is topanga in the city of los angeles

Topanga is a census-designated place (CDP) in western Los Angeles County, California, United States.[2] Located in the Santa Monica Mountains, the community lies in Topanga Canyon. The narrow southern portion of Topanga at the coast is in between the city of Malibu and the city of Los Angeles neighborhood of Pacific Palisades. Topanga had a population of 8,289 as of 2010. The ZIP code is 90290 and the area code is primarily 310, with 818 only at the north end of the canyon. It is in the 3rd County Supervisorial district.

Topanga, California

Topanga Creek drains Topanga Canyon and is the third largest watershed entering the Santa Monica Bay.[3] The creek is one of the few remaining undammed waterways in the area, and is a spawning ground for steelhead trout. The area typically receives about 22" of rain annually.[4] Topanga Beach[5] lies on the coast at the outlet of Topanga Creek. Topanga Canyon Boulevard, State Route 27, is the principal thoroughfare, connecting the Ventura Freeway (US 101) with Pacific Coast Highway (SR 1). The southern portion of the boulevard largely follows Topanga Creek. North of the Old Topanga Canyon Road intersection, the boulevard traverses the Santa Monica Mountains.

Topanga Canyon contains lands of Topanga State Park, which is the largest park in the Santa Monica Mountains and one of the largest open space preserves surrounded by a city in the world, as well as the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy. It is part of the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. It primarily represents a California coastal sage and chaparral ecoregion, with large areas of the California oak woodland plant community, and a wide variety of native plants.[6]

Topanga is the name given to the area by the Native American indigenous Tongva tribe,[7] and may mean "a place above". It was the western border of their territory, abutting the Chumash tribe that occupied the coast from Malibu northwards. Bedrock mortars can be found carved into rock outcroppings in many locations.

Topanga was first settled by Europeans in 1839.[8] In the 1920s, Topanga Canyon became a weekend getaway for Hollywood stars with several cottages built for that purpose. The rolling hills and ample vegetation served to provide both privacy and attractive surroundings for the rich and famous.

During the 1960s, Topanga Canyon became a magnet to many new artists. In 1965 Wallace Berman settled in the area. For a time, Neil Young lived in Topanga, first living with producer David Briggs then later buying his own house. He would record most of his After the Gold Rush album in his basement studio in 1970. Charles Manson had previously been living in Topanga, where he had briefly befriended both Neil Young and Dennis Wilson of The Beach Boys. Members of "Manson's family" began their campaign of murder on July 31, 1969 with the murder of Topanga resident Gary Hinman, a music teacher who had opened his home to anyone needing shelter.

The Topanga Corral was a nightclub that featured an eclectic mix of performers, including then Topanga locals Canned Heat, Spirit, Little Feat, Spanky and Our Gang, Taj Mahal, Emmylou Harris, Bob Denver, Neil Diamond and Russ Tamblyn. Etta James, Windance, Neil Young, and Crazy Horse, Geronimo Black, and many others.[citation needed] It is rumored that Jim Morrison was inspired to write "Roadhouse Blues" about the drive up Topanga Canyon Boulevard to The Corral.[citation needed] Later in the 1970s, after being destroyed by fire and rebuilt, the club featured many up and coming bands from the L.A. punk scene.[citation needed] In 1986, the Corral again burned to the ground and was not rebuilt.[citation needed] Today, many musicians, artists and actors continue to make Topanga their home. Linda Ronstadt had been seen hitchhiking through the Canyon barefoot with her guitar.[citation needed]

Topanga is known as a bohemian enclave attracting artists, musicians, filmmakers, and others. Numerous music festivals have been organized in the canyon, including the Topanga Days Festival and Topanga Earth Day. The Topanga Film Institute[9] hosts the annual Topanga Film Festival.

In the 1950s blacklisted actor Will Geer had to sell his large Santa Monica home and move his family to a small plot in the canyon where they could grow their own produce. Geer's friend Woody Guthrie had a small shack on the property. They unintentionally founded what became an artists' colony. Since its founding in 1973, the Geer family has continued to operate the Will Geer Theatricum Botanicum. It has grown into an Equity theater, and occupies a natural outdoor amphitheater. It features Shakespearean plays, modern classics, and original productions, as well as musical concerts. Performers have included Pete Seeger, Arlo Guthrie, Della Reese, and Burl Ives.[citation needed]

A famous venue in the canyon was the Elysium Institute, also known as Elysium Fields, a nudist club started by Ed Lange in 1967.[10] After surviving extended battles with county officials the 9-acre (3.6Â ha) property was sold in 2002 by its founder's heirs.[11]

Every Memorial Day weekend on the grounds of the Topanga Community House, Topanga has an annual fair and parade, called Topanga Days. Topanga Days Country Fair features music, belly dancing, over 80 unique craft vendors and a variety of food from Cajun to Mexican to vegan. A parade is held on Memorial Day. The parade is said[who?] to have inspired the more famous Doo-Dah Parade in Pasadena.

Topanga canyon also sees and annual reggae festival "Reggae on the Mountain"[12] that has grown to be one of the largest events in the area. The event serves as a fundraiser for the Topanga Community Club in a similar fashion as Topanga Days.

The Topanga Film Institute presents the annual Topanga Film Festival each July. The festival endeavors to bridge cultures, create and expand community, provide cultural exchange and networking opportunities.[9][13][14]

Two outdoor shopping centers featuring local businesses form the hub of local commerce. There are no hotels, motels or gas stations in Topanga, nor are there any chain or big box stores.

The location of Topanga in the Santa Monica Mountains also makes the natural surroundings an important part of the culture. Streams, waterfalls, cliffs of exposed bedrock, landmark rock outcroppings, and overlooks with panoramic views of the mountains, Pacific Ocean and Los Angeles are common attractions. There are many trails for short walks, hiking, mountain biking, horseback riding, birdwatching, and rock climbing, all of which are important parts of the local community.

The 2010 United States Census[15] reported that Topanga had a population of 8,289. The population density was 433.2 people per square mile (167.2/kmÂ²). The racial makeup of Topanga was 7,313 (88.2%) White (84.5% Non-Hispanic White),[16] 117 (1.4%) African American, 35 (0.4%) Native American, 353 (4.3%) Asian, 3 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 125 (1.5%) from other races, and 343 (4.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 534 persons (6.4%).

The Census reported that 8,289 people (100% of the population) lived in households, 0 (0%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.

There were 3,442 households, out of which 996 (28.9%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,772 (51.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 262 (7.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 140 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 239 (6.9%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 49 (1.4%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 903 households (26.2%) were made up of individuals and 256 (7.4%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.41. There were 2,174 families (63.2% of all households); the average family size was 2.87.

The population was spread out with 1,682 people (20.3%) under the age of 18, 333 people (4.0%) aged 18 to 24, 1,917 people (23.1%) aged 25 to 44, 3,188 people (38.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,169 people (14.1%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 46.1 years. For every 100 females there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.2 males.

There were 3,750 housing units at an average density of 196.0 per square mile (75.7/kmÂ²), of which 2,589 (75.2%) were owner-occupied, and 853 (24.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 3.8%. 6,597 people (79.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 1,692 people (20.4%) lived in rental housing units.

The bottom of Topanga Canyon, where it meets Pacific Coast Highway and the ocean, was owned for many years by the Los Angeles Athletic Club, a wealthy private club in downtown Los Angeles. The 1,659 acre (6.7Â km2) parcel was rented out to a variety of businesses and residents for decades at remarkably low rents, considering that it borders the city of Malibu. Thus Lower Topanga became unique as one of the last outposts of the classic Topanga Canyon bohemian hippie lifestyle.

The Chumash considered Lower Topanga a sacred, economic, and cultural meeting place for tribes all along the coast. One of the main neighborhoods, the "Rodeo Grounds," takes its name from an actual rodeo arena that existed there on a Mexican Ranch in the 1800s. (Another neighborhood, "The Snake Pit," was named both for its abundance of rattlesnakes and for the shifty characters who passed through like Charles Manson.)

In the early 1900s, Lower Topanga was a Japanese fishing village. William Randolph Hearst owned the property for a time and turned it into a weekend getaway spot with beach shacks for his and Marion Davies' guests.

Famous residents of Lower Topanga have included: Humphrey Bogart, Bertolt Brecht, Carole Lombard, Peter Lorre, Ida Lupino, Shirley Temple, and Johnny Weissmuller.[citation needed]

In the '60s, a lively community of artists and surfers sprang up in Lower Topanga. They maintained their houses without assistance, sometimes digging them out of the mud after floods or setting backfires to prevent a spreading wildfire from burning down their neighborhood. The roads remained unpaved.[18]

In 2001, Lower Topanga was sold to California State Parks. Even though the Lower Topanga community occupied less than 2% of the total purchased land, State Parks had an aggressive policy to relocate everyone and bulldoze all of the houses. (State Parks had already evicted residents who lived directly on Topanga Beach in the late '70s.[19])

Arundo, a type of giant reed resembling bamboo that characterizes the Lower Topanga landscape, became a totemic plant for the residents because it was first on a long list of non-native plants that State Parks also condemned to be uprooted in an attempt to restore the land to its natural state.[citation needed]

A group of 10 Lower Topanga poets calling themselves the "Idlers of the Bamboo Grove" published a book of the same name in 2002, celebrating their community and lamenting the prospect of having to leave. Their publisher, Brass Tacks Press, continued publishing works about Lower Topanga, including The Snake Pit by Baretta (2006), Tool's Snake Pit by Tool (2007), Rohloff's Snake Pit by Chris Rohloff (2009), and Topanga Beach Experience: 1960s–70s by Paul Lovas and Pablo Capra (2011) – as well as maintaining an online Lower Topanga Photo Archive.[citation needed]

In addition, Austrian filmmakers Natalie Lettner and Werner Hanak shot a documentary film about the neighborhood called Malibu Song (2006), and Topangan Anastasia Fite shot a shorter documentary called Last Bastion (2009).[citation needed]

Even though Lower Topanga residents were given money to leave, some fought bitterly against their relocation in court. However, the last holdouts were forced off the land in March 2006.[18] Currently there are active efforts by TreePeople and Mountains Restoration Trust to restore the area to its pristine condition as it was prior to development.

The County of Los Angeles Public Library operates the Topanga Library located on 122 N Topanga Canyon Blvd.[20]

The Los Angeles County Fire Department operates Fire Station #69 in Topanga as a part of Battalion 5.[21]

The Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department (LASD) operates the Malibu/Lost Hills Station in Calabasas, serving Topanga.[22][23]

The United States Postal Service Topanga Post Office is located at 101 South Topanga Canyon Boulevard.[24]

The Topanga Coalition for Emergency Preparedness (T-CEP) operates an Emergency Operations Center (EOC) near the Topanga Town Center.

Most Topanga residents are zoned to schools in the Los Angeles Unified School District.[25][26]

The area is within Board District 4.[29] As of 2010 Steve Zimmer represents the district.[30]

Some portions are in the Santa Monica-Malibu Unified School District (SMMUSD). Those portions are zoned to Webster Elementary School and Malibu High School.[31]

The County of Los Angeles Public Library operates the Topanga Library.[32]

In the 1920s, Topanga Canyon became a weekend getaway for Hollywood silent film stars. The rolling hills and ample vegetation provided both privacy and attractive surroundings for some of the famous.

Actors currently or formerly residing in the Topanga area include:

In the musical fields, in 1952 Woody Guthrie was one of the early American musicians who moved to the Topanga area.[34] As nearby Los Angeles grew into a major music industry capital in the 1950s and 1960s, Topanga Canyon was one of the city's bohemian enclaves some performers preferred living in.[33]

Current and former musicians of the Topanga area include:

This region experiences warm (but not hot) and dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above 71.6 °F (22.0 °C). According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Topanga has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.[47]


what is the sap setting on my tv

Second audio program (SAP), also known as secondary audio programming, is an auxiliary audio channel for analog television that can be broadcast or transmitted both over-the-air and by cable television. SAP is part of the multichannel television sound (MTS) standard originally set by the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) in 1984 in the United States. The NTSC video format and MTS are also used in Canada and Mexico.

Second audio program

SAP is often used to provide audio tracks in languages other than the native language included in the program (as a result, the facetious term "Spanish audio program" is used as an expansion to the acronym), or for the Descriptive Video Service (DVS) offered in the United States on some television stations or cable networks (primarily ABC, CBS, NBC, and PBS), along with broadcasting the local NOAA Weather Radio services or a local National Public Radio station (on many PBS stations) at times where translation or DVS is not needed. As of 2016, FCC guidelines now require stations in larger markets to read out the text of any on-screen news tickers which appear on-screen (mainly severe weather warnings) either using human intervention or via reading it out using an automated text-to-speech voice; the latter is done usually with the SAP channel exclusively.

SAP is used for broadcasting the Canadian Parliamentary television channel CPAC in both English and French. SAP is also used for student radio stations that cannot otherwise get on the air due to crowded FM broadcasting bands.

MTS features, including stereo and SAP, travel on subcarriers of the video carrier, much like color for television. It is not carried on the audio carrier in the manner of stereo sound for an FM radio broadcast, however, as it only has a frequency deviation of ±25 kHz, whereas regular FM broadcasting has a deviation of ±75 kHz. The SAP subcarrier is located at 78.670 kHz, which is five times the 15.734 kHz corresponding to the MTS pilot signal. In turn, the MTS pilot is locked to the horizontal sync frequency of the video carrier for stability. The SAP channel contains mono audio which has been dbx-encoded for noise reduction, to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. The SAP audio has a bandpass from 60 Hz to 12 kHz, which is less than the "regular" audio channel which runs from 50 Hz to 15 kHz.

Though not technically a SAP channel, television stations can also broadcast a "PRO" (professional) audio subcarrier which is used to communicate with station personnel, particularly those engaged in electronic news gathering. This one-way audio channel allows individuals at the television station to send messages to people located away from the station, and is frequently employed during on-location newscasts as the foldback channel to reporters and cameramen. This channel is located at 6.5 times the pilot (102.271 kHz), and is also part of the MTS standard.

Second audio programs are also available in other media. On analog television receive-only satellite television systems, audio programs are manually tuned by their subcarrier frequency, commonly around 6 MHz, often as low as 5.8 or as high as 7.2. These travel the same way as the discrete left and right main audio channels, and ATIS station ID, which is heard as Morse code. On FM radio, radio reading services and other audio programs can be heard on subcarriers; however, these are generally prohibited from public listening. On digital television systems, selection is done through a menu as with analog television, though some provide easier access rather than having to dig down to find the option. Stations may also choose to transmit audio-only programs by assigning them to separate digital subchannels with an optional screen of title and artist information; however, this prevents the viewer from watching the main video in the case of television stations.


who played the willis's son on the jeffersons

Allan Willis (Andrew Harold Rubin/Jay Hammer) is the Willis' only son and older brother of Jenny. Andrew Rubin appears as this character in the first season finale episode entitled "Jenny's Low" (aired on April 12, 1975), in which Allan returns from Europe, and is given the "Cold Shoulder" by his sister, Jenny (Berlinda Tolbert). Jenny starts staying at the Jeffersons' apartment as long as Allan stayed at their own home. She was somewhat jealous of Allan turning out to be "white". They eventually reconcile. In the 1978–79 season, which is the fifth season, Allan is now portrayed by Jay Hammer, who joins the cast in a two-part episode of the season opener. Allan returns from New Mexico, while his parents return from Syracuse after Tom's father dies. Allan is left the Fortune Warehouse in the will and the relationship between Tom and Allan becomes very cold because of his "happy-go-lucky" attitude. Allan is well known for his sharp rebuttal against George's insults and his well-rounded personality. After this season (1978–79), Hammer was fired from the show cast, and Mike Evans returned to the series in the fall of 1979. After that, the way it was described with Allan's writing out of the storyline that he was residing in Minnesota. Allan was also chosen to be his niece, Jessica Jefferson's, godfather upon her birth, but Allan supposedly had gotten snowed in, so Harry Bentley was chosen as the proxy.

List of The Jeffersons supporting characters

The television series The Jeffersons featured several supporting characters. An incomplete list of these characters appears below.

Helen Willis (née Douglas) (portrayed by Roxie Roker, except for her first appearance in All in the Family, when she was portrayed by Kim Hamilton) is Louise's best friend and George's worst nightmare. She has been married to Tom Willis for 34 years. Tom is white, and Helen is black, which was a renowned aspect of the show. George, disliking racially mixed-marriages, constantly called both Helen and Tom "zebra" or "chocolate and vanilla". Helen often strikes back by calling him "shorty." As well, George enjoys calling Tom "honky", but he learned to get along with the two in later years during the sitcom. In the fourth season, Helen works with Louise as volunteers at a social service facility called "The Help Center", which opened in 1977. There is also a mention that she and Louise were the editors of the center's newsletter, a post the two decide to share after the drama of episode 67. Helen and Tom have two children: Jennifer "Jenny" Willis (Berlinda Tolbert) and Allan Willis (Jay Hammer and Andrew Rubin).

Thomas "Tom" Willis (portrayed by Franklin Cover, except for his first appearance in All in the Family, when he was portrayed by Charles Aidman as Louis Willis) is an author and president of his publishing company, Pelham Publishers. He lives a content life with his wife Helen. Tom is white and Helen is black. Because of this racial mixing, they are often the butt of George's insults and jokes - often being called such things as "Chocolate" and "Vanilla". Tom and Helen, however, have both learned to ignore the bigotry of their neighbor. In their initial appearance on the parent show Tom states that they had met "his" kind—black and white—and they always handled it. His daughter, Jenny Willis (who is the one most resembling her mother in skin color cases), marries George's son, Lionel, in 1976. He develops a strong relationship with Jenny, but was never close to his "white" son, Allan Willis (Jay Hammer) because he never finished school and left New York City and stayed in Paris for two years.

As the series went on (particularly after Lionel and Jenny married), George and Tom eventually became good friends (though George still continued to make jokes about Tom's weight as Sherman Hemsley felt that it would be insulting to continue the racially themed insults after their characters became friends).

Additionally, Tom is a caring person, but often dominated by his wife. He also is ridiculed occasionally due to his weight. He is known to be a horrible dancer, as indicated in a few episodes. He also occasionally reluctantly goes along with George's constant schemes but for the most part prefers to be left out of them.

Portrayed by Zara Cully, "Mother Jefferson" is Henry and George's mother. Her first appearance was in the All in the Family episode, "Lionel's Engagement," where she takes offense at being referred to as "mammy," by Archie Bunker, who thinks the term is a variation of "mommy." Mother Jefferson is a catty, disparaging, and antagonistic mother-in-law to Louise, while appearing to be a sweet old lady to everyone else. Mother Jefferson is one of the stereotypical mothers-in-law who think their daughter-in-law isn't good enough for their son. In nearly every episode in which she appeared, she is usually tormenting Louise by criticizing her cooking, her age, or her overall character, but Louise frequently came back at her with a witty albeit sarcastic response. (On a couple of rare occasions, however, Mother Jefferson sides with Louise, when she takes offense at George's boorish or sexist behavior.) In the episode January 1976 episode "Mother Jeffersons Birthday" Oliva Jefferson was born February 1901 about the time of George Washington/Lincoln birthday[s]; she has a younger sister Emma born 1906; on February 9, 1951 both sisters were in a church bingo game where the prize was a electric blanket-they then quarreled over which card won the prize and didn't speak to each other for 25 years! [Thanks to George and Louise the two sisters were on speaking terms again]. After her husband was killed in a accident, Olivia supported her two sons by working as a domestic. A long-running gag had Mother Jefferson blissfully ignorant of how much alcohol she actually consumes, usually in the form of a Bloody Mary, which she stated she drank "for the vitamins".

Cully had been absent from the first 17 episodes of Season Three due to a serious case of pneumonia caused by a collapsed lung. Upon recovering she returned for a few episodes, noticeably thinner and more frail. She died early in Season Four, and the writers decided to eliminate Mother Jefferson's character rather than replace her with a different actress. No special episode was created centering on her death, but it was briefly referenced in the second episode of the Fifth Season, "Homecoming (pt 1)".

Jenny Willis-Jefferson (portrayed by Berlinda Tolbert, except for her first appearance in All in the Family, when she was portrayed by Lynne Moody) is the only daughter of Helen and Tom Willis, the younger of their two children. Jenny is an intelligent person, finishing college with her boyfriend, Lionel Jefferson. At first, George often disapproved of Jenny loving Lionel merely because she is, in George's own word, a "zebra". George calls her this because her mother is black, but her father is white, thereby making her biracial. However, after George discovered Jenny was pregnant with his grandchild, he changed his ways and became much more accepting of her. In 1976, Jenny marries Lionel, though they divorced in 1985 after nine years of marriage. She and Lionel have a daughter named Jessica (played by Erin Hollin and Leslie Hollin (Seasons 6–7) and later by Ebonie Smith (Seasons 10–11).

At first, Jenny disliked her brother Allan when he came home after two years in Paris, mainly because she turned out "black" and he turned out "white". But as siblings go, they reconcile and return their love for each other. Their love stayed strong, as Jenny asked Allan to be Jessica's godfather. But since Allan was snowed in, Harry Bentley was to be the proxy.

Florence Johnston (Marla Gibbs) is the Jeffersons' sassy, backtalking, wisecracking maid. Her first appearance is actually in the pilot episode, when she was interviewed and hired as the housekeeper for the title-bearing characters. Although her job is supposed to take up most of her time, she is flat-out slothful, using very little energy or effort to clean the Jeffersons' apartment. She regularly bickers with George. George, who pays Florence's salary, repeatedly complains about her laziness (and cooking), and he gives her a very small paycheck. Several times he was on the verge of firing her, but Louise, who thinks of her as one of the family, forces him not to. Originally a recurring character, Gibbs later became the core of the series, becoming a series regular, appearing in 207 of the 253 episodes.

Despite being a decent Christian (as Gibbs is in real-life) woman, Florence never kept a long relationship with men. This was the biggest reason she gave to the Jeffersons and the Willises when she contemplated suicide in a Season Two episode. However, George incongruously told Florence not to, simply because she would be hurting everyone if she did. Louise would later credit George for convincing Florence not to take her own life, and gave that as a big reason that underneath his gruff, stubborn exterior was a man who was concerned about others.

In an early Season Three episode, she becomes the Jeffersons' full-time maid, taking Lionel's room after he marries Jenny Willis and finds a place of his own. George naturally refused her to do so at first, but she managed to help him escape a sham financial deal with a couple of con artists, and George was grateful. Another time she was kidnapped by a pair of criminals after they mistook her for Louise. Florence handled the hostage ordeal, and managed to give out a clue to her friends over the phone. Mr. Bentley was the only one to uncover that clue, and she was rescued gradually by the police.

Harry Bentley (Paul Benedict) is the Jeffersons' eccentric English next-door neighbor. Bentley works as a Russian language interpreter at the United Nations. He is known to everybody as a kind, gentle fellow, but George mostly finds him a complete annoyance, especially when he shows up at his door, complaining of back spasms (which could be cured only by George walking across his back) or to borrow a household item. In nearly every episode he was in, George slams the door in his face, either in the middle of a conversation or at the beginning of one. Bentley usually tells stories about his childhood life whenever at a get-together, which almost always bore his guests, but he doesn't seem to notice.

Bentley lives alone, but several times brings home a lady friend. Two of Bentley's most-talked-about ladies are Daphne and Patricia.

Ironically in an earlier Season 3 episode, after taking ignorant advice from George, Bentley accidentally punches a police officer in the face and winds himself in jail. He was bailed out by George, but still faced charges from the whole case. The officer he punched then realized Bentley is truly an honest person, and ultimately freed him.

Paul Benedict left the series at the end of the 1980â€“81 season, which became the seventh year of the sitcom. The character of Bentley was written out, saying he went to live in the Soviet Union for two years. Benedict returned to the show in 1983 during the show's tenth year on television. Since then, George became much friendlier to him, but sometimes still slams the door on him.

Ralph Hart (Ned Wertimer) is the money-crazed doorman of the high-rise Colby East apartment complex. Although he appears to be a hard-working fellow with a decent attitude, he always makes sure his hand is stuffed with a reasonable amount (in his case, a lot) of money tips. He appears in the episodes usually to deliver merchandise or mail to George, and George must always give him a big tip. The same goes true for just about every other tenant focused on the sitcom. But in later seasons, they learn to stop giving Ralph a big tip, and, if necessary, tell him to get lost. In one episode Ralph was almost replaced by an automatic door before George along with several tenants told the building manager that they would all move if Ralph was replaced and he was allowed to keep his job. However it was revealed that none of the people actually lived in the building and that they all hated Ralph and only did it because he paid them. It is also hinted that the people that actually live in the building (aside from George) hate him so much that they wouldn't have helped him keep his job even if he did pay them. In a Season 5 nightmare dream George has of the future, Ralph has so much money from George's tips that he has moved up from doorman to owner of the apartment building and remarks how $500.00 pays for a gallon of gasoline!

Ralph does sometimes seem to care for his tenants over his tipping, though. In one of the later Season Two episodes, after Lionel and Jenny have a big altercation and break up for a short while, George unknowingly pays a hooker to spend time with Lionel. When Ralph sees her and recognizes her instantly, he tells George the truth. George, clearly panicked, gives Ralph a $100 tip as gratitude. But Ralph turned it down, explaining that he's "going to need it." He would continue to join the cast for the majority of the show's numerous seasons.

Marcus Garvey Henderson (Ernest Harden Jr.) is George's young employee at Jefferson Cleaners. Marcus appears in the 1977â€“78 season (during the fourth season), and apparently, Marcus grew up in a rough neighborhood. Louise hired him to work at George's store, but on the very first day on the job, he stole an expensive jacket. Bentley told Louise about the incident, and she and George confronted him. He admitted he stole it, but lashed out at the two about him never receiving a proper life. George retaliates by telling him he is a lucky guy to have a job, and that should he pursue a life as a swindler and altogether a ghetto person, he would end up in jail or the graveyard. Marcus then proceeds to become a better person.

When Marcus confesses his father died at a young age, Louise insists George on taking Marcus to a camp-out to give him a good, father-and-son relationship. Marcus tells George the bad times he had, and George admits his father died when he was ten years old. Marcus breaks down into tears, but both of them have a good time together. Marcus's final appearance was in the season 6 episode "Joltin' George".

Ernest Harden Jr. in fact briefly played another character in one episode in the third season.

Leroy Daniels (Vernon Washington) is George's store manager/employee at Jefferson Cleaners. He was born around 1938 and though a wiz at managing a store and dry-cleaning, can act a little bit dim-witted at times. In one episode titled "George, Who?" Louise, who took a bump on the head after getting attacked by a mugger, is able to find her way to the main cleaner store; In trying to remember Leroy by asking him "Do You Know Leroy?", Leroy, thinking Louise asked him "Do I know what?", dim-wittedly answers, "yesssss?" In one Season 5 episode, in a dream George had, Leroy became the owner of Jefferson Cleaners in 1996 when George himself was dead by then, which George though impossible since he felt Leroy was a dingbat with no business skills. Leroy would appear in several other episodes afterward.

Hugo Mojoloweski (Irwin Keyes) is George's occasional bodyguard, who was originally hired by George to protect him from a serial mugger and career criminal nicknamed "Larry The Loon" in Season Seven. Hugo, upon first sight becomes infatuated with George's daughter-in-law, the already-married Jenny, which, needless to say went unrequited. Hugo is big and very burly, but he, like Leroy may be sometimes a little dim-witted. His catchphrase was, "Hi, remember meÂ ?" which he always greets others, in particular, the very uninterested Jenny, who he at one time kept lavishing gifts upon, namely a big poster greeting card with his image, a la "Casablanca" style, with his catchphrase emblazoned upon it! In the two-part episode titled "The Strays", Hugo is hired once again to help and protect George when he attempts to confront a female street gang who robbed a delivery driver at gunpoint; when the girls appear, Hugo, who was supposed to scare off the girls, is nowhere to be found. As it turns out, Hugo had left because he had gotten hungry.

Jimmy (Garrett Morris) was supposedly a child that George and Louise has sponsored and sent money to for years. However, in their first visit with Jimmy, they realize he was an adult con-man. The character Jimmy appeared in five episodes from 1983 to 1984. Jimmy was a member of the historically black fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha. Morris was exactly a year older than Sherman Hemsley who played George. In the three-part episode titled "Mission:Impossible", Jimmy is once again enlisted by George. Jimmy and his cousin, played by Greg Morris of Mission:Impossible TV series fame, try to recover S10,000 lost by Tom Willis to some con-men, who were ex-Navy acquaintances of George in a revenge/double-cross con.

Charlie (Danny Wells) owns a bar in the first-floor lobby of the Colby-East apartment complex. He usually likes his business and is content with his customers, especially the Jeffersons and the Willises. A recurring joke had been that either Lionel or someone else would be having a drink with George at Charlie's bar, then to see Charlie giving them the bill either because George snuck out or he told Charlie that the drinks will be on Lionel. Once, he was supposed to be evicted because of his contract's expiration, and George would use his bar as an expansion to his cleaner store. But George, realizing Charlie is rather like one of the family, refused and let Charlie stay. In a later episode, titled "A Secret in the Back Room" (Season 11, episode #17) it is revealed that Charlie, while running a successful bar, has struggled for years with a drinking problem, and is separated from his wife because of it; George and Louise try to heip him to come to grips and deal with the problem while preparing for their marriage anniversary party.


what is the full meaning of cpr in first aid

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure that combines chest compressions often with artificial ventilation in an effort to manually preserve intact brain function until further measures are taken to restore spontaneous blood circulation and breathing in a person who is in cardiac arrest. It is recommended in those who are unresponsive with no breathing or abnormal breathing, for example, agonal respirations.[1]

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation

CPR involves chest compressions for adults between 5 cm (2.0 in) and 6 cm (2.4 in) deep and at a rate of at least 100 to 120 per minute.[2] The rescuer may also provide artificial ventilation by either exhaling air into the subject's mouth or nose (mouth-to-mouth resuscitation) or using a device that pushes air into the subject's lungs (mechanical ventilation). Current recommendations place emphasis on early and high-quality chest compressions over artificial ventilation; a simplified CPR method involving chest compressions only is recommended for untrained rescuers.[3] In children, however, only doing compressions may result in worse outcomes.[4]

CPR alone is unlikely to restart the heart. Its main purpose is to restore partial flow of oxygenated blood to the brain and heart. The objective is to delay tissue death and to extend the brief window of opportunity for a successful resuscitation without permanent brain damage. Administration of an electric shock to the subject's heart, termed defibrillation, is usually needed in order to restore a viable or "perfusing" heart rhythm. Defibrillation is effective only for certain heart rhythms, namely ventricular fibrillation or pulseless ventricular tachycardia, rather than asystole or pulseless electrical activity. CPR may succeed in inducing a heart rhythm that may be shockable. In general, CPR is continued until the person has a return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) or is declared dead.[5]

CPR is indicated for any person unresponsive with no breathing or breathing only in occasional agonal gasps, as it is most likely that they are in cardiac arrest.[6]:S643 If a person still has a pulse but is not breathing (respiratory arrest) artificial ventilations may be more appropriate, but, due to the difficulty people have in accurately assessing the presence or absence of a pulse, CPR guidelines recommend that lay persons should not be instructed to check the pulse, while giving healthcare professionals the option to check a pulse.[7] In those with cardiac arrest due to trauma, CPR is considered futile but still recommended.[8] Correcting the underlying cause such as a pneumothorax or pericardial tamponade may help.[8]

CPR serves as the foundation of successful cardiopulmonary resuscitation, preserving the body for defibrillation and advanced life support. Even in the case of a "non-shockable" rhythm, such as pulseless electrical activity (PEA) where defibrillation is not indicated, effective CPR is no less important. Used alone, CPR will result in few complete recoveries, though the outcome without CPR is almost uniformly fatal.[12]

Studies have shown that immediate CPR followed by defibrillation within 3â€“5 minutes of sudden VF cardiac arrest dramatically improves survival. In cities such as Seattle where CPR training is widespread and defibrillation by EMS personnel follows quickly, the survival rate is about 20 percent for all causes and as high as 57 percent if a witnessed "shockable" arrest.[13] In cities such as New York, without those advantages, the survival rate is only 5 percent for witnessed shockable arrest.[14]

In adults compression-only CPR by bystanders appears to be better than chest compressions with rescue breathing.[15] Compression-only CPR may be less effective in children than in adults, as cardiac arrest in children is more likely to have a non-cardiac cause. In a 2010 prospective study of cardiac arrest in children (age 1â€“17) for arrests with a non-cardiac cause, provision by bystanders of conventional CPR with rescue breathing yielded a favorable neurological outcome at one month more often than did compression-only CPR (OR 5.54). For arrests with a cardiac cause in this cohort, there was no difference between the two techniques (OR 1.20).[16] This is consistent with American Heart Association guidelines for parents.[17]

When done by trained responders, 30 compressions interrupted by two breaths appears to have a slightly better result than continuous chest compressions with breaths being delivered while compressions are ongoing.[15]

There is a higher proportion of patients who achieve spontaneous circulation (ROSC), where their heart starts beating on its own again, than ultimately survive to be discharged from hospital (see table above). This may be due to medical staff being ultimately unable to address the cause of the cardiac arrest, to other co-morbidities, or to the patient being gravely ill in more than one way. Ultimately, only 5â€“10% of patients in cardiac arrest will survive after an attempted resuscitation.[18]

While CPR is a last resort intervention, without which a person without a pulse will all but certainly die, the physical nature of how CPR is performed does lead to complications that may need to be rectified. Common complications due to CPR are rib fractures, sternal fractures, bleeding in the anterior mediastinum, heart contusion,[19] hemopericardium,[20][21][22] upper airway complications, damage to the abdominal viscera − lacerations of the liver and spleen, fat emboli, pulmonary complications − pneumothorax, hemothorax, lung contusions.[23][24]

The most common injuries sustained from CPR are rib fractures, with literature suggesting an incidence between 13% and 97%, and sternal fractures, with an incidence between 1% to 43%.[25] While these iatrogenic injuries can require further intervention (assuming the patient survives the cardiac arrest), only 0.5% of them are life-threatening in their own right.[24]

The type and frequency of injury can be affected by factors such as gender and age. For instance, women have a higher risk of sternal fractures than men, and risk for rib fractures increases significantly with age.[26] Children and infants have a low risk of rib fractures during CPR, with an incidence less than 2%, although, when they do occur, they are usually anterior and multiple.[25][27][28]

Where CPR is performed in error by a bystander, on a person not in cardiac arrest, around 2% have injury as a result (although 12% experienced discomfort).[29]

In 2010, the American Heart Association and International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation updated their CPR guidelines.[6]:S640[30] The importance of high quality CPR (sufficient rate and depth without excessively ventilating) was emphasized.[6]:S640 The order of interventions was changed for all age groups except newborns from airway, breathing, chest compressions (ABC) to chest compressions, airway, breathing (CAB).[6]:S642 An exception to this recommendation is for those believed to be in a respiratory arrest (airway obstruction, drug overdose, etc.).[6]:S642 The most important aspect of CPR are: few interruptions of chest compressions, a sufficient speed and depth of compressions, completely relaxing pressure between compressions, and not ventilating too much.[31] It is unclear if a few minutes of CPR before defibrillation results in different outcomes than immediate defibrillation.[32]

A universal compression to ventilation ratio of 30:2 is recommended for adults.[33]:8 With children, if at least 2 trained rescuers are present a ratio of 15:2 is preferred.[33]:8 In newborns a rate of 3:1 is recommended unless a cardiac cause is known in which case a 15:2 ratio is reasonable.[6]:S647

If an advanced airway such as an endotracheal tube or laryngeal mask airway is in place, artificial ventilation should occur without pauses in compressions at a rate of 8–10 per minute.[34] The recommended order of interventions is chest compressions, airway, breathing or CAB in most situations,[6]:S642 with a compression rate of at least 100 per minute in all groups.[33]:8 Recommended compression depth in adults and children is at least 5 cm (2 inches) and in infants it is 4 centimetres (1.6 in).[33]:8 As of 2010 the Resuscitation Council (UK) still recommends ABC for children.[35] As it can be difficult to determine the presence or absence of a pulse, the pulse check has been removed for lay providers and should not be performed for more than 10 seconds by healthcare providers.[33]:8 In adults, rescuers should use two hands for the chest compressions, while in children they should use one, and with infants two fingers (index and middle fingers).[36]

For adults with cardiac arrest, compression-only (hands-only or cardiocerebral resuscitation) CPR which involves chest compressions without artificial ventilation is recommended as the method of choice for the untrained rescuer or those who are not proficient as it is easier to perform and instructions are easier to give over a phone.[6]:S643[6]:S643[33]:8[37] In adults with out-of-hospital cardiac arrest, compression-only CPR by the lay public has an equal or higher success rate than standard CPR.[37][38] It is hoped that the use of compression-only delivery will increase the chances of the lay public delivering CPR.[39]

Compression-only CPR is not as good for children who are more likely to have cardiac arrest from respiratory causes. Two reviews have found that compression-only CPR had no more success than no CPR whatsoever.[38][6]:S646 Rescue breaths for children and especially for babies should be relatively gentle.[38] Either a ratio of compressions to breaths of 30:2 or 15:2 was found to have better results for children.[40] Both children and adults should receive a hundred chest compressions per minute. Other exceptions besides children include cases of drownings and drug overdose. In both these cases, compressions and rescue breaths are recommended if the bystander is trained and is willing to do so.

As per the American Heart Association, the beat of the Bee Gees song "Stayin' Alive" provides an ideal rhythm in terms of beats per minute to use for hands-only CPR.[41] One can also hum Queen's "Another One Bites The Dust", which is exactly 100 beats-per-minute and contains a memorable repeating drum pattern.[42] For those in cardiac arrest due to non heart related causes and in people less than 20 years of age, standard CPR is superior to compression-only CPR.[43][44]

Standard CPR is performed with the person in supine position. Prone CPR or reverse CPR is CPR performed on a person lying on their chest, by turning the head to the side and compressing the back. Due to the head's being turned, the risk of vomiting and complications caused by aspiration pneumonia may be reduced.[45]

The American Heart Association's current guideline recommends to perform CPR in the supine position, and limits prone CPR to situations where the patient cannot be turned.[46]

During pregnancy when a woman is lying on her back, the uterus may compress the inferior vena cava and thus decrease venous return.[8] It is therefore recommended that the uterus be pushed to the woman's left; if this is not effective, either roll the woman 30Â° or healthcare professionals should consider emergency resuscitative hysterotomy.[8]

Evidence generally supports family being present during CPR.[47] This includes in CPR for children.[48]

Interposed abdominal compressions may be beneficial in the hospital environment.[49] There is no evidence of benefit pre-hospital or in children.[49]

Cooling during CPR is being studied as currently results are unclear whether or not it improves outcomes.[50]

Internal cardiac massage is manual squeezing of the exposed heart itself carried out through a surgical incision into the chest cavity, usually when the chest is already open for cardiac surgery.

CPR is used on people in cardiac arrest in order to oxygenate the blood and maintain a cardiac output to keep vital organs alive. Blood circulation and oxygenation are required to transport oxygen to the tissues. The physiology of CPR involves generating a pressure gradient between the arterial and venous vascular beds; CPR achieves this via multiple mechanisms [51] The brain may sustain damage after blood flow has been stopped for about four minutes and irreversible damage after about seven minutes.[52][53][54][55][56] Typically if blood flow ceases for one to two hours, then body cells die. Therefore, in general CPR is effective only if performed within seven minutes of the stoppage of blood flow.[57] The heart also rapidly loses the ability to maintain a normal rhythm. Low body temperatures, as sometimes seen in near-drownings, prolong the time the brain survives. Following cardiac arrest, effective CPR enables enough oxygen to reach the brain to delay brain stem death, and allows the heart to remain responsive to defibrillation attempts.

While several adjunctive devices are available, none other than defibrillation, as of 2010, have consistently been found to be better than standard CPR for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest.[6]:S644 These devices can be split into three broad groups: timing devices; devices that assist the rescuer in achieving the correct technique, especially depth and speed of compressions; and devices that take over the process completely.

Timing devices can feature a metronome (an item carried by many ambulance crews) in order to assist the rescuer in achieving the correct rate. Some units can also give timing reminders for performing compressions, ventilating and changing operators.[58]

Mechanical chest compression devices are not currently recommended for widespread use.[59] There have not been enough high quality studies performed to determine if using mechanical assist devices for chest compression saves more lives compared with using the traditional hand compression technique.[59]

Audible and visual prompting may improve the quality of CPR and prevent the decrease of compression rate and depth that naturally occurs with fatigue,[60][61][62][63][64][65] and to address this potential improvement, a number of devices have been developed to help improve CPR technique.

These items can be devices to be placed on top of the chest, with the rescuer's hands going over the device, and a display or audio feedback giving information on depth, force or rate,[66] or in a wearable format such as a glove.[67] Several published evaluations show that these devices can improve the performance of chest compressions.[68][69]

As well as its use during actual CPR on a cardiac arrest victim, which relies on the rescuer carrying the device with them, these devices can also be used as part of training programs to improve basic skills in performing correct chest compressions.[70]

Mechanical CPR has not seen as much use as mechanical ventilation. Devices on the market include LUCAS-2, developed at the University Hospital of Lund,[71] and return of spontaneous circulation.[72] and AutoPulse. Both use straps around the chest, LUCAS-2 uses a gas driven piston and motor driven constricting band.

There are several advantages to automated devices: they allow rescuers to focus on performing other interventions; they do not fatigue and begin to perform less effective compressions, as humans do; they are able to perform effective compressions in limited-space environments such as air ambulances, where manual compressions are difficult, and they allow ambulance workers to be strapped in safely rather than standing over a patient in a speeding vehicle.[73] However the disadvantages are cost to purchase, time to train emergency personnel to use them, interruption to CPR to implement, potential for incorrect application and the need for multiple device sizes.

Several studies have shown little or no improvement in survival rates,[74][75][76] but acknowledge the need for more study.[77]

To support training and incident management, mobile apps have been published on the largest app markets. An evaluation of 61 available apps has revealed that a large number do not follow international guidelines for basic life support and many apps are not designed in a user-friendly way.[78] As a result, the Red Cross updated and endorsed its emergency preparedness application, which uses pictures, text and videos to assist the user.

The UK Resuscitation Council, has an app, called Lifesaver, which shows how to perform CPR.[79]

Various studies suggest that in out-of-home cardiac arrest, bystanders in the USA attempt CPR in between 14%[80] and 45%[81] of the time, with a median of 32%.[82] Internationally, rates of bystander CPR reported to be as low as 1% and as high as 44%.[83] However, the effectiveness of this CPR is variable, and the studies suggest only around half of bystander CPR is performed correctly.[84][85] One study found that members of the public having received CPR training in the past lack the skills and confidence needed to save lives. The report's authors suggested that better training is needed to improve the willingness to respond to cardiac arrest.[82]

There is a relation between age and the chance of CPR being commenced. Younger people are far more likely to have CPR attempted on them before the arrival of emergency medical services.[80][86] Bystanders more commonly administer CPR when in public than when at the person's home, although health care professionals are responsible for more than half of out-of-hospital resuscitation attempts.[81] People with no connection to the person are more likely to perform CPR than are a member of their family.[87]

There is also a clear relation between cause of arrest and the likelihood of a bystander initiating CPR. Lay persons are most likely to give CPR to younger people in cardiac arrest in a public place when it has a medical cause; those in arrest from trauma, exsanguination or intoxication are less likely to receive CPR.[87]

It is believed that there is a higher chance that CPR will be performed if the bystander is told to perform only the chest compression element of the resuscitation.[39][88]

CPR is likely to be effective only if commenced within 6 minutes after the blood flow stops[89] because permanent brain cell damage occurs when fresh blood infuses the cells after that time, since the cells of the brain become dormant in as little as 4–6 minutes in an oxygen deprived environment and, therefore, cannot survive the reintroduction of oxygen in a traditional resuscitation. Research using cardioplegic blood infusion resulted in a 79.4% survival rate with cardiac arrest intervals of 72±43 minutes, traditional methods achieve a 15% survival rate in this scenario, by comparison. New research is currently needed to determine what role CPR, electroshock, and new advanced gradual resuscitation techniques will have with this new knowledge.[90]

A notable exception is cardiac arrest that occurs in conjunction with exposure to very cold temperatures. Hypothermia seems to protect by slowing down metabolic and physiologic processes, greatly decreasing the tissues' need for oxygen.[91] There are cases where CPR, defibrillation, and advanced warming techniques have revived victims after substantial periods of hypothermia.[92]

CPR is often severely misrepresented in movies and television as being highly effective in resuscitating a person who is not breathing and has no circulation.

A 1996 study published in the New England Journal of Medicine showed that CPR success rates in television shows was 75% for immediate circulation, and 67% survival to discharge.[93] This gives the general public an unrealistic expectation of a successful outcome.[93] When educated on the actual survival rates, the proportion of patients over 60 years of age desiring CPR should they suffer a cardiac arrest drops from 41% to 22%.[94]

Chest compressions are capable of causing significant local blunt trauma, including bruising or fracture of the sternum or ribs.[95] Performing CPR on a healthy person may or may not disrupt normal heart rhythm, but regardless the technique should not be performed on a healthy person because of the risk of trauma.

The portrayal of CPR technique on television and film often is purposely incorrect. Actors simulating the performance of CPR may bend their elbows while appearing to compress, to prevent force from reaching the chest of the actor portraying the victim.

A form of "self-CPR" termed "cough CPR" was the subject of a hoax chain e-mail entitled "How to Survive a Heart Attack When Alone," which wrongly cited "ViaHealth Rochester General Hospital" as the source of the technique. Rochester General Hospital has denied any connection with the technique.[96][97]

"Cough CPR" in the sense of resuscitating oneself is impossible because a prominent symptom of cardiac arrest is unconsciousness,[98] which makes coughing impossible. In cases of myocardial infarction (heart attack), during which the person may well remain conscious but which is not by itself a form of arrest, attempting "cough CPR" will increase the workload on the heart and will likely prove harmful.

The American Heart Association (AHA) and other resuscitation bodies[99] do not endorse "cough CPR", which it terms a misnomer as it is not a form of resuscitation. The AHA does recognize a limited legitimate use of the coughing technique: "This coughing technique to maintain blood flow during brief arrhythmias has been useful in the hospital, particularly during cardiac catheterization. In such cases the patient's ECG is monitored continuously, and a physician is present."[100] When coughing is used on trained and monitored patients in hospitals, it has been shown to be effective only for 90 seconds.[99]

In at least one case, it has been alleged that CPR learned from a movie was used to save a person's life. In April 2011, it was claimed that nine-year-old Tristin Saghin saved his sister's life by administering CPR on her after she fell into a swimming pool, using only the knowledge of CPR that he had gleaned from a motion picture, Black Hawk Down.[101]

Less than 1/3 of those people who experience a cardiac arrest at home, work or in a public location have CPR performed on them. Most bystanders are worried that they might do something wrong.[102] On October 28, 2009 the American Heart Association and the Ad Council launched a Hands-Only CPR public service announcement and website as a means to address this issue.[103] In July 2011, new content was added to the website including a digital app that helps a user learn how to perform Hands-Only CPR.[104]

In the 19th century, Doctor H. R. Silvester described a method (The Silvester Method) of artificial ventilation in which the patient is laid on their back, and their arms are raised above their head to aid inhalation and then pressed against their chest to aid exhalation.[105] The procedure is repeated sixteen times per minute. This type of artificial ventilation is occasionally seen in films made in the early 20th century.

A second technique, called the Holger Nielsen technique, described in the first edition of the Boy Scout Handbook in the United States in 1911, was a form of artificial ventilation where the person was laid face down, with their head to the side, resting on the palms of both hands. Upward pressure applied at the patientâ€™s elbows raised the upper body while pressure on their back forced air into the lungs, in essence the Silvester Method with the patient flipped over. This form is seen well into the 1950s (it is used in an episode of Lassie during the mid-1950s), and was often used, sometimes for comedic effect, in theatrical cartoons of the time (see Tom and Jerry's "The Cat and the Mermouse" [1949]). This method would continue to be shown, for historical purposes, side-by-side with modern CPR in the Boy Scout Handbook until its ninth edition in 1979. The technique was later banned from first-aid manuals in the UK.

Similar techniques were described in early 20th century ju-jutsu and judo books, as being used as far back as the early 17th century. A New York Times correspondent reported those techniques being used successfully in Japan in 1910. In ju-jutsu (and later on, judo) those techniques were called Kappo or Kutasu.[106][107][108][109]

However, it was not until the middle of the 20th century that the wider medical community started to recognize and promote artificial ventilation in the form of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation combined with chest compressions as a key part of resuscitation following cardiac arrest. The combination was first seen in a 1962 training video called "The Pulse of Life" created by James Jude, Guy Knickerbocker and Peter Safar. Jude and Knickerbocker, along with William Kouwenhoven and Joseph S. Redding had recently discovered the method of external chest compressions, whereas Safar had worked with Redding and James Elam to prove the effectiveness of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. It was at Johns Hopkins University where the technique of CPR was originally developed. The first effort at testing the technique was performed on a dog by Redding, Safar and JW Pearson. Soon afterward, the technique was used to save the life of a child.[110] Their combined findings were presented at the annual Maryland Medical Society meeting on September 16, 1960 in Ocean City, and gained widespread acceptance over the following decade, helped by the video and speaking tour they undertook. Peter Safar wrote the book ABC of Resuscitation in 1957. In the U.S., it was first promoted as a technique for the public to learn in the 1970s.[111]

Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation was combined with chest compressions based on the assumption that active ventilation is necessary to keep circulating blood oxygenated, and the combination was accepted without comparing its effectiveness with chest compressions alone. However, research over the past decade has shown that assumption to be in error, resulting in the AHA's acknowledgment of the effectiveness of chest compressions alone (see Compression only in this article).[112]

CPR has continued to advance, with recent developments including an emphasis on constant, rapid heart stimulation, and a de-emphasis on the respiration aspect. Studies have shown that people who had rapid, constant heart-only chest compression are 22% more likely to survive than those receiving conventional CPR that included breathing. What's more, because people tend to be reluctant to do mouth-to-mouth, chest-only CPR nearly doubles the chances of survival overall, by increasing the odds of receiving CPR in the first place.[113]

It is feasible to perform CPR on animals, including cats and dogs. The principles and practices are virtually identical to CPR for humans, except that resuscitation is usually done through the animal's nose, not the mouth. CPR should only be performed on unconscious animals to avoid the risk of being bitten; a conscious animal would not require chest compressions. Animals, depending on species, may have a lower bone density than humans and so CPR can cause bones to become weakened after it is performed.[114]

Cerebral performance category (CPC scores) are used as a research tool to describe “good” and “poor” outcomes. Level 1 is conscious and alert with normal function. Level 2 is only slight disability. Level 3 is moderate disability. Level 4 is severe disability. Level 5 is comatose or persistent vegetative state. Level 6 is brain dead or death from other causes.[115]