why do they call 476 the blue route

The road received its nickname from a 1958 location report indicating various proposed geographic configurations of an expressway through Delaware County with lines of various colors on a map. The "blue route" through the Crum Creek valley won out over other contenders, which included a more easterly "red route" and "yellow route" and a more westerly "green route".[43]

Interstate 476

Interstate 476 (I-476) is a 132.1-mile (212.59 km) auxiliary Interstate Highway in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania designated between Interstate 95 near Chester and Interstate 81 near Scranton, serving as the primary north–south Interstate corridor through eastern Pennsylvania. It consists of both the 20-mile (32.19 km) Mid-County Expressway, locally referred to as the "Blue Route" (although no signs exist with that designation), through the suburban Philadelphia-area counties of Delaware and Montgomery, and the 110.6-mile (177.99 km) Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike connecting the Philadelphia metropolitan area with the Lehigh Valley, the Poconos, and the Wyoming Valley. The Blue Route passes through suburban areas, while the Northeast Extension predominantly runs through rural areas of mountains and farmland, with development closer to Philadelphia and in the Lehigh Valley and the Wyoming Valley. I-476 intersects many major roads including Interstate 76 (the Schuylkill Expressway) in West Conshohocken, Interstate 276 (the Pennsylvania Turnpike) in Plymouth Meeting, U.S. Route 22 near Allentown, and Interstate 80 near Hickory Run State Park.

While proposed as early as 1929, the construction of the Mid-County Expressway did not begin until 1967 and was not completed until 1992 due to massive community and environmental opposition during the freeway revolts of the 1960s and 1970s, leading The Philadelphia Inquirer to dub it "the most costly, most bitterly opposed highway in Pennsylvania history." In order to get the route through Delaware County, it was built with many environmental compromises such as a parkway design and four lanes south of the Pennsylvania Route 3 interchange. The Mid-County Expressway received its "Blue Route" nickname from the chosen route through Delaware County on planning maps on which it was differentiated from the other proposed routes by its color.

Following the completion of the Mid-County Expressway, in 1996 the Interstate 476 designation was extended to include the entire length of the existing Northeast Extension, replacing PA 9. The Northeast Extension was built between 1955 and 1957 and was originally projected to continue past Clarks Summit to the New York border; however, I-81 was built between these two points instead. Since the extension, I-476 has been the longest auxiliary Interstate Highway in the United States (surpassing Interstate 495 in Massachusetts), but it may someday be surpassed in length by Interstate 369 in Texas. In fact, it is longer than some mainline interstates (such as Interstate 83 in Maryland and Pennsylvania, Interstate 99 in Pennsylvania, Interstate 12 in Louisiana, Interstate 19 in Arizona, Interstate 97 in Maryland, and Interstate 2 in Texas). Additionally, its numbering is unusual, since auxiliary interstates beginning in even numbers are typically bypasses or loops rather than spurs.

The portion of Interstate 476 between Interstate 95 and Interstate 276 runs northâ€“south through Delaware and Montgomery Counties and is officially known as the Mid-County Expressway and the Veterans Memorial Highway, as well as by the nickname the "Blue Route". The road's southern terminus is at a junction with Interstate 95 near Chester, a city southwest of Philadelphia, near Philadelphia International Airport.[4] Heading north, the road immediately narrows to a four-lane parkway north of Exit 1, MacDade Boulevard. It winds through the western Philadelphia suburbs of Wallingford and Swarthmore, where I-476 comes to an interchange with Baltimore Pike. From here, the freeway continues north to Springfield, where it meets U.S. Route 1 at a three-level diamond interchange.[4]

Past US 1, I-476 continues through wooded suburban areas and interchanges with Pennsylvania Route 3 in Broomall, where it widens to six lanes.[4] The route continues to Radnor Township, on the Main Line, where it interchanges with U.S. Route 30.[4] Stone monuments, including a large stone cairn atop a hill and a large crushed-stone image of a mythological griffin on a hillside, were constructed at the Route 30 interchange to commemorate Radnor's history as part of the Welsh Tract.[5] Proceeding northward, the route enters Montgomery County and comes to an interchange with Interstate 76 (Schuylkill Expressway) at West Conshohocken. After crossing the Schuylkill River on the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge, the freeway heads into Plymouth Township, where it interchanges with Ridge Pike and Germantown Pike before coming to the Mid-County Interchange with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in Plymouth Meeting.[4][6] The entire length of the Blue Route is designated the Blue Route Scenic Byway, a Pennsylvania Scenic Byway.[7]

Beyond the Mid-County Interchange, Interstate 476 enters the Pennsylvania Turnpike system, interchanging with Interstate 276 and continuing north as the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike. The route continues through the Philadelphia suburbs interchanging with Pennsylvania Route 63 near Lansdale. Past this interchange, the route enters a more rural setting of woods and farms, crossing into Bucks County and coming to an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 663 near Quakertown. The Northeast Extension continues north into Lehigh County, part of the Lehigh Valley metropolitan area, past the PA 663 interchange. Here, it has a ramp to the dual-access Allentown Service Plaza in Upper Macungie Township, and just north of it, I-476 interchanges with U.S. 22 (Lehigh Valley Thruway) near Allentown, which offers an indirect connection to Pennsylvania Route 309 and Interstate 78. [4]

North of Allentown, the route runs through more farmland before passing under the Blue Mountain in the Lehigh Tunnel and entering Carbon County in the Pocono Mountains. Here, I-476 crosses over the Lehigh River and interchanges with U.S. 209 near Lehighton. Continuing through mountainous areas, it has an E-ZPass-only exit for Pennsylvania Route 903 and cuts through Hickory Run State Park before interchanging with Interstate 80 and Pennsylvania Route 940 just to the north of the state park.[4] The route continues through mountainous terrain, heading into Luzerne County and coming to an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 115 in Bear Creek that provides access to nearby Wilkes-Barre.[4] The route comes to a toll barrier near Pittston that marks the northern end of the toll ticket system in the Northeast Extension.[4][8] A short distance later, an interchange with Pennsylvania Route 315 provides indirect access to Interstate 81 and Scranton. Past this interchange, I-476 enters Lackawanna County and crosses built-up areas of the Wyoming Valley as it skirts around Scranton, with a mainline toll plaza and an exit to Keyser Avenue. North of Scranton in Clarks Summit, the route crosses a valley on the 1,630-foot-long (500 m), 163-foot-high (50 m) John J. Fitzgerald Bridge,[9] comes to a hairpin curve, and ends at an interchange with connections to I-81, US 6 and US 11. US 6 joins the turnpike for less than 1⁄4 mile (0.40 km) to connect between I-81 and US 11. As this is north of the Clarks Summit toll plaza, no toll is collected on this short segment.[6]

The Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike uses the ticket system method of tolling between the Mid-County and Wyoming Valley toll plazas along with the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike.[10] With the ticket system, a motorist receives a ticket upon entering the turnpike at an interchange and pays the fare and surrenders the ticket upon exiting. If a motorist loses the ticket, the turnpike charges the highest fare to the exit where the motorist leaves.[11] Mainline toll plazas are also located at Keyser Avenue and Clarks Summit, charging a flat rate. There are no tolls on exit ramps between Wyoming Valley and Clarks Summit. E-ZPass is accepted at all toll plazas. As of 2018, it costs a passenger vehicle $12.85 to travel the length of the Northeast Extension between Mid-County and Wyoming Valley using cash and $9.05 using E-ZPass. The Keyser Avenue and Clarks Summit toll plazas cost $1.45 using cash and $0.81 using E-ZPass for passenger vehicles.[10]

The tickets along the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike were originally handed out by person. In 1987, machines started to replace humans in distributing tickets.[12] In 1990, an electronic toll collection system was proposed for the Pennsylvania Turnpike, where a motorist would create an account and use an electronic device that would be read from an electronic tollbooth. The motorist would be billed later.[13] The multi-state electronic tolling system, which was to be called E-ZPass, was planned to be implemented by 1998.[14][15] The planned installation date was later pushed back to 2000.[16] On December 2, 2000, E-ZPass debuted along the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike between Mid-County and Lehigh Valley.[17][18] On December 15, 2001, E-ZPass was extended to include the entire length of the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike.[19][20] Commercial vehicles were allowed to start using E-ZPass on December 14, 2002.[21]

On November 24, 2004, the day before Thanksgiving, 2,000 Teamsters Union employees went on strike, after contract negotiations failed. This was the first strike in the history of the roadway. As this is usually one of the busiest traffic days in the United States, to avoid traffic jams, tolls were waived for the rest of the day.[22] Starting on November 25, turnpike management personnel collected flat-rate passenger tolls of $2 and commercial tolls of $15 from cash customers on the ticketed system, while E-ZPass customers were charged the lesser of the actual toll or the same flat rates.[23] The strike ended after seven days when both sides reached an agreement on November 30. Normal toll collection resumed December 1.[24]

The Turnpike Commission announced plans to consider eliminating manned toll booths in favor of all-electronic tolls. With this, tolls will be paid using either E-ZPass or credit cards.[25] Drivers unable to pay by either of these methods will be billed in the mail using license plate recognition; an additional surcharge will be applied.[26] In addition to E-ZPass, the turnpike commission offered other automated options to pay for tolls such as using a prepaid account that utilizes license plate recognition. McCormick Taylor and Wilbur Smith Associates have been hired to conduct a feasibility study on converting the road to all-electronic tolls.[27]

On MarchÂ 6, 2012, the turnpike commission announced that it was going forward with an all-electronic tolling plan.[28] Such a plan will take at least five years to implement to allow time for equipment to be installed and the reconfiguration of ramps. It will save the turnpike commission $65 million a year on labor costs by eliminating toll collectors. The plans call for a 76% surcharge for motorists who do not have E-ZPass that are billed by mail. This surcharge could raise the toll for someone without E-ZPass to $53.10 to travel the entire turnpike.[29] In October 2016, the turnpike began accepting credit cards as payment at all cash toll booths.[30] In April 2018, the turnpike commission will implement all-electronic tolling at the Keyser Avenue and Clarks Summit toll plazas.[31]

The Northeast Extension has a callbox every mile for its entire length.[32] In September 2017, the turnpike commission began removing the callboxes due to increased mobile phone usage making the callboxes obsolete.[33] Motorists may also dial *11 on their mobile phones. First responder services are available to all turnpike customers via the State Farm Safety Patrol program. The safety patrol program, which is free, looks for disabled motorists, debris, and accidents along the roadway and provides assistance. The patrol service is available 24 hours every day of the year. Each patrol vehicle covers a 20-to-25-mile (32 to 40Â km) stretch of the turnpike.[32] Towing services are available from authorized service garages located near the highway.[34] Pennsylvania State Police Troop T patrols the Pennsylvania Turnpike Northeast Extension. It has headquarters in Highspire and a substation at Pocono.[35]

The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission broadcasts current roadway, traffic, and weather conditions via "Highway Advisory Radio" transmitters at each exit. Broadcasts are available on AMÂ 1640 and can be received approximately two miles away from each exit.[36] Motorists can also receive alerts and information via the internet, mobile phone, a hotline, and message boards at service plazas through the Turnpike Roadway Information Program (TRIP).[37]

The Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike has 2 service plazas at Allentown and Hickory Run. The service plazas offer various fast food restaurants such as Burger King, Roy Rogers, Famous Famiglia Pizzeria, Auntie Anne's, Hershey's Ice Cream, and Starbucks, and a gift shop. Each service plaza also has a Sunoco gas station and an A-Plus convenience store. Other amenities are available such as an ATM, free cell phone charging, picnic areas, restrooms, tourist information, Travel Board information centers, and Wi-Fi. The Allentown plaza contains a seasonal farmers market. The Allentown plaza offers E85 while both plazas offer conventional gasoline and diesel fuel.[38] The Sunoco and A-Plus locations are operated by Energy Transfer Partners (who bought Pennsylvania-based Sunoco in 2012) while the remaining restaurants and general upkeep of the service plazas are operated by HMSHost.[39]

In 2006, HMSHost was awarded a contract to reconstruct the service plazas along the turnpike.[40] The reconstruction of the service plazas, which is to cost $150 million, will include a food court layout and modernized restrooms. Sunoco will continue to operate the gas stations at the renovated service plazas. The Allentown service plaza was rebuilt between September 2007 and May 2008 while the Hickory Run service plaza was rebuilt between January 2009 and November 2010.[41]

Originally planned as far back as 1929, the Mid-County Expressway was later proposed by the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission as the "Chester Extension" of the Pennsylvania Turnpike in 1954. After the advent of the Interstate Highway System, the project was transferred to the Pennsylvania Department of Highways to be built as part of the system, designating it first as Interstate 495, and later as Interstate 480, as I-76 was designated as I-80S at the time. The present-day I-476 designation was assigned on February 6, 1964, when I-80S was renumbered as I-76.[42]

As one of the most controversial Interstate Highways in Pennsylvania, construction of I-476 began in 1967, but was not completed until 1991 between MacDade Boulevard (Exit 1) and Interstate 76 (Exit 16), and until 1992 between Germantown Pike east/Chemical Road (Exit 19) and Interstate 276/Pennsylvania Turnpike (Exit 20), due to litigation between the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation and several communities in the road's path over environmental concerns. However, the section of Interstate 476 (south end of I-476) between I-95 and MacDade Blvd. (Exit 1) was opened in 1987, but signage labeled it as a route "To MacDade Blvd" until 1991 when I-476/The Blue Route was opened between Exits 1 and 16, and connected with the short existing section of roadway dating back to 1979 from Exit 16-Exit 19.

An agreement in 1985 led to many environmental compromises in the road's design, including a downsized four-lane design south of Pennsylvania Route 3, ramp meters, and federal scenic route status, prohibiting the erection of advertisement billboards along the entire freeway portion. While the redesigned highway was largely well-received, the constriction to four lanes has led to bottleneck conditions in the area, and many communities that originally opposed the road have now called for its widening.[44] The Philadelphia Inquirer dubbed I-476 "the most costly, most bitterly opposed highway in Pennsylvania history" due to the decades of opposition it garnered.[45]

In the 2000s, the road underwent a complete rehabilitation project, including paving, bridge repair, and ramp maintenance of the entire length of the freeway between Interstate 95 and the Pennsylvania Turnpike.[46] The section between I-95 and I-76 was completed in 2007 and the section between I-76 and I-276 was completed in the end of 2011.

In 1953, an extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike from the mainline near Philadelphia north through Northeastern Pennsylvania to the New York border near Binghamton was proposed.[48][49] Groundbreaking for the Northeastern Extension occurred on March 25, 1954 in White Haven, with Governor John S. Fine and commission chairman Thomas J. Evans present. The Northeast Extension was planned to run from the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike in Plymouth Meeting north to a temporary terminus at Scranton.[50] In April 1954, $233 million in bonds were issued to build the Northeastern Extension along with the Delaware River Bridge on the mainline Pennsylvania Turnpike.[51] The Northeast Extension was built with a 4-foot (1.2 m) median in order to save money.[52] Due to the mountainous terrain it passed through, a large amount of earthwork was necessary to build the road along with the construction of large bridges.[53] Among the bridges built was the 1,630-foot-long (500 m) Clarks Summit Bridge (since renamed for John J. Fitzgerald, Turnpike engineer and superintendent) over US 6/US 11, which was the tallest bridge on the Pennsylvania Turnpike system at 135 feet (41 m).[54][9] The Northeast Extension also included the two-lane Lehigh Tunnel through Blue Mountain. The tunnel was originally going to be named for commission chairman Evans, but was changed when he was convicted of conspiracy to defraud the commission of $19 million (equal to $139,447,106 today).[53]

The roadway opened between Plymouth Meeting and the Lehigh Valley interchange near Allentown on November 23, 1955. The highway was extended north to Emerald on December 28, 1955.[55] The Northeast Extension was opened between Emerald and Wyoming Valley on April 1, 1957.[56] The entire length of the Northeast Extension was finished on November 7, 1957 with the completion of the northernmost part between Wyoming Valley and Scranton.[57] The part of the Northeast Extension between Scranton and the New York border would not be built as part of the Pennsylvania Turnpike system but rather the Interstate Highway System as I-81.[58][59] At the northern terminus, the Northeast Extension narrowed to two lanes along the northbound off-ramp at Scranton to come to its northern terminus, with an abandoned short spur of the mainline heading north. A pair of trumpet interchanges were built to connect the Northeast Extension and I-81.[59] In 1980, the roadway would be designated PA 9.[60]

When it first opened, traffic on the Northeast Extension of the Pennsylvania Turnpike was light.[52] By the 1970s, traffic along the roadway would increase with the completion of the connecting I-80 and the rising popularity of the Poconos as a vacation destination. As a result, the two-lane Lehigh Tunnel faced serious congestion. Plans were made to either bypass the tunnel or add a second tube. The turnpike commission decided it would build a second tunnel as the cost was lower than building a bypass.[61] In 1988, a $37 million contract was awarded to build the second tube.[62] Groundbreaking for the tunnel took place on February 14, 1989, with Governor Robert P. Casey in attendance.[63] Excavation of the new tunnel began in July of that year. Construction of the second tube utilized the New Austrian Tunnelling method, which reduced the cost of the tunnel by $5 to $6 million. It was the first tunnel in the United States to use this construction method. The second tube at Lehigh Tunnel opened on November 22, 1991, with Governor Casey in attendance leading a line of antique cars. Construction of the tunnel cost $45 million. The new tube is used for southbound traffic while the original tube carries northbound traffic. The newer tunnel is wider, higher, and brighter than the original.[64]

On February 1, 1995, the Keyser Avenue interchange near Scranton was slated to open at a cost of $22.4 million. Construction of this interchange also involved constructing a new mainline flat-rate toll barrier near the new interchange.[65]

On November 1, 1996, the Northeast Extension was added to the Interstate Highway System as an extension of I-476, replacing the PA 9 designation along the road. The addition of the second tube at the Lehigh Tunnel along with new guardrails and line striping was necessary for the toll road to become an Interstate. It was hoped that the Interstate designation would bring economic development and tourism to the areas served by the roadway.[66] This extension resulted in I-476 surpassing the 120-mile (190Â km) I-495 in Massachusetts as the longest auxiliary Interstate Highway.[67]

In 2007, the turnpike commission announced plans to widen the Northeast Extension to six lanes between Mid-County and Lansdale.[68] The project divided this stretch of highway into two sections. Work on the southern section began in January 2008 with the replacement of two bridges over the Northeast Extension to accommodate the widened highway. Construction on the actual widening phase commenced in January 2011. Completion was originally planned in 2013; however, construction fell a year behind schedule.[69][70] The southern section finished up in October 2014, while work on the northern section started in May 2014. By this point the project scope was expanded to include the Lansdale interchange itself, the roadway to a point one mile north of the interchange, and two new E-ZPass-only ramps at the Lansdale interchange to relieve congestion at the toll plaza. This new northbound exit ramp opened December 4, 2016, and the companion southbound on-ramp opened a week later.[71]. The northern section was originally planned to finish by the end of 2016 but was delayed until mid-2017.[72] Construction is to be substantially complete, with all six lanes open, by August 31, 2017.[73]

Once widening is completed from Mid-County to Lansdale, a similar project will begin on the next segment of highway, from Lansdale to Quakertown. As done on the first project, the Lansdale-to-Quakertown segment will be rebuilt in two sections, with a southern half starting fall 2017, with widening to 6 lanes and full shoulders.[69] Advance work began in spring 2013 with replacement of several bridges in this area north of Lansdale, with work on the actual widening to begin in fall 2017.[74]

The Turnpike Commission has stated its intention of continuing the widening effort past Quakertown all the way north to the Lehigh Valley interchange, milepost 56,[75] although it will take until the late 2020s to get it done.

In 1990, plans were made to build an interchange at PA 903 in Carbon County. A bill authorizing construction of this interchange was signed into law by Governor Casey in July of that year.[76] Plans for this interchange were cancelled by the turnpike commission in 1995.[77] In 2006, plans for an interchange at PA 903 were resurrected, with the proposed interchange to be all-electronic, in that it will only accept E-ZPass.[78] Construction on the $23 million interchange began in the middle of 2008.[79][80] The interchange opened to traffic on June 30, 2015.[81]

On April 28, 2016, plans were announced for a "Scranton Beltway" to use I-476 as a bypass for I-81 around the heavily congested segment through Scranton and its suburbs. The turnpike between the two I-81 interchanges carries an average of 10,000 vehicles per day vs. 70,000 on the parallel segment of I-81. This project will build two high-speed connections between I-476 and I-81: one south of Scranton in Dupont and one north of Scranton in South Abington Township. Tolls on the connections will be paid with E-ZPass or toll-by-plate. Construction on this project, which is expected to cost $160 million, could begin as soon as 2021.[82]

The old exit numbers (31 and upward) on the turnpike Northeast Extension were a continuation of old exit numbers 1 through 30 on the east-west turnpike. On the east-west turnpike, the interchange with I-476 was old exit 25A because it was between old exits 25 and 26 on the east–west turnpike.


who are neo-malthusians and what do they believe

Neo-Malthusianism is the advocacy of population control programs, to ensure resources for current and future populations.[2] In Britain the term Malthusian can also refer more specifically to arguments made in favour of preventive birth control, hence organizations such as the Malthusian League.[4] Neo-Malthusians differ from Malthus's theories mainly in their enthusiasm for contraception. Malthus, a devout Christian, believed that "self-control" (abstinence) was preferable to artificial birth control. In some editions of his essay, Malthus did allow that abstinence was unlikely to be effective on a wide scale, thus advocating the use of artificial means of birth control as a solution to population "pressure".[5] Modern "neo-Malthusians" are generally more concerned than Malthus was, with environmental degradation and catastrophic famine than with poverty.

Malthusianism

Malthusianism is the idea that population growth is potentially exponential while the growth of the food supply is arithmetical at best. It derives from the political/economic thought of the Reverend Thomas Robert Malthus, as laid out in his 1798 writings, An Essay on the Principle of Population, Malthus believed there were two types of "checks" that in all times and places kept population growth in line with the growth of the food supply: "preventive checks", such as moral restraints (abstinence, delayed marriage until finances become balanced), and restricting marriage against persons suffering poverty or perceived as defective, and "positive checks", which lead to premature death: disease, starvation, war, resulting in what is called a Malthusian catastrophe. The catastrophe would return population to a lower, more "sustainable", level.[1][2] Malthusianism has been linked to a variety of political and social movements, but almost always refers to advocates of population control.[3]

Malthusianism has attracted criticism from a diverse range of differing schools of thought, including Marxists[6] and socialists,[7] libertarians and free market enthusiasts,[8][9] social conservatives,[10] feminists[11] and human rights advocates, characterising it as excessively pessimistic, misanthropic or inhuman.[12][13] [3][14] Many critics believe Malthusianism has been discredited since the publication of Principle of Population, often citing advances in agricultural techniques and modern reductions in human fertility.[15] Many modern proponents believe that the basic concept of population growth eventually outstripping resources is still fundamentally valid, and "positive checks" are still likely in humanity's future if there is no action to curb population growth.[16][17]

Malthus was not the first to outline the problems he perceived. The original essay was part of an ongoing intellectual discussion at the end of the 18th century regarding the origins of poverty. Principle of Population was specifically written as a rebuttal to thinkers like William Godwin and the Marquis de Condorcet, and Malthus's own father who believed in the perfectibility of humanity. Malthus believed humanity's ability to reproduce too rapidly doomed efforts at perfection and caused various other problems.

His criticism of the working class's tendency to reproduce rapidly, and his belief that this, rather than exploitation by capitalists, led to their poverty, brought widespread criticism of his theory.[18]

Malthusians perceived ideas of charity to the poor, typified by Tory paternalism, were futile, as these would only result in increased numbers of the poor; these theories played into Whig economic ideas exemplified by the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834. The Act was described by opponents as "a Malthusian bill designed to force the poor to emigrate, to work for lower wages, to live on a coarser sort of food",[19] which initiated the construction of workhouses despite riots and arson.

Malthus revised his theories in later editions of An Essay on the Principles of Population, taking a more optimistic tone, although there is some scholarly debate on the extent of his revisions.[1] According to Dan Ritschel of the Center for History Education at the University of Maryland,

The great Malthusian dread was that "indiscriminate charity" would lead to exponential growth in the population in poverty, increased charges to the public purse to support this growing army of the dependent, and, eventually, the catastrophe of national bankruptcy. Though Malthusianism has since come to be identified with the issue of general over-population, the original Malthusian concern was more specifically with the fear of over-population by the dependent poor.[20]

One of the earliest critics was David Ricardo. Malthus immediately and correctly recognised it to be an attack on his theory of wages. Ricardo and Malthus debated this in a lengthy personal correspondence.[21]

Another one of the 19th century critics of Malthusian theory was Karl Marx who referred to it as "nothing more than a schoolboyish, superficial plagiary of De Foe, Sir James Steuart, Townsend, Franklin, Wallace" (in Capital, see Marx's footnote on Malthus from Capital â€“ reference below). Marx and Engels described Malthus as a "lackey of the bourgeoisie".[18] Socialists and communists believed that Malthusian theories "blamed the poor" for their own exploitation by the capitalist classes, and could be used to suppress the proletariat to an even greater degree, whether through attempts to reduce fertility or by justifying the generally poor conditions of labour in the 19th century.[citation needed]

One proponent of Malthusianism was the novelist Harriet Martineau whose circle of acquaintances included Charles Darwin, and the ideas of Malthus were a significant influence on the inception of Darwin's theory of evolution.[22] Darwin was impressed by the idea that population growth would eventually lead to more organisms than could possibly survive in any given environment, leading him to theorise that organisms with a relative advantage in the struggle for survival and reproduction would be able to pass their characteristics on to further generations. Proponents of Malthusianism were in turn influenced by Darwin's ideas, both schools coming to influence the field of eugenics. Henry Fairfield Osborn, Jr. advocated "humane birth selection through humane birth control" in order to avoid a Malthusian catastrophe by eliminating the "unfit".[1]

Malthusianism became a less common intellectual tradition as the 19th century advanced, mostly as a result of technological increases, the opening of new territory to agriculture, and increasing international trade.[1] Although a "conservationist" movement in the United States concerned itself with resource depletion and natural protection in the first half of the twentieth century, Desrochers and Hoffbauer write, "It is probably fair to say... that it was not until the publication of Osborn’s and Vogt’s books [1948] that a Malthusian revival took hold of a significant segment of the American population".[1]

Malthusian theory is a recurrent theme in many social science venues. John Maynard Keynes, in Economic Consequences of the Peace, opens his polemic with a Malthusian portrayal of the political economy of Europe as unstable due to Malthusian population pressure on food supplies.[citation needed] Many models of resource depletion and scarcity are Malthusian in character: the rate of energy consumption will outstrip the ability to find and produce new energy sources, and so lead to a crisis.[citation needed]

In France, terms such as "politique malthusienne" ("Malthusian politics") refer to population control strategies. The concept of restriction of population associated with Malthus morphed, in later political economic theory, into the notion of restriction of production. In the French sense, a "Malthusian economy" is one in which protectionism and the formation of cartels is not only tolerated but encouraged.[citation needed]

Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party and main architect of the Soviet Union was a critic of Neo-Malthusian theory (but not of birth control and abortion in general).[23]

"Neo-Malthusianism" is a concern that overpopulation may increase resource depletion or environmental degradation to a degree that is not sustainable with the potential of ecological collapse or other hazards.[citation needed] The term is also often connected with eugenics.[citation needed]

The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted population patterns; it also appears to describe socio-demographic dynamics of complex pre-industrial societies. These findings are the basis for neo-malthusian modern mathematical models of long-term historical dynamics.[24]

There was a general "neo-Malthusian" revival in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s after the publication of two influential books in 1948 (Fairfield Osborn's Our Plundered Planet and William Vogt's Road to Survival). During that time the population of the world rose dramatically. Many in environmental movements began to sound the alarm regarding the potential dangers of population growth.[1] The Club of Rome published a book entitled The Limits to Growth in 1972. The report and the organisation soon became central to the neo-Malthusian revival.[25] Paul R. Ehrlich has been one of the most prominent neo-Malthusians since the publication of The Population Bomb in 1968. Leading ecological economist Herman Daly has acknowledged the influence of Malthus on his concept of a steady-state economy.[26]:xvi Other prominent Malthusians include the Paddock brothers, authors of Famine 1975! America's Decision: Who Will Survive?

The neo-Malthusian revival has drawn criticism from writers who claim the Malthusian warnings were overstated or premature because the green revolution has brought substantial increases in food production and will be able to keep up with continued population growth.[15][27] Julian Simon, a cornucopian, has written that contrary to neo-Malthusian theory, Earth's "carrying capacity" is essentially limitless.[1][how?] Responding to Simon, Al Bartlett reiterates the potential of population growth as an exponential (or as expressed by Malthus, "geometrical") curve to outstrip both natural resources and human ingenuity.[28] Bartlett writes and lectures particularly on energy supplies, and describes the "inability to understand the exponential function" as the "greatest shortcoming of the human race".[29]

Prominent neo-Malthusians such as Paul Ehrlich maintain that ultimately, population growth on Earth is still too high, and will eventually lead to a serious crisis.[12][30] The 2007–2008 world food price crisis inspired further Malthusian arguments regarding the prospects for global food supply.[31]


what's the name of a one piece ski suit

A ski suit can either be one-piece, in the form of a jumpsuit, or two-piece, in the form of a ski jacket and matching trousers, called salopettes or ski pants.[4] A ski suit is made from wind- and water-resistant or waterproof fabric, and has a non-removable liner made of nylon, silk, cotton or taffeta. Its main function is to keep a person warm while participating in winter sports, especially Nordic (cross-country) or Alpine (down-hill) skiing. It is generally a unisex garment. A ski suit is meant to be worn with a base layer, which consists of long johns and a warm shirt, usually designed for skiing. Ski suits are often made of Gore-Tex or similar materials. They are often in the form of a shell suit, to which the skier adds more or less warm underwear depending on the weather. Pockets are usually made to be waterproof, so items put in them should stay dry.

Ski suit

A ski suit is a suit made to be worn over the rest of the clothes when skiing or snowboarding.[1] A ski suit made for more casual winter wear outdoors may also be called a snowsuit[1] [ˈsnoʊˌsut] and are often used by children as everyday outerwear in the winter season.[2][3] Some suits are specifically made for snowboarders but most are used by either skiers or snowboarders regardless of the style.

A one-piece suit cover the whole torso, arms and legs. They usually have one or sometimes two zippers down the front of the suit, sometimes additionally closed by a flap with velcro or buttons, and often have a belt at the waist. Sometimes, the suit has built-in suspenders on the inside for added support. One-piece ski suits are often just made as a shell layer, with the skier adding warm underwear of own choice adapted to the current weather situation. Other suits may be padded for warmth, but when intended for skiing they are still not as insulated as a snowmobile suit.

A ski jacket covers the arms and torso, sometimes just to the waist while other times reaching down over the buttocks. It can be a separate item or part of a two-piece ski suit together with matching ski pants.

From the introduction of ski jackets in the middle to late 1950s through the early 1980s, the dominant style was for a ski jacket to resemble a safari jacket in having a similar belt and shirt-like collar. A similar jacket, especially one with a hood, may also be called a parka, anorak, down jacket or winter shell.

Ski pants, or salopettes, when part of a two-piece ski suit, is usually made in the same fabric and color as the corresponding ski jacket. It is sometimes in the form of bib-and-brace and the jacket is worn over it.

Often referred to as race suits or speed suits, these are the suits worn by professional and junior racers to improve their speed. They are mostly made as one-piece suits. Made mostly of Polyurethane (85-90%) and Polyester (15-10%), these suits can reduce wind resistance by as much as fifty percent. Since wind resistance accounts for ninety five percent of the force stopping skiers from going faster, wearing one of these suits can potentially give you nearly double the speed. They are very tight and form hugging and can take a while to adapt to the body. Olympic athletes can reach over 160 km/h in a race suit, while even a junior racer may struggle to get past 80 km/h without one. Suit costs range from $210 for a beginners suit to $1,200 for the suits generally worn by Olympic athletes. Ski suits are not unisex garments due to the need to be skin tight and must be sized properly to be effective. Most athletes wear a base layer beneath their suit, but some may wear only the suit on race days, as the base layer will decrease the efficiency of the suit slightly.

In North America, there are many charity networks working with providing less fortunate children with snowsuits for the winter.[5]

Ski suits and snow suits are a natural part of some sporting events. There are also some events which emphasize the use of the snowsuit as such. At the annual winter outdoor music festival Igloofest in Montreal in Canada, there is a contest for wearers of one-piece suits.[6]


who sings knock three times on the ceiling

"Knock Three Times" is a popular song credited to Tony Orlando and Dawn. The actual singers were Tony Orlando, Toni Wine, and Linda November, prior to the creation of "Dawn" with Telma Hopkins and Joyce Vincent Wilson.[citation needed] The song was released as a single in November 1970, paired with Orlando's other hit song, "Candida" (also written by Toni Wine). The single hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in January 1971 and eventually sold six million copies, also claiming the number-one spot on the UK Singles Chart.[1][2] The song registered well at Adult Contemporary stations, reaching #2 on Billboard's "Easy Listening" survey.

Knock Three Times

The composers of this song, L. Russell Brown and Irwin Levine, were thinking of the song Up on the Roof and they wanted to write a song with that kind of lyrical flavor, about tenement living. In the song, the singer has fallen in love with a woman who lives in the apartment directly below him but has no clue as to her interest, so he asks her to respond by either knocking three times on the ceiling (yes) or banging twice on the pipe (no), and the chorus includes sound effects of the two choices. (However, the song never states her response.)

Michael Anthony Orlando Cassavitis was, at the time of the recording, working as a producer/singer for a rival record label, and first heard the tune recorded by another artist and immediately knew the song could be a hit if produced as he envisioned. Cassavitis cut the track under the name "Tony Orlando", having to do the studio sessions on the "down low" to ensure that his current record label wouldn't become aware. Upon release, the song, produced as Orlando had envisioned became a great success.[3]

Knock Three Times actually sold more than 100,000 records a day in New York City alone for ten straight days.[citation needed] The song appears in several motion pictures including Now and Then.

The song was covered by Billy "Crash" Craddock in 1971 and became a number three country hit.[4]

Manny de Leon of the Philippines sold out in the market when he made his version under Alpha Records.

Dolly Parton performed the song on a 1976 episode of her variety series Dolly!

In 1994 the Mexican group Banda Zeta recorded a Spanish versiÃ³n called "Toca tres veces" for their album Jacarandosa.

Several Larry Craig-themed parodies (all titled "Tap Three Times") were recorded by various artists such as Paul and Storm and The Capitol Steps in 2007 following the senator's sex scandal in which he was arrested for tapping his foot (to allegedly solicit sex) in a public airport restroom.[5][6][7][8]


when was the tunnel under the thames built

The Thames Tunnel is an underwater tunnel, built beneath the River Thames in London, connecting Rotherhithe and Wapping. It measures 35 feet (11 m) wide by 20 feet (6 m) high and is 1,300 feet (396 m) long, running at a depth of 75 feet (23 m) below the river surface measured at high tide. It was the first tunnel known to have been constructed successfully underneath a navigable river[1] and was built between 1825 and 1843 using Marc Isambard Brunel's and Thomas Cochrane's newly invented tunnelling shield technology, by Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

Thames Tunnel

Coordinates: 51°30′11″N 0°03′07″W / 51.503°N 0.052°W / 51.503; -0.052

The tunnel was originally designed for horse-drawn carriages, but was never used for that purpose. Since 2010 it forms part of the London Overground railway network under ownership of Transport for London.

At the start of the 19th century, there was a pressing need for a new land connection between the north and south banks of the Thames to link the expanding docks on each side of the river. The engineer Ralph Dodd tried, but failed, to build a tunnel between Gravesend and Tilbury in 1799.[2]

In 1805–09 a group of Cornish miners, including Richard Trevithick, tried to dig a tunnel farther upriver between Rotherhithe and Wapping/Limehouse but failed because of the difficult conditions of the ground. The Cornish miners were used to hard rock and did not modify their methods for soft clay and quicksand. This Thames Archway project was abandoned after the initial pilot tunnel (a 'driftway') flooded twice when 1,000 feet (305 m) of a total of 1,200 feet (366 m) had been dug.[3] It only measured 2–3 feet by 5 feet (61–91 cm by 1.5 m), and was intended as the drain for a larger tunnel for passenger use.[4] The failure of the Thames Archway project led engineers to conclude that "an underground tunnel is impracticable".[5]

However, the Anglo-French engineer Marc Brunel refused to accept this conclusion. In 1814 he proposed to Emperor Alexander I of Russia a plan to build a tunnel under the river Neva in St Petersburg. This scheme was turned down (a bridge was built instead) but Brunel continued to develop ideas for new methods of tunnelling.[2]

Brunel patented the tunnelling shield, a revolutionary advance in tunnelling technology, in January 1818. In 1823 Brunel produced a plan for a tunnel between Rotherhithe and Wapping, which would be dug using his new shield. Financing was soon found from private investors, including the Duke of Wellington, and a Thames Tunnel Company was formed in 1824, the project beginning in February 1825.[3]

The first step was the construction of a large shaft on the south bank at Rotherhithe, 150 feet (46 m) back from the river bank. It was dug by assembling an iron ring 50 feet (15 m) in diameter above ground. A brick wall 40 feet (12 m) high and 3 feet (91 cm) thick was built on top of this, with a powerful steam engine surmounting it to drive the excavation's pumps. The whole apparatus was estimated to weigh 1,000 tons.[2] The soil below the ring's sharp lower edge was removed manually by Brunel's workers. The whole shaft thus gradually sank under its own weight, slicing through the soft ground rather like an enormous pastry cutter. The shaft became stuck at one point during its sinking as the pressure of the earth around it held it firmly in position. Extra weight was required to make it continue its descent; 50,000 bricks were added as temporary weights. It was realised that the problem was caused because the shaft's sides were parallel; years later when the Wapping shaft was built, it was slightly wider at the bottom than the top. This non-cylindrical tapering design ensured it did not get stuck. By November 1825 the Rotherhithe shaft was in place and tunnelling work could begin.[3]

The tunnelling shield, built at Henry Maudslay's Lambeth works and assembled in the Rotherhithe shaft, was the key to Brunel's construction of the Thames Tunnel. The Illustrated London News described how it worked:

The mode in which this great excavation was accomplished was by means of a powerful apparatus termed a shield, consisting of twelve great frames, lying close to each other like as many volumes on the shelf of a book-case, and divided into three stages or stories, thus presenting 36 chambers of cells, each for one workman, and open to the rear, but closed in the front with moveable boards. The front was placed against the earth to be removed, and the workman, having removed one board, excavated the earth behind it to the depth directed, and placed the board against the new surface exposed. The board was then in advance of the cell, and was kept in its place by props; and having thus proceeded with all the boards, each cell was advanced by two screws, one at its head and the other at its foot, which, resting against the finished brickwork and turned, impelled it forward into the vacant space. The other set of divisions then advanced. As the miners worked at one end of the cell, so the bricklayers formed at the other the top, sides and bottom.[6]

Each of the twelve frames of the shield weighed over seven tons.[7] The key innovation of the tunnelling shield was its support for the unlined ground in front and around it to reduce the risk of collapses. However, many workers, including Brunel himself, soon fell ill from the poor conditions caused by filthy sewage-laden water seeping through from the river above. This sewage gave off methane gas which was ignited by the miner's oil lamps. When the resident engineer, John Armstrong of Ingram Northumberland [8], fell ill in April 1826 Marc's son Isambard Kingdom Brunel took over at the age of 20.

Work was slow, progressing at only 8–12 feet a week (3–4 m). To earn some income from the tunnel, the company directors allowed sightseers to view the shield in operation. They charged a shilling for the adventure and an estimated 600–800 visitors took advantage of the opportunity every day.

The excavation was also hazardous. The tunnel flooded suddenly on 18 May 1827 after 549 feet (167Â m) had been dug.[3] Isambard Kingdom Brunel lowered a diving bell from a boat to repair the hole at the bottom of the river, throwing bags filled with clay into the breach in the tunnel's roof. Following the repairs and the drainage of the tunnel, he held a banquet inside it.

The tunnel flooded again the following year, on 12 January 1828, when six men died. Isambard was extremely lucky to survive this; the six men had made their way to the main stairwell, as the emergency exit was known to be locked. Isambard instead made for the locked exit. A contractor named Beamish heard him there and broke the door down, and an unconscious Isambard was pulled out and revived.[citation needed] He was sent to Brislington, near Bristol, to recuperate; there he heard about the competition to build what became the Clifton Suspension Bridge.

Financial problems followed, leading in August to the tunnel being walled off just behind the shield and then abandoned for seven years.

In December 1834 Marc Brunel succeeded in raising enough money (including a loan of Â£247,000 from the Treasury) to continue construction.[3]

Starting in August 1835 the old rusted shield was dismantled and removed. By March 1836 the new shield, improved and heavier, was assembled in place and boring resumed.[4]

Impeded by further floods, (23 August and 3 November 1837, 20 March 1838, 3 April 1840)[4] fires and leaks of methane and hydrogen sulphide gas, the remainder of the tunnelling was completed in November 1841, after another five and a half years. The extensive delays and repeated flooding made the tunnel the butt of metropolitan humour:

Good Monsieur Brunel
Let misanthropy tell
That your work, half complete, is begun ill;
Heed them not, bore away
Through gravel and clay,
Nor doubt the success of your Tunnel.

That very mishap,
When the Thames forced a gap,
And made it fit haunt for an otter,
Has proved that your scheme
Is no catchpenny dream;â€”
They can't say "'twill never hold water."[9]

The Thames Tunnel was fitted out with lighting, roadways and spiral staircases during 1841â€“1842. An engine house on the Rotherhithe side, which now houses the Brunel Museum, was also constructed to house machinery for draining the tunnel. The tunnel was finally opened to the public on 25 March 1843.[3]

Although it was a triumph of civil engineering, the Thames Tunnel was not a financial success. It had cost £454,000 to dig and another £180,000 to fit out – far exceeding its initial cost estimates.[2] Proposals to extend the entrance to accommodate wheeled vehicles failed owing to cost, and it was used only by pedestrians. It became a major tourist attraction, attracting about two million people a year, each paying a penny to pass through,[10] and became the subject of popular songs. The American traveller William Allen Drew commented that "No one goes to London without visiting the Tunnel" and described it as the "eighth wonder of the world".[10] When he saw it for himself in 1851, he pronounced himself "somewhat disappointed in it" but still left a vivid description of its interior, which was more like an underground marketplace than a transport artery:

Amongst the blocks of buildings [in Wapping] that separate the street from the river, we notice an octagonal edifice of marble. We enter by one of several great doors, and find ourselves in a rotunda of fifty feet diameter, and the floor laid in mosaic work of blue and white marble. The walls are stuccoed, around which are stands for the sale of papers, pamphlets, books, confectioners, beer, &c. A sort of watch-house stands on the side of the rotunda next the river, in which is a fat publican, or tax gatherer. Before him is a brass turnstile, through which you are permitted to pass, on paying him a penny, and, entering a door, you begin to descend the shaft, by a flight of very long marble steps that descend to a wide platform, from which the next series of steps descends in an opposite direction. The walls of the shaft are circular, finished in stucco, and hung with paintings and other curious objects. You halt a few moments on the first platform and listen to the notes of a huge organ that occupies a part of it, discoursing excellent music.

You resume your downward journey till you reach the next story, or marble platform, where you find other objects of curiosity to engage your attention whilst you stop to rest. And thus you go down – down – to the bottom of the shaft eighty feet; the walls meanwhile, being studded with pictures, statues, or figures in plaster, &c. Arrived at the bottom, you find yourself in a rotunda corresponding to that you entered from the street, a round room, with marble floor, fifty feet in diameter. There are alcoves near the walls in which are all sorts of contrivances to get your money, from Egyptian necromancers and fortune-tellers to dancing monkeys. The room is lighted with gas, and is brilliant.

Now look into the Thames Tunnel before you. It consists of two beautiful Arches, extending to the opposite side of the river. These Arches contain each a roadsted, fourteen feet wide and twenty-two feet high, and pathways for pedestrians, three feet wide. The Tunnel appears to be well ventilated, as the air seemed neither damp nor close. The partition between these Arches, running the whole length of the Tunnel, is cut into transverse arches, leading through from one roadsted to the other. There may be fifty of them in all, and these are finished into fancy and toy shops in the richest manner – with polished marble counters, tapestry linings gilded shelves, and mirrors that make everything appear double. Ladies, in fashionable dresses and with smiling faces, wait within and allow no gentleman to pass without giving him an opportunity to purchase some pretty thing to carry home as a remembrancer of the Thames Tunnel. The Arches are lighted with gas burners, that make it as bright as the sun; and the avenues are always crowded with a moving throng of men, women and children, examining the structure of the Tunnel, or inspecting the fancy wares, toys, &c., displayed by the arch-looking girls of these arches... It is impossible to pass through without purchasing some curiosity. Most of the articles are labelled – "Bought in the Thames Tunnel" – "a present from the Thames Tunnel".[10]

Drew was perhaps charitable in his view of the tunnel, which came to be regarded as the haunt of prostitutes and "tunnel thieves" who lurked under its arches and mugged passers-by.[11] The American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, writing in 1855, took a much more negative view of the tunnel when he visited it a few years after Drew:

It consisted of an arched corridor of apparently interminable length, gloomily lighted with jets of gas at regular intervals... There are people who spend their lives there, seldom or never, I presume, seeing any daylight, except perhaps a little in the morning. All along the extent of this corridor, in little alcoves, there are stalls of shops, kept principally by women, who, as you approach, are seen through the dusk offering for sale... multifarious trumpery... So far as any present use is concerned, the tunnel is an entire failure.

The tunnel was purchased in September 1865 by the East London Railway Company, a consortium of six mainline railways which sought to use the tunnel to provide a rail link for goods and passengers between Wapping (and later Liverpool Street) and the South London Line. The tunnel's generous headroom, resulting from the architects' original intention of accommodating horse-drawn carriages, provided a sufficient loading gauge for trains as well.

The line's engineer was Sir John Hawkshaw who was also noted, with W. H. Barlow, for the major re-design and completion of Isambard Brunel's long abandoned Clifton Suspension Bridge at Bristol, which was completed in 1864. [12]

The first train ran through the tunnel on 7 December 1869.[3] In 1884, the tunnel's disused construction shaft to the north of the river was repurposed to serve as Wapping station.

The East London Railway was later absorbed into the London Underground, where it became the East London Line. It continued to be used for goods services as late as 1962. During the Underground days, the Thames Tunnel was the oldest piece of the Underground's infrastructure.

It was planned to construct an intersection between the East London Line and the Jubilee Line extension at Canada Water tube station. As construction would require the temporary closure of the East London Line, it was decided to take this opportunity to perform long-term maintenance on the tunnel and so in 1995 the East London Line was closed to allow construction and maintenance to take place. The proposed repair method for the tunnel was to seal it against leaks by "shotcreting" it with concrete, obliterating its original appearance, causing a controversy that led to a bitter conflict between London Underground who wished to complete the work as quickly and cheaply as possible and architectural interests wishing to preserve the tunnel's appearance. The architectural interests won with the Grade II* listing of the tunnel on 24 March 1995 (the day London Underground had scheduled the start of the long-term maintenance work).[13][14][15]

Following an agreement to leave a short section at one end of the tunnel untreated, and more sympathetic treatment of the rest of the tunnel, the work went ahead and the route reopened – much later than originally anticipated – in 1998. The tunnel closed again from 23 December 2007 to permit tracklaying and resignalling for the East London Line extension. The extension work resulted in the tunnel becoming part of the new London Overground. After its reopening on 27 April 2010, it was used by mainline trains again.

The construction of the Thames Tunnel showed that it was indeed possible to build underwater tunnels, despite the previous scepticism of many engineers. Several new underwater tunnels were built in the UK in the following decades: the Tower Subway in London; the Severn Tunnel under the River Severn; and the Mersey Railway Tunnel under the River Mersey. Brunel's tunnelling shield was later refined, with James Henry Greathead playing a particularly important role in developing the technology.

The historic importance of the Thames Tunnel was recognised on 24 March 1995, when the structure was listed Grade II* in recognition of its architectural importance.[3][14] A plaque could be seen above the stairs descending to the Rotherhithe platforms before the temporary closure. The plaque was removed for safe keeping for the duration of the works, but is now reinstated on the tunnel wall and can be seen from the passenger staircase into the station platforms.

In 1835, the Italian poet Giacomo Leopardi parodied the construction of the Thames Tunnel in lines 126â€“129 of the poem "Palinodia al Marchese Gino Capponi".[16]

Nearby in Rotherhithe, the original Brunel Engine House is open to visitors as the Brunel Museum. It was built to house the drainage pumps for the tunnel and has now been restored. Until the East London Line was closed in 2007 for major refurbishment and upgrade, the museum organised tours through the tunnel by train.

It is still possible to take a walking tour through the tunnel to Wapping from Rotherhithe and back, but these are infrequent and on an ad-hoc basis as they can only take place when that section of the line is closed for maintenance.[17][18][19]

In the 1860s, when trains started running through the tunnel, the shaft was used for ventilation. The staircase was removed to reduce the risk of fire. In 2011, a concrete raft was built near the bottom of the shaft, above the tracks, when the tunnel was upgraded for the London Overground network. This space, with walls blackened with smoke from steam trains, is accessible from Railway Avenue, and functions at times as a concert venue and occasional bar. A rooftop garden has been built on top of the shaft.[20][21] In 2016 the entrance hall opened as an exhibition space, with a staircase providing easy access to the shaft for the first time in over 150 years.[22]


when did the roosters win the last grand final

In 2018, the Roosters finished in 1st place, claiming their 20th minor premiership. They beat the Sharks 21-12 in week one of the finals earning the week off. They then broke their preliminary final hoodoo beating rivals Rabbitohs 12-4 in what was the last sports match ever played at the Sydney Football Stadium. They managed to keep the Rabbitohs tryless and the crowd was the highest ever recorded in a sporting match at the Sydney Football Stadium with 44,380 people attending the match. They played the Storm in the Grand Final and won 21-6 to claim their 14th premiership.

Sydney Roosters

The Sydney Roosters is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in the Eastern Suburbs of Sydney. The club competes in the National Rugby League (NRL) competition and is one of the oldest and most successful clubs in Australian rugby league history, having won fourteen New South Wales Rugby League (NSWRL) and National Rugby League titles, and several other competitions. Only the South Sydney Rabbitohs and the St George Dragons have won more premierships. The club holds the record for having the most wins and the second greatest margin of victory in a match in Australian rugby league history, and has won more minor premierships than any other club. The Roosters is one of only two clubs (the other being the St. George Illawarra Dragons in 1999) to finish runners-up in its inaugural season. The Eastern Suburbs DRLFC is the only club to have played in each and every season at the elite level, and since the 1970s has often been dubbed the "glamour club" of the league.[1] Coached by Trent Robinson along with captains Boyd Cordner and Jake Friend, the Roosters play their home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground.

The club was founded in 1908 in Paddington, Sydney, as Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club; in 1995 the club's  name was changed to the Sydney City Roosters, and in 2000 to the Sydney Roosters. The Bondi Junction and Moore Park-based Roosters have a long-standing and fierce rivalry with other Sydney-based clubs, especially the South Sydney Rabbitohs, a fellow foundation club based in neighbouring Redfern.[2]

The Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club (ESDRLFC) was formed on 24 January 1908[3] at a meeting at the Paddington Town Hall in Sydney[4] after it was decided that the district should enter a team in the newly formed New South Wales Rugby Football League.[5] The ESDRLFC was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Indeed, the'suburb' of Sydney, postcode 2000, falls entirely within the official boundaries of the ESDRLFC.

Unofficially nicknamed the "Tricolours" due to their red, white and blue playing strip,[6] Eastern Suburbs won its first match, defeating Newtown 32â€“16 at Wentworth Oval on 20 April 1908.[4] In 1913, it became the first club to win three consecutive premierships;[3][7][8] the line-ups during this period included the likes of Dally Messenger, Harry "Jersey" Flegg and Sandy Pearce, all regarded as all-time rugby league greats.[3][9] However, the club rapidly declined and failed to win the premiership for the next nine seasons.[8]

Eastern Suburbs missed the finals once from 1926 to 1942, and in that time won four titles and the minor premiership on seven occasions.[6][10] During this period, Dave Brown set several point-scoring records that still stand.[11] In 1935, the team lost just one game,[12] and recorded the highest winning margin in their history, an 87–7 (106–8 in modern scoring) victory over Canterbury.[13] In 1936, Eastern Suburbs became one of five teams in premiership history to remain undefeated for an entire season,[14] a feat they repeated the following year.[12] They are the only club to remain unbeaten for two consecutive seasons.[15]

Despite claiming the premiership in 1945, Eastern Suburbs failed to make the finals for the following seven seasons.[16] A runners-up finish in 1960 was the closest the club came to claiming the premiership during this era.[6] Eastern Suburbs were soundly defeated 31–6 in the grand final that year, by the famous record-beating St George outfit.[17] In 1966, the club fell to new depths and was winless for the first time in its history.[18][19] It was also the last occasion in which the Roosters won the wooden spoon until claiming it again in the 2009 season.[15] It ended a poor run for Eastern Suburbs; from 1963 to 1966, they won 8 of 72 matches, finishing second to last in 1964 and last in the other three years.[20] The club underwent a renaissance in 1967 after appointing Jack Gibson as coach (1967–68), and introducing a new emblem on the playing jerseys, the rooster.[20]

From 1972 to 1982, the Roosters won four minor premierships and played in four grand finals,[6] winning two consecutively.[6] Gibson, now dubbed as "Super Coach",[21] returned to lead the team from 1974 to 1976.[22][23] In 1974 and 1975, the team won 39 of 44 matches,[23] both minor premierships, and both grand finals and set a premiership record of 19 consecutive wins.[6][23] The 38–0 grand final victory in 1975 against St George was the largest margin in a first grade grand final,[24] and the record stood for 33 years until superseded by Manly's 40–nil win over the Melbourne Storm in 2008. Though the 1975 grand final was played in the era of an obsolete scoring system with 3-point tries, the winning margin using 4 points for tries would mean that it is still a record for a grand final at 46-0. [25] With line-ups including Mark Harris, Elwyn Walters, John Brass, Bill Mullins, Russell Fairfax, Johnny Mayes, John Peard, Ron Coote, Ian Schubert and captain Arthur Beetson,[3][26] the Centenary of Rugby League panel considered the Roosters of 1974 and 1975 to be among the greatest club teams of all time.[27]

Between 1984 and 1995, the Roosters reached the semi-finals once,[15] and became known to critics as the "transit lounge", due to the high frequency of player purchases and releases.[7][28] The club came close to reaching the premiership in 1987 under coach and favourite son Arthur Beetson, being defeated by eventual premiers Manly in a "bruising" major semi-final, 10â€“6.[29]

As the Super League war built up in the mid-1990s, the Roosters recruited high-profile coach Phil Gould and star five-eighth Brad Fittler, both from the Penrith Panthers.[3][28] This helped to quickly send the Roosters back to the upper end of the ladder. Fittler's presence proved invaluable;[28] during his reign, the Roosters competed in four grand finals in five years.[6] In 2002, the club captured its 12th premiership — the first in 27 years — defeating minor premiers the New Zealand Warriors 30–8 in the 2002 NRL grand final.[30]

In the 2003 NRL grand final against the Penrith Panthers, the Roosters lost 18–6 in what was their heaviest defeat for the year. A decisive moment occurred midway through the second half: with the scores tied at 6-all, Roosters winger Todd Byrne made a clear break down the sideline and looked set to score a try before being chased down and tackled into touch by Penrith lock forward, Scott Sattler. From then on, the momentum of the game was with Penrith.[30][31] The Roosters' made the Grand Final in 2004, when they ceded a 13–6 half-time lead to be defeated by the Bulldogs 16–13. The match was captain Fittler's last for the team.[32]

In 2007, the Roosters became the first club to play 100 seasons of first grade rugby league; they were the only outfit to play in each season since the competition's inception in 1908. They appointed Chris Anderson as coach in 2007 and 2008 following two relatively unsuccessful years under Ricky Stuart.[33] On 9 July 2007, Anderson resigned after a 56â€“0 loss to the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles.[34] Assistant Coach Fittler acted as the caretaker for the remainder of the 2007 season, before being appointed in August to the top job for two years.[35] With eight rounds remaining in a disappointing 2009 season in which the Roosters finished with the wooden spoon for the first time in 43 years, Fittler was informed he would not be the coach in 2010, his position to be taken by veteran coach Brian Smith. The Roosters wound up winning only five games for the entire season; twice against Cronulla and once against each of Canberra in Canberra, eventual grand finalists Parramatta and Newcastle in Newcastle.

A year after finishing last, under the coaching of Brian Smith they reached the 2010 NRL Grand Final where the St. George Illawarra Dragons defeated them 32–8. The Roosters led 8–6 at half time but were overrun in the second half.

What followed was another relatively disappointing season at Bondi Junction, with the Roosters finishing 11th in a 2011 season plagued by off-field issues involving 2010 Dally M Medallist Todd Carney (who was later sacked by the Roosters at season's end). However, a four-game winning streak to end the season brought hope for the 2012 season. Other high-profile players including Nate Myles, Mark Riddell, Jason Ryles, Kane Linnett and Phil Graham all left the club at season's end.

The Roosters endured a disappointing 2012 season, finishing 13th. Brian Smith resigned from the coaching role shortly after the Roosters' season concluded with a loss to the minor premiers Canterbury, and also at season's end captain Braith Anasta left to join the Wests Tigers in 2013.

The 2013 season saw new staff, a new coach, Trent Robinson, and several new players, including big signings Michael Jennings, James Maloney, Luke O'Donnell and Sonny Bill Williams, arrive at the club. This culminated in the Roosters finishing the 2013 season with a 24–12 win over the South Sydney Rabbitohs, securing the minor premiership for the 2013 season and were the NRL's best attacking and defensive team.[36] The Roosters defeated the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 4–0, in week one of the finals, earning a week's rest. The Roosters defeated the Newcastle Knights 40–14 in week three of the NRL finals, progressing to the 2013 NRL grand final, facing the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, winning 26–18. It was a great comeback by the Roosters, down by 10 points in the second half they went on to score three consecutive tries to seal the win and their 13th premiership. They then went on to win the 2014 World Club Challenge against Wigan 36–14 to claim the treble of club titles. No team in premiership history had come from a lower ladder position to win the following season’s title.[37]

In the 2014 season, the club finished first on the table winning the minor premiership.  In the preliminary final against arch rivals Souths, Easts lost the match 32-22 in what was retiring legend Anthony Minichiello's final game.[38]
In the 2015 season, Easts finished first on the table and claimed their third consecutive minor premiership.  The Roosters again made the preliminary final with Brisbane this time being the opponents.  The Roosters ended up losing the match 31-12 in front of a sold out crowd at Suncorp Stadium.[39]

In the 2016 season, The Roosters finished 15th on the table after enduring a horror season where star player Mitchell Pearce was suspended for 8 matches, fined $125,000 and stripped of the captaincy following a pre season incident where the player who was intoxicated, simulated a sex act with a dog which was filmed on another party goer's mobile phone.  The club also struggled due to injuries to star players such as Boyd Cordner and Jared Waerea-Hargreaves.[40][41]

The Roosters finished 2nd at the end of the 2017 season and defeated Brisbane in week one of the finals earning the week off.  Easts opponents in the preliminary final were North Queensland who had finished in 8th position on the table and produced upset victories over Cronulla and Parramatta.  In a game that The Roosters were expected to win, North Queensland surprised everyone winning the match 29-16. [42][43]

Eastern Suburbs did not traditionally sport a crest on their jerseys in the first half of the 20th century.[44] Other clubs occasionally sported simple designs on their strip; however, this was not seen consistently on all jerseys until the 1950s and 1960s.[18] In 1967, the club introduced its first logo, displaying the mantra "Easts to Win", following a winless season.[18] The crest also incorporated a rooster or cockerel in the design; one source suggested that this choice of mascot followed after the Roosters' jersey design was inspired by the French national team's jersey.[20][45] Given that the French team's mascot was affectionately known to supporters as le coq, "the rooster", connections have been made as to the choosing of a rooster for Eastern Suburbs' mascot.[20]

In 1978, the mantra was replaced with the team's name, "Eastern Suburbs".[28] This name was kept until 1994,[28] when the club changed its team name to the "Sydney City Roosters" for the start of the 1995 season to appeal to the club's widening fan base.[28] In 2000, the club shortened its name to the "Sydney Roosters".[28]

Although marketing names have changed, the Roosters are still registered with the National Rugby League competition as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club, the entity holding the NRL licence.[46]

Red, white and blue have been the colours of every jersey design in the club's history;[47] however, the jersey design has undergone several alterations. The red, white and blue colour scheme has traditionally been the colour combination of sporting teams representing Sydney's Eastern Suburbs. Eastern Suburbs Rugby League club adopted these colours in 1908, with its predecessor Rugby Union club, also known as Eastern Suburbs in the Sydney club Rugby Union, having played in the tri-colours. The jersey worn in the first premiership season consisted of several hoops; red stripes dominated over consecutive smaller white and blue stripes. Although the width and the order of these stripes have changed, the basic design has always been maintained.

During World War II, the design of the jersey was modified because the dye used to colour jerseys was needed for the war effort.[48] This saw Eastern Suburbs playing in different colours and an altered design. Instead of using the traditional hoops, the side used a sky-blue based jersey and a red and white V-strip around the collar. This is the only noted time in the club's history where the traditional deep blue, red and white combination was absent from the jersey. After the war, the V-strip design reverted to the original blue that had been present in the original jerseys, and the single red and white stripes around the shirt's chest were incorporated with a single white stripe surrounded by a red stripe on either side. This jersey appeared in the 1950s and remains the team's base design.[18]

Facing design clashes with other teams in the 1990s, the club adopted a jersey with a similar design to what became known as the "away jersey", replacing the blue backing with white, and the outer red stripe with blue. As the club entered the new century, the team began to wear a "foundation jersey". Although the design differs slightly from the jersey worn in the inaugural 1908 season, it did feature the traditional horizontal striped-design. This jersey is normally worn when the Sydney Roosters face traditional rivals, such as the South Sydney Rabbitohs, or on special occasions such as Anzac Day when the team meets the St George Illawarra Dragons, the product of a team partly formed by the St. George Dragons.

Main: South Sydney Rabbitohs, St George Illawarra Dragons.

Minor: Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs, Penrith Panthers, Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, Melbourne Storm, Brisbane Broncos, New Zealand Warriors.

The Sydney Roosters, namely the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club was formed, under its articles of association with the NSWRL, to represent the geographic areas in Sydney covering the Waverley, Randwick, Woollahra, Paddington, Darlinghurst and Vaucluse local government municipalities, as well as the eastern parts of the Sydney CBD. Despite some junior Rugby League boundaries being redrawn over the 107-year history of the code in Australia, these articles of association remain unchanged. As such, the Roosters represent a small area of Sydney.  The Roosters home turf is also home to a large number of supporters of rival codes and thus is the most competitive sporting market in Australia, with the Roosters flying the flag for Rugby League in Sydney's east.

Most sources suggest that the Royal Agricultural Ground was often used as a home venue between 1908 and 1910, before the club hosted matches at the Sydney Sports Ground from 1911 onwards.[4][49][50] It was here that the team played all of their home games up until 1986, when the ground was demolished with the Sydney Cricket Ground No. 2 to make way for Sydney's main rectangular field, the Sydney Football Stadium.[51] In 1987, games were moved away to the Newtown Jets' home ground, Henson Park, temporarily to await the completion of the Sydney Football Stadium. The team capitalised on this move, finishing second in the regular season. It was the only time between 1983 and 1995 that the side reached the finals.[10]

In 1988, the club moved to the newly built Sydney Football Stadium on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground,[24] opening the season with a 24â€“14 defeat at the hands of the St George Dragons in front of 19,295 spectators on a wet night on 4 March 1988.[52] At the Sydney Football Stadium, the Roosters have a 59% win record from 256 games with a 58% and 55% win record at their old grounds the Sydney Sports Ground and the Sydney Cricket Ground respectively.[53]

The Roosters played their last game at the Sydney Football Stadium on 22 September 2018 in front of a ground record crowd (44,380).  The Sydney Roosters will play home games at the Sydney Cricket Ground whilst a new stadium is built on the site of the former Sydney Football Stadium.

Whilst the Roosters have supporters all around the world, its traditional fan base is in Sydney, which is most concentrated in its homeland in the affluent eastern suburbs.[54] The club has an internet message board for supporters, "The Wall", which has been the official forum since 1999. The club has announced that "The Wall" will be closing as of late January 2012. "The Chookpen" is an unofficial site.

In 2013 the club tallied the fourth-highest home attendance of all National Rugby League clubs (behind the Brisbane Broncos) with an average of 19,368 spectators at the Sydney Football Stadium.[55]

At the club's home ground, the Sydney Football Stadium, the supporters congregate in distinct sections. The "Chook Pen", a designated area in Bay 35,[56] is the preferred location for the most animated fans.[57] Members of the Sydney Cricket and Sports Ground Trust are seated in the Members Pavilion,[58] and season ticket holders are located in Bays 12â€“14.[59]

In 2018, the Roosters had over 16,000 paying members, in addition to the 41,980 members of the Roosters' Leagues Club, which is the major benefactor of the football club[60]. The Easts Leagues Club and the Sydney Roosters "operate as one entity" known as the Easts Group.[61] Under this arrangement, the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club is the 'parent company' of the Easts Group. The Football Club delegates, however, overarching responsibility for both football and leagues club operations to a single general manager who oversees the whole group's performance. The leagues club group provides financial support to the football club, only where necessary, as in recent years the football club's sponsorships and TV revenues are generally covering most Rugby League expenditures.

Anthony Minichiello holds the record for the most first grade games (302),[82] having surpassed Luke Ricketson's tally of 301 matches in round 3 of the finals in 2014.[28] Former team captain Craig Fitzgibbon holds the club record for scoring the most points, tallying 1,376 over his 210 matches.[83][84] Fitzgibbon also broke the all-time point scoring record for a forward in the later rounds of 2006.[85] Dave Brown's tally of 45 points (five tries and 15 goals) in a single match against Canterbury in 1935 remains a competition record after more than seven decades.[6] Ivan Cleary scored 284 points in 1998,[6] which at the time was an all-time points scoring record in a season.[86]

Bill Mullins, father of 2002 premiership player Brett, scored 104 tries in his 11-year, 190-game career with Eastern Suburbs between 1968 and 1978,[6] meaning that on average, he scored at least one try every two games. Anthony Minichiello became the highest try scorer in the Roosters history when he scored his 105th try against the Newcastle at Ausgrid Stadium in June 2011. 'Mini' finally retired after the 2014 season, and ended his career with 139 tries. He is also the first fullback in 70 years to win the Grand Final (2013), whilst captaining the Club. Rod O'Loan scored seven tries in a single match against Sydney University in 1935,[6] and Dave Brown's 38 tries in 15 games in the same year remains a competition record.[6]

In 1975, the Eastern Suburbs Roosters set an unparalleled 19-match winning streak on their way to their 11th premiership.[23] In a 1935 match against Canterbury, Dave Brown scored 45 points, the highest score and victory margin for the club (the 87–7 scoreline is equivalent to 106–8 under the contemporary scoring system).[6] The winning margin is the second largest overall, behind St. George's 91–6 win over Canterbury a week earlier.[87]

The club's record attendance for a regular season game at its home ground—the Sydney Football Stadium—stands at 40,864, achieved in a match on ANZAC Day against the St George Illawarra Dragons in 2017.[52] The 2000 grand final between the Sydney Roosters and the Brisbane Broncos attracted 94,277 spectators to the Olympic Stadium.[52]

Updated: 16 July 2018Source(s): roosters.com.au

In 2000, the Sydney Roosters named their "Team of the Century", which included players from 1908 to 2000. The official team is listed below along with their Sydney Roosters cap number.[88]

Updated: 22 October 2011Source(s): Player List (archived)

In 2007, the Sydney Roosters announced "The Centurions", a team consisting of those regarded as the greatest players to have played 100 or more games for the club between 1908 and 2007. The team was selected by Ray Chesterton, Ian Heads, David Middleton and Alan Clarkson and was unveiled at the centenary season launch at the Michael Algeri Pavilion on 10 March 2007.[89][90]

Updated: 22 October 2011Source(s): Centurions

Premierships – 14     1911, 1912, 1913, 1923, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1945, 1974, 1975, 2002, 2013, 2018

Runners-up – 15     1908, 1919, 1921, 1928, 1931, 1934, 1938, 1941, 1960, 1972, 1980, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2010

Minor Premierships – 20     1912, 1913, 1923, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1945, 1974, 1975, 1980, 1981, 2004, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2018

World Club Challenge – 3     1976, 2003, 2014

Club Championship – 14     1930, 1931, 1934, 1935, 1936, 1937, 1945, 1970, 1974, 1975, 2004, 2006, 2013, 2014

Second Grade – 9     1908, 1909, 1910, 1911, 1935, 1937, 1949, 1986, 2004

National Youth Competition – 1     2016

Jersey Flegg Cup – 14     1914, 1917, 1924, 1929, 1930, 1931, 1932, 1941, 1947, 1970, 1976, 1993, 2002, 2004

Presidents Cup – 15     1910, 1911, 1913, 1920, 1922, 1923, 1924, 1927, 1938, 1948, 1949, 1955, 1978, 1987, 1993

S. G. Ball Cup – 4     1997, 2008, 2010, 2014

Amco Cup – 2     1975, 1978

City Cup – 3     1914, 1915, 1916

Pre-Season Cup – 4     1974, 1977, 1979, 1981

Auckland Nines – 1     2017

World Sevens – 1     1993

On 27 March 2018, the Sydney Roosters applied for, and won, a license to participate in the inaugural 2018 NRL Women's season.[91] Adam Hartigan was named as the coach of the women's side.

In June 2018, the club used up the maximum of fifteen marquee signings ahead of the inaugural season which will commence in September, including Karina Brown, Isabelle Kelly and Ruan Sims.[92]

The club finished runners-up in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership, losing to the Brisbane Broncos by 34â€“12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final.[93]

Template:Sydney Roosters Women's Current Squad