who was the first india born woman nasa astronaut

Kalpana Chawla (March 17, 1962 â€“ February 1, 2003) was an American astronaut[2] and the first woman of Indian origin in space.[3] She first flew on Space Shuttle Columbia in 1997 as a mission specialist and primary robotic arm operator. In 2003, Chawla was one of the seven crew members who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster [4] when the craft disintegrated during its re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere. Chawla is a recipient of the Congressional Space Medal of Honor.

Kalpana Chawla

Chawla was born on 17 March 1962, but her official date of birth was altered to 1 July 1961 to allow her to become eligible for the matriculation exam.[5] As a child, Kalpana liked to draw pictures of airplanes.[6]After getting a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Punjab Engineering College, Chandigarh,[7] she moved to the United States in 1982 where she obtained a Master of Science degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Texas at Arlington in 1984.[8] Chawla went on to earn a second Masters in 1986 and a PhD[9] in aerospace engineering in 1988 from the University of Colorado Boulder.

In 1988, she began working at NASA, where she did computational fluid dynamics (CFD) research on vertical and/or short take-off and landing (V/STOL) concepts. In 1993, she joined Overset Methods, Inc. as Vice President and Research Scientist specializing in simulation of moving multiple body problems.[10] Chawla held a Certificated Flight Instructor rating for airplanes, gliders and Commercial Pilot licenses for single and multi-engine airplanes, seaplanes and gliders.[11] After becoming a naturalized U.S. citizen in April 1991, Chawla applied for the NASA Astronaut Corps.[12] She joined the corps in March 1995 and was selected for her first flight in 1996.

Her first space mission began on November 19, 1997, as part of the six-astronaut crew that flew the Space Shuttle Columbia flight STS-87. Chawla was the first Indian-born woman and the second Indian person to fly in space, following astronaut Rakesh Sharma who flew in 1984 on the Soyuz T-11. She spoke the following words while traveling in the weightlessness of space, "You are just your intelligence". On her first mission, Chawla traveled over 10.4 million miles (16737177.6 K M) in 252 orbits of the earth, logging more than 372 hours (15 Days and 12 Hours) in space.[10] During STS-87, she was responsible for deploying the Spartan satellite which malfunctioned, necessitating a spacewalk by Winston Scott and Takao Doi to capture the satellite. A five-month NASA investigation fully exonerated Chawla by identifying errors in software interfaces and the defined procedures of flight crew and ground control. After the completion of STS-87 post-flight activities, Chawla was assigned to technical positions in the astronaut office to work on the space station.

In 2000, Chawla was selected for her second flight as part of the crew of STS-107. This mission was repeatedly delayed due to scheduling conflicts and technical problems such as the July 2002 discovery of cracks in the shuttle engine flow liners. On January 16, 2003, Chawla finally returned to space aboard Space Shuttle Columbia on the ill-fated STS-107 mission. The crew performed nearly 80 experiments studying earth and space science, advanced technology development, and astronaut health and safety. During the launch of STS-107, Columbia's 28th mission, a piece of foam insulation broke off from the Space Shuttle external tank and struck the left wing of the orbiter. Previous shuttle launches had seen minor damage from foam shedding,[13] but some engineers suspected that the damage to Columbia was more serious. NASA managers limited the investigation, reasoning that the crew could not have fixed the problem if it had been confirmed.[14] When Columbia re-entered the atmosphere of Earth, the damage allowed hot atmospheric gases to penetrate and destroy the internal wing structure, which caused the spacecraft to become unstable and break apart.[15] After the disaster, Space Shuttle flight operations were suspended for more than two years, similar to the aftermath of the Challenger disaster. Construction of the International Space Station (ISS) was put on hold; the station relied entirely on the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for resupply for 29 months until Shuttle flights resumed with STS-114 and 41 months for crew rotation.

Chawla died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster which occurred on February 1, 2003 when the Columbia disintegrated over Texas during re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, with the death of all of seven crew members, shortly before it was scheduled to conclude its 28th mission, STS-107.[16]

Chawla's remains were identified along with the rest of the crew members and were cremated and scattered at National Park in Utah in accordance with her wishes.


lead-glass material used for decorative items made by lalique

Lalique is a French glassmaker, founded by renowned glassmaker and jeweller René Lalique in 1888.[1] Lalique is best known for producing glass art, including perfume bottles, vases, and hood ornaments during the early twentieth century. Following the death of René, Lalique transitioned to producing lead glass (crystal) works during the 1950s while under the direction of René's son, Marc Lalique. Since 2010, Lalique has been owned by Swiss company Art and Fragrance.

Lalique

RenÃ© Lalique (1860-1945) began his career as a jewellery apprentice at the age of 16, and by 1881 he was a freelance designer for many of the best-known Parisian jewellers.[2] In 1885, he opened his own workshop on Place Gaillon in Paris,[3] the former workshop of Jules Destape.[2] In 1887, Lalique opened a business on Rue du Quatre-Septembre, and registered the "RL" mark the following year.[3] In 1890, he opened a shop in the Opera District of Paris.[2] Within a decade, Lalique was amongst the best-known Parisian jewellers.[2][3]

In 1905, Lalique opened a new shop at Place Vendôme which exhibited not only jewellery, but glass works as well.[2][3] It was close to the shop of renowned perfumer François Coty; in 1907, Lalique began producing ornate perfume bottles for Coty.[2][3] The production of glass objects began at his country villa in 1902, and continued there until at least 1912.[2] The first Lalique glassworks opened in 1909 in a rented facility in Combs-la-Ville, which Lalique later purchased in 1913.[2] In December 1912, Lalique hosted an exhibition of Lalique Glass—as his glass would come to be known—at the Place Vendôme shop.[2] During the First World War, the glassworks produced mundane items in support of the war effort.[2] In 1919, work began on a new production facility in Wingen-sur-Moder, which opened in 1921.[2][3] From 1925-1931, Lalique produced 29 models of hood ornaments; a mermaid statuette first produced in 1920 was also later sold as a hood ornament.[2] During the 1920s and 1930s, Lalique was amongst the world's most renowned glassmakers.[4]

René Lalique died in 1945.[4] His son Marc Lalique took over the business, operating initially as "M.Lalique" and later as "Cristal Lalique".[2] Under Marc's leadership, the company transitioned from producing its famous Lalique Glass to producing lead glass, commonly known as crystal.[2] Marie-Claude Lalique took control of the company following Marc's death in 1977. It was sold to Pochet in 1994 and to a partnership of Art & Fragrance and the holding company Financière Saint-Germain in 2008. Since 2010, Cristal Lalique has been wholly owned by Art & Fragrance.[2]

Today, Lalique produces an array of luxury products in five main categories: jewellery, decorative items, interior design, perfumes, and art.[1] The company is best known for the production of artistic glass works, primarily using crystal (lead glass) since the mid-twentieth century. The addition of perfumes (in 1992)[3] and non-glass decorative items and art (since 2011)[3] are recent additions to Lalique's product line. Reproductions of designs by RenÃ© Lalique have increased since 2009.[2]

From its founding until the 1900s-1910s, Lalique was one of France's foremost Art Nouveau jewellery designers. In the first two decades of the twentieth century, Lalique transitioned into one of the world's most renowned makers of artistic glass objects. During the first half of the twentieth century, Lalique produced perfume bottles, vases (about 300 designs), hood ornaments (30 designs), and decorative glass works, such as inkwells, bookends, and paperweights.[2][4] Lalique also designed several interiors, incorporating copious amounts of glass, including interiors for: the SS Paris, the SS Ile de France, the SS Normandie, Orient Express railroad cars, Peace Hotel (Shanghai), Oviatt Building (Los Angeles), and St Matthew's Church (Jersey).[2]

The company's sole production facility is the Cristallerie Lalique in Wingen-sur-Moder. It was opened in 1921 as the Verrerie d'Alsace (Alsace Glassworks) and given its present name in 1962. [5]


what is the comprehensive drug abuse prevention and control act

The Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, Pub.L. 91–513, 84 Stat. 1236, enacted October 27, 1970, is a United States federal law that, with subsequent modifications, requires the pharmaceutical industry to maintain physical security and strict record keeping for certain types of drugs.[1] Controlled substances are divided into five schedules (or classes) on the basis of their potential for abuse, accepted medical use, and accepted safety under medical supervision. Substances in Schedule I have a high potential for abuse, no accredited medical use, and a lack of accepted safety. From Schedules II to V, substances decrease in potential for abuse. The schedule a substance is placed in determines how it must be controlled. Prescriptions for drugs in all schedules must bear the physician's federal Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) license number, but some drugs in Schedule V do not require a prescription. State schedules may vary from federal schedules.

The Controlled Substances Act (CSA), Title II of the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970, is the legal foundation of the government's fight against the abuse of drugs and other substances. This law is a consolidation of numerous laws regulating the manufacture and distribution of narcotics, stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, anabolic steroids, and chemicals used in the illicit production of controlled substances. The act also provides a mechanism for substances to be controlled, added to a schedule, decontrolled, removed from control, rescheduled, or transferred from one schedule to another.[2]

Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.

The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from law enforcement laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information.

Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the Administrator of the Drug Enforcement Association, by authority of the Attorney General, requests from the HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control. This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of the HHS. Then, the HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the Food and Drug Administration and evaluations and recommendations from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, and on occasion, from the scientific and medical community. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.

The medical and scientific evaluations are binding to the DEA with respect to scientific and medical matters. The recommendation on scheduling is binding only to the extent that if HHS recommends that the substance not be controlled, the DEA may not control the substance.

Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the Administrator will evaluate all available data and make a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed.

The CSA also creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances.[3]


what is bastille day and why is it important in france

The French National Day commemorates the first anniversary of Storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789,[1][2] a turning point of the French Revolution,[4] as well as the Fête de la Fédération which celebrated the unity of the French people on 14 July 1790. Celebrations are held throughout France. The oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe is held on the morning of 14 July, on the Champs-Élysées in Paris in front of the President of the Republic, along with other French officials and foreign guests.[5][6]

Bastille Day

Bastille Day is the common name given in English-speaking countries/lands to the French National Day, which is celebrated on the 14th of July each year. In France, it is formally called la Fête nationale (French pronunciation: [la fɛt nasjɔnal]; The National Celebration) and commonly and legally[3] le 14 juillet (French pronunciation: [lə katɔʁz(ə) ʒɥijɛ]; the 14th of July).

On 19 May 1789, Louis XVI invited the Estates-General (les États-généraux) to air their grievances. Of the three estates in France, the deputies of the Third Estate (le Tiers État), representing the common people, decided to break away from the two others - the Catholic clergy (clergé, Roman Catholicism being the state religion at that time) and the nobility (noblesse). The Third Estate took the Tennis Court Oath (le serment du Jeu de paume, 20 June 1789), swearing not to separate until a constitution had been established. They were gradually joined by sympathising delegates of the other estates; Louis XVI started to recognise the validity of their concerns [clarification needed] on 27 June. The assembly renamed itself the National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante) on 9 July.

Jacques Necker, the finance minister, who was sympathetic to the Third Estate, was dismissed on 11 July. The people of Paris then stormed the Bastille, fearful that they and their representatives would be attacked by the royal army or by foreign regiments of mercenaries in the king's service, and seeking to gain ammunition and gunpowder for the general populace. The Bastille was a fortress-prison in Paris which had often held people jailed on the basis of lettres de cachet (literally "signet letters"), arbitrary royal indictments that could not be appealed and did not indicate the reason for the imprisonment. The Bastille held a large cache of ammunition and gunpowder, and was also known for holding political prisoners whose writings had displeased the royal government, and was thus a symbol of the absolutism of the monarchy. As it happened, at the time of the attack in July 1789 there were only seven inmates, none of great political significance.[7]

The crowd was eventually reinforced by mutinous Gardes Françaises ("French Guards"), whose usual role was to protect public buildings. They proved a fair match for the fort's defenders, and Governor de Launay, the commander of the Bastille, capitulated and opened the gates to avoid a mutual massacre. However, possibly because of a misunderstanding, fighting resumed. According to the official documents, about 200 attackers and just one defender died in the initial fighting, but in the aftermath, de Launay and seven other defenders were killed, as was Jacques de Flesselles, the prévôt des marchands ("provost of the merchants"), the elected head of the city's guilds, who under the feudal monarchy also had the competences of a present-day mayor.[8]

Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, late in the evening of 4 August, after a very stormy session of the Assemblée Constituante, feudalism was abolished. On 26 August, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen) was proclaimed (Homme with an uppercase h meaning “human”, while homme with a lowercase h means “man”).[9]

The Fête de la Fédération on 14 July 1790 was a celebration of the unity of the French nation during the French Revolution. The aim of this celebration, one year after the Storming of the Bastille, was to symbolise peace. The event took place on the Champ de Mars, which was at the time far outside Paris. The place had been transformed on a voluntary[citation needed] basis by the population of Paris, in what was recalled as the Journée des brouettes ("Wheelbarrow Day").

A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun. The popular General Lafayette, as captain of the National Guard of Paris and a confidant of the king, took his oath to the constitution, followed by King Louis XVI. After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four-day popular feast and people celebrated with fireworks, as well as fine wine and running nude through the streets in order to display their great freedom.

On 30 June 1878, a feast was officially arranged in Paris to honour the French Republic (the event was commemorated in a painting by Claude Monet).[10] On 14 July 1879, there was another feast, with a semi-official aspect. The day's events included a reception in the Chamber of Deputies, organised and presided over by Léon Gambetta,[11] a military review at Longchamp, and a Republican Feast in the Pré Catelan.[12] All through France, Le Figaro wrote, "people feasted much to honour the storming of the Bastille".[13]

On 21 May 1880, Benjamin Raspail proposed a law to have "the Republic choose the 14 July as a yearly national holiday". The Assembly voted in favour of the proposal on 21 May and 8 June.[14] The Senate approved it on 27 and 29 June, favouring 14 July against 4 August (which would have commemorated the end of the feudal system on 4 August 1789). The law was made official on 6 July 1880, and the Ministry of the Interior recommended to Prefects that the day should be "celebrated with all the brilliance that the local resources allow".[this quote needs a citation] Indeed, the celebrations of the new holiday in 1880 were particularly magnificent.

In the debate leading up to the adoption of the holiday, Henri Martin, chairman of the French Senate, addressed that chamber on 29 June 1880:

Do not forget that behind this 14 July, where victory of the new era over the ancien régime was bought by fighting, do not forget that after the day of 14 July 1789, there was the day of 14 July 1790 ... This [latter] day cannot be blamed for having shed a drop of blood, for having divided the country. It was the consecration of the unity of France ... If some of you might have scruples against the first 14 July, they certainly hold none against the second. Whatever difference which might part us, something hovers over them, it is the great images of national unity, which we all desire, for which we would all stand, willing to die if necessary.

The Bastille Day Military Parade is the French military parade that has been held on the morning of 14 July each year in Paris since 1880. While previously held elsewhere within or near the capital city, since 1918 it has been held on the Champs-Élysées, with the participation of the Allies as represented in the Versailles Peace Conference, and with the exception of the period of German occupation from 1940 to 1944 (when the ceremony took place in London under the command of General Charles de Gaulle).[16] The parade passes down the Champs-Élysées from the Arc de Triomphe to the Place de la Concorde, where the President of the French Republic, his government and foreign ambassadors to France stand. This is a popular event in France, broadcast on French TV, and is the oldest and largest regular military parade in Europe.[5][6] In some years, invited detachments of foreign troops take part in the parade and foreign statesmen attend as guests.

Smaller military parades are held in French garrison towns, including Toulon and Belfort, with local troops.


what are the differences of rectal drugs from oral drugs

A drug that is administered rectally will in general (depending on the drug) have a faster onset, higher bioavailability, shorter peak, and shorter duration than the oral route.[1][2] Another advantage of administering a drug rectally, is that it tends to produce less nausea compared to the oral route and prevents any amount of the drug from being lost due to emesis (vomiting). In addition, the rectal route bypasses around two thirds of the first-pass metabolism as the rectum's venous drainage is two thirds systemic (middle and inferior rectal vein) and one third hepatic portal system (superior rectal vein). This means the drug will reach the circulatory system with significantly less alteration and in greater concentrations.[Note 3] Finally, rectal administration can allow patients to remain in the home setting when the oral route is compromised. Unlike intravenous lines, which usually need to be placed in an inpatient environment and require special formulation of sterile medications,[3] a specialized rectal catheter can be placed by a clinician, such as a hospice nurse or home health nurse, in the home. Many oral forms of medications can be crushed and suspended in water to be given via a rectal catheter.

Rectal administration

Rectal administration uses the rectum as a route of administration for medication and other fluids, which are absorbed by the rectum's blood vessels,[Note 1] and flow into the body's circulatory system, which distributes the drug to the body's organs and bodily systems.[Note 2]

The rectal route of administration is useful for patients with any digestive tract motility problem, such as dysphagia, ileus, or bowel obstruction, that would interfere with the progression of the medication through the tract. This often includes patients near the end of life (an estimated 1.65 million people are in hospice care in the US each year).[4] Because using the rectal route enables a rapid, safe, and lower cost alternative to administration of medications,[5] it may also facilitate the care of patients in long-term care or palliative care, or as an alternative to intravenous or subcutaneous medication delivery in other instances.

Rectal administration of medication may be performed with any of the following:


where did the dry plate (gelatin-silver) system originate

The gelatin silver process was introduced by Richard Leach Maddox in 1871 with subsequent considerable improvements in sensitivity obtained by Charles Harper Bennett in 1878.

Gelatin silver process

The gelatin silver process is the photographic process used with currently available black-and-white films and printing papers. A suspension of silver salts in gelatin is coated onto a support such as glass, flexible plastic or film, baryta paper, or resin-coated paper. These light-sensitive materials are stable under normal keeping conditions and are able to be exposed and processed even many years after their manufacture. This is in contrast to the collodion wet-plate process dominant from the 1850sâ€“1880s, which had to be exposed and developed immediately after coating.

Gelatin silver print paper was made as early as 1874 on a commercial basis, but it was poor quality because the dry-plate emulsion was coated onto the paper only as an afterthought. Coating machines for the production of continuous rolls of sensitized paper were in use by the mid-1880s, though widespread adoption of gelatin silver print materials did not occur until the 1890s. The earliest papers had no baryta layer, and it was not until the 1890s that baryta coating became a commercial operation, first in Germany, in 1894, and then taken up by Kodak by 1900.

Although the baryta layer plays an important part in the manufacture of smooth and glossy prints, the baryta paper of the 1890s did not produce the lustrous or glossy print surface that became the standard for fine art photography in the twentieth century. Matting agents, textured papers, and thin baryta layers that were not heavily calendering produced a low-gloss and textured appearance. The higher gloss papers first became popular in the 1920s and 30s as photography transitioned from pictorialism into modernism, photojournalism, and “straight” photography.

Research over the last 125 years has led to current materials that exhibit low grain and high sensitivity to light.

The gelatin silver print or gelatin developing out paper (DOP) is a monochrome imaging process based on the light sensitivity of silver halides. They have been made for both contact printing and enlarging purposes by modifying the paperâ€™s light sensitivity. A brief exposure to a negative produces a latent image, which is then made visible by a developing agent. The image is then made permanent by treatment in a photographic fixer, which removes the remaining light sensitive silver halides. And finally, a water bath clears the fixer from the print. The final image consists of small particles of silver bound in a layer of gelatin. This gelatin image layer is only one of the four layers found in a typical gelatin silver print, which typically include the overcoat, image layer, baryta, and paper support.

A gelatin silver print is composed of four layers: paper base, baryta, gelatin binder, and a protective gelatin layer or overcoat. The multi-layer structure of the gelatin silver print and the sensitivity of the silver imaging salts require specialized coating equipment and fastidious manufacturing technique to produce a consistent product that is free of impurities harmful to the image.

The paper base or support serves as the substrate onto which the subsequent layers are attached. Paper is in many ways an ideal support: it is lightweight, flexible, and strong enough to withstand both wet processing and regular handling. The photographic paper base must be free of photoactive impurities such as iron and lignins. In order to obtain this purity, the paper was originally made from cotton rags, though after World War I there was a transition to purified wood pulp, which has been used ever since.

The second layer is the baryta, a white opaque coating made primarily from gelatin and barium sulfate. Its purpose is to cover the paper fibers and form a smooth surface upon which to coat the gelatin. Surface textures are created by a variety of textured felts used in the drying of the paper, calendaring, and embossing before or after application of the baryta layer depending on the desired effect.

The third layer is the gelatin binder that holds the silver grains of the photographic image. Gelatin has many qualities that make it an ideal photographic binder. Among these are toughness and abrasion resistance when dry and its ability to swell and allow the penetration of processing solutions. The fourth layer, called the overcoat, supercoat, or topcoat, is a very thin layer of hardened gelatin that is applied on top of the gelatin binder. It acts as a protective layer, providing superior abrasion resistance to the print surface.

Before a paper is exposed, the image layer is a clear gelatin matrix holding the light-sensitive silver halides. For gelatin silver prints, these silver halides are typically combinations of silver bromide and silver chloride. Exposure to a negative is typically done with an enlarger, although contact printing was also popular, particularly among amateurs in the early twentieth century and among users of large format cameras. Wherever the light strikes the paper the silver halides form small specks of silver metal on their surface. Light causes a reduction of the silver salt to silver metal. This exposure is the greatest in areas of the print corresponding to clear parts of the negatives, which become the shadows or high density areas of the print.

This process is the formation of the latent image, as it forms an invisible image in the paper that is subsequently made visible by development. So the paper is now placed in the developer, which transforms the silver halide particles that have a latent image speck on them into metallic silver. Now the image is visible, but the remaining unexposed silver halide must still be removed to make the image permanent. But first the print is placed into the stop bath, which stops development and prevents the developer from contaminating the next bath: the fixer.

The fixer, typically sodium thiosulfate, is able to remove the unexposed silver halide by forming a water-soluble complex with it. And finally, a water wash sometimes preceded by a washing aid removes the fixer from the print, leaving an image composed of silver particles held in the clear gelatin image layer. Toning is sometimes used for permanence or aesthetic purposes and follows the fixing step. Selenium, gold, and sulfur toners are the most common and act by either partially converting the silver to another compound (such as silver selenide or silver sulfide) or partially replacing the silver with another metal (such as gold).[1]

When small crystals (called grains) of silver salts such as silver bromide and silver chloride are exposed to light, a few atoms of free metallic silver are liberated. These free silver atoms form the latent image. This latent image is relatively stable and will persist for some months without degradation provided the film is kept dark and cool. Films are developed using solutions that reduce silver halides in the presence of free silver atoms. An 'amplification' of the latent image occurs as the silver halides near the free silver atom are reduced to metallic silver. The strength, temperature and time for which the developer is allowed to act allow the photographer to control the contrast of the final image. The development is then stopped by neutralizing the developer in a second bath.

Once development is complete, the undeveloped silver salts must be removed by fixing in sodium thiosulphate or ammonium thiosulphate, and then the negative or print must be washed in clean water. The final image consists of metallic silver embedded in the gelatin coating.

All gelatin silver photographic materials are subject to deterioration. The silver particles that comprise the image are susceptible to oxidation, leading to yellowing and fading of the image. Poor processing can also result in various forms of image degradation, due to residual silver-thiosulfate complexes. Toning increases the stability of the silver image by coating the silver image with a less easily oxidized metal such as gold, or by converting portions of the silver image particles into more stable compounds, such as silver selenide or silver sulfide.[1]

Also known as digital bromides, black and white silver gelatin prints imaged via digital output devices such as the Durst Lambda and the Océ LightJet, have been developed for the art market by Ilford Imaging – now Harman Technology in collaboration with Steve McLeod.

By adapting a large format paper processor in conjunction with the manufacturers, McLeod's innovation led the way for the possibility of producing large resin coated (RC) and fibre based (FB) black and white prints.

Ilford, in collaboration with Metro Imaging, London adapted their FB Galerie emulsion paper and its light sensitivity so that it would be receptive to full spectrum RGB laser channels.

An essentially identical procedure called "silver staining" is utilized in molecular biology to visualize DNA or proteins after gel electrophoresis, usually SDS-PAGE. The latent image is formed by the DNA or protein molecules (i.e. the reduced silver selectively precipitates onto those molecules). It is known for being nearly as sensitive as autoradiography, the "gold standard" technique, but one not widely used due to the use of radioactive materials.[2]


did guardiola won champions league with bayern munich

On 3 May 2016, Guardiola's Bayern Munich lost to Atlético Madrid in the champions league semifinals stage, thereby ending Guardiola's final chance of winning a Champions League title with the Bavarian club.[132] Guardiola's final match[133] was on 21 May 2016.[134] Bayern defeated Borussia Dortmund in a shootout.[133] He finished with a record of 82 wins, 11 draws, and nine losses in the Bundesliga; a record of 14 wins, three draws, and no losses in the DFB-Pokal; a record of 23 wins, five draws, and eight losses in the UEFA Champions League.[135] He also went a combined two wins, two draws, and two losses in the FIFA Club World Cup, UEFA Super Cup, and the German Super Cup.[135] In non–official competitions, he went a combined six wins, one draw, and one loss.[135]

Pep Guardiola

Josep "Pep" Guardiola Sala (Catalan pronunciation: [ʒuˈzɛb ɡwəɾðiˈɔɫə]; born 18 January 1971) is a Spanish professional football coach and former player who is the current manager of Manchester City.

Regarded as one of the best players of his generation,[3] Guardiola was a creative and technically gifted midfielder who usually played in a deep-lying playmaking role as a defensive midfielder.[4][5][6][7] He spent the majority of his career with Barcelona, forming a part of Johan Cruyff's "Dream Team" that won the club's first European Cup in 1992, and four successive La Liga titles from 1991 to 1994. He later captained the team from 1997 to 2001. He then played for Brescia and Roma in Italy, Al-Ahli in Qatar, and Dorados de Sinaloa in Mexico while training to be a manager. While playing in Italy, he served a four-month ban for a positive drug test, although he was eventually cleared of wrongdoing twice on appeal in 2009 before the Courts of Justice of the Italian Football Federation and the Federal Anti-Doping Courts of the Italian Olympic Committee (CONI).[8] Guardiola was capped 47 times for Spain and appeared at the 1994 FIFA World Cup as well as UEFA Euro 2000. He also played friendly matches for Catalonia.

After retiring as a player, Guardiola became coach of Barcelona B, and in 2008 he succeeded Frank Rijkaard as the first-team manager.[9] In his first season as manager, Guardiola guided Barcelona to a treble, winning La Liga, the Copa del Rey and the UEFA Champions League. In doing so, Guardiola became the youngest manager to win the Champions League. The following season, Guardiola led Barcelona to win the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Super Cup, the FIFA Club World Cup and a second La Liga title. In 2011, after leading Barcelona to another La Liga, Supercopa de España and UEFA Champions League, Guardiola was awarded the Catalan Parliament's Gold Medal, their highest honour.[10] That same year, Guardiola was also named the FIFA World Coach of the Year.[11] In Guardiola's fourth season, he won the Copa del Rey, UEFA Super Cup, FIFA Club World Cup and the Supercopa de España. On 30 June 2012, Guardiola announced his departure from Barcelona.

After a sabbatical period, Bayern Munich announced on 16 January 2013 that Guardiola would join the club as manager for the 2013–14 season following the retirement of Jupp Heynckes. In his first season at the club, Guardiola won the Bundesliga, the DFB-Pokal, the UEFA Super Cup and the FIFA Club World Cup. He won seven trophies during his tenure at Bayern, winning the Bundesliga all three seasons he was there, including two domestic doubles. He left Bayern for Manchester City in July 2016 and guided them to the English league title in his second season as manager, breaking numerous domestic records and became the first Premier League team to attain 100 points.

As a manager, Guardiola has won 24 trophies since the start of his managing career,[12] making him one of the most successful managers in world football. Guardiola also holds the record for the most consecutive league wins in La Liga, Bundesliga and the Premier League.[nb 1][13] He is considered by a number of players, coaches, and commentators to be one of the best managers in the world.[14][15][16]

Born in Santpedor, Barcelona, Catalonia, Guardiola joined La Masia at age 13 and rose through the ranks of Barcelona's youth academy for six years, making his début in 1990 against Cádiz. As Phil Ball writes in Morbo,

In his first week at the club, Johan Cruyff turned up unannounced at the "Mini" stadium, a venue just down the road from Camp Nou used by the youth and B teams. Just before half-time he wandered into the dug-out and asked Charly Rexach, the youth team manager at the time, the name of the young lad playing on the right side of midfield. "Guardiola â€“ good lad," came the reply. Cruyff ignored the comment and told Rexach to move him into the middle for the second half, to play as pivot. It was a difficult position to adapt to and one not used by many teams in Spain at the time. Guardiola adjusted immediately, as Cruyff had suspected he would, and when he moved to the first-team in 1990, he became the pivot of the Dream Team.[17]

Johan Cruyff utilised the young midfielder in the absence of the suspended Guillermo Amor. He became a first-team regular in the 1991–92 season, and at only 20 years old was a key component of a side that won La Liga and the European Cup. The prestigious Italian magazine Guerin Sportivo heralded Guardiola as the finest player in the world under the age of 21. Cruyff's "Dream Team" went on to retain La Liga title in the 1992–93 and 1993–94 seasons. The side was strengthened by the recent signing of Romário, again reached the 1994 UEFA Champions League Final, but were beaten 4–0 by Fabio Capello's Milan side in Athens. Cruyff left in 1996, with Barcelona finishing fourth in the 1994–95 season and third in the 1995–96 season, but Guardiola retained his position at the centre of Barça's midfield.

In the 1996–97 season, Barcelona, this time led by Bobby Robson, won three cups, the Copa del Rey, the Supercopa de España, and the European Cup Winners' Cup. Much of the Dream Team had by this time left, with new signings such as Luís Figo and Ronaldo taking over from Hristo Stoichkov and Michael Laudrup. In 1997, Guardiola was named as Barcelona captain under new manager Louis van Gaal, but a calf muscle injury ruled Guardiola out of most of the 1997–98 season, in which Barcelona won a league and cup double. At the end of the season, Barcelona rejected offers from Roma and Parma (of around 300 million pesetas) for Guardiola. After prolonged and complicated contract talks, Guardiola signed a new contract with the Catalan club that extended his stay until 2001.

Guardiola returned to action the following season and Barcelona once again won La Liga, thanks largely to the performances of Rivaldo and Luís Figo. On 8 June 1998, Guardiola underwent surgery to try to resolve his lingering calf injury, which had caused him to miss the 1998 FIFA World Cup for Spain. A largely disappointing 1999–2000 season again ended in surgery, with Guardiola missing the last three months of the season with a serious ankle injury. Barcelona didn't win any silverware during the 2000–01 season and finished fourth place in the league; nonetheless, they qualified for the Champions League.

On 11 April 2001, Barcelona's captain announced his intention to leave the club after 17 years of service. He stated that it was a personal decision and, in part, a response to what he perceived as football heading in a new, more physical, direction. On 24 June 2001, Guardiola played his last match with Barça in the final game of the season against Celta de Vigo.[18] Guardiola played 479 games in 12 seasons for the first team, winning 16 trophies. At the press conference after the Celta game, he said, "It's been a long journey. I'm happy, proud, happy with the way people treated me and I have made many friends. I cannot ask for more. I have had many years in the elite. I did not come to make history but to make my own history." A number of future Barcelona midfielders, including Xavi, Andrés Iniesta and Cesc Fàbregas, have hailed Guardiola as their role model and hero.[19]

After leaving Barcelona in 2001 at age 30, Guardiola joined Serie A side Brescia as Andrea Pirlo's replacement in the deep-lying playmaking role, where he played alongside Roberto Baggio under manager Carlo Mazzone.[20] Following his stint at Brescia, Guardiola transferred to Roma. His time in Italy, however, was unsuccessful and included a four-month ban for testing positive for nandrolone. Six years later, on 23 October 2007, Guardiola was cleared on appeal of all charges related to the ban.[21] CONI, however, reopened the case against the player because it considered the absolution unacceptable,[22] but he was cleared once again on 29 September 2009.[23] He played a number of Coppa Italia games and Champions League games, finishing with 71 games in Italy.

After his career with Brescia and Roma, in 2003, Guardiola chose to play in Qatar with Al-Ahli from Doha in the Qatar Stars League, where many fellow greats were playing, such as Gabriel Batistuta. He had rejected another offer from Manchester United, as he wanted to play elsewhere. He became a regular in the Qatar Stars League, often cited as one of the best players in the League, and participated in the 2004–05 Arab Champions League with the club, scoring a goal from the penalty spot in the first round.[24] In 2005–06, he turned down offers from a number European sides, such as Manchester City, Manchester United, and Chelsea, as he felt his playing career was coming to a close.[25]

In 2006, Juan Manuel Lillo was appointed the manager of Mexican club Dorados de Sinaloa. Lillo recruited Guardiola to play for the club while Guardiola was in managing school in AxocopÃ¡n, Atlixco, Puebla. Guardiola played with Dorados de Sinaloa for six months before retiring.

Guardiola made his senior debut on 14 October 1992 in a 0–0 draw with Northern Ireland at Windsor Park in a World Cup qualifier. In the same year, Guardiola captained Spain when they won a gold medal at the Barcelona Olympic Games. It was in this year when he won the Bravo Award, which recognizes the world's best player under the age of 21. Between 1992 and 2001, Guardiola played over 47 times and scored five goals for the senior Spain team. He was a member of the Spanish team during the 1994 World Cup, where they reached the quarter-finals, losing 2–1 to Italy. He fell out of favour with Javier Clemente, Spain's manager, due to disagreements and missed out on Euro 1996. He suffered a career-threatening injury in 1998, which kept him out of the 1998 World Cup, but he later played at Euro 2000, where he led Spain to yet another quarter-final, this time losing to France by the same margin, 2–1. He led the Spanish midfield until his final appearance for la Roja, a 1–0 win in a friendly against Mexico on 14 November 2001; he scored his last international goal against Sweden in a 1–1 draw during his 45th appearance.[1][26]

Guardiola has played for and advocated on behalf of the Catalonia football team. Between 1995 and 2005, he played seven friendly games for Catalonia.[27]

Considered one of the best midfielders of his generation, Guardiola was a highly creative, hard-working, and elegant player, with good anticipation, tactical awareness, and an ability to read the game; throughout his career, he was deployed as a central or defensive midfielder in front of his team's back-line.[4][5][6][7] Although he was competent defensively and able to press opponents to break up play and win the ball,[28][29] due to his slender build he usually functioned as a deep-lying playmaker, where he excelled courtesy of his technical ability and intelligent, efficient, precise passing game.[5][30][31] Despite his lack of notable pace or physical attributes, Guardiola was highly regarded throughout his career for his vision, close control, passing range, positional sense, and calm composure on the ball,[32] which enabled him to retain possession and either set the tempo of his team's play in midfield with intricate short exchanges,[33] or switch the play or create chances with longer passes.[34][35][36]

Guardiola was capable of being an offensive threat, due to his ability to make attacking runs[37] or strike accurately from distance; he was also effective at creating chances or shooting on goal from set-pieces. Having served as captain of both Barcelona and the Spanish national side, he also stood out for his leadership throughout his career.[38][39] Guardiola's unique playing style, which relied on creativity, technique and ball movement, rather than physicality and pace, inspired several future diminutive Spanish playmaking midfielders, such as Xavi,[40] Andrés Iniesta,[41] and Cesc Fàbregas.[7][42]

Guardiola was appointed coach of Barcelona on 21 June 2007 with Tito Vilanova as his assistant. Under his guidance, the team subsequently won their Tercera División group and qualified for the 2008 Segunda División B playoffs, which the team won, thereby achieving promotion.[43] FC Barcelona President Joan Laporta announced in May 2008 that Guardiola would be appointed manager of the senior Barcelona squad to replace Frank Rijkaard at the end of the 2007–08 season.[44] According to a 2013 biography of Michael Laudrup, he and not Guardiola was Laporta's first choice.[45]

Upon being appointed, Guardiola revealed that Ronaldinho, Deco, Samuel Eto'o and others were not part of his plans for the coming season. By the time of the announcement, Guardiola had already offloaded full back Gianluca Zambrotta to Milan, attacking midfielder Giovani dos Santos to Tottenham Hotspur and midfielder Edmílson to Villarreal.[46] Deco went to Chelsea while Ronaldinho joined Zambrotta in Milan. Lilian Thuram was initially set to join Paris Saint-Germain on a free transfer, but the discovery of a heart condition put a stop to the move, and the veteran retired to tend to his health. Oleguer signed with Ajax, Santiago Ezquerro was released by Barça and Marc Crosas was sold to Celtic. The fate of Eto'o took much of the summer to unravel, with the Cameroonian linked with several clubs, but Guardiola finally declared that he would stay after his dedication in training and participation in the pre-season.

In association with Barcelona Director of Sport Txiki Begiristain, several new signings were made by Guardiola – Dani Alves and Seydou Keita arrived from Sevilla; Martín Cáceres from Villarreal by way of Recreativo de Huelva; Gerard Piqué returned from Manchester United; and Alexander Hleb was signed from Arsenal. Henrique was also signed from Palmeiras, but was immediately loaned out to Bayer Leverkusen.[47] In interviews with the press, Guardiola stressed a harder work ethic than before, but also a more personal approach during training and a closer relationship with his players. Along with the new signings, Guardiola promoted canteranos Sergio Busquets, Pedro and Jeffrén to the first-team squad.

Guardiola's first competitive game as coach was in the third qualifying round of the Champions League, in which Barça comfortably beat Polish club Wisła Kraków 4–0 in the first leg at home. They then lost 1–0 in the second leg, but progressed with a 4–1 aggregate victory. Promoted Numancia also defeated Barcelona in the opening match-day of the La Liga, but the team then went on an undefeated streak for over 20 matches to move to the top of the league. Barça maintained their spot atop La Liga's table, securing their first league title since 2006 when rivals Real Madrid lost at Villarreal on 16 May 2009. The most important match, however, was on 2 May when they defeated Real Madrid 6–2 at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium. The league title was the second piece of silverware in Guardiola's first season at the Camp Nou. Earlier on 13 May 2009, Barcelona won the Copa del Rey, defeating Athletic Bilbao by 4–1.

Guardiola finished the season by leading Barça to the final of the Champions League, where they beat Manchester United 2–0. In doing so, they became the first Spanish club to win the domestic cup, the league, and the European club titles (the treble) in the same season. The treble-winning season is regarded as one of the club's finest in its history[48] Furthermore, Guardiola became the youngest man to coach a Champions League winning team.[49]

During Guardiola's second season as manager, Barcelona swapped Samuel Eto'o and €46 million in exchange for Zlatan Ibrahimović of Internazionale. Many players left the club in the same transfer window – Eiður Guðjohnsen was sold to Monaco; Sylvinho and Albert Jorquera's contracts ended; and other players were loaned out, including Alexander Hleb to VfB Stuttgart, Martín Cáceres to Juventus, Alberto Botía to Sporting de Gijón, and Víctor Sánchez to Xerez. Barcelona started the season defeating Athletic Bilbao in the Supercopa de España and Shakhtar Donetsk in the UEFA Super Cup. On 25 September 2009, Barcelona gave Guardiola his 50th professional victory, away against Málaga and on 19 December, they were crowned FIFA Club World Cup champions for the first time in their history.

Guardiola finished the calendar year 2009 with a record six trophies, the Spanish League, Copa del Rey, Champions League, Spanish Super Cup, European Super Cup and Club World Cup, becoming the first manager in history to do so. In January 2010, Guardiola became Barcelona's longest serving Spanish coach, overtaking the record previously held by Josep Samitier. That same month, on the 20th, he agreed to a one-year contract extension to keep him with Barcelona until the end of the 2010–11 season.[50]

In February 2010, Guardiola coached his 100th match for Barcelona's first team. His record stood at 71 wins, 19 draws and 10 losses with 242 goals for and 76 against.[51] On 10 April 2010, he became the first manager in Barcelona's history to beat Real Madrid four times in a row in El Clásico. Barcelona reached the semi-finals of the 2009–10 Champions League, but lost 3–2 on aggregate to José Mourinho's Internazionale.[52] Despite this, they managed to win their 20th La Liga title with 99 points by beating Real Valladolid 4–0 at home.[53] At the time, this was the highest points total ever gained amongst any of Europe's major leagues.[54] The La Liga title was Guardiola's seventh trophy as manager of the club, tying Ferdinand Daučík for second behind Johan Cruyff and his 11 trophies.

On 8 June 2010, the Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) fined Guardiola €15,000 following a formal inquiry opened by the Competition Committee regarding his actions and comments during and after a match against Almería on 6 March 2010.[55] Guardiola approached the fourth official with, according to the official report, malicious intent, berating the official and speaking into his microphone with phrases such as, "You are calling everything wrong." Following the match, Guardiola accused Carlos Clos Gómez and his assistant José Luis Gallego Galdino of "lying" in their match report. Barcelona were given ten days to appeal the sanction. TV replays supported Guardiola's assertions. The game ended 2–2.

Guardiola's third season in charge saw the departure of two players who had arrived last season: Dmytro Chygrynskiy returned to Shakhtar Donetsk and Zlatan Ibrahimović joined Milan on loan. Rafael Márquez and Thierry Henry were released from their contracts and both moved to New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer (MLS); Yaya Touré also left the team and moved to English Premier League side Manchester City. The club signed Adriano from Sevilla, David Villa from Valencia and Javier Mascherano from Liverpool. On 14 July 2010, Guardiola signed a new contract to stay with Barcelona until June 2011.[56]

On 21 August, Barcelona beat Sevilla 5–3 on aggregate to win the 2010 Supercopa de España, his second in a row. On 29 November 2010, Barcelona beat Real Madrid 5–0, giving Guardiola five straight wins in El Clásico. On 8 February 2011, Guardiola accepted the club's offer for a one-year deal extension, signing a contract until June 2012.[57] On 16 February, in the first leg Champions League first knockout round, Barcelona were defeated by Arsenal 2–1 at Emirates Stadium. The defeat prolonged Guardiola's record of never having won the away leg of a Champions League knockout tie. On 8 March, in the second leg of the Champions League first knockout round, Barcelona defeated Arsenal 3–1, thus winning 4–3 on aggregate, moving them into the quarter-finals.

Early April saw Barcelona move eight points clear of second-placed Real Madrid in their domestic league after a key away win against Villarreal, making the most of Real Madrid's home loss against Sporting de Gijón earlier on the same day. Barcelona managed to advance to the semi-finals of the Champions League for the fourth year – last three under Guardiola – in a row after thrashing Shakhtar Donetsk 6–1 on aggregate.

Barcelona continued their La Liga crusade for the second El Clásico in the Santiago Bernabéu, which ended 1–1. Lionel Messi scored for his team from the penalty spot after Raúl Albiol was sent off. Real Madrid's Cristiano Ronaldo later replied from the penalty spot in the 80th minute of the match. Guardiola suffered his first final defeat during the Copa del Rey final against Real Madrid. Cristiano Ronaldo scored the only goal in the 103rd minute of the match during extra time, giving the club its first title since 2008, as well as José Mourinho's first title for his new club. In the Champions League, however, Barcelona beat Real Madrid 2–0 at the Bernabéu in the semi-final first leg, and after a 1–1 draw at Camp Nou, they proceeded to Guardiola's second Champions League final in three years as coach for Barcelona.[58]

On 11 May 2011, Barcelona won the La Liga title and the club's third in a row after a 1–1 draw with Levante.[59][60] On 28 May, Barcelona beat Manchester United 3–1 at Wembley Stadium to win the Champions League.[61]

Guardiola's fourth season in charge started with the departure of three long-serving Barça players: Gabriel Milito moved back to old Argentine club Independiente, Jeffrén was sold to Sporting CP and Bojan was sold to Roma. Two high-profile signings were made: Alexis Sánchez came from Udinese for €26 million plus bonuses, and Cesc Fàbregas, a former La Masia graduate, returned from Arsenal for €29 million plus bonuses. To complete the squad, two players were promoted from the youth system: Thiago and Andreu Fontàs. The season started with a 5–4 aggregate win over Real Madrid for the Supercopa de España.[62]

Barcelona won their second trophy of the season on 26 August, beating Porto in the UEFA Super Cup final 2–0.[63] With the trophy won against Porto, he became all-time record holder of most titles won as a coach at Barcelona. He won 12 trophies in only three years.[64] November of the same year saw Guardiola coach his 200th match for Barça's first team. His record stood at 144 wins, 39 draws and 17 losses with 500 goals for and 143 against.[65]

Barcelona ended the 2011 calendar year winning the Club World Cup, beating Brazilian club Santos 4–0, the widest margin in an Intercontinental Cup/Club World Cup final since changing to a single match format. This was Guardiola's 13th title of only 16 tournaments played.[66] On 9 January 2012, he was named FIFA World Coach of the Year. On his 41st birthday, he led his side to a 2–1 victory over arch-rivals Real Madrid in El Clásico, ensuring that he remained unbeaten against Real Madrid in regular time as a manager. On 21 April, Guardiola conceded the league title to leaders Real Madrid after they beat Barcelona 2–1 and extended their lead in the table to seven points with four matches remaining. "We have to congratulate Madrid for their win and the title that they have also won tonight," said Guardiola, after what was his side's first loss at home all season.[67]

On 24 April, a 2–2 draw at home against Chelsea in the second leg of the Champions League semifinal knocked Barcelona out of the competition on a 2–3 aggregate score. That effectively left the team with only the Copa del Rey to play for.[68] Guardiola had faced criticism over his recent tactics and squad selections.[69] On 27 April 2012, Guardiola announced he would step down as Barcelona's coach at the end of the 2011–12 season. He had been on a rolling contract that was renewed annually during his tenure as manager. Citing tiredness as the main reason for his decision, he also commented that four years at a club like Barça felt like an eternity.[70]

Barcelona announced that Guardiola would be succeeded by Tito Vilanova, who would begin leading the first team at the start of the 2012–13 season.[71] Guardiola continued to lead Barcelona to wins in the remaining La Liga games of the season, followed by a 3–0 win in the Copa del Rey final. His record of 14 trophies in four seasons has made him the most successful coach in Barcelona's history.

After his time at Barcelona came to an end, Guardiola took a year's sabbatical in New York City.[72] On 7 January 2013, Guardiola came in third place for the 2012 FIFA World Coach of the Year, behind the winner Vicente del Bosque and runner-up José Mourinho.[73] While at a news conference at the 2012 FIFA Ballon d'Or gala in Zürich, Guardiola said, "I have taken a decision to return to coaching but beyond that no decision has been taken. I don't have a team to go to but I would like to go back to coaching."[74]

On 16 January 2013, it was announced that Guardiola would take over as manager of Bundesliga club Bayern Munich after the 2012–13 season, replacing Jupp Heynckes for the following season.[75][76] He addressed his first press conference as Bayern manager, on 24 June 2013, in "impressive German",[77] and had his first training session two days later.[78] His first official match was the German Super Cup against Borussia Dortmund, with Bayern losing 4–2.[79] His first trophy with Bayern was the 2013 UEFA Super Cup, defeating longtime adversary José Mourinho, who had just returned to coach at Chelsea. Bayern beat ten-man Chelsea in a shoot-out after Manuel Neuer saved Romelu Lukaku's kick.[80]

In December 2013, Guardiola won his third Club World Cup after beating Raja Casablanca in Morocco.[81] On 25 March 2014, he led Bayern to their 23rd Bundesliga title by beating Hertha BSC 3–1 at the Olympiastadion in Berlin. With seven matches remaining in the season, it was the earliest the championship had been won in Bundesliga history, breaking the record Heynckes' Bayern had set in the previous season.[82] Guardiola broke Karl-Heinz Feldkamp's record for the longest winning streak to start his tenure at a Bundesliga club.[83] Feldkamp was undefeated in his first 14 matches with 1. FC Kaiserslautern in the 1978–79 season.[83] The streak ended at 28 when FC Augsburg defeated Bayern 1–0[84] on matchday 29.[85] The streak also ended Bayern's 53–match undefeated streak.[84]

Bayern were drawn against Real Madrid in the semi–finals of Champions League.[86] Bayern lost the first leg 1–0[87] and the second leg 4–0.[88] After the first leg, Guardiola was criticized for his tactics.[89] However, he defended his tactics.[90] Also in the first leg, Guardiola lost his first match at the Santiago Bernabéu.[91] He was undefeated in his first seven matches in the stadium.[91] Guardiola took the blame for the loss.[92] Philipp Lahm, however, insisted "it was a collective failure and not the fault of coach Guardiola."[92] kicker Sportmagazin "singled out" Guardiola as "the key to the crisis."[93] Guardiola finished the 2013–14 season by winning the DFB-Pokal 2–0 in extra–time.[94]

Pre–season started on 9 July 2014[95] with the first friendly match on 18 July 2014.[96] Mario Mandžukić was sold to Atlético Madrid[97] because he believed that the "playing style of coach Pep Guardiola simply does not fit him."[98] On 6 August 2014, Bayern played in the 2014 MLS All-Star Game in Portland, Oregon.[99] The all-star team was led by Timbers Coach Caleb Porter.[100] The match ended with Bayern losing 2–1 to the All-Star squad.[99] Separate incidents involving "harsh challenges"[100] by Osvaldo Alonso[101] and Will Johnson[101] visibly enraged Guardiola and after the match he refused to shake Porter's hand.[100] One of the tackles injured Bastian Schweinsteiger.[101]

Bayern lost the German Super Cup 2–0 to Borussia Dortmund.[102] He had declared before the match that "every final is important, especially in Dortmund a bit more."[103] Guardiola used a 3–4–2–1 system in the match.[104] Guardiola handed 17-year-old Gianluca Gaudino his first team debut in the Super Cup and made him part of the first team permanently because of "strong preparation" during pre-season.[105] In a Champions League match, Bayern defeated Roma 7–1,[106] Bayern's biggest away win in their Champions League history.[107] Bayern's first league loss of the season came in a 4–1 defeat to VfL Wolfsburg.[108] On 11 March 2015, Bayern defeated Shakhtar Donetsk 7–0, tying their largest win in Champions League history.[109] Bayern defeated Bayer Leverkusen in a shoot–out in the quarter–finals of the DFB-Pokal.[110] On 15 April 2015, Bayern ended an 11-match undefeated streak after losing 3–1 to Porto in Portugal.[111] In Guardiola's 100th match as head coach, Bayern defeated Porto 6–1.[112] With the win, Bayern reached their fourth-straight Champions League semifinal.[112] On 28 April 2015, Bayern were knocked out of the German Cup in a shoot-out.[113][113] Bayern had missed all four of their shots.[113] In his first competitive match against Barcelona, Bayern lost 3–0.[114] Bayern failed to get a shot on target in the match.[115] For the first time in his career, he lost four in a row (including shoot-out loss).[116]

Pre-season began on 1 July 2015.[117] In the Telekom Cup, Bayern finished fourth after losing to Augsburg in the semi-final[118] and losing to Borussia Mönchengladbach in a shootout.[119] Bayern lost the German Super Cup to VfL Wolfsburg on 1 August 2015,[120] then beat Real Madrid in the Audi Cup final four days later.[121] The competitive season started on 1 August 2015 when Bayern lost in a shoot-out to Wolfsburg in the German Super Cup.[122] Then on 9 August 2015, Bayern won in the first round of the German Cup.[123] In the league, Bayern won their first ten matches.[124] The first time they dropped points in the league was on 30 October 2015 in a 0–0 scoreline against Eintracht Frankfurt[124] and their first loss in the league was on 5 December 2015 in a 3–1 scoreline to Borussia Mönchengladbach.[125] In the Champions League group stage, Bayern won Group F,[126] winning five out of the six matches.[127] Bayern's only loss in the Champions League group stage was against Arsenal on 20 October.[128] This was Bayern's first loss in all competitions during the 2015–16 season.[129]

On 20 December, Bayern confirmed that Guardiola was leaving the club after his contract expires at the end of the season, with Carlo Ancelotti his replacement for the 2016â€“17 season.[130][131]

â€”Guardiola describes what he has learned from English football on 13 August 2016.[136]

On 1 February 2016, Manchester City signed Guardiola to a three-year contract for the start of the 2016–17 season.[137]

Manchester City lost Guardiola's first pre-season match 1–0 to Bayern Munich.[138] On 13 August 2016, Manchester City won Guardiola's first 2016–17 Premier League season match 2–1 against Sunderland.[139] On 11 September 2016, Guardiola won his first Manchester derby as a manager in a 1–2 victory; this was also his sixth win against his "rival" manager José Mourinho.[140] By the end of September 2016, Guardiola had won all of his first 10 matches in charge of Manchester City and were top of the Premier League table with a four-point advantage over second-placed Tottenham Hotspur,[141] but lost his first match as City manager, 2–0 against Tottenham Hotspur but remained one point clear in the league table ahead of the international break.[142] After the international break and a home draw on 23 October 2016, Guardiola tied his record of going five games without a win.[143] City's poor run continued into the EFL Cup with a 1–0 defeat to Manchester United. City's loss meant that Guardiola was without a win in his last six games in all competitions, his worst run of form in his managerial career.[144][145] Manchester City lost to Everton 4–0.[146] This was his biggest loss in domestic action.[146] Guardiola's City were eliminated in the last 16 of the Champions League by Monaco on away goals after a 6–6 aggregate draw. The second leg of the tie was his 100th game as a manager in European competition, and he arrived at that mark with the best record of any manager, 61 wins and 23 draws. This was one draw better than the previous record holder, his former manager at Barcelona, Louis van Gaal.[147]

Guardiola finished the season with no trophies – the only time he has finished a season without a trophy. He stated mid-season that the coaching role at City "might be his last team" as manager and stated not winning a trophy, of the four available to City, constituted a "failure".[148][149] However he articulated his desire to improve the following season, "I have to handle that but what I can say is try to play better, better, better than the previous month. That's what I want to see for the next year – be better."[149]

Guardiola identified the defensive areas which required improvement for City to challenge for the league title, particularly in the goalkeeper and full back position. He made three major acquisitions in the summer transfer window in goalkeeper Ederson Moraes and wing-backs of Benjamin Mendy and Kyle Walker, while dispensing of all the current senior full backs at the club in Aleksandar Kolarov, Gael Clichy, Bacary Sagna and Pablo Zabaleta. Additionally, he also signed Bernardo Silva from Monaco and Danilo from Real Madrid.

On 15 April, City were confirmed as Premier League champions following Manchester United's 0–1 defeat at home to West Bromwich Albion.[150] After finishing the season with a record-breaking 100 points, Guardiola signed a new contract with City until 2021.[151][152]

â€”Guardiola is commonly seen as a proponent of the tiki-taka style by football commentators but describes possession and quick passing of the ball as simply a means of overloading opponents and creating space for scoring opportunities.[153]

â€”Rugby Union coach Eddie Jones on how Guardiola observes other sports to influence his thinking, particularly in regards to creating space for scoring opportunities.[154]

Under Guardiola's predecessor Frank Rijkaard, Barcelona were known for a 4–3–3 with plenty of flair with Ronaldinho being the centre point of the attack. Under Guardiola, however, the team became more disciplined with a greater focus on possession and a disciplined and aggressive pressing style. He often played a high defensive line with the full backs (particularly Dani Alves) pushing high up their respective sides while relying on the passing of Xavi and Andrés Iniesta to retain possession and employing a pressing style without the ball.[155] During striker Samuel Eto'o's time at Barcelona, Lionel Messi was deployed on the right hand side, though following his departure Messi largely played in the centre forward role in a false nine capacity.[156]

During the 2011–12 season, Guardiola made increasing use of the 3–4–3 system, especially when facing two attackers, using Cesc Fàbregas as an attacking midfielder and Sergio Busquets as a midfield pivot. Johan Cruyff previously had used this system as a basic tactical approach when Guardiola played for Barcelona. Guardiola employed this system in a 5–0 win against Villarreal with Javier Mascherano, Sergio Busquets and Éric Abidal as the back-three and Seydou Keita acting as a defensive midfield. Of note is that throughout their careers, Mascherano, Keita and Busquets had been deployed primarily as midfielders and Abidal as a full back, meaning Guardiola did not play even one central defender in the 5–0 victory. Although there are some spectators who assume the primary reason for the 3–4–3 was because he was short on defenders, in a later Champions League match against Milan, he employed this tactic with most of his players available for selection. As manager of Bayern Munich, he also employed a 3–4–3 formation during the first leg of the Champions League semifinal against old club Barça.[157]

Although much emphasis is placed on retaining possession of the ball and dictating play, Guardiola's teams are recognised for pressing off the ball. Players press and harry the opposition collectively in an attempt to win back possession of the ball. This collective press is only conducted in the starting third of the opposition's pitch where less space exists and defenders and/or the goalkeeper may not be as good dribbling or passing the ball as a midfielder. At Barcelona, this was referred as the "six-second rule", in that the team should aim to win back possession of the ball within six seconds as this was the time when opposition players may still be out of position following turnover of possession and most susceptible to being dispossessed or forced into a mistake.[158] If possession of the ball was not won back within six seconds, players would abandon the collective press to conserve energy and revert to compact positions with men behind the ball to make it hard for the opposition to break them down.[159] The'six-second rule' has largely been omitted after he left Barcelona however the principle of swiftly winning the ball back following a turnover of possession remains at Bayern Munich and Manchester City.[160] This pressing tactic has influenced the tactical approach of other managers such as Mauricio Pochettino and Jurgen Klopp[161] as well as those in other sports such as rugby.[162][154]

As high pressing has become a greater part of football, Guardiola evolved the idea of countering an opponent's pressing by ensuring his goalkeeper and defenders are comfortable on the ball and capable of retaining possession to counteract. However at Manchester City, he evolved this idea one step further by utilising the fact players cannot be offside from a goal kick and ensured a goalkeeper with the necessary kicking force to kick the length of the pitch in signing Ederson. If opponents pressed City high in their back third from a goal kick, it was not uncommon that Manchester City strikers would run deep into the opponent's back third.[163][164] By doing this it forced opponents back to mark the strikers who could not be offside, thus creating large space in the middle of the pitch for the goalkeeper to chip the ball over the opposition's aggressive high press, at the same time this would often result in City creating a scoring opportunity.[165] This tactic was highly successful in the 4â€“1 Premier League win over Tottenham on 16 December 2017 with former Tottenham manager Glenn Hoddle noting the system stating "We're seeing things we've not seen before on a football pitch."[166]

Guardiola was born to Dolors and Valentí. He has two older sisters and a younger brother, Pere, a football agent.[167] He is non-religious.[168] Guardiola met his wife when he was 18.[168] They married on 29 May 2014.[169] They have three children named Maria, Màrius and Valentina.[168] Following his tenure as Barcelona's manager, Guardiola stated that he would move to the United States to live in Manhattan, New York, for a year, until he decided on his future.[170] To prepare for his upcoming position as the manager of Bayern Munich, Guardiola practised German for four to five hours per day, responding impressively at his first press conference there.[171] Guardiola supports the political independence of Catalonia.[172] In 2015, he confirmed that he would participate in the pro-independence coalition Junts pel Sí in that year's regional parliamentary election.[173]


where is area code 813 located in florida

Area code 813 covers all of Hillsborough County, the city of Oldsmar in Pinellas County, and the central and southeastern portions of Pasco County. The northeastern portion of Pasco County is in area code 352, while the western portion is in area code 727.

Area code 813

Area code 813 is the area code in the North American Numbering Plan for the city of Tampa, Florida, and surrounding areas such as Zephyrhills and Oldsmar.

Area code 813 became Florida's second area code in 1953, when it was split from the state's original single numbering plan area with area code 305.[1] The new number plan area stretched along the Gulf Coast from Pasco County to Collier County and included the cities of St. Petersburg, Sarasota, Fort Myers, and Lakeland.

On March 3, 1996, 13 counties south and east of Hillsborough County, from Manatee County to Collier County, split from the 813 numbering plan area after 43 years in the coverage area and were assigned area code 941.

Although the 1996 split was intended to be a long-term solution, within only two years, 813 was close to exhaustion again because of the rapid growth of telephone service in the Tampa Bay area and the proliferation of cell phones and pagers. The Florida Public Service Commission decided to assign area code 727 as another area code for the region. It was originally planned to be an overlay for the 813 territory. However, overlays were still a new concept, and the mixing of area codes in the same region, and the resulting requirement for ten-digit dialing, met considerable resistance.

In place of an overlay, the area of most of Pinellas County (except Oldsmar) and western Pasco County were split off on February 1, 1999 and received area code 727.[2] Oldsmar kept area code 813 despite being in Pinellas. Oldsmar was a tributary service area to the Tampa area, and tributary routes were in general not cut across NPA boundaries. Oldsmar is also located on the Pinellas/Hillsborough line, and was the only local exchange that was a local call to both cities. Most of the dialup Internet access numbers and alarm system reporting numbers in Tampa and St. Petersburg were located in Oldsmar. GTE and the Florida Public Service Commission wanted to spare alarm companies and ISPs the cost of reprogramming and replacing systems that could not handle 10 digit dialing.[citation needed]


what is the abbreviation for number in spanish

The numero sign or numero symbol, № (also represented as Nº, No, No. or no. (US English),[1] or No or no (UK English) plural Nos. or nos. (US English) or Nos or nos UK English [2]), is a typographic abbreviation of the word number(s) indicating ordinal numeration, especially in names and titles. For example, with the numero sign, the written long-form of the address "Number 22 Acacia Avenue" is shortened to "№ 22 Acacia Avenue", yet both forms are spoken long.

Numero sign

؋ ₳  ฿ ₿  ₵ ¢ ₡ ₢  $ ₫ ₯ ֏  ₠ €  ƒ ₣  ₲  ₴  ₭  ₺ ₾  ₼ ℳ ₥  ₦  ₧ ₱ ₰ £  元 圆 圓 ﷼ ៛ ₽ ₹ ₨  ₪  ৳ ₸ ₮  ₩  ¥ 円

Typographically, the numero sign combines the upper-case Latin letter N with a usually superscript lower-case letter o, sometimes underlined, resembling the masculine ordinal indicator. In Unicode, the character is U+2116 № Numero sign (HTML №).[3]

The Oxford English Dictionary derives the numero sign from Latin numero, the ablative form of numerus ("number", with the ablative denotations of: "by the number, with the number"). In Romance languages, the numero sign is understood as an abbreviation of the word for "number", e.g. Italian numero, French numéro, and Portuguese and Spanish número.[4]

The numero sign, despite its widespread usage internationally, is not a standard alphabetic symbol in virtually any European language.

In English, the abbreviation "No." of "numero" is often used in place of the word "number". In American English the hash # is used as a prefix to designate numbers, and at the end of a number to designate pounds of weight in some publications.[5] In online usage, the hash may cause complications because of its usage for hashtags and HTML anchors, a complication not present with the numero sign (thus the numero sign can be used in places the hash cannot).

The numero symbol is not in common use in France and does not appear on a standard AZERTY keyboard. Instead, the French Imprimerie nationale recommends the use of the form "no" (an "n" followed by a superscript lowercase "o"). The plural form "nos" can also be used.[6] In practice, the "o" is often replaced by the degree symbol (Â°), which is visually similar to the superscript "o" and is easily accessible on an AZERTY keyboard.

The numero sign is not typically used in Spanish, and it is not present on standard keyboard layouts. According to the Real Academia Española[7] and the Fundéu BBVA,[8] the word número (number) is abbreviated per the Spanish typographic convention of letras voladas ("flying letters"). The first letter(s) of the word to be abbreviated are followed by a period; then, the final letter(s) of the word are written as lower-case superscripts. This gives the abbreviations n.o (singular) and n.os (plural). The abbreviation "no." is not used, because it might be mistaken for the Spanish word no (no, not). Furthermore, nro. and núm. are also acceptable abbreviations for número.

The masculine ordinal indicator is regularly used combined with the letter 'n' in reference to number ('n.º')[9] or together with a number to indicate ordinal numbers (for example: '1.º', '2.º', '3.º', which is the equivalent to '1st', '2nd', '3rd' [sic] in English); the feminine version is used mainly with cardinal numbers when sequencing feminine elements (for example, when referring to first, second and third placed female athletes in a competition: '1.ª', '2.ª', '3.ª').

The sign is usually replaced with the abbreviations "n." or "nº", the latter using an ordinal indicator, rather than a superscript 'O'.[10] Similar superscript is also used for primo 1º and prima 1ª, secondo 2º and seconda 2ª, etc.

Although the letter "N" is not in the Cyrillic alphabet, the numero sign (â„–) is typeset in Russian publishing, and is available on Russian computer and typewriter keyboards.

1912 typewriter with Russian layout.
№ sign can be seen on the ‘8’ key.

Russian typewriter, circa 1985.
№ sign can be seen on the ‘1’ key.

PC keyboard with Russian layout.
№ sign can be seen on the ‘3’ key.

Because of more than three centuries of Spanish colonisation, the word número is found in almost all Philippine languages. 'No.' is its common notation in local languages as well as English.

"Nomor" in Indonesian and "nombor" in Malaysian; therefore "No." is commonly used as an abbreviation with standard spelling and full stop.

In some languages, Nr. is used instead, reflecting the abbreviation of the language's word for 'number'. German Nummer is represented this way, and this language capitalises all nouns and abbreviations of nouns. Lithuanian uses it as well, and it is usually capitalised in bureaucratic contexts, especially with the meaning'reference number' (such as sutarties Nr., 'contract No.') but in other contexts it follows the usual sentence capitalisation (such as tel. nr., abbreviation for telefono numeris, 'telephone number'). It is most commonly lower-case in other languages, such Dutch, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian, Estonian and Swedish.

On typewriters and computers that do not support this symbol, it is acceptable and commonplace to replace it with the trigraph "No." (letter "N", letter "o", and a period (full stop)).

On typewriters and computers that support the degree symbol or (preferably) masculine ordinal indicator, a digraph starting with "N", such as "N°" or "Nº", may suffice as a substitute for the numero sign, but only if it is to be presented exclusively within visual media, in a typeface and sizing that results in a passable approximation of the numero sign. Such digraphs are inappropriate for representing the numero sign in computer data, in general.

On Russian computer keyboard layout, the â„– is available and often located on the 3 key.

In Mac OS X, the character can be typed using "U.S. Extended" and "Irish Extended" keyboard layouts by typing ⇧ Shift+⌥ Option+;.

In X11 systems with a compose key, the character can be typed using Compose, ⇧ Shift+N, O. Alternatively standard XIM style can be used: Ctrl + ⇧ Shift + u, 2, 1, 1, 6, ↵ Enter.

In Microsoft Windows and HTML in general, the numero sign can be entered by the Unicode input methods № or №.

The Unicode Standard states:[11]

U+2116 NUMERO SIGN is provided both for Cyrillic use, where it looks like [semi-cursive "N" followed by raised, underlined small "o"], and for compatibility with Asian standards, where it looks like [angular "N" followed by raised, underlined small "o", followed by a period]. â€¦Instead of using a special symbol, French practice is to use an "N" or an "n", according to context, followed by a superscript small letter "o" (No or no; plural Nos or nos). Legacy data encoded in ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Latin-1) or other 8-bit character sets may also have represented the numero sign by a sequence of "N" followed by the degree sign (U+00B0 degree sign). Implementations working with legacy data should be aware of such alternative representations for the numero sign when converting data.