogs in a rural country area. However, he now feels threatened by Chief, a younger, faster Black and Tan Coonhound. Copper hates Chief, who is taking Copper's place as pack leader. During a bear hunt, Chief protects the Master when the bear turns on him, while Copper is too afraid of the bear to confront him. The Master ignores Copper to heap praise on Chief and Copper's hatred and jealousy grow.

Tod is a red fox kit, raised as a pet by one of the human hunters who killed his mother and litter mates. Tod initially enjoys his life, but when he reaches sexual maturity he returns to the wild. During his first year, he begins establishing his territory, and learns evasion techniques from being hunted by local farm dogs. One day, he comes across the Master's house and discovers that his presence sends the chained pack of dogs into a frustrated frenzy. He begins to delight in taunting them, until one day when Chief breaks his chain and chases him. The Master sees the dog escape and follows with Copper. As Chief skillfully trails the fox, Tod flees along a railroad track while a train is approaching, waiting to jump to safety until the last minute. Chief is killed by the train.

With Chief buried and Master crying over a dead dog he trains Copper to ignore all foxes except for Tod. Over the span of the two animals' lives, man and dog hunt the fox, the Master using over a dozen hunting techniques in his quest for revenge. With each hunt, both dog and fox learn new tricks and methods to outsmart each other, Tod always escaping in the end. Tod mates with an older, experienced vixen who gives birth to a litter of kits. Before they are grown, the Master finds the den and gasses the kits to death. That winter, the Master sets out leg hold traps, which Tod carefully learns how to spring, but the vixen is caught and killed. In January, Tod takes a new mate, with whom he has another litter of kits. The Master uses a "still hunting" technique, in which he sits very quietly in the wood while playing a rabbit call to draw out the foxes. With this method, he kills the kits; then by using the sound of a wounded fox kit, he is also able to draw out and kill Tod's mate.

As the years pass, the rural area gives way to a more urbanized setting. New buildings and highways spring up, more housing developments are built, and the farmers are pushed out. Though much of the wildlife has left and hunting grows increasingly difficult, Tod stays because it is his home range. The other foxes that remain become unhealthy scavengers, and their natures changeâ€”life-bonds with their mates are replaced by promiscuity, couples going their separate ways once the mating act is over. The Master has lost most of his own land, and the only dog he owns now is Copper. Each winter they still hunt Tod, and in an odd way he looks forward to it as the only aspect of his old life that remains.

The Master spends most of his time drinking alcohol, and people begin trying to convince him to move into a nursing home, where no dogs are allowed. One summer, an outbreak of rabies spreads through the fox population. After one infected fox attacks a group of human children, the same people approach the Master and ask his help in killing the foxes. He uses traps and poison to try to kill as many foxes as possible; however, the poison also kills domestic animals. After a human child dies from eating it, the humans remove all of the poison, then the Master organizes a hunt in which large numbers of people line up and walk straight into the woods, flushing out foxes to be shot. The aging Tod escapes all three events, as well as an attempt at coursing him with greyhounds.

One morning, after Tod's escape from the greyhounds, the Master sends Copper on the hunt. After he picks up the fox's trail, Copper relentlessly pursues him throughout the day and into the next morning. Tod finally drops dead of exhaustion, and Copper collapses on top of him, close to death himself. The Master nurses Copper back to health, and both enjoy their new popularity, but after a few months the excitement over Copper's accomplishment dies down. The Master is left alone again, and returns to drinking. He is once again asked to consider living in a nursing home, and this time he agrees. Crying, he takes his shotgun from the wall, leads Copper outside, and pets him gently before ordering him to lie down. He covers the dog's eyes as Copper licks his hand trustingly.

Desiring a realistic depiction of vulpine behavior and habits, Mannix spent more than a year studying the behaviors of a mated pair of foxes that he kept at his home.[1][2] He stated that they were "so tame [that he] could turn them loose and watch them hunt, fight, make love, and live an almost normal life."[1] Additionally, he studied wild foxes and interviewed trappers, hunters, game wardens, and "Masters of Hounds" to learn what they felt foxes would and would not do.[1][2] In the novel's postscript, Mannix discusses this research.[1]  To defend his novel against charges of improbability, he recounts his observations of wild foxes and discusses other people's stories about fox behavior. Regarding the actions Tod takes in eluding the hunters, he details both witnessing wild foxes performing such acts and stories others shared with him that he used as a basis for some of the story's events. For example, he notes that while people have told him that foxes do not really run among sheep or cattle herds to escape hounds, he himself used to watch them do just that from his bedroom window. In the case of a fox running along train tracks as a train is approaching, Mannix drew on a story told to him by a master of hunting in the area of Whitford Sales—near Thorndale, Pennsylvania—who had to stop hunting in the area because of a fox who consistently killed pursuing hounds on the Trenton Cutoff using this method.[1][2]

Mannix felt it was nearly impossible for any writer to escape imparting some anthropomorphism in such a novel, as a human must guess at the way an animal's mind may work and what motivations it may have.[1][2] He felt animals think differently from humans, though are capable of reason on a "rudimentary level compared to a human."[1] In explaining his descriptions of hunting, he said it was hard to decide how a hound with non-human scenting ability interprets and responds to scents while tracking another animal.[1][2]

The last chapter of the novel, covering Copper's last hunt of Tod, was based on the story of Boston, a fourteen-month-old bloodhound–foxhound mix, and Old Baldy, a red fox known by hunters for having outrun numerous packs of hounds put on his trail.[3] Mannix originally read the story in a Recreation magazine article, which stated that in December 1887, near the James River in Virginia, Boston hunted a fox referred to as Baldy for a day and a half, covering 50 miles (80 km) of terrain.[1][3] According to Mannix, Boston and Baldy died together, and were buried together once found.[1] In the Recreation article, although Boston survived he never fully recovered and died when he was only three years old.[3] Copper himself was based on the favorite hunting dog of Bee Dee Adkins, a nationally renowned trainer of hunting dogs with whom Mannix hunted. Some of the novel's human characters were based on the lives and mannerisms on locals living in Oro Valley, a suburb of Tucson, Arizona.[4]

In 1967, E. P. Dutton selected Mannix's unpublished novel as the 1967 winner of its annual "Animal Book Award"â€”an international competition open to new authors in which an editorial panel evaluates submissions to find the "best book-length work of adult fiction or nonfiction on animals".[5][6] Along with a cash prize of $10,000, the company obtained the publication rights for the novel, releasing it in hardback form on September 11 that year.[5][7] The novel was published in the United States by Dutton and in Canada by Clarke, Irwin and Company, simultaneously. A reprint by Pocket Books followed in 1971.[8] The novel has been released in twelve other countries,[5] including Finland in 1968 by Otava, and in Germany by Hoffmann und Campe.[8][9]

The Fox and the Hound was selected as a Reader's Digest Book Club selection in 1967 and an abridged version was printed in the fourth volume of the publisher's Condensed Books series.[5][10] The same year, it was awarded the Athenaeum Literary Award.[11][12]

The Booklist called the novel one of "the highest level of books about animals" and praised its combination of "brilliant psychology, writing of rare beauty, and little-known hunting and animal lore".[13] According to the Booklist, Publishers Weekly gave the novel its "highest recommendation" and referred to it as a "marvelous evocation of the animal world".[13] Reviewing the novel for Best Sellers magazine, William B. Hill considered it a "corking good novel", praising it for its "simplicity and straightforwardness" with the dog and fox being "real" rather than allegories for social issues. While he felt the novel was overly detailed in a few places, as a whole he considered the story "credible, almost all fascinating" and the characters entertaining.[14]

Robert Ramsey of the Placerville, California, Mountain Democrat  thought the book worthy of winning the Dutton award, characterizing the narrative as "always interesting" and principal characters Tod and Copper as "unforgettable", while praising Mannix's "ability to enter into the world of animals and portray it".[2] A reviewer for the Catholic Library World considered it a "memorable and delightful reading experience" written by a man "who knows the ways of foxes".[15] Author and sportsman Richard Alden Knight praised the novel, stating that it "surpasses any writing I have ever encountered on the thinking processes of animals"[16] and that the story of a duel between natural enemies is "told well and written with feeling".[17] A reviewer for the Reading Eagle felt Mannix wrote well enough to make a reader feel like they were the characters Tod and Copper and that the story was "really exciting" due to the "dramatic opposition" of the two animals.[18]

Walt Disney Pictures purchased the film rights to The Fox and the Hound when it was awarded the Dutton Animal Book Award.[5] Production on a film adaptation began in 1977 and it would become the most expensive animated film produced at the time, at a cost of $12 million.[19][20] To craft the film, then Disney CEO Ron Miller decided to mainly use new talent to make their debuts with the film, as the pioneers of the company, referred to as the "Nine Old Men", were nearing retirement. The animators and screenplay writers were primarily new, as were the film directors Art Stevens, Ted Berman, and Richard Rich. It would be the last film Ollie Johnston, Frank Thomas, and Woolie Reitherman, considered "legends" of Disney, would work on. However, the transition between the old guard and the new resulted in arguments over how to handle the film. Reitherman had his own ideas on the designs and layouts that should be used; however, the newer team backed Stevens, except Don Bluth, who felt Disney's work was stale. Bluth walked out, taking eleven others with him, and formed his own animation studio. The exodus of the animators forced the cancellation of the film's original Christmas 1980 premiere while new artists were hired.[21]

Along the way, the story was greatly modified to make it more suitable as a family film. By the time it was completed in 1981, the film had changed into a chronicle of the unlikely friendship of two creatures, who should be natural enemies and who learn society sometimes tries to determine their roles despite their better impulses.[22] In the original screenplay, Chief was slated to die the same as in the novel, but Stevens did not want to have an on-screen death and modified the film so that he survived.[21]

The film premiered theatrically in the United States on July 10, 1981.[21] It was an immediate success, grossing $39,900,000 to become the 14th top film of the year.[19][23][24] It was subsequently re-released theatrically on March 25, 1988,[24] and saw its first home video release on March 1, 1994.[25]


what is the meaning of asad in arabic

Asad (Arabic: أسد), sometimes written as Assad, is one of many Arabic male given names meaning "lion", each denoting some aspect of the animal. It is used in nicknames such as Asad Allāh one of the nicknames for Ali ibn Abi Talib.

Asad

"Assad" is the standard spelling in English, to keep the hissing's' sound; "Asad" is the more accurate transliteration, corresponding to the Arabic spelling, and is used by scholars.

Among prominent people named Asad or "Assad" are:

The Al-Assad family is an Alawite family from the Latakia region (specifically Qardaha), which has held political power in Syria since 1970. The family has produced two presidents:

Other family members include:


what type of economic system does madagascar have

The economy of Madagascar is a market economy and is supported by Madagascar's well-established agricultural industry and emerging tourism, textile and mining industries. Malagasy agriculture produces tropical staple crops such as rice and cassava, as well as cash crops such as vanilla and coffee. Madagascar's wealth of natural resources  supports its sizable mining industry. Additionally, Madagascar's status as a developing nation exempts Malagasy exports from customs protocol in some areas, notably the United States and European Union. These exemptions have supported the growth of the Malagasy textile industry. Despite Madagascar's natural resources and developing industries, the 2009 Malagasy political crisis—considered by the international community to be an illegal coup[6]—deterred foreign investments in Madagascar and caused the Malagasy economy to decline.[7] Foreign investments have resumed following the resumption of elections in early 2014.[citation needed] At 2016, Madagascar is one of the world's fastest-growing economies.

Economy of Madagascar

Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is Madagascar's largest industry and employs 82% of its labor force.[4] Madagascar's varied climate, ranging from tropical along the coasts, moderate in the highlands and arid in the south, allows for the cultivation of tropical crops such as rice, cassava, beans and bananas.[4] In 2011, agricultural products—especially cloves, vanilla, cacao, sugar, pepper, and coffee—accounted for Madagascar's top twelve exports by value.[8] Madagascar produces the second largest vanilla harvest in the world and Malagasy vanilla accounts for about a quarter of the global vanilla market.[9]

Exports from Madagascars' Export Processing Zones, located around  Antananarivo and Antsirabe, account for the majority of garment exports[10] and are largely exempt from customs restrictions in the United States under the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA)[11] and in the European Union under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement.[12]

A small but growing part of the economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin.[13] Mining corporation Rio Tinto Group started production at its Fort Dauphin mine in January 2009,[14] following several years of preparation. The mining project is highly controversial, with Friends of the Earth and other environmental organizations filing reports to detail their concerns about the mine's effect on the environment and local communities.[15] Gemstone mining is also an important part of Madagascar's economy.

Several major projects are underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost. In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. The Ambatovy nickel mine (Sherrit International 40%, Sumitomo 27.5%, Korea Resources 27.5%, SNC-Lavalin 5%) is a huge operation and has cost USD $4.76 million to date [16] and is due to start production in 2011. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga.

Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and donors. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a "Friends of Madagascar" conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002.  Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee.

The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed as a collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Malagasian artisan producers in Madagascar in 2002.[17] The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organisations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups.

The government of former President Marc Ravalomanana was aggressively seeking foreign investment and had planned to tackle many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Prior to Ravalomanana's resignation, concerns had arisen about the conflict of interest between his policies and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country.

Madagascar’s appeal to investors stems from its competitive, trainable work force. More than 200 investors, particularly garment manufacturers, were organized under the country’s export processing zone (EPZ) system since it was established in 1989. The absence of quota limits on textile imports to the European market under the Lome Convention helped stimulate this growth.

Growth in output in 1992â€“97 averaged less than the growth rate of the population. Growth has been held back by a decline in world coffee demand, and the erratic commitment of the government to economic reform.[18][19]
During a period of solid growth from 1997 to 2001, poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% in 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar's budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. After the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3%, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy of raising the Taux Directeur (central bank rate) to 16% and tightening reserve requirements for banks. Thus growth was expected to reach around 6.5% in 2005.

Despite a wealth of abundant and diverse natural resources, Madagascar is one of the worldâ€™s poorest countries. Madagascar holds great potential for agricultural development, mainly due to the large variety of soil types and climatic diversity. Nevertheless, natural hazards (cyclones, drought, locust invasions) combined with old-fashioned farming practices limit production.

The standard of living of the Malagasy population has been declining dramatically over the past 25 years. The country has gone from being a net exporter of agricultural products in the 1960s to a net importer since 1971. Inappropriate traditional agricultural methods cause soil to erode and soil quality to decline, and the basis of survival for Madagascarâ€™s people is under serious threat.[20]

In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and of the World Bank concurred in December 2000 that the country was eligible under the HIPC Initiative, and Madagascar reached the decision point for debt relief. On March 1, 2001, the IMF Board granted the country $103 million for 2001â€“03 under the Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGR). Resources were intended for improving access to health, education, rural roads, water, and direct support to communities. In addition, on March 7, 2001, the Paris Club approved a debt cancellation of $161 million. On February 28, 2001, the African Development Bank (ADB) approved under the HIPC a debt cancellation of $71.46 million and granted in June 2001 an additional credit of $20 million to fight against AIDS and poverty.

Partly as a result of these credits but also as a result of previous reforms, average GDP growth exceeded the population growth rate of 2.8% in 1997 (3.5%), 1998 (3.9%), 1999 (4.7%) and 2000 (4.8%).

In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative.

The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980â€“2017.[21]

Household income or consumption by percentage share:
lowest 10%:
2.3%
highest 10%:
34.9% (1993)

Industrial production growth rate:
5% (1999 est.)

Electricity – production:
1.35 billion kWh (2009 est.)

Electricity – production by source:
fossil fuel:
69.5%
hydro:
30.5%
nuclear:
0%
other:
0% (2009)

Electricity – consumption:
1.256 billion kWh (2009 est.)

Electricity – exports:
0 kWh (2010)

Electricity – imports:
0 kWh (2010)

Exchange rates:
Malagasy ariary (MGA) per US dollar -
2,195 (2012 est.)
2,025.1 (2011 est.)
2,090 (2010 est.)
1,956.2 (2009)
1,654.78 (2008)