who sings this is ground control to major tom

Major Tom is a fictional astronaut referenced in David Bowie's songs "Space Oddity", "Ashes to Ashes", "Hallo Spaceboy", "New Killer Star" and music video "Blackstar". Bowie's own interpretation of the character evolved throughout his career. "Space Oddity" (1969) depicts an astronaut who casually slips the bonds of the world to journey beyond the stars. In the song "Ashes to Ashes" (1980), Bowie reinterprets Major Tom as an oblique autobiographical symbol for himself. Major Tom is described as a "junkie, strung out in heavens high, hitting an all-time low". This lyric was interpreted as a play on the title of Bowie's album Low (1977), which charted his withdrawal following his drug abuse in the United States. Additionally, the choked and self-recriminating tone used in the lyrics "Time and again I tell myself I'll stay clean tonight." reinforces an autobiographical and retrospective interpretation. A short time later, there is another reversal of Major Tom's original withdrawal, turning 'outwards' or towards space.[1]

Major Tom

German singer Peter Schilling retold and continued the story of Major Tom in his late 1982 release "Major Tom (völlig losgelöst)", which reached number one in Germany and Austria in early 1983. The English-language version, "Major Tom (Coming Home)", peaked at number 14 in the States in late 1983. Other artists who have subsequently made substantial contributions to the Major Tom story include K.I.A. ("Mrs. Major Tom"). Due to some similarities in Elton John's "Rocket Man", there is a possible connection between the Rocket Man and Major Tom, a connection notably made by Bowie himself, who while singing "Space Oddity" in concert would sometimes call out, "Oh, Rocket Man!"[2]

In "Space Oddity", from the album David Bowie (1969, later retitled Space Oddity), Major Tom's departure from Earth is successful and everything goes according to plan. At a certain point during the travel ('past one hundred thousand miles'), he claims that "he feels very still" and thinks that "my spaceship knows which way to go" and proceeds to say "Tell my wife I love her very much." Control then informs him, "Ground Control to Major Tom: your circuit's dead, there's something wrong" and attempts to reestablish contact with Major Tom. Tom's final words in the song (possibly not heard by Ground Control) are: "Here am I floating 'round my tin can, far above the moon. Planet Earth is blue, and there's nothing I can do."

In the promotional film from 1969, David Bowie plays as Major Tom, Ground Control (GC), and the Countdown Announcer. When the lyrics "And the stars look very different today" are said, two lovely women appear, portraying either angels or aliens, or perhaps both. The moment "Though I'm past one hundred thousand miles, I'm feeling very still" are said, the two women can be seen removing Major Tom's helmet and spacesuit. Later a still fully outfitted Major Tom can be seen spinning around in space, with a panicked Ground Control attempting to contact him; the spinning Major Tom is either the reality of the situation, or Ground Control's imagination. The music video ends with Major Tom sitting in his tin can, far above the world, with the two women by his side in a ménage à trois style.[3]

Bowie created a sequel entitled "Ashes to Ashes" (1980). The song, which peaked at Number 1 on the Billboard charts, was featured on his Number 1 LP Scary Monsters (And Super Creeps). The song actually says little about Major Tom, except to call him a "junkie," slang for a person with a heroin addiction or other compulsive habit. The context of the lyrics seems to indicate that the song is mainly about Bowie's own soul searching, rather than a literal continuation of the Major Tom story. There is an inclusion saying "strung out in heaven's high, hitting an all time low" referring to him getting high on cocaine, while his life is low. Given Bowie's own history of drug problems, it is quite possible that the "Major Tom" line could also be autobiographical.

Alternatively, the song can be interpreted to provide detailed information on Tom's story. The song refers an event happening much later, after "Space Oddity." Ground control receives a message from the "Action Man," referring to Tom, and he says "I've loved all I've needed to love. Sordid details following...".[4] He talks about how the shrieking of nothing is killing him, how all he has are his pictures of women to keep him company, and how he now has neither money nor hair. He wants to kick the habit but the planet is "glowing;" essentially he cannot quit whatever is influencing him—and killing him—because the feeling is too pleasurable and addictive. The exact source of the influence is not defined. The later verses seem to reflect more on Bowie's literal battle with addiction, specifically about wanting to stay clean but being stuck with a "valuable friend." The song again refers directly to Tom toward the end, where he has become more of a legend, but not for his heroics. He has become a nursery rhyme in the minds of the public, with mothers warning against drug use by telling their children if they want "to get things done, you'd better not mess with Major Tom." [4]

Bowie released a song entitled "Hallo Spaceboy" on his album Outside (1995). While this song itself does not directly reference Major Tom, references to Major Tom do appear in the remixed version that Bowie released with the Pet Shop Boys in 1996. This remix contains lyrics from "Space Oddity" that are sung by Pet Shop Boys vocalist Neil Tennant.

Although never mentioned in the song, an astronaut, possibly Major Tom, does make an appearance in the music video for the song "Slow Burn" on Bowie's 2002 album Heathen.

In the music video of Bowie's 2015 song "Blackstar" (on the album of the same name, released in 2016 two days prior to the artist's death), a dead astronaut is depicted. His skull is retrieved by an alien female who takes it back to what could be considered a cult which subsequently worships the relic. This astronaut was speculated to be a depiction of Major Tom's final fate.[5][6][7] Video director Johan Renck said on a BBC documentary "to me, it was 100% Major Tom."[8]

In Peter Schilling's song "Major Tom (Coming Home)" (1983) Tom sends a final message, "Give my wife my love...", after which transmission ceases. People on Earth mourn Tom, not realising that he is still alive. He then declares "Now the light commands / This is my home / I'm coming home", possibly referring to the afterlife. The associated music video shows an object falling back through the atmosphere, presumably either Major Tom or his ship. In this song the word "light" in "now the light commands" is often heard or transcribed as "life" but the liner notes of the LP Error in the System (and the original German) confirm the word "light." The German-language version "Völlig losgelöst" is contained in Schilling's German LP Fehler im System (1983). Both albums also contain a different song without lyrics entitled "Major Tom, Part II". Schilling's song was recorded in French by Plastic Bertrand in 1983, but with slightly altered lyrics, in which Major Tom prefers to stay away from Earth and its selfishness and danger of nuclear war.

At the Drive-In's song "Cosmonaut" (2000) was sometimes introduced at live shows by a recorded "final message" from Major Tom before he dies in space. The message does not appear in the recorded version of "Cosmonaut", which itself has no apparent connection to Major Tom.

K.I.A. created a song entitled "Mrs. Major Tom" (2002) on his Adieu Shinjuku Zulu album, where the song is sung by Larissa Gomes. Here the story is told from the perspective of Major Tom's wife left at home. "Mrs. Major Tom" was covered by Sheryl Crow on William Shatner's album Seeking Major Tom (2011).

The Tea Party created a song entitled "Empty Glass" on its album Seven Circles (2004). The song is written from the perspective of an unnamed person who is questioning Major Tom intensely about the purpose of life. The song also references Ground Control and the Bowie phrases "star man" and "diamond dogs".

The New Zealand comedic folk duo Flight of the Conchords allude to the character in their tribute song "Bowie" (2008) where they place Bowie himself in space, and give him the rank of Lieutenant.

In 2011, Jimmy Fallon appeared on the Piers Morgan Tonight television program, playing the guitar and singing a broad parody of "Space Oddity" along the lines of: "This is Tim Tebow to Jesus Christ", using a Bowie-esque vocal style. He also performed the song on his late night talk show Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in the character of an amalgamation of Tim Tebow and David Bowie called "Tebowie".

Major Tom also has had and continues to have passing references in other popular songs, such as: Five Star's "Rain or Shine" (1986), Def Leppard's "Rocket" (1987), Marilyn Manson's "Apple of Sodom" (1997), Lorraine Bowen's "Space" (2002), The Mars Volta's live rendition of the song "Cicatriz" (2005) featuring a lengthy jam which would evolve into the song "Cassandra Gemini", Cold's "Happens All The Time" (2005), Alphabeat's "Fantastic 6" (2007), Shiny Toy Guns' cover of Schilling's "Major Tom" (2009), The Cab's "Angel with a Shotgun" (2011), Lana Del Rey's "Terrence Loves You" (2015) which is interpreted by many fans to be a homage to Bowie and his brother Terrence, and Stephen Pearcy's "Ten Miles Wide" (2017).

During his tour of duty on board the International Space Station, British astronaut Timothy Peake was regularly referred to by the media as "Major Tim", in a direct reference to Bowie's fictional astronaut.[9][10][11] Peake was on the ISS at the time of Bowie's death and tweeted a tribute to him from there.[12] In 2017, author Clive Gifford wrote a book aimed at children about Peake's time on board the ISS, titled "Ground Control to Major Tim: The Space Adventures of Major Tim Peake".[13] Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield had previously performed a version of "Space Oddity" on board the ISS in 2013, creating one of the first music videos to be made in space.[12]


who sings don't rock the boat baby

"Rock the Boat" is a song by American trio The Hues Corporation, written by Wally Holmes. "Rock the Boat" was first featured on their 1973 debut studio album Freedom for the Stallion (a different edit version, which was the single, later appeared on certain editions of the band's 1974 second album Rockin' Soul).[1] It was released as the second single from the album in early 1974, to follow up Stallion's title song, which had peaked at number sixty-three on the Hot 100.

Rock the Boat (The Hues Corporation song)

Initially, "Rock the Boat" appeared as though it would flop, as months went by without any radio airplay or sales activity. Not until the song became a disco favorite in New York did Top 40 radio finally pick up on the song, leading the record to finally enter the Hot 100 and zip up the chart to number-one the week of July 6, 1974, in only its seventh week on the chart (and fourth week in the Top 40). The record also reached the top-ten in the United Kingdom. "Rock the Boat" is considered one of the earliest disco songs. Some authorities proclaim it to be the first disco song to hit number-one, while others give that distinction to "Love's Theme" by Love Unlimited Orchestra, a chart-topper from earlier in 1974. The song became a gold record. It is a heavy airplay favorite on oldie and adult contemporary stations today.

The song features a lead vocal by Fleming Williams, who left The Hues Corporation shortly after the song was recorded. According to The Billboard Book of Number One Hits by Fred Bronson, the lone female member of the group, H. Ann Kelly, had originally been pegged to sing lead, but this idea was discarded out of fear that groups with female lead singers were less commercially viable. The bass player on the session was Wilton Felder, not James Jamerson as previously reported. The drummer on the session who inadvertently brought the concept of using that Cumbria beat to the song was Bobby Perez, session drummer (former Ludwig endorser) from Los Angeles and New York. Prior to that recording session the song had a completely different rhythm.

The Hues Corporation member St. Clair Lee claims "It was a song that you could do anything on. You could cuddle or you could get crazy if you wanted to. It was a love song without being a love song. But, it was a Disco hit and it happened because of the discos."[2]

The song features a change in meter during the pre-chorus "We've been sailing with a cargo full of love and devotion" where it is 7
4 for one measure while the rest of the song is in common time. The 'Rock the Boat' dance also a favourite at weddings and birthday parties and involves many people sitting down in a row and 'rowing' a boat to the tune of the song.

"Rock the Boat" was covered in 1982 by the Dutch/American singer Forrest Thomas. His version also made the UK top five (number 4) and the top 10 of the American Dance/Disco chart. Jacob Miller and the Inner Circle cut a reggae version of the song in 1974.

British girl group Delage covered the song in 1990. It peaked at #63 on the UK charts.

There is a reference to the song's distinctive bridge in Jurassic 5 track "Concrete Schoolyard".

Singaporean band Lizard's Convention also covered the song in the 1990s.

Richard Finch of KC and the Sunshine Band has said that "Rock The Boat" played a partial role in inspiring the hit "Rock Your Baby".[3] The song was also featured in the 1990 film The Spirit of '76, the 1993 film Carlito's Way, the 1996 film The Cable Guy, the 1999 film Man on the Moon, the HBO series The Sopranos (Season 2, episode 5, Big Girls Don't Cry), commercial for M&M's, and (sung in character by Seth MacFarlane as Glenn Quagmire, Patrick Warburton as Joe Swanson, and Mike Henry as Cleveland Brown) the Family Guy episode A Very Special Family Guy Freakin' Christmas. The song appeared in the 1997 movie The Devil's Own with Harrison Ford and Brad Pitt, and a short extract of the refrain ("Love is a ship on the ocean..") in the 2015 movie The Martian directed by Ridley Scott and starring Matt Damon.

One of the furthest reaches "Rock The Boat" has made has been on the Australian series Playschool in a program theme about water.[4]


what is the purpose of the indicator strip in the gaspak system

The medium, the gas-pak sachet (opened and with water added) and an indicator are placed in an air-tight gas jar which is incubated at the desired temperature. The indicator tells whether the environment was indeed oxygen free or not.

Gas-pak

Gas-pak is a method used in the production of an anaerobic environment. It is used to culture bacteria which die or fail to grow in presence of oxygen (anaerobes).

These are commercially available, disposable sachets containing a dry powder or pellets, which, when mixed with water and kept in an appropriately sized airtight jar, produce an atmosphere free of elemental oxygen gas (O2). They are used to produce an anaerobic culture in microbiology. [2] [3] [4] It is a much simpler technique than the McIntosh and Filde's anaerobic jar where one needs to pump gases in and out.

The addition of a Dicot Catalyst maybe required to initiate the reaction.

These chemicals react with water to produce hydrogen and carbon dioxide along with sodium citrate (C3H5O(COONa)3) and water as byproducts [1]. Again, hydrogen and oxygen reacting on a catalyst like Palladiumised alumina (supplied separately) combine to form water.

The chemical indicator generally used for this purpose is "chemical methylene blue solution" that since synthesis has never been exposed to elemental oxygen. It is colored deep blue on oxidation in presence of atmospheric oxygen in the jar, but will become colorless when oxygen is gone, and anaerobic conditions are achieved.


who won season 24 of americas next top model

The winner of the competition was 20 year-old Kyla Coleman from Lacey, Washington.[2]

America's Next Top Model (season 24)

The twenty-fourth cycle of America's Next Top Model premiered on January 9, 2018 and was the second season to air on VH1. Continuing from cycle 23, this cycle featured an all-female cast. However, in a first for the series, the maximum age limit was removed, allowing contestants of all ages to enter the contest.[1]

Top Model franchise creator Tyra Banks returned as the show's host after being replaced for one cycle by singer Rita Ora. The judging panel, consisting of model Ashley Graham, Paper magazine chief creative officer Drew Elliott, and celebrity stylist Law Roach, remained otherwise unchanged.

The prizes for this cycle included a contract with Next Model Management, fashion spread in Paper magazine, a cash prize of US$100,000 from Pantene, and a featured avatar in the new America's Next Top Model Mobile Game.

(Ages stated are at start of contest)[1][3]

Original air date: January 9, 2018 (2018-01-09)

The semi-finalists were introduced to the judges for the first time, and were made aware of the new casting process in which any of them could be eliminated at any point during casting week (as opposed to the mass-eliminations in previous cycles), to gradually reduce the pool of contestants. The models then had one-on-one auditions with the judges, which saw several semi-finalists leave the competition.

The surviving models later met with judge Drew Elliot and fashion director Nicola Formichetti for an Avant-garde photo shoot and runway challenge. The remaining 18 contestants moved into the model house, and at the end of the week, host Tyra Banks selected the finalized cast of 14 contestants. Immediately afterwards, Banks announced that one of the semifinalists who'd missed the final cut, Erin Green, would also be allowed to move on to the main competition, bringing the final number of contestants to 15.[4][5]

Original air date: January 16, 2018 (2018-01-16)

The finalists moved into the model home. They later met runway coach Stacey McKenzie for a catwalk lesson in preparation for an upcoming runway challenge at Venice Beach skate park, where the contestants had to model designs from Baja East and avoid skateboarders as they navigated across a skating ramp. As the winner of the challenge, Khrystyana was chosen to walk in a show for the label during  New York fashion week. On set, the models had a bohemian pregnancy photo shoot with photographer Charlotte Rutherford, inspired by Hollywood's latest baby boom fashion trends. At elimination, Coura received best picture. Brendi K and Maggie landed in the bottom two, and Maggie was eliminated from the competition.[6]

Original air date: January 23, 2018 (2018-01-23)

The models arrived back at the house and immediately received a Tyra Mail alluding to the fact that makeovers would be taking place soon. After the makeovers were administered, the models met Director X for a video shoot meant to showcase their new trademark looks in a room full of mirrors. At elimination, Liberty was deemed to be the best performer for the shoot. Shanice and Ivana landed in the  bottom two, and Ivana was eliminated from the competition.[7]

Original air date: January 30, 2018 (2018-01-30)

The remaining models received  scripts for a screen test challenge with actor Kevin Phillips, which was judged by director Anthony Hemingway and Stacey McKenzie. Khrystyana was ultimately chosen as the challenge winner. Later on, the models were taken to a mansion for a photo shoot inspired by American Horror Story. After a heart to heart conversation with Tyra, Liz decided to quit the competition. At elimination, Khrystyana received best photo. Coura and Rhiyan landed in the bottom two, and Rhiyan was eliminated from the competition.[8]

Original air date: February 6, 2018 (2018-02-06)

The remaining 11 models had to work with renowned YouTuber Patrick Starr to shoot a beauty vlog which required them to use unconventional items as beauty tools. Sandra was chosen as the challenge winner, and was rewarded with a guest appearance on Starr's channel. On set, the models were stacked on top of one another to have their beauty shots taken. At elimination, Rio received best picture. Christina and Coura landed in the bottom two, and Coura was eliminated from the competition.[9]

Original air date: February 13, 2018 (2018-02-13)

The remaining 10 contestants celebrated pride week at Micky's Bar, and took part in a self styled popup runway challenge for designer Christian Cowan which was won by Khrystyana. The models later had a photo shoot posing alongside former Drag Race contestants Manila Luzon, Valentina and Katya Zamolodchikova. Khrystyana won best picture at elimination. Kyla and Liberty landed in the bottom two, and Liberty was eliminated from the competition.[10]

Original air date: February 20, 2018 (2018-02-20)

The remaining nine contestants were challenged with the task of creating an anti-bullying PSA for the National Crime Prevention Council under the direction of Director X. As the winners of the challenge, Khrystyana, Kyla, and Sandra were chosen to have their video used as part of a national digital campaign for NCPC. On set, the models were stripped to their barest essentials and had their photographs taken by Tyra. At elimination Brendi K, Jeana, Khrystyana, Kyla, Rio, Sandra, and Shanice received a joint first call-out as a group. Christina and Erin landed in the bottom two, and  Christina was eliminated from the competition.[11]

Original air date: February 27, 2018 (2018-02-27)

The remaining models received a visit from Tyra, and learned about effective techniques for taking a selfie. They were later introduced to model Jourdan Dunn in time for a selfie challenge in which they had to advertise Jourdan's clothing brand, LonDunn. Jeana was chosen as the winner of the challenge. On set the contestants were photographed by Tyra in a photo shoot where they had to pose with plus-sized male models covered in gold body paint. At elimination, Kyla received best photo. Khrystyana and Sandra landed in bottom two, and Sandra was eliminated from the competition.[12]

Original air date: March 6, 2018 (2018-03-06)

The seven remaining models met with Ashley Graham and movement coach Jermaine Browne for a motion shoot challenge, which was won by Jeana. They later had a couture photo shoot in the desert while posing with a parachute. Brendi K decided to quit the competition at panel. Shanice received best photo during elimination, while Jeana and Kyla landed in the bottom two. As a result of Brendi Kâ€™s departure earlier in the episode, both of them were allowed to stay.[13]

Original air date: March 13, 2018 (2018-03-13)

The six remaining contestants attended castings in Los Angeles for Chris Mena and Maggie Barry. Kyla and Rio were chosen as the winners of the challenge, and were given the opportunity to walk in a runway show for the designers as part of their reward. On set, the models had a cover try photo shoot for Paper magazine. At elimination, Rio received best photo. Erin and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Erin was eliminated from the competition.[14]

This episode featured behind the scenes and never before seen footage of the cycle, and highlighted each contestants journey to the top five.

Original air date: March 20, 2018

The remaining finalists had a challenge in which they had to create personalized avatars for the new America's Next Top Model mobile game. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner, and received an assortment of clothes styled by Law Roach. The models were later taken to a mansion in order to shoot a music video with Maejor and Tyra Banks under the direction of Director X. At elimination, Khrystyana received best performance. Jeana and Rio landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition.[15]

Original air date: March 27, 2018 (2018-03-27)

The final four took part in a throwback America's Next Top Model challenge inspired by the bubble runway from cycle 16. It was revealed that the models would be walking alongside the formerly eliminated contestants, one of whom would be replacing that week's eliminee at panel. Erin was chosen as the challenge winner, and along with Liberty, Christina, and Jeana, moved back into the model house for the opportunity to possibly return. On set, the contestants had a photo shoot in pairs with cycle 3 winner Eva Marcille covered in tarantulas, shot by former judge Nigel Barker. At elimination, Kyla received best picture. Rio and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Rio was eliminated from the competition. Out of the four comeback contestants, Jeana was chosen to return.[16]

Original air date: April 3, 2018 (2018-04-03)

The remaining four models took part in a challenge for Pantene in which they had to style their own hair and makeup. Khrystyana was chosen as the winner. On set, the contestants had to shoot an advertising campaign for Pantene, which required them to embody several different products from the brand. At elimination, Kyla won best photo. Jeana and Shanice landed in the bottom two, and Jeana was eliminated from the competition. In a shocking turn of events, she was saved from elimination by guest judge Philipp Plein, joining the other three models in the finale.[17]

Original air date: April 10, 2018 (2018-04-10)

The finalists attended a fitting for Philipp Plein after which Shanice was eliminated from the competition. The remaining three contestants took part in a photo shoot for the winner's spread to be published in Paper magazine. They later reunited with the formerly eliminated contestants for the final runway show. Immediately following the runway show, Khrystyana was eliminated based on the results from the photo shoot that had taken place earlier that week. The judges deliberated over the body of work of the remaining two finalists, and at the end of the night, Kyla was crowned as the winner.[18]


who built the famous agra fort at agra

Realising the importance of its central situation, Akbar made it his capital and arrived in Agra in 1558. His historian, Abul Fazl, recorded that this was a brick fort known as 'Badalgarh'. It was in a ruined condition and Akbar had it rebuilt with red sandstone from Barauli area Dhaulpur district, in Rajasthan.[citation needed] Architects laid the foundation and it was built with bricks in the inner core with sandstone on external surfaces. Some 4,000 builders worked on it daily for eight years, completing it in 1573.[3]

Agra Fort

Agra Fort is a historical fort in the city of Agra in India. It was the main residence of the emperors of the Mughal Dynasty till 1638, when the capital was shifted from Agra to Delhi. The Agra fort is a UNESCO World Heritage site.[1] It is about 2.5Â km northwest of its more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal. The fort can be more accurately described as a walled city.[citation needed]

After the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, the Babur stayed in the fort, in the palace of Ibrahim Lodi. He later built a baoli (step well) in it. His successor, Humayun, was crowned in the fort in 1530. He was defeated at Bilgram in 1540 by Sher Shah Suri. The fort remained with the Suris till 1555, when Humayun recaptured it. Adil Shah Suri's general, Hemu, recaptured Agra in 1556 and pursued its fleeing governor to Delhi where he met the Mughals in the Battle of Tughlaqabad.[2]

It was only during the reign of Akbar's grandson, Shah Jahan, that the site took on its current state. Shah Jahan built the beautiful Taj Mahal in the memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Unlike his grandfather, Shah Jahan tended to have buildings made from white marble. He destroyed some of the earlier buildings inside the fort to make his own.[citation needed]

At the end of his life, Shah Jahan was deposed and restrained by his son, Aurangzeb, in the fort. It is rumoured that Shah Jahan died in Muasamman Burj, a tower with a marble balcony with a view of the Taj Mahal.[citation needed]

The fort was invaded and captured by the Maratha Empire in the early 18th century. Thereafter, it changed hands between the Marathas and their foes many times. After their catastrophic defeat at Third Battle of Panipat by Ahmad Shah Abdali in 1761, Marathas remained out of the region for the next decade. Finally Mahadji Shinde took the fort in 1785. It was lost by the Marathas to the British during the Second Anglo-Maratha War, in 1803.[citation needed]

The fort was the site of a battle during the Indian rebellion of 1857, which caused the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to a century of direct rule of India by Britain.[citation needed]

The 380,000-square-metre (94-acre) fort has a semicircular plan, its chord lies parallel to the river and its walls are seventy feet high. Double ramparts have massive circular bastions at intervals, with battlements, embrasures, machicolations and string courses. Four gates were provided on its four sides, one Khizri gate opening on to the river.[citation needed]

Two of the fort's gates are notable: the "Delhi Gate" and the "Lahore Gate." The Lahore Gate is also popularly also known as the "Amar Singh Gate," for Amar Singh Rathore.[citation needed]

The monumental Delhi Gate, which faces the city on the western side of the fort, is considered the grandest of the four gates and a masterpiece of Akbar's time. It was built circa 1568 both to enhance security and as the king's formal gate, and includes features related to both. It is embellished with inlay work in white marble. A wooden drawbridge was used to cross the moat and reach the gate from the mainland; inside, an inner gateway called Hathi Pol ("Elephant Gate") – guarded by two life-sized stone elephants with their riders – added another layer of security. The drawbridge, slight ascent, and 90-degree turn between the outer and inner gates make the entrance impregnable. During a siege, attackers would employ elephants to crush a fort's gates. Without a level, straight run-up to gather speed, however, something prevented by this layout, elephants are ineffective.[citation needed]

Because the Indian military (the Parachute Brigade in particular) is still using the northern portion of the Agra Fort, the Delhi Gate cannot be used by the public. Tourists enter via the Amar Singh Gate.[citation needed]

The site is very important in terms of architectural history. Abul Fazal recorded that five hundred buildings in the beautiful designs of Bengal and Gujarat were built in the fort. Some of them were demolished by Shah Jahan to make way for his white marble palaces. Most of the others were destroyed by the British between 1803 and 1862 for raising barracks. Hardly thirty Mughal buildings have survived on the south-eastern side, facing the river. Of these, the Delhi Gate and Akbar Gate and one palace – "Bengali Mahal" – are representative Akbari buildings.[citation needed]

Akbar Darwazza (Akbar Gate) was renamed Amar Singh Gate by the British. The gate is similar in design to the Delhi Gate. Both are built of red sandstone.[citation needed]

The Bengali Mahal is built of red sandstone and is now split into Akbari Mahal and Jahangiri mahal.[citation needed]

Plan of Agra Fort on display at the fort, 2008

Agra Fort inscription

Exterior of Diwan-i-Am or Hall of Public Audience

Interior of Diwan I Am (Hall of Public Audience)

Agra Fort Diwan I Am (Hall of Public Audience)

Diwan-e-Khas

Delhi gate, by Seeta Ram, 1814â€“15

Agra Fort insides

Decorations on the ceiling

Weeks Edwin Gate of the Fortress at Agra India

Inside the Fort's extensive compound

Rempart of Agra Fort


what is the meaning of the name casper

Casper (with the same sounding Kasper) is a family and personal name derived from Chaldean that means "Treasurer". The origins of the name have been traced as far back as the Old Testament and variations of the name have been adopted by a variety of cultures and languages.

Casper

The name is derived from Gaspar which in turn is from an ancient Chaldean word, "Gizbar", which according to Strong's Concordance means "Treasurer". The word "Gizbar" appears in the Hebrew version of the Old Testament Book of Ezra (1:8). In fact, the modern Hebrew word for "Treasurer" is still "Gizbar" (גזבר). By the 1st century B.C. the Septuagint gave a Greek translation of "Gizbar" in Ezra 1:8 as "Gasbarinou" (literally, "son of Gasbar"). The transition from "Gizbar" to "Caspar"and "Kaspar" can thus be summarized as: Gizbar>Gasbar>Gaspar>Caspar>Kaspar...with "C" being a misreading of the manuscript "G" and "K" having the same phonetic value as "C".

There are numerous modern variations such as Gaspar (Spanish and Portuguese), Gaspare (Italian), Gaspard (French), Kaspar (German,Dutch), Kašpar (Czech), Casper (English), Kacper/Kasper (Polish), Kasperi (Finnish), Kasper (Danish), Gáspár (Hungarian), Гаспар (Russian) and Kaspars (Latvian).

By the 6th century, the name Gaspar was recorded in mosaic at the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy as one of the traditional names assigned by folklore to the anonymous Magi mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew account of the Nativity of Jesus. The letter "G" in the name Gaspar was clearly different from the letter "C" used elsewhere, suggesting that the name Gaspar preceded the name Caspar, and not the other way around as some have supposed.

The Western tradition of the name Gaspar also derives from an early 6th Century Greek manuscript, translated into the Latin "Excerpta Latina Barbari". A pseudo-Venerable Beda text, called "Collectanea et Flores", apparently continues the tradition of the name Caspar: "Secundus nomine Caspar" (P.L., XCIV, 541). This text is said to be from the 8th or 9th century, of Irish origin. As a surname, Gaspar survives today in Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and French, although the latter adds a silent d. It also survives in the Armenian name, Gasparian.

The basic names Gaspar, and its variants Caspar and Kaspar, along with Melchior and Balthazar or (Balthasar), the other two saints, wisemen, and kings depicted in the above basilica became family names and spread throughout Europe. Eventually, there would be dozens of variations due to suffixes (e.g. "-son","-sen", "-ovitch","-ski", etc.) and variations of spelling, pronunciation, and alphabets. For example, since "s"(Hungarian)="sh"(English)="sch"(German)="sz"(Polish), and since "s"(English, German, Dutch)="sz"(Hungarian), it is easy to see how Kaspar could become Kaschpar or Kaszpar. Some of them if written in Russian or Armenian would be totally unrecognizable if seen, but recognizable if heard.

In British and American English, the initial a in Gaspar, Kaspar, Caspar, etc. is now pronounced as in the word "hat", whereas in continental Europe, it remains as in the word "father". This, and other changes in English pronunciation, took place between 1200 AD and 1600 AD and are now known as the Great Vowel Shift. There were some exceptions: for example "Watt" and "Watson".

Records indicate by the late 18th century a number of immigrants to America were changing the a to o in the first part of their names and -ar to -er in the last part, most likely to more closely approximate the continental European (rather than British) pronunciation. Examples include:


what kind of newspaper was the capital gazette

The Capital is a daily newspaper published in Annapolis since 1884. Its sister newspaper, The Gazette, is one of the oldest newspapers in America, its origins dating back to the early 18th century. The Capital serves the city of Annapolis, much of Anne Arundel County, and neighboring Kent Island in Queen Anne's County. An evening newspaper for most of its existence, it moved to mornings beginning on March 9, 2015.[1]

The Capital

The Capital, the Maryland Gazette and their sister publications have been composed and printed for more than 270 years in numerous locations in and near Annapolis.

The company has moved headquarters seven times, including from 3 Church Circle to 213 West St. in 1948, to 2000 Capital Drive in 1987, to Gibralter Road after that, and to 888 Bestgate Road in 2014.[citation needed]

The Capital was acquired by The Baltimore Sun Media Group in 2014.[2]

The newspaper was founded in 1884 as The Evening Capital. One of its sister papers is The Maryland Gazette, founded in Annapolis in 1727 by William Parks and today one of the oldest continuously published newspapers in the United States.

For much of the twentieth century, the Capital was edited by Elmer Jackson, Jr. Originally of the Hagerstown Daily Mail, Jackson was appointed editor in 1931.[3]

In 1959, it added a Saturday morning edition.[4]

In 1967, the newspaper and its sisters were sold to Phillip Merrill.[5] Jackson was replaced as editor.[6]

In 1981[citation needed], the name was shortened to The Capital.

After the 2006 suicide of then-publisher and part owner Philip Merrill, Landmark Communications took full control of The Capital's parent company, Capital Gazette Communications, LLC, which published The Capital, Maryland Gazette, Bowie Blade-News, Crofton-West County Gazette, and Capital Style Magazine.

On January 3, 2008, it was reported that the family-owned Landmark Communications, parent company of The Capital, was for sale.[7]

Its change to a seven-day-a-week morning paper was announced on February 8, 2015, and implemented on March 9.[1]

As of 2018, The Capital had a daily circulation of about 33,000.[8] The papers are printed on a computerized high-speed Goss International Headliner press.

On June 28, 2018, a mass shooting occurred at The Capital Gazette offices in Annapolis, Maryland.[9] Five newspaper employees were killed: journalists Rob Hiaasen,[10] Wendi Winters,[11] Gerald Fischman,[12] and John McNamara,[13] and sales assistant Rebecca Smith.[14]


when was ac dc back in black released

Back in Black is the seventh studio album by Australian rock band AC/DC. Produced by Robert John "Mutt" Lange, the album was released on 25 July 1980 by Albert Productions and Atlantic Records. By the late 1970s, AC/DC began to achieve significant popularity outside their native Australia, with high-energy live performances and a string of successful albums. In 1978, they paired with producer Lange and recorded their international breakthrough, Highway to Hell. Back in Black is the band's first album with vocalist Brian Johnson, replacing Bon Scott, who had died in February of the same year, shortly before the band started recording the album. Instead of disbanding, the group decided to continue with Johnson.

Back in Black

Back in Black was recorded over seven weeks in the Bahamas in April and May 1980. The area was hit by tropical storms at the time, making the sessions difficult at times. Composed by Johnson, Angus and Malcolm Young, its musical content consists of hard rock-styled numbers. Lange demanded perfection in the band's recordings, particularly on Johnson's vocals. Following its completion, the group mixed Back in Black at Electric Lady Studios in New York City. The album's all-black cover was designed as a "sign of mourning" for Scott.

Their sixth international release, Back in Black was an unprecedented success: it has sold an estimated 50 million copies worldwide.[2][3][4][5] Its enormous sales figures have made it the second-highest-selling album in history. The band supported the album with a yearlong world tour, cementing them among the most popular music acts of the early 1980s. Back in Black received positive critical reception at the time of its release, and it has since been included on numerous lists of "greatest" albums. Since its initial release, the album has been reissued and remastered multiple times, most recently for digital distribution.

By 1979, AC/DC were poised to receive a significant level of success with their sixth studio album, Highway to Hell. Robert John "Mutt" Lange produced the record, making the band's sound more catchy and accessible to international audiences, and it became their first platinum album in the United States, selling over one million copies, while also peaking at number 17 on that country's pop charts and number eight in the United Kingdom.[6] AC/DC, formed in 1973, first broke into international markets in 1977 with their fourth record, Let There Be Rock. They were notable for their high-energy live performances, in which lead guitarist Angus Young would don a schoolboy outfit, and for singer Bon Scott's distinctive raspy voice.[6]

As the new decade approached, the group set off for the UK and France for the final tour dates of their breakthrough release.[7] They planned to begin recording a follow-up shortly after its completion. On 19 February 1980, Scott went on a drinking binge in a London pub that caused him to lose consciousness, so a friend let him rest in the back of his Renault 5 overnight. The next morning, Scott was found unresponsive and rushed to King's College Hospital where medical personnel pronounced him dead on arrival. The coroner ruled that pulmonary aspiration of vomit was the cause of Scott's death, but the official cause was listed on the death certificate as "acute alcoholic poisoning" and classified as "death by misadventure". Scott was cremated and his ashes were interred by his family at Fremantle Cemetery in Fremantle, Western Australia.[8] The loss devastated the band, who considered breaking up. However, friends and family persuaded them to carry on.[9]

After Bon Scott's funeral, the band immediately began auditions for a replacement frontman. Among the applicants were Gary Pickford Hopkins and Allan Fryer of Fat Lip,[10] who, like Stevie Wright of the Easybeats, were touted by the press as most-certain replacements.[11] At the advice of Lange, the group brought in Geordie singer Brian Johnson, who impressed the group.[12] After the band begrudgingly worked through the rest of the list of applicants in the following days, Johnson returned for a second rehearsal.[13] On 29 March, Malcolm Young called the singer to offer him the job, to his surprise. Out of respect for Bon Scott, the band wanted a frontman who would not be a mere imitator of him. In addition to his distinctive voice, demeanor and love of classic soul and blues music, the group liked Johnson's engaging personality.[14] Johnson was officially announced as the new lead singer of AC/DC on 8 April 1980.

Rehearsals for Back in Black were scheduled over three weeks at Londonâ€™s E-Zee Hire Studios, but it was cut to one week when an opening came up at Compass Point Studios in Nassau, in the Bahamas. Although they preferred to record their next effort in the UK, there were no studios available, and the Bahamas presented a nice tax advantage.[15]

Back in Black was recorded from mid-April to May 1980 at Compass Point with producer "Mutt" Lange. Upon their arrival, the area was being hit by several tropical storms, wreaking havoc on the studio's electricity. In addition, their equipment was initially held up by customs, and other gear slowly was freighted over from the UK.[16] Johnson felt pressure during the process, having never recorded with the group. None of Scott's writings were used for the album's lyrics, as the group felt it would seemingly profit from his passing. Johnson reported having trouble adjusting to the environment, and even referenced the bad weather on the opening lines of "Hells Bells" ("I'm rolling thunder, pourin' rain. I'm comin' on like a hurricane. My lightning's flashing across the sky. You're only young but you're gonna die.").[17]

The general attitude in the studio was optimistic. Engineer Tony Platt was dismayed, however, to find the studio's rooms were not sonically complimentary to the group's sound, which was designed to be very dry and compact.[18] A humorous anecdote from the sessions involved a recording being interrupted by random crab shuffling across the studio's wooden floor.[19] Angus Young's particular guitar sound was achieved in part by a wireless guitar device, the Schaffer-Vega Diversity System, a Ken Schaffer design which provided a signal boost and was reissued as a separate guitar effect in 2014.[20][21]

Lange focused particular attention on Johnson's vocals, demanding perfection out of each take.[22] Near the end of the process, the band phoned manager Ian Jeffery in search of a bell to include on the album.[23] Jeffery located a foundry to produce the bell, but with seven weeks having already gone by, he suggested Platt record a nearby church's bells.[24] These recordings did not suffice due to the sound of a flurry of birds flying away at each bell hit. The foundry brought forward production on the bell, which turned out perfectly tuned, and it was recorded with Ronnie Lane's Mobile Studio.[24] Following the recording's completion, the group mixed Back in Black at Electric Lady Studios in New York City.[25]

According to Angus Young, the album's all-black cover was a "sign of mourning" for Scott. Atlantic Records disagreed with the cover, but accepted if the band put a grey outline around the AC/DC logo.[17]

Back in Black was released on 25 July 1980, less than half a year after Scott's death. AC/DC were nervous about the future, with Angus saying they were a "bit jittery" during recording.[32] However, the album proved to ease the band's worries, as it became their best selling, most popular and critically respected album. Not only did it go to no. 1 on the UK Albums Chart, its success meant AC/DC were the first band since The Beatles to have four albums in the British Top 100 simultaneously, as Highway to Hell, If You Want Blood You've Got It, and Let There Be Rock all re-entered the charts right after Back in Black was released.[33] In the US, the single "You Shook Me All Night Long"/"Have a Drink on Me" became AC/DC's first Top 40 hit in the country, peaking at no. 35.[33] The title track, along with "Hells Bells", "Shoot to Thrill", "You Shook Me All Night Long", and "Rock and Roll Ain't Noise Pollution" all became fan favorites and staples of the band's live performances. The other songs on Back in Black were largely ignored after the mid-1980s although "What Do You Do for Money Honey" was revived during the 2001 tour. The 2015 tour brought back "Have a Drink on Me" and "Given the Dog a Bone".

Despite its success, Robert Christgau wrote that, "Angus Young does come up with killer riffs, though not as consistently as a refined person like myself might hope, and lead singer Brian Johnson sings like there's a cattle prod at his scrotum, just the thing for fans who can't decide whether their newfound testosterone is agony or ecstasy." Christgau gave the album a Bâ€“.[28]

The album is featured on many "best of" lists. In 1989, it was ranked #26 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 100 Best Albums of the Eighties. The title track was ranked no. 190 on the same magazine's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[34] In 2001, VH1 ranked Back in Black #82 on its list of the Top 100 Albums.[35] VH1 also placed the title track at #2 on its list of the 100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs. In 2003, the album was ranked #77 on Rolling Stone's list of "The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time".[36] In 2006, Q magazine placed the album at #9 in its list of the 40 Best Albums of the '80s.[37] It was listed at #2 in the book, 100 Best Australian Albums, in October 2010,[38] and included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die in 2005.[39]

Back in Black is also praised for its sound quality. In the years after its release, studios in Nashville, Tennessee (nicknamed "Music City") would use it to check the acoustics of a room, while Motörhead would use it to tune their sound system.[40]

American death metal group Six Feet Under recorded a cover of the entire album under the title Graveyard Classics 2.[41]

Worldwide, Back in Black is the second best-selling album of all time, behind only Michael Jackson's Thriller. Back in Black was very successful around the world, and despite never reaching no. 1 on the US Billboard 200, it received the 22× multi-platinum distinction, denoting 22 million albums sold. This currently places it sixth in the list of best-selling albums in the US (behind Thriller, Eagles' Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975), Led Zeppelin's Led Zeppelin IV, Pink Floyd's The Wall, and Billy Joel's Greatest Hits Volume I & Volume II).[42] It is the best-selling hard rock album of all-time, and the best-selling album ever released by an Australian musical act. On 13 December 2007, the RIAA certified it 22× multi-platinum, recognizing sales of 22 million in the US,[43] making it the sixth-highest-selling album in the US (fourth-highest at the time).[42]

Back in Black stayed on the Billboard chart for 131 weeks, never reaching no. 1; however, it did reach no. 1 in Australia and the UK. In April 2010, it re-entered the Billboard charts at no. 181.

In 2014, Back in Black re-entered the Billboard charts at no. 73.

The album has also sold one million or more copies in Canada, Germany and France.[44] The album has sold 50 million copies worldwide.

AC/DC recorded six music videos for the album which were recorded in Breda, in the Netherlands. The songs they used for the videos were "Back in Black", "Hells Bells", "What Do You Do for Money Honey", "You Shook Me All Night Long", "Let Me Put My Love into You", and "Rock and Roll Ain't Noise Pollution", and were basic performance videos. Most of these remained officially unreleased until "Back in Black", "Hells Bells", "What Do You Do for Money Honey", and "Rock and Roll Ain't Noise Pollution", as well as the 1986 video for "You Shook Me All Night Long" which was filmed for the Who Made Who album, were released on the Family Jewels DVD. The original video for "You Shook Me All Night Long" was later released on the promo DVD Back in Black: The Videos and on the Backtracks box sets. One thing to note about both videos is the original 1980 video features drummer Phil Rudd, who appears on the actual track, while the 1986 video features Simon Wright who replaced Rudd in 1983. However, Rudd would return in 1994. This is not the first time Wright appeared in an AC/DC video for a track originally recorded with Rudd. Rudd appeared on Flick of the Switch (1983) while Wright appeared on the tour and videos for that album. "Let Me Put My Love into You" still remains unreleased but can be viewed on YouTube. A video for "Shoot to Thrill", combining 2009 live footage of the group and scenes from Iron Man 2, was released in 2009.

Back in Black was included among a group of fifteen DualDisc releases that were test marketed in two cities in the US: Boston and Seattle. The DualDisc has the standard album on one side, and bonus material on the second side.

The DualDisc version was subsequently reissued in a commercial version that is somewhat different than the rare test market version.

All tracks written by Angus Young, Malcolm Young and Brian Johnson.

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone


what is the purpose of the white el cadejo

The cadejo (Spanish pronunciation: [kaˈðexo]) is a supernatural character from Central American and southern Mexican folklore. There is a good white cadejo and an evil black cadejo. Both are spirits that appear at night to travelers: the white to protect them from harm during their journey, the black (sometimes an incarnation of the devil) to kill them. The colors of the cadejo are sometimes exchanged according to local tradition. In some places, the black cadejo is seen as the good one and the white cadejo the evil one. They usually appear in the form of a large (up to the size of a cow), shaggy dog with burning red eyes and a goat's hooves, although in some areas they have more bull-like characteristics. According to the stories, many have tried to kill the black cadejo but have failed and perished. It is also said that if a cadejo is killed, it will smell terrible for several days, and then its body will disappear. Some Salvadoran folklore also tells of a cadejo that guards drunks against anyone who tries to rob or hurt them. When the cadejo is near, it is said to bring about a strong goat-like smell. Most people say never to turn your back to the creature because otherwise you will go crazy. Speaking to the cadejo will also induce insanity.

Cadejo

In popular etymology, the name cadejo is thought to have derived from the Spanish word "cadena", meaning "chain"; the cadejo is at times represented as dragging a chain behind him. There is a fairly large member of the weasel family, the tayra, which in common speech is called a cadejo and is cited as a possible source of the legend.

In El Salvador, the dog-like creature is known as El Cadejo, is said to look like a dog but is not a dog, has deer-like hooves and also moves like a deer, rather than a dog. The white Cadejos are known to be benevolent and eat bell-like flowers that only grows on volcanoes. The white Cadejo protects people including drunks, vagabonds, and people with grudges from all evil foot steps and even La Siguanaba, and bad choices which are sometimes caused by the evil black Cadejo. The black Cadejo is malevolent and lures people to make bad choices. The black Cadejo has glowing red eyes and eats new born puppies and sometimes the black Cadejo is said to be the devil himself. The black Cadejo is said to be able to stand on two feet like a man and swiftly throw punches on its victims, letting them know that they are no ordinary dog. The novel "Los perros magicos de los volcanes" (Magic Dogs of the Volcanoes) by Manilo Argueta, describes the Cadejos as mythical dog-like creatures that figure prominently in the folklore of El Salvador. They mysteriously appear at night and lovingly protect the villagers who live on the slopes of the volcanoes from danger. In El Salvador the legend of El Cadejo revolves around La Siguanaba and El Cipitio legends.

The cadejo ranges in size according to different tales in various regions. It lurks in graveyards and dark alleys, waiting to attack a passing victim. It has a distinctive smell of concentrated urine and burning sulphur. It rattles with a jerking motion, contracting its pharynx. Its gaze freezes anyone who makes eye contact. It glitters in the pitch dark with skin and short hair, similar to that of a pig.

There are three types of black cadejos:

The first is the devil himself in the form of a large, wounded dog with hoofed feet that are bound with red-hot chains. It is said that not even the white cadejo is able to completely stop him. Unlike the regular black cadejo it is not likely to pursue and attack a passing person, as it is a scout - the eyes of evil. Instead, anyone who spots him will have a sad event. In the short story "Leyenda del Cadejo" ("Legend of the Cadejo") by Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias, this variety of cadejo terrorizes a young abbess and robs her of her braid.

The second type of cadejo is the regular cadejo, the mysterious evil dog. It kills and savagely tears through its victim. First it demoralizes him with a series of sounds and other signs that it is nearby. Then, after the victim is scared, it leaps forward, and will kill him if the white cadejo is not near.

The final, and least powerful type of black cadejo is the offspring of a normal dog and the "regular" cadejo. It is a mortal hybrid and can (with difficulty) be killed by a strong man (bearing in mind that most men in those regions only carry a machete for protection). Once dead, it will completely rot in a matter of seconds, leaving behind a stain of evil, on which grass and moss will never grow again. This cadejo will never bite its victim. Instead, he kicks and pecks them with his snout. After this happens, people say "Lo jugÃ³ el cadejo" which means "he\she was handled by the cadejo". The victim goes mad. This term is sometimes applied to people that are born with a mental illness.

A fairly popular version of the legend in El Salvador talks about two brothers who walk into the house of a black magician. During a storm, he asks the boys to help him with some logs for a fire. Both boys slack on the job but eat the man's food. Once he finds out the little bit of food he had is missing and that there is not enough wood for his fire, he puts a curse on the road that leads to the boys' village. Voices bother the boys and when they turn their backs on the voices they get turned into creatures: a white cadejo and a black one. After going back to their village in their cursed form they get kicked out and have no choice but to wander.

In the early 1900s, Juan Carlos was a guardian who lived in a thatched house near Los Arcos, in the country fields near La Aurora in Guatemala. He worked near Parroquia Vieja and arrived at his house at midnight. Almost all the time, his wife and small children spend the whole day alone, in the middle of the fields. Juan found a white dog when he arrived at his house one day. When the dog saw him coming, it would shake, turn around and disappear. Juan always tried to follow the dog, but he could never reach him. One day, when he arrived, the white dog never moved, and when he approached the dog, it did not make a single sound. But then Juan touched his paw, and all of a sudden it opened his eyes. Juan was scared; the dog said, 'you do not need my help anymore'. Frightened, Juan exclaimed,'what help'? And the dog said, in pain, 'I am a dog sent from above. My mission was to protect you from any danger. But you had showed me you do not need my help anymore.' Right after that, the white dog closed his eyes. Juan buried him, and every time he came home, he remembered the white dog.

The Guatemalan born artist, Carlos Loarca, born in 1937, was a painter known for utilizing the cadejo as a main motif in his paintings. As a child, Loarca was told the legend, and he believed that the cadejo protected his father, as he always came home safely from the cantina. As an adult, Loarca felt the protecting spirit, and helped him break his own alcohol habit. The cadejo first appeared in his paintings in the 1970s, and still is brought into reality through his paintings. Loarca states the "dog" has been a companion, guide, and has grown old with him.


who issues the environmental permits to the industry in the uk

The Agency is the regulatory authority for all waste management activities including the licensing of sites such as landfill, incineration and recycling facilities. It also regulates the movement of hazardous wastes such as fibrous asbestos, infectious clinical wastes and harmful chemicals. The Agency issues Environmental Permits to waste management sites and any individuals or companies found to have caused pollution or have infringed their licence conditions can be prosecuted. In serious cases the Environment Agency has the power to revoke the Environmental Permits issued to sites that contravene the conditions of their permits stopping all waste handling activities.[23]

Environment Agency

The Environment Agency (EA) is a non-departmental public body, established in 1995 and sponsored by the United Kingdom government's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), with responsibilities relating to the protection and enhancement of the environment in England (and until 2013 also Wales).

The Environment Agency's stated purpose is, "to protect or enhance the environment, taken as a whole" so as to promote "the objective of achieving sustainable development" (taken from the Environment Act 1995, section 4). Protection of the environment relates to threats such as flood and pollution. The vision of the Agency is of "a rich, healthy and diverse environment for present and future generations".[1]

The Environment Agency's remit covers almost the whole of England, about 13 million hectares of land, 22,000 miles (35,000 km) of river and 3,100 miles (5,000 km) of coastline seawards to the three-mile limit which includes 2 million hectares of coastal waters.[2] In a sharing arrangement with the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA), it also exercises some of its functions over parts of the catchments of the River Tweed and the Border Esk which are, for the most part, in Scotland. Similarly, in an arrangement with NRW, political and operational areas are not coterminus. NRW staff excercise responsibility for parts of the River Dee (Wales) in England and EA staff exercise operational responsibility for those parts of the River Severn catchment in Wales.

The Environment Agency employs around 11,200 staff. It is organised into eight directorates that report to the chief executive.[3]

There are two "policy and process" directorates. One deals with Flood and Coastal Risk Management and the other with Environment and Business. These are backed up by the Evidence directorate. The fourth directorate is a single Operations "delivery" unit, responsible for national services, and line management of all the Regional and Area staff.

The remaining directorates are central shared service groups for Finance, Legal Services, Resources and Communications.

In support of its aims, the Agency acts as an operating authority, a regulatory authority and a licence authority.

The agency is funded in part from the UK government Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Additional money is raised from the issuing of licences and permits such as abstraction licences, waste handler registrations, navigation rights and rod (fishing) licences and from licensing data for which the Agency is owner.

Funding for asset management and improvement and acquisition of flood risk management assets has traditionally come from local authorities via Flood Defence Committees. This was then effectively repaid by central Government in later years as part of the Formula Spending Share. In 2005 this was simplified by making a direct transfer from Treasury to the Environment Agency in the form of Flood Defence Grant in Aid.

The Environment Agency's total funding in 2007–08 was £1,025 million, an increase of £23 million on 2006–07. Of that total, £628 million (61 per cent) was provided in the form of 'flood defence grant-in-aid' from government (£578 million for England and £50 million for Wales). In addition, £347 million (34 per cent) was raised through statutory charging schemes and flood defence levies; and a further £50 million (5 per cent) came from other miscellaneous sources.[4][5]

In 2007–08 had an operational budget of £1.025 billion, of which £628m was grant from the Agency's sponsoring Government Departments. Approximately half the Agency's expenditure is on flood risk management, and a third is spent on environment protection (pollution control). Of the remainder, 12% goes to water resources, and 6% to other water functions including navigation and wildlife.[4][5]

The Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs has the lead sponsorship responsibility for the Environment Agency as a whole and is responsible for the appointment of the chairman and the Environment Agency Board.

In addition the Secretary of State is responsible for overall policy on the environment and sustainable development within which the Agency undertakes its work; the setting of objectives for the Agency's functions and its contribution to sustainable development; the approval of its budget and payment of Government grant to the Agency for its activities in England and approval of its regulatory and charging regimes.[2] Its chief executive is Sir James Bevan.

Sir Philip Dilley resigned as chairman on 11 January 2016, with Emma Howard Boyd becoming acting chair.[6] Emma Howard Boyd took up the post of Chair formally on 19 September 2016.[7]

The Environment Agency was created by the Environment Act 1995, and came into existence on 1 April 1996. It had responsibility for the whole of England and Wales but with specifically designated border arrangements with Scotland covering the catchment of the River Tweed. It took over the roles and responsibilities of the National Rivers Authority (NRA), Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Pollution (HMIP) and the waste regulation authorities in England and Wales including the London Waste Regulation Authority (LWRA). All of the predecessor bodies were disbanded and the local authorities relinquished their waste regulatory role. At the same time, the Agency took responsibility for issuing flood warnings to the public, a role previously held by the police.

In 2010 a new national headquarters for the agency was opened at Horizon House in Deanery Road, Bristol. The building, which was designed by Alec French Architects, won the Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment (BREEAM) Award for its environmentally friendly construction and operation which includes the use of sustainable materials, natural ventilation and cooling, photoelectric panels and rainwater harvesting.[8]

On the 24th April 2013 Horizon House suffered a fire leading to its closure for several weeks[9]. An investigation into the fire found it was that result of workmen accidentally igniting the environmentally friendly cavity wall insulation on the ground floor and due to the design of the upward airflow the fire spread quickly in the inside of the wall leading to substantial smoke damage throughout. [10] The building was quickly evacuated and the fire under control in under and hour. The resulting internal document proposed additional standards for the handling of materials that offer environmental advantages but may be considered more susceptible to ignition.

On 1 April 2013, that part of the Environment Agency covering Wales was merged into Natural Resources Wales, a separate body managing the Welsh environment and natural resources.[11][12]

The Environment Agency is the principal flood risk management operating authority. It has the power (but not the legal obligation) to manage flood risk from designated main rivers and the sea. These functions in relation to other rivers (defined as ordinary watercourses) in England are undertaken by Local Authorities or internal drainage boards. The Environment Agency is also responsible for increasing public awareness of flood risk, flood forecasting and warning and has a general supervisory duty for flood risk management. As of 2008[update] the Environment Agency also has a strategic overview role for all flood and coastal erosion risk management.[13] The term "Flood Risk Management" in place of "Flood Defence" recognises that managed flooding is essential to meet the requirements of a sustainable flood strategy.[14] It is often not economically feasible or even desirable to prevent all forms of flooding in all locations, and so the Environment Agency uses its powers to reduce either the likelihood or consequences of flooding.

The Environment Agency is responsible for operating, maintaining and replacing an estimated £20 billion worth of flood risk management (FRM) installations. According to a report by consultants in 2001, these are estimated to prevent annual average damage costs of approximately £3.5 billion.[15] The Agency also invests in improving or providing new installations in areas where there remains a high risk of flooding, particularly where, because of the possible consequences, the damage risk is the highest. The Thames Barrier was completed long before the EA was created but more recent examples of major defences against coastal flooding include the Medmerry managed realignment scheme in West Sussex in 2013.[16] Recent examples of major inland flood prevention schemes include the Jubilee River.

The Environment Agency provides flood forecasting and warning systems and maintains maps of areas liable to flood, as well as preparing emergency plans and responding when an event occurs. The Environment Agency carries out an advisory function in development control â€“ commenting on planning applications within flood risk areas, providing advice to assist planning authorities in ensuring that any development is carried out in line with the National Planning Policy Framework. The agency provides technical advice on the flood risk assessment that must be submitted with most planning applications in flood risk areas. The Agency also runs public awareness campaigns to inform those at risk who may be unaware that they live in an area that is prone to flooding, as well as providing information about what the flood warning codes and symbols mean and how to respond in the event of a flood.[18] The agency operates Floodline, a 24-hour telephone helpline on flooding. Floodline covers England, Wales and Scotland but not Northern Ireland, and provides information and advice including property flood-risk checks, flood warnings, and flood preparation advice.

In partnership with the Met Office it runs the Flood Forecasting Centre (FFC) which provides warnings of flooding which may affect England and Wales. Formed in 2009, the FFC is based in the Operations Centre at the Met Office headquarters in Exeter.[19]

The Agency is the main regulator of discharges to air, water, and land – under the provisions of a series of Acts of Parliament. It does this through the issue of formal consents to discharge or, in the case of large, complex or potentially damaging industries by means of a permit.[20] Failure to comply with such a consent or permit or making a discharge without the benefit of a consent can lead to criminal prosecution. Magistrates' Court can impose fines of up to £50,000 or 12 months imprisonment for each offence of causing or knowingly permitting pollution. If prosecuted in the Crown Court, there is no limit on the amount of the fine and sentences of up to 5 years imprisonment may be imposed on those responsible for the pollution or on Directors of companies causing pollution.

The Agency has an important role in conservation and ecology specifically along rivers and in wetlands. More general responsibility for the countryside and natural environment in England falls to the organisation Natural England. The Environment Agency's activities support users of the rivers and wetlands, including anglers and boaters.

The Agency states that they take a "leading role in limiting and preparing for the impacts of climate change."[21]

The Agency is a regulator for the release of air pollutants into the atmosphere from large, complex industrial processes. This will soon include emissions from some large-scale agricultural activities, but air pollutant releases from many agricultural activities will continue to be unregulated.[22]

Major sources of air pollution, such as transport, are subject to various measures at the European, national and local level. Local authorities regulate air pollution from smaller industrial processes. The Agency works with local authorities, the Highways Agency and others to implement the UK government's air quality strategy in England as mandated in the Environment Act 1995. The Environment Agency has an Air Quality Modelling and Assessment Unit (AQMAU) that aims to ensure that air quality assessments for permit applications, enforcement and air pollution incident investigations are consistent, of a high standard and based on sound science.

The Agency has a duty to maintain and improve the quality of surface waters and ground-waters and, as part of the duty, it monitors the quality of rivers, lakes, the sea and groundwater on a regular basis. Much of this information is required by law under the provisions of a number of European Directives to be reported both to Parliament and to Europe and to be made public. Some of these duties have been in force through predecessor agencies and as a consequence the Agency maintains some long term data sets which in some cases such as the Harmonised monitoring scheme exceed 30 years of consistent data collection.

Monitoring is also carried out of many discharges to the aquatic environment including sewage effluents and trade and agricultural discharges.

The Agency manages the use and conservation of water through the issue of water abstraction licences for activities such as drinking water supply, artificial irrigation and hydro-electricity generation. The Agency is in charge of inland rivers, estuaries and harbours in England. Its remit also extends into Scotland in the River Tweed and River Solway catchments where special arrangements exist with SEPA to avoid duplication but retain management on a catchment basis.

Complex arrangements exist for the management of river regulation reservoirs, which are used to store winter water in the wetter parts of England to maintain levels in the summer time so that there is sufficient water to supply the drier parts of the country with drinking water.

The Agency is a regulator of angling and sells over a million rod licences a year. It uses the proceeds (approx Â£20M per annum)[24] to maintain and improve the quality of fisheries in England by improving habitat. The Agency also regulates the commercial exploitation of shellfish.

After the Canal & River Trust, the Environment Agency is the second largest navigation authority in the United Kingdom managing navigation for 634 miles (1,020 km) of England's rivers. The Agency's lock-keepers maintain and operate systems of sluices, weirs and locks to manage water-levels for navigation, and where necessary to control flooding. Annual spending to maintain these installations, with an estimated replacement value of £700M, is around £22M per annum.[25] The Agency uses the registration fees of some 31,000 craft on the waterways to provide some of the income.[26] The Agency's responsibilities include the non-tidal River Thames, the Medway Navigation, River Wye and River Lugg, the Royal Military Canal and the Fens and Anglian systems. The Environment Agency is organising the Fens Waterways Link a major construction project to link rivers in the Fens and Anglian Systems for navigation. The first stage is the South Forty-Foot Drain.[27][28] Functions in relation to most canals are undertaken by the Canal and River Trust.

The Environment Agency is the harbour authority for Rye and the Conservancy Authority for the Dee Estuary.[29] The Environment Agency also publishes information about tidal bores, these being the Trent Aegir and the Severn bore.[30]

The Agency uses its influence and provides education to change attitudes and behaviour towards the environment. Action, in several policy areas, is directed towards business and commerce at all levels, children in education, the general public and Government and local government. This last area is quite distinct from the Agency's statutory role to advise Government.

In local government planning processes, the Environment Agency is a statutory consultee on all planning matters from County Strategic plans down to individual planning applications. In reality only those applications judged to pose special risks to the environment are commented on in any detail. For many years the Agency has been offering strong advice against the development of land in floodplains because of the risk of flooding. Whilst in some instances, this advice may not have been appreciated in its entirety, in a large number of cases this advice has been used to reach decisions on planning applications.

The Environment Agency is also an advisory board member of the River Restoration Centre at Cranfield University.[31]

Until the formation of the Environment Agency, the Government took specialist advice on the management of the environment from civil servants employed in appropriate ministries. This led to considerable duplication of effort and frequent disagreements between Government and the regulatory agencies. The Environment Agency now advises Government directly about those issues within its purview.

The operational arm of the Environment Agency consists of 16 areas, all of which report to the Director of Operations. As of April 2014, the Environment Agency removed its regional level of administration (formerly Anglian Region, Midlands Region, North West Region, South East Region, South West Region and Yorkshire & North East Region) to be replaced by an "area once, national once" model. The 16 area names were also changed to better reflect the areas that they serve. The new area names are:

- Northumberland, Durham and Tees
- Cumbria and Lancashire
- Yorkshire
- Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire
- Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire

- Greater Manchester, Merseyside and Cheshire
- Staffordshire, Warwickshire and West Midlands
- Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire
- Wessex
- Devon and Cornwall

- Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire
- Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk
- Hertfordshire and North London
- West Thames
- Solent and South Downs
- Kent and South London

Since the establishment of the Environment Agency several major flood events have occurred and the Agency has been the target of criticism. A number of reports have been produced which chart various developments in flood management.

At Easter 1998, the equivalent of one months rain fell in the Midlands in 24 hours and flooding caused Â£400m damage and five deaths. In the light of criticism, the Agency commissioned a report from a review team under the Chairmanship of Peter Bye, a former chief executive of Suffolk CC. The report concluded that in many respects, the Environment Agency's policies, plans and operational arrangements were sound, and that staff did their best in extreme circumstances, but there were instances of unsatisfactory planning, inadequate warnings for the public, incomplete defences and poor co-ordination with emergency services.[32] Specifically the report highlighted the flood warning system and said the scale of the damage could have been avoided if the agency had issued more advice to those living in the worst affected areas and noted "People who do not understand what they can do to protect themselves when they are warned are not protected."[33]

In the Autumn 2000 floods, damage was reduced by flood defences and by timely warnings and evacuations where the defences could not hold back the water. As a result, 280,000 properties were protected from the floods, but over 10,000 properties were still flooded at an estimated cost of Â£1 billion. Defra commissioned an independent review by the Institution of Civil Engineers under George Fleming.[34] The review was to consider methods of estimating and reducing flood risk and look at whether flood risk management could make more use of natural processes. Other terms of reference included the possible impact of climate change and experience of other countries. The resulting report entitled Learning to Live with Rivers specifically criticised a reluctance to use computer models and inadequate representation of the dynamic effects of land use, catchment processes and climatic variability. More broadly, the report noted that sustainable flood risk management could only be achieved by working with the natural response of the river basin and by providing the necessary storage, flow reduction and discharge capacity. It concluded that floods can only be managed, not prevented, and the community must learn to live with rivers.

On 15 June 2007 the National Audit Office produced a report on the performance of the Environment Agency with respect to its administrative targets and information systems. The report highlighted that the Environment Agency had not reached its targets for maintaintaining flood defence systems and producing catchment area plans, and that since 2001 the general conditions of assets had not improved significantly. It concluded the agency could reduce the need for extra funding by improving cost effectiveness.[35]

On the basis of the report, and to the background of the Summer 2007 floods, on 27 June 2007 the Committee of Public Accounts under Edward Leigh subjected the Environment Agency management to severe interrogation and concluded that the agency had "not delivered protection for the British people".[36] Issuing a strong response, the chief executive rejected the charge that the Environment Agency has massively failed, as alleged in the commons public accounts committee, noting that in the last seven years, defences had been created to protect 100,000 homes in floodplains, numbers receiving flood warning had dramatically increased and greatly improved flood mapping and forecasting had been implemented.[37]

Following the 2007 United Kingdom floods, which left 13 people dead, 44,600 homes flooded[38] and caused Â£3bn damage, Defra announced an independent review by Sir Michael Pitt.

The Environment Agency directors attracted criticism when it emerged that shortly before the floods they had received five-figure "performance bonuses",[39][40] with numerous calls for the bonuses to be donated to flood relief funds. An opposition spokesperson raised a question over the timing of the release of the information—"just as MPs left for their 11-week summer recess—guaranteeing minimum parliamentary scrutiny".[41]

Pitt's review, published in full in June 2008 contained 92 recommendations looking at all aspects of the "biggest civil emergency in British history".[42] Of these, thirteen were directed at the Environment Agency, the first of which stated that the Environment Agency should take on a national overview of all flood risk (2). It recommended the Environment Agency should further develop its modelling tools and techniques working with its partners on such (4)(5), and also make flood visualisation data more accessible (36)(37). It recommended closer working with the Met Office (6)(34)(35)(65). The Agency should provide a more specific flood warning system for infrastructure operators (33), work with local responders to raise awareness in flood risk areas (61) and work with telecoms companies to roll out telephone flood warning schemes. Other recommendations were that the Environment Agency should continue its existing processes (8)(25).

The review also argued that the Government's Â£800 million-a-year flood defence budget for 2010 to 2011 was "about right" but stated that money should be spent more wisely. Sir Michael said: "What we are arguing is that we were not well prepared last summer for the scale of flooding that took place."[43][44][45]

After the 2007 floods, the present organisation of flood management in England and Wales, with a large number of separate bodies responsible for different components, was called into question. George Fleming, who chaired the committee which produced the Learning to Live with Rivers report argued that the Environment Agency had too many roles and faced too great a conflict between its roles as habitat protector and planning regulator and suggested it was time to break it up and create a dedicated Flood Management Agency.[46] On leaving her post as CEO in June 2008 Barbara Young responded to these suggestions, predicting that the Pitt report was unlikely to recommend the break-up of the Environment Agency.[47]

The Environment Agency and its then chair Chris Smith was involved with a row with Environment Secretary Owen Paterson and other members of the government, and landowners and residents in Somerset. The row focused on the flooding of the Somerset Levels and whether the River Parrett should be dredged. Dredging had been quietly abandoned, to allow the levels to return to their condition centuries ago, without concern for the residents affected. [48]

The Environment Agency, responsible for main river maintenance, was criticised for failures which led to flooding following a period of heavy rainfall in December 2015 (Storm Desmond, Storm Eva) across northern England and parts of Scotland. In particular, the decision to open a barrier on the River Foss resulted in flooding of supposedly protected houses.[49] Additionally, the Environment Agency was accused of misleading the public by stating that its chairman Philip Dilley was “at home with his family” when he was at his wife's family home in Barbados.[50] In the days following the floods, it was reported that Agency staff responsible for protecting the UK from flooding were paid almost £300,000 in bonuses or received large payoffs in 2015,[51] notably the Environment Agency's publicity chief who lead the press team who tried to cover-up their Chairman's absence; Pam Gilder quit with a £112,000 pay-off. [52]

The extent of damage caused in such a short period across wide areas has brought into focus the overall performance of UK central government flood defence strategies. Expensive flood defence systems were proven ineffective and in some cases appeared to increase the problem. Professor Dieter Helm, Chair of the UK government's Natural Capital Committee stated in January 2016: "Flooding crises tend to follow an established pattern. First, there is immediate help and assistance. Then second, there is a “review”. On occasions, this leads to a third stage of genuine reform, but in most cases “sticking plasters” are applied. These are incremental and often sensible, but typically fail to address the core issues and hence provide only a temporary respite. There are very good reasons why ”sticking plasters” will not work this time. The conventional approach to flood defence, carried out by the Environment Agency (EA), and financed largely by the Treasury, is at best inefficient. Sometimes it is even counterproductive, encouraging the sorts of land use and land management decisions that can actually make flooding worse in the medium term." [53] The UK government House of Commons Select Committee for the environment challenged the Chief Executive Officer of the Environment Agency on its performance by stating: “You [Sir James Bevan, CEO] said "The capacity of a river doesn't matter!" You've got to be certain the leopard has changed its spots. And I will keep repeating this. You haven't really given us an answer as to whether you have monitored the situation. I'm fearful. You allowed the River Parrett [Somerset] to silt up, you allowed the Tone to silt up, you allowed the tributaries to silt up, and then it flooded.” The Committee added: “The EA don't provide [quotes for work] when doing projects so we can't compare like with like [with other project providers]. There is an argument for transparency on your spending... You say the right words and hold onto your power." [54]

Sir Philip Dilley resigned as chairman of the Environment Agency on 11 January 2016. Sir Philip stated he was stepping down because “expectations” of his role have changed to mean he has to be “available at short notice throughout the year”.

Chief Executive:


where do humans belong in the classification system

Human taxonomy is the classification of the human species (systematic name Homo sapiens) within zoological taxonomy. The systematic genus, Homo, is designed to include both anatomically modern humans and extinct varieties of archaic humans.

Human taxonomy

Homo sapiens
â€ Homo erectus
other species or subspecies suggested

Since the introduction of systematic names in the 18th century, knowledge of human evolution has increased drastically, and a number of intermediate taxa have been proposed in the 20th to early 21st century. The most widely accepted taxonomy groups takes the genus Homo as originating between two and three million years ago, divided into at least two species, archaic Homo erectus and modern Homo sapiens, with about a dozen further suggestions for species without universal recognition.

The genus Homo is placed in the tribe Hominini alongside Pan (chimpanzees). The two genera are estimated to have diverged over an extended time of hybridization spanning roughly 10 to 6 million years ago, with possible admixture as late as 4 million years ago. A subtribe of uncertain validity, grouping archaic "pre-human" or "para-human" species younger than the Homo-Pan split is Australopithecina (proposed in 1939).

A proposal by Wood and Richmond (2000) would introduce Hominina as a subtribe alongside Australopithecina, with Homo the only known genus within Hominina. Alternatively, following Cela-Conde and Ayala (2003), the "pre-human" or "proto-human" genera of Australopithecus, Ardipithecus, Praeanthropus, and possibly Sahelanthropus may be placed on equal footing alongside the genus Homo. An even more radical view rejects the division of Pan and Homo as separate genera, which based on the Principle of Priority would imply the re-classification of chimpanzees as Homo paniscus (or similar).[1]

Human taxonomy on one hand involves the placement of humans within the Taxonomy of the hominids (great apes), and on the other the division of archaic and modern humans into species and, if applicable, subspecies. Modern zoological taxonomy was developed by Carl Linnaeus during the 1730s to 1750s. He named the human species as Homo sapiens in 1758, as the only member species of the genus Homo, divided into several subspecies corresponding to the great races. The Latin noun

The discovery of the first extinct archaic human species from the fossil record dates to the mid 19th century, Homo neanderthalensis, classified in 1864. Since then, a number of other archaic species have been named, but there is no universal consensus as to their exact number. After the discovery of H. neanderthalensis, which even if "archaic" is recognizable as clearly human, late 19th to early 20th century anthropology for a time was occupied with finding the supposedly "missing link" between Homo and Pan. The "Piltdown Man" hoax of 1912 was the (fraudulent) presentation of such a transitional species. Since the mid-20th century, knowledge of the development of Hominini has become much more detailed, and taxonomical terminology has been altered a number of times to reflect this.

The introduction of Australopithecus as a third genus, alongside Homo and Pan, in the Hominini tribe is due to Raymond Dart (1925). Australopithecina as a subtribe containing Australopithecus as well as Paranthropus (Broom 1938) is a proposal by Gregory & Hellman (1939). More recently proposed additions to the Australopithecina subtribe include Ardipithecus (1995) and Kenyanthropus (2001). The position of Sahelanthropus (2002) relative to Australopithecina within Hominini is unclear. Cela-Conde and Ayala (2003) propose the recognition of Australopithecus, Ardipithecus, Praeanthropus, and Sahelanthropus (the latter incertae sedis) as separate genera.[3]

Other proposed genera, now mostly considered part of Homo, include: Pithecanthropus (Dubois, 1894), Protanthropus (Haeckel, 1895), Sinanthropus (Black, 1927), Cyphanthropus (Pycraft, 1928) Africanthropus (Dreyer, 1935),[4] Telanthropus (Broom & Anderson 1949), Atlanthropus (Arambourg, 1954), Tchadanthropus (Coppens, 1965).

The genus Homo has been taken to originate some two millions ago since the discovery of stone tools in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, in the 1960s. Homo habilis (Leakey et al., 1964) would be the first "human" species (member of genus Homo) by definition, its type specimen being the OH 7 fossils. However, the discovery of more fossils of this type has opened up the debate on the delineation of H. habilis from Australopithecus. Especially, the LD 350-1 jawbone fossil discovered in 2013, dated to 2.8 Mya, has been argued as being transitional between the two. [5] It is also disputed whether H. habilis was the first hominin to use stone tools, as Australopithecus garhi, dated to c. 2.5 Mya, has been found along with stone tool implements.[6] Fossil KNM-ER 1470 (discovered in 1972, designated Pithecanthropus rudolfensis by Alekseyev 1978) is now seen as either a third early species of Homo (alongside H. habilis and H. erectus) at about 2 million years ago, or alternatively as transitional between Australopithecus and Homo.[7]

Wood and Richmond (2000) proposed that Gray's tribe Hominini ("hominins") be designated as comprising all species after the chimpanzee-human last common ancestor by definition, to the inclusion of Australopithecines and other possible pre-human or para-human species (such as Ardipithecus and Sahelanthropus) not known in Gray's time.[8] In this suggestion, the new subtribe of Hominina was to be designated as including the genus Homo exclusively, so that Hominini would have two subtribes, Australopithecina and Hominina, with the only known genus in Hominina being Homo. Orrorin (2001) has been proposed as a possible ancestor of Hominina but not Australopithecina.[9]

Designations alternative to Hominina have been proposed: Australopithecinae (Gregory & Hellman 1939) and Preanthropinae (Cela-Conde & Altaba 2002);[10]

At least a dozen species of Homo other than Homo sapiens has been proposed, with varying degrees on consensus. Homo erectus is widely recognized as the species directly ancestral to Homo sapiens. Most other proposed species are proposed as alternatively belonging to either Homo erectus or Homo sapiens as a subspecies. This concerns Homo ergaster in particular:[11] The proposal of a broad division of Homo erectus into an "African" and an "Asian" variety would consider the Asian variety Homo erectus sensu stricto and Homo erectus sensu lato would include both Asian Homo erectus and African Homo ergaster.[12] There appears to be a recent trend, with the availability of ever more difficult-to-classify fossils such as the Dmanisi skulls (2013) or Homo naledi fossils (2015) to subsume all archaic varieties under Homo erectus.[13]

The recognition or non-recognition of subspecies of Homo sapiens has a complicated history. The rank of subspecies in zoology is introduced for convenience, and not by objective criteria, based on pragmatic consideration of factors such as geographic isolation and sexual selection. The informal taxonomic rank of race is variously considered equivalent or subordinate to the rank of subspecies, and the division of anatomically modern humans (H. sapiens) into subspecies is closely tied to the recognition of major racial groupings based on human genetic variation.

A subspecies cannot be recognized independently: a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or at least two (including any that are extinct). Therefore, the designation of an extant subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens (for which Carl Linnaeus would be the type specimen) only makes sense if at least one other subspecies is recognized.

During the 19th to mid-20th century, it was common practice to classify the major divisions of extant H. sapiens as subspecies, following Linnaeus (1758), who had recognized H. s. americanus, H. s. europaeus, H. s. asiaticus and H. s. afer as grouping the native populations of the Americas, West Eurasia, East Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, respectively, besides H. s. ferus (for the "wild" form which he identified with feral children) and two further "wild" forms for reported specimens now considered part of cryptozoology, H. s. monstrosus and H. s. troglodytes.[29] There were variations and additions to the categories of Linnaeus, such as H. s. tasmanianus for the native population of Australia.[30] Bory de St. Vincent in his Essai sur l'Homme (1825) extended LinnÃ©'s "racial" categories to as many as fifteen: Leiotrichi ("smooth-haired"): japeticus (with subraces), arabicus, indicus, scythicus, sinicus, hyperboreus, neptunianus, australasicus, columbicus, americanus, patagonicus; Oulotrichi ("crisp-haired"): aethiopicus, cafer, hottentotus, melaninus.[31] Similarly, Georges Vacher de Lapouge (1899) also had categories based on race, such as priscus, spelaeus (etc.);

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis was proposed by King (1864) as an alternative to Homo neanderthalensis.[32] There have been "taxonomic wars" over whether Neanderthals were a separate species since their discovery in the 1860s. Pääbo (2014) frames this as a debate that is unresolvable in principle, "since there is no definition of species perfectly describing the case."[33] Louis Lartet (1869) proposed Homo sapiens fossilis based on the Cro-Magnon fossils.

There are a number of proposals of extinct varieties of Homo sapiens made in the 20th century. Many of the original proposals were not using explicit trinomial nomenclature, even though they are still cited as valid synonyms of H. sapiens by Wilson & Reeder (2005).[34] These include: Homo grimaldii (Lapouge, 1906), Homo aurignacensis hauseri (Klaatsch & Hauser, 1910), Notanthropus eurafricanus (Sergi, 1911), Homo fossilis infrasp. proto-aethiopicus (Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 1915), Telanthropus capensis (Broom, 1917),[35] Homo wadjakensis (Dubois, 1921), Homo sapiens cro-magnonensis, Homo sapiens grimaldiensis (Gregory, 1921), Homo drennani (Kleinschmidt, 1931),[36] Homo galilensis (Joleaud, 1931) = Paleanthropus palestinus (McCown & Keith, 1932).[37] Rightmire (1983) proposed Homo sapiens rhodesiensis.[38]

By the 1980s, the practice of dividing extant populations of homo sapiens into subspecies declined. An early authority explicitly avoiding the division of H. sapiens into subspecies was Grzimeks Tierleben, published 1967â€“1972.[39] A late example of an academic authority proposing that the human racial groups should be considered taxonomical subspecies is John Baker (1974).[40] The trinomial nomenclature Homo sapiens sapiens became popular for "modern humans" in the context of Neanderthals being considered a subspecies of H. sapiens in the second half of the 20th century, without having any formal authority introducing it.[41] Derived from the convention, widespread in the 1980s, of considering two subspecies, H. s. neanderthalensis and H. s. sapiens, the explicit claim that "H. s. sapiens is the only extant human subspecies" appears in the early 1990s.[42]

Since the 2000s, the extinct Homo sapiens idaltu (White et al., 2003) has gained wide recognition as a subspecies of Homo sapiens, but even in this case there is a dissenting view arguing that "the skulls may not be distinctive enough to warrant a new subspecies name".[43] H. s. neanderthalensis and H. s. rhodesiensis continue to be considered separate species by some authorities, but the genetic evidence of archaic human admixture with modern humans discovered in the 2010s has re-opened the details of taxonomy of archaic humans.[44]

Homo erectus since its introduction in 1892 has been divided into numerous subspecies, many of them formerly considered individual species of Homo. None of these subspecies have universal consensus among paleontologists.