do yellow finches change color in the winter

Once the spring molt is complete, the body of the male is a brilliant lemon yellow, a color produced by carotenoid pigments from plant materials in its diet,[18] with a striking jet black cap and white rump that is visible during flight.[19] The female is mostly brown, lighter on the underside with a yellow bib.[17] After the autumn molt, the bright summer feathers are replaced by duller plumage, becoming buff below and olive-brown above, with a pale yellow face and bib. The autumn plumage is almost identical in both sexes, but the male has yellow shoulder patches.[20] In some winter ranges, the goldfinches lose all traces of yellow, becoming a predominantly medium tan-gray color with an olive tinge evident only on close viewing.

American goldfinch

The American goldfinch (Spinus tristis) is a small North American bird in the finch family. It is migratory, ranging from mid-Alberta to North Carolina during the breeding season, and from just south of the Canada–United States border to Mexico during the winter.

The only finch in its subfamily to undergo a complete molt, the American goldfinch displays sexual dimorphism in its coloration; the male is a vibrant yellow in the summer and an olive color during the winter, while the female is a dull yellow-brown shade which brightens only slightly during the summer. The male displays brightly colored plumage during the breeding season to attract a mate.

The American goldfinch is a granivore and adapted for the consumption of seedheads, with a conical beak to remove the seeds and agile feet to grip the stems of seedheads while feeding. It is a social bird, and will gather in large flocks while feeding and migrating. It may behave territorially during nest construction, but this aggression is short-lived. Its breeding season is tied to the peak of food supply, beginning in late July, which is relatively late in the year for a finch. This species is generally monogamous, and produces one brood each year.

Human activity has generally benefited the American goldfinch. It is often found in residential areas, attracted to bird feeders which increase its survival rate in these areas. Deforestation also creates open meadow areas which are its preferred habitat.

The American goldfinch was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his work Systema Naturae.[3] It was initially included in the genus Spinus, a group containing New World goldfinches and siskins, but in 1976, Spinus was merged into the genus Carduelis as a subgenus.[4] Recent studies resurrect the genus Spinus. Its closest relatives are the lesser goldfinch (S. psaltria), Lawrence's goldfinch (S. lawrencei), and the siskins. Although it shares a name with the European goldfinch, the two are in separate subgenera and are not directly related.[5] Carduelis is derived from carduus, the Latin word for thistle; the species name tristis is Latin for'sorrowful'.[6] There are four recognized subspecies of the American goldfinch:[7]

This seems to be the most ancient extant species of the Meso American Spinus/Carduelis evolutive radiation, whose parental species is Carduelis/Spinus lawrencei.[10][11][12]

The American goldfinch is a small finch, 11–14 cm (4.3–5.5 in) long, with a wingspan of 19–22 cm (7.5–8.7 in). It weighs between 11–20 g (0.39–0.71 oz).[13] Among standard measurements, the wing chord is 6.5 to 7.8 cm (2.6 to 3.1 in), the tail is 4.2 to 5.1 cm (1.7 to 2.0 in), the culmen is 0.9 to 1.1 cm (0.35 to 0.43 in) and the tarsus is 1.2 to 1.4 cm (0.47 to 0.55 in).[14] The beak is small, conical, and pink for most of the year, but turns bright orange with the spring molt in both sexes.[15] The shape and size of the beak aid in the extraction of seeds from the seed heads of thistles, sunflowers, and other plants.[16]

The American goldfinch undergoes a molt in the spring and autumn. It is the only cardueline finch to undergo a molt twice a year.[17] During the winter molt it sheds all its feathers; in the spring, it sheds all but the wing and tail feathers, which are dark brown in the female and black in the male.[16] The markings on these feathers remain through each molt, with bars on the wings and white under and at the edges of the short, notched tail.[15] The sexual dimorphism displayed in plumage coloration is especially pronounced after the spring molt, when the bright color of the male's summer plumage is needed to attract a mate.[16]

The immature American goldfinch has a dull brown back, and the underside is pale yellow. The shoulders and tail are dull black with buff-colored, rather than white, markings on wings and rump. This coloration is the same in both genders.[20]

The song of the American goldfinch is a series of musical warbles and twitters, often with a long note. A tsee-tsi-tsi-tsit call is often given in flight; it may also be described as per-chic-o-ree.[15] While the female incubates the eggs, she calls to her returning mate with a soft continuous teeteeteeteete sound. The young begin to use a call of chick-kee or chick-wee shortly before fledging, which they use until they have left the nest entirely.[16] There are two defense calls made by adults during nesting; a sweeet call made to rally other goldfinches to the nest and distract predators, and a bearbee used to signal to the nestlings to quiet them and get them to crouch down in the nest to become less conspicuous.[21]

The American goldfinch prefers open country where weeds thrive, such as fields, meadows, flood plains, as well as roadsides, orchards, and gardens. It may also be found in open deciduous and riparian woodlands and areas of secondary growth.[22] This habitat preference continues during the spring and autumn migrations.[15]

The summer breeding range stretches across North America from coast to coast. It is bounded on the north by Saskatchewan and stretches south across North America to North Carolina on the east coast, and northern California on the west coast.[15] The American goldfinch is a short-distance migrant, moving south in response to colder weather and lessened food supply. The migration is completed in compact flocks, which travel in an erratic, wavelike flight pattern.[23]

Its winter range includes southern Canada and stretches south through the United States to parts of Mexico. In winter, in the northern part of its range, the finch may move nearer to feeders if they are available. In southern ranges, during winter, they remain in areas similar to the fields and flood plains where they live during the summer months.[24]

Attempts were made to introduce the American goldfinch into Bermuda in the 19th century, and Tahiti in 1938, but the species failed to become established.[25]

The American goldfinch flies in a distinctive undulating pattern, creating a wave-shaped path. This normally consists of a series of wing beats to lift the bird, then folding in the wings and gliding in an arc before repeating the pattern. Birds often vocalize during the flapping phase of the pattern and then go silent during the coasting phase. The call made during flight is "per-twee-twee-twee", or "ti-di-di-di", punctuated by the silent periods.[24][26]

The American goldfinch is gregarious during the non-breeding season, when it is often found in large flocks, usually with other finches. During the breeding season, it lives in loose colonies. While the nest is being constructed, the male will act aggressively toward other males who intrude into his territory, driving them away, and the female reacts in the same way toward other females. This aggressiveness subsides once the eggs have been laid.[27]

The American goldfinch does not act aggressively toward predators within its territory; its only reaction is alarm calling. Predators include snakes, weasels, squirrels, and blue jays, which may destroy eggs or kill young, and hawks and cats, which pose a threat to both young and adults. As of 2007, the oldest known American goldfinch was 10 years and 5 months old.[28]

The American goldfinch is a diurnal feeder. According to the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, the species is one of the strictest vegetarians in the bird world.[28] It is mainly granivorous, but will occasionally eat insects, which are also fed to its young to provide protein. Its diet consists of the seeds from a wide variety of annual plants, often those of weeds, grasses, and trees, such as thistle, teasel, dandelion, ragweed, mullein, cosmos, goatsbeard, sunflower, and alder.[22] However, it also consumes tree buds, maple sap, and berries. It will eat at bird feeders provided by humans, particularly in the winter months, preferring Niger seed (commonly and erroneously called thistle seed).[29]

Unlike some finch species, the American goldfinch uses its feet extensively in feeding. It frequently hangs from seedheads while feeding in order to reach the seeds more easily. In the spring, the American goldfinch feeds on the catkins hanging from birches and alders by pulling one up with its beak and using its toes to hold the catkin still against the branch. This dexterity enables it to take advantage of food sources relatively inaccessible to potential competitors, increasing its chances of survival.[16]

The American goldfinch begins its breeding season later in the year than any other finch and later than any other native North American bird, besides occasionally the sedge wren.[16][28] This may be related to the abundance of seeds in the late summer months, as seeds represent the majority of their diet.[27]

The courtship rituals of the American goldfinch include aerial maneuvers and singing by males, who begin courtship in late July. The flight displays begin as the male pursues the female, who flies in zigzagging evasive patterns. The male is able to signal his quality and fitness, both in the short term (current body condition) and long term (genes), through ornamentation (bill color and plumage).[30] If a female accepts the male as a mate, the pair will fly in wide circles, as the male warbles throughout the flight.[16]

Once a male has found a mate, he selects a territory, marking the boundaries by warbling as he flies from perch to perch. After circling the perimeter, he performs two flight displays, first repeating a low, flat flight, then flying in an exaggerated version of normal flight, tucking his wings close to his body, plummeting earthwards and catching himself as he spreads his wings to glide upward in a series of loops. Two or three pairs may group their territories together in a loose colony, perhaps to aid in defense against predators.[16]

The nest is built in late summer by the female in the branches of a deciduous shrub or tree at a height of up to 10 m (33 ft). The nest-building lasts approximately six days, during which time the female works in 10–40 minute increments. The male frequently flies with the female as she collects nesting materials, and though he may carry some materials back to the nest, he leaves its construction to the female. The outer shell of the nest is built of bark, weeds, vines, and grass.[23] The inside diameter of the finished nest is about 6.5 cm (2.6 in).[22] The rim is reinforced with bark bound by spiderwebs and caterpillar silk, and the cup is lined with plant down from milkweed, thistle, or cattail. The nest is so tightly woven that it can hold water, and it is possible for nestlings to drown following a rainstorm if the parents do not cover the nest.[17]

American goldfinches lay four to six bluish-white eggs, which are oval in shape and about 16 mm × 12 mm (0.63 in × 0.47 in), roughly the size of a peanut.[23] It is thought that they are laid during the night.[24] The eggs are incubated by the female alone, though the male brings her food as she nests, and most mating pairs raise only one brood each year.[23]

The chicks hatch 12–14 days after incubation begins. Like all passerines, the chicks are altricial; they are hatched naked, with reddish bodies, pale grey down, and closed eyes.[31] The mother bird feeds her young regurgitated seeds and insects as they grow.[19] The hatchlings develop quickly, opening their eyes after three days, and completing the growth of olive-brown juvenile plumage after 11–15 days, at which time they begin to practice short flights close to the nest. For up to three weeks after fledging, they are still fed by the male, who locates them by listening for their fledging call. The chicks stop giving this call when they become entirely independent.[16]

American goldfinches are occasionally victims of brood parasites, particularly brown-headed cowbirds. One study found that 9% of nests had brown-headed cowbird eggs in them.[32] American goldfinches make very poor hosts for brood parasites, with studies showing low hatching rates of brown-headed cowbird eggs and no fledging success. This is despite the fact that the American goldfinch has no known behavioral adaptations against brood parasites. It is thought that the inability of brown-headed cowbird chicks to survive is due to a failure to get enough nutrition; the seed-rich diet of American goldfinch chicks varies from the usual insect-rich diet of other hosts.[33]

The American goldfinch is found in residential areas throughout its range. Backyard birders attract it using feeders containing Nyjer thistle seed,[29] or by planting grasses and perennial plants, such as zinnias, cosmos, bee balm, or globe thistle, which produce seedheads favored by finches. Although some controversy surrounds bird feeding (see bird feeder for details), an increase in backyard feeding by humans has generally been beneficial to this species.[29]

The American goldfinch is not threatened by human activity, and is widespread throughout its range.[1][7] The clearing of forests by humans, though harmful to many species, has benefited the American goldfinch. Clearing of woodlands causes declines in numbers of neotropical migrants, while favoring short-distance migrants and permanent residents.[34] This benefits the American goldfinch both as a short-distance migrant, and because the created open areas are the preferred environment of the bird, where weeds thrive which produce the primary food source of the American goldfinch.[17]

The American goldfinch is the state bird of Iowa and New Jersey, where it is called the "Eastern Goldfinch", and Washington, where it is called the "Willow Goldfinch".[35] It was chosen by schoolchildren in Washington in 1951.[9]


what is the meaning of torque in physics

Torque, moment, or moment of force is rotational force.[1] Just as a linear force is a push or a pull, a torque can be thought of as a twist to an object. In three dimensions, the torque is a pseudovector; for point particles, it is given by the cross product of the position vector (distance vector) and the force vector.

Torque

The symbol for torque is typically

τ

{\displaystyle \tau }

, the lowercase Greek letter tau. When it is called moment of force, it is commonly denoted by M.

The magnitude of torque of a rigid body depends on three quantities: the force applied, the lever arm vector[2] connecting the origin to the point of force application, and the angle between the force and lever arm vectors. In symbols:

The SI unit for torque is Nâ‹…m/rad. For more on the units of torque, see Units.

Torque is referred to using different vocabulary depending on geographical location and field of study. This article refers to the definition used in US physics in its usage of the word torque.[3] In the UK and in US mechanical engineering, torque is referred to as moment of force, usually shortened to moment.[4] In US physics[3] and UK physics terminology these terms are interchangeable, unlike in US mechanical engineering, where the term torque is used for the closely related "resultant moment of a couple".[4]

Torque is defined mathematically as the rate of change of angular momentum of an object. The definition of torque states that one or both of the angular velocity or the moment of inertia of an object are changing. Moment is the general term used for the tendency of one or more applied forces to rotate an object about an axis, but not necessarily to change the angular momentum of the object (the concept which is called torque in physics).[4] For example, a rotational force applied to a shaft causing acceleration, such as a drill bit accelerating from rest, results in a moment called a torque. By contrast, a lateral force on a beam produces a moment (called a bending moment), but since the angular momentum of the beam is not changing, this bending moment is not called a torque. Similarly with any force couple on an object that has no change to its angular momentum, such moment is also not called a torque.

This article follows the US physics terminology by calling all moments by the term torque, whether or not they cause the angular momentum of an object to change.

The concept of torque, also called moment or couple, originated with the studies of Archimedes on levers. The term torque was apparently introduced into English scientific literature by James Thomson, the brother of Lord Kelvin, in 1884.[5]

A force applied at a right angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the lever's fulcrum (the length of the lever arm) is its torque. A force of three newtons applied two metres from the fulcrum, for example, exerts the same torque as a force of one newton applied six metres from the fulcrum. The direction of the torque can be determined by using the right hand grip rule: if the fingers of the right hand are curled from the direction of the lever arm to the direction of the force, then the thumb points in the direction of the torque.[6]

More generally, the torque on a particle (which has the position r in some reference frame) can be defined as the cross product:

where r is the particle's position vector relative to the fulcrum, and F is the force acting on the particle. The magnitude Ï„ of the torque is given by

where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the particle, F is the magnitude of the force applied, and Î¸ is the angle between the position and force vectors. Alternatively,

where FâŠ¥ is the amount of force directed perpendicularly to the position of the particle. Any force directed parallel to the particle's position vector does not produce a torque.[7][8]

It follows from the properties of the cross product that the torque vector is perpendicular to both the position and force vectors. The torque vector points along the axis of the rotation that the force vector (starting from rest) would initiate. The resulting torque vector direction is determined by the right-hand rule.[7]

The unbalanced torque on a body along axis of rotation determines the rate of change of the body's angular momentum,

where L is the angular momentum vector and t is time. If multiple torques are acting on the body, it is instead the net torque which determines the rate of change of the angular momentum:

For the motion of a point particle,

where I is the moment of inertia and Ï‰ is the angular velocity. It follows that

where α is the angular acceleration of the particle, and p|| is the radial component of its linear momentum. This equation is the rotational analogue of Newton's Second Law for point particles, and is valid for any type of trajectory. Note that although force and acceleration are always parallel and directly proportional, the torque τ need not be parallel or directly proportional to the angular acceleration α. This arises from the fact that although mass is always conserved, the moment of inertia in general is not.

The definition of angular momentum for a single particle is:

where "Ã—" indicates the vector cross product, p is the particle's linear momentum, and r is the displacement vector from the origin (the origin is assumed to be a fixed location anywhere in space). The time-derivative of this is:

This result can easily be proven by splitting the vectors into components and applying the product rule. Now using the definition of force

F

=

d

p

d

t

{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} {\boldsymbol {p}}}{\mathrm {d} t}}}

 (whether or not mass is constant) and the definition of velocity

d

r

d

t

=

v

{\displaystyle {\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {r} }{\mathrm {d} t}}=\mathbf {v} }

The cross product of momentum

p

{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {p}}}

 with its associated velocity

v

{\displaystyle \mathbf {v} }

 is zero because velocity and momentum are parallel, so the second term vanishes.

By definition, torque τ = r × F. Therefore, torque on a particle is equal to the first derivative of its angular momentum with respect to time.

If multiple forces are applied, Newton's second law instead reads Fnet = ma, and it follows that

This is a general proof.

Torque has dimension force times distance, symbolically L2MT−2. Official SI literature suggests using the unit newton metre (N⋅m) or the unit joule per radian.[9] The unit newton metre is properly denoted N⋅m or N m.[10] This avoids ambiguity with mN, millinewtons.

The SI unit for energy or work is the joule. It is dimensionally equivalent to a force of one newton acting over a distance of one metre, but it is not used for torque. Energy and torque are entirely different concepts, so the practice of using different unit names (i.e., reserving newton metres for torque and using only joules for energy) helps avoid mistakes and misunderstandings.[9] The dimensional equivalence of these units is not simply a coincidence: a torque of 1 N⋅m applied through a full revolution will require an energy of exactly 2π joules. Mathematically,

where E is the energy, τ is magnitude of the torque, and θ is the angle moved (in radians). This equation motivates the alternate unit name joules per radian.[9]

In Imperial units, "pound-force-feet" (lbf⋅ft), "foot-pounds-force", "inch-pounds-force", "ounce-force-inches" (ozf⋅in)[citation needed] are used, and other non-SI units of torque includes "metre-kilograms-force". For all these units, the word "force" is often left out.[11] For example, abbreviating "pound-force-foot" to simply "pound-foot" (in this case, it would be implicit that the "pound" is pound-force and not pound-mass). This is an example of the confusion caused by the use of English units that may be avoided with SI units because of the careful distinction in SI between force (in newtons) and mass (in kilograms).

Torque is sometimes listed with units that do not make dimensional sense, such as the gram-centimeter. In this case, "gram" should be understood as the force given by the weight of 1 gram on the surface of the Earth (i.e. 0.00980665 N). The surface of the Earth has a standard gravitational field strength of 9.80665 N/kg.

A very useful special case, often given as the definition of torque in fields other than physics, is as follows:

The construction of the "moment arm" is shown in the figure to the right, along with the vectors r and F mentioned above. The problem with this definition is that it does not give the direction of the torque but only the magnitude, and hence it is difficult to use in three-dimensional cases. If the force is perpendicular to the displacement vector r, the moment arm will be equal to the distance to the centre, and torque will be a maximum for the given force. The equation for the magnitude of a torque, arising from a perpendicular force:

For example, if a person places a force of 10 N at the terminal end of a wrench that is 0.5 m long (or a force of 10 N exactly 0.5 m from the twist point of a wrench of any length), the torque will be 5 N.m – assuming that the person moves the wrench by applying force in the plane of movement and perpendicular to the wrench.

For an object to be in static equilibrium, not only must the sum of the forces be zero, but also the sum of the torques (moments) about any point. For a two-dimensional situation with horizontal and vertical forces, the sum of the forces requirement is two equations: ΣH = 0 and ΣV = 0, and the torque a third equation: Στ = 0. That is, to solve statically determinate equilibrium problems in two-dimensions, three equations are used.

When the net force on the system is zero, the torque measured from any point in space is the same. For example, the torque on a current-carrying loop in a uniform magnetic field is the same regardless of your point of reference. If the net force

F

{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} }

 is not zero, and

τ

1

{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\tau }}_{1}}

 is the torque measured from

r

1

{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{1}}

, then the torque measured from

r

2

{\displaystyle \mathbf {r} _{2}}

 is …

τ

2

=

τ

1

+
(

r

1

−

r

2

)
×

F

{\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\tau }}_{2}={\boldsymbol {\tau }}_{1}+(\mathbf {r} _{1}-\mathbf {r} _{2})\times \mathbf {F} }

Torque is part of the basic specification of an engine: the power output of an engine is expressed as its torque multiplied by its rotational speed of the axis. Internal-combustion engines produce useful torque only over a limited range of rotational speeds (typically from around 1,000â€“6,000 rpm for a small car). The varying torque output over that range can be measured with a dynamometer, and shown as a torque curve.

Steam engines and electric motors tend to produce maximum torque close to zero rpm, with the torque diminishing as rotational speed rises (due to increasing friction and other constraints). Reciprocating steam engines can start heavy loads from zero RPM without a clutch.

If a force is allowed to act through a distance, it is doing mechanical work. Similarly, if torque is allowed to act through a rotational distance, it is doing work. Mathematically, for rotation about a fixed axis through the center of mass,

where W is work, τ is torque, and θ1 and θ2 represent (respectively) the initial and final angular positions of the body.[12]

The work done by a variable force acting over a finite linear displacement

s

{\displaystyle s}

 is given by integrating the force with respect to an elemental linear displacement

d

s
→

{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\vec {s}}}

However, the infinitesimal linear displacement

d

s
→

{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\vec {s}}}

 is related to a corresponding angular displacement

d

θ
→

{\displaystyle \mathrm {d} {\vec {\theta }}}

 and the radius vector

r
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}}

 as

Substitution in the above expression for work gives

The expression

F
→

⋅

d

θ
→

×

r
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {F}}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {\theta }}\times {\vec {r}}}

 is a scalar triple product given by

[

F
→

d

θ
→

r
→

]

{\displaystyle \left[{\vec {F}}\,\mathrm {d} {\vec {\theta }}\,{\vec {r}}\right]}

. An alternate expression for the same scalar triple product is

But as per the definition of torque,

Corresponding substitution in the expression of work gives,

Since the parameter of integration has been changed from linear displacement to angular displacement, the limits of the integration also change correspondingly, giving

If the torque and the angular displacement are in the same direction, then the scalar product reduces to a product of magnitudes; i.e.,

τ
→

⋅

d

θ
→

=

|

τ
→

|

|

d

θ
→

|

cos

0
=
τ

d

θ

{\displaystyle {\vec {\tau }}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {\theta }}=\left|{\vec {\tau }}\right|\left|\,\mathrm {d} {\vec {\theta }}\right|\cos 0=\tau \,\mathrm {d} \theta }

 giving

It follows from the work-energy theorem that W also represents the change in the rotational kinetic energy Er of the body, given by

where I is the moment of inertia of the body and Ï‰ is its angular speed.[12]

Power is the work per unit time, given by

where P is power, τ is torque, ω is the angular velocity, and ⋅ represents the scalar product.

Algebraically, the equation may be rearranged to compute torque for a given angular speed and power output. Note that the power injected by the torque depends only on the instantaneous angular speed – not on whether the angular speed increases, decreases, or remains constant while the torque is being applied (this is equivalent to the linear case where the power injected by a force depends only on the instantaneous speed – not on the resulting acceleration, if any).

In practice, this relationship can be observed in bicycles: Bicycles are typically composed of two road wheels, front and rear gears (referred to as sprockets) meshing with a circular chain, and a derailleur mechanism if the bicycle's transmission system allows multiple gear ratios to be used (i.e. multi-speed bicycle), all of which attached to the frame. A cyclist, the person who rides the bicycle, provides the input power by turning pedals, thereby cranking the front sprocket (commonly referred to as chainring). The input power provided by the cyclist is equal to the product of cadence (i.e. the number of pedal revolutions per minute) and the torque on spindle of the bicycle's crankset. The bicycle's drivetrain transmits the input power to the road wheel, which in turn conveys the received power to the road as the output power of the bicycle. Depending on the gear ratio of the bicycle, a (torque, rpm)input pair is converted to a (torque, rpm)output pair. By using a larger rear gear, or by switching to a lower gear in multi-speed bicycles, angular speed of the road wheels is decreased while the torque is increased, product of which (i.e. power) does not change.

Consistent units must be used. For metric SI units, power is watts, torque is newton metres and angular speed is radians per second (not rpm and not revolutions per second).

Also, the unit newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to the joule, which is the unit of energy. However, in the case of torque, the unit is assigned to a vector, whereas for energy, it is assigned to a scalar.

A conversion factor may be necessary when using different units of power or torque. For example, if rotational speed (revolutions per time) is used in place of angular speed (radians per time), we multiply by a factor of 2π radians per revolution. In the following formulas, P is power, τ is torque, and ν (Greek letter nu) is rotational speed.

Showing units:

Dividing by 60 seconds per minute gives us the following.

where rotational speed is in revolutions per minute (rpm).

Some people (e.g., American automotive engineers) use horsepower (imperial mechanical) for power, foot-pounds (lbfâ‹…ft) for torque and rpm for rotational speed. This results in the formula changing to:

The constant below (in foot pounds per minute) changes with the definition of the horsepower; for example, using metric horsepower, it becomes approximately 32,550.

Use of other units (e.g., BTU per hour for power) would require a different custom conversion factor.

For a rotating object, the linear distance covered at the circumference of rotation is the product of the radius with the angle covered. That is: linear distance = radius × angular distance. And by definition, linear distance = linear speed × time = radius × angular speed × time.

The radius r and time t have dropped out of the equation. However, angular speed must be in radians, by the assumed direct relationship between linear speed and angular speed at the beginning of the derivation. If the rotational speed is measured in revolutions per unit of time, the linear speed and distance are increased proportionately by 2Ï€ in the above derivation to give:

If torque is in newton metres and rotational speed in revolutions per second, the above equation gives power in newton metres per second or watts. If Imperial units are used, and if torque is in pounds-force feet and rotational speed in revolutions per minute, the above equation gives power in foot pounds-force per minute. The horsepower form of the equation is then derived by applying the conversion factor 33,000 ft⋅lbf/min per horsepower:

because

5252.113122
≈

33
,
000

2
π

.

{\displaystyle 5252.113122\approx {\frac {33,000}{2\pi }}.\,}

The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's theorem (not to be confused with the geometrical theorem of the same name) states that the sum of torques due to several forces applied to a single point is equal to the torque due to the sum (resultant) of the forces. Mathematically, this follows from:

A torque multiplier is a gear box with reduction ratios greater than 1. The given torque at the input gets multiplied as per the reduction ratio and transmitted to the output, thereby achieving greater torque, but with reduced rotational speed.


where were the olympic games held for the first time in asia

The 1964 Summer Games were the first Olympics held in Asia, and the first time South Africa was barred from taking part due to its apartheid system in sports.[1][2] (South Africa was, however, allowed to compete at the 1964 Summer Paralympics, also held in Tokyo, where it made its Paralympic Games debut.)[3] Tokyo was chosen as the host city during the 55th IOC Session in West Germany, on May 26, 1959.

1964 Summer Olympics

The 1964 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVIII Olympiad (第十八回オリンピック競技大会, Dai Jūhachi-kai Orinpikku Kyōgi Taikai), was an international multi-sport event held in Tokyo, Japan, from October 10 to 24, 1964. Tokyo had been awarded the organization of the 1940 Summer Olympics, but this honor was subsequently passed to Helsinki because of Japan's invasion of China, before ultimately being canceled because of World War II.

These games were also the first to be telecast internationally without the need for tapes to be flown overseas, as they had been for the 1960 Olympics four years earlier. The games were telecast to the United States using Syncom 3, the first geostationary communication satellite, and from there to Europe using Relay 1.[4] These were also the first Olympic Games to have color telecasts, albeit partially. Certain events like the sumo wrestling and judo matches, sports huge in Japan, were tried out using Toshiba's new color transmission system, but only for the domestic market. History surrounding the 1964 Olympics was chronicled in the 1965 documentary film Tokyo Olympiad, directed by Kon Ichikawa.

The games were scheduled for mid-October to avoid the city's midsummer heat and humidity and the September typhoon season.[5] The previous Olympics in Rome in 1960 started in late August and experienced hot weather. The following games in 1968 in Mexico City also began in October.

The 1964 Olympics were also the last to use a traditional cinder track for the track events. A smooth synthetic all-weather track was used for the first time at the 1968 Olympics and at every Games thereafter.

The 2020 Summer Olympics will be held in Tokyo, making it the largest city ever to hold the Summer Games.

Tokyo won the rights to the Games on May 26, 1959, at the 55th IOC Session in Munich, West Germany, over bids from Detroit, Brussels and Vienna.[6]

Toronto was an early bidder again in 1964 after the fail attempt for 1960 and failed to make the final round.[7]

The 1964 Summer Olympic programme featured 163 events in the following 19 sports:

Note: In the Japan Olympic Committee report, sailing is listed as "yachting".[10]

These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1964 Games.

Conventionally, countries are ranked by the number of gold medals they receive, followed then by the number of silver medals and, finally, bronze.[11]

A total of 93 nations were represented at the 1964 Games. Sixteen nations made their first Olympic appearance in Tokyo: Algeria, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, CÃ´te d'Ivoire (as Ivory Coast), Dominican Republic, Libya (but it did not compete), Madagascar, Malaysia, Mali, Mongolia, Nepal, Niger, Northern Rhodesia (which achieved full independence as Zambia on the same day as the closing ceremony), Senegal, and Tanzania (as Tanganyika). It was the last of three appearances at the Summer Olympics by a Rhodesian representation; athletes from Southern Rhodesia competed under the banner of Rhodesia. Zimbabwe would make its first appearance at the 1980 Summer Olympics. Athletes from East Germany and West Germany competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964. Indonesia was banned for this Olympic Games, due to its refusal to allow Israeli and Taiwanese athletes visas at the 1962 Asian Games.

These games were the first to be telecast internationally. The games were telecast to the United States using Syncom 3,[13] the first geostationary communication satellite, and from there to Europe using Relay 1, an older satellite which allowed only 15â€“20 minutes of broadcast during each of its orbits.[14][15] Total broadcast time of programs delivered via satellite was 5 hours 41 minutes in the United States, 12 hours 27 minutes in Canada, and 14 hours 18 minutes in Europe. Pictures were received via satellite in the United States, Canada, and 21 countries in Europe.[16]

TRANSPAC-1, the first trans-Pacific communications cable from Japan to Hawaii was also finished in June 1964 in time for these games. Before this, most communications from Japan to other countries were via shortwave.[16]

The start of operations for the first Japanese "bullet train" (the Tokaido Shinkansen) between Tokyo Station and Shin-Ōsaka Station was scheduled to coincide with the Olympic games. The first regularly scheduled train ran on October 1, 1964, just nine days before the opening of the games, transporting passengers 515 kilometers (320 mi) in about four hours, and connecting the three major metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka.

Some already-planned upgrades to both highways and commuter rail lines were rescheduled for completion in time for these games. Of the eight main expressways approved by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government in 1959, No. 1, No. 4 and a portion of No. 2 and No. 3 were completed for the games. Two subway lines totaling 22 kilometers (14Â mi) were also completed in time for the games, and the port of Tokyo facilities were expanded to handle the anticipated traffic.[17]

The Oxford Olympics Study established the outturn cost of the Tokyo 1964 Summer Olympics at US$282 million in 2015-dollars.[18] This includes sports-related costs only, that is, (i) operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services, and (ii) direct capital costs incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build, e.g., the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. Indirect capital costs are not included, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games but not directly related to staging the Games. The cost for Tokyo 1964 compares with costs of USD 4.6 billion for Rio 2016, USD 40-44 billion for Beijing 2008 and USD 51 billion for Sochi 2014, the most expensive Olympics in history. Average cost for Summer Games since 1960 is USD 5.2 billion.

The 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo celebrated Japan's progress and reemergence on the world stage. The new Japan was no longer a wartime enemy, but a peaceful country that threatened no one, and this transformation was accomplished in fewer than 20 years.[19]

Although Japan's foreign policy was closely linked to the United States during the Cold War, the city of Tokyo hosted the 1964 Summer Olympics in the spirit of peaceful engagement with the entire international community, including the Communist states. The goals were to demonstrate to the world that Japan had fully recovered from the war, had disavowed imperialism and militarism, welcomed high-caliber sports, and sought to engage the peoples of the world on a grassroots level. Sports were kept entirely separate from politics. The event proved a great success for the city and for Japan as a whole, with no untoward incidents. Japan's foreign policy was expanded to include sports diplomacy as the nation sent teams to international competitions across the globe.[20]

To host such a major event, Tokyo's infrastructure needed to be modernized in time for large numbers of expected tourists. Enormous energy and expense was devoted to upgrading the city's physical infrastructure, including new buildings, highways, stadiums, hotels, airports and trains. There was a new satellite to facilitate live international broadcast. Multiple train and subway lines, a large highway building project, and the Tokaido Shinkansen, the fastest train in the world, were completed. Haneda International Airport and the Port of Tokyo were modernized. International satellite broadcasting was initiated, and Japan was now connected to the world with a new undersea communications cable.[16] The YS-11, a commercial turboprop plane developed in Japan, was used to transport the Olympic Flame within Japan.[21] For swimming, a new timing system started the clock by the sound of the starter gun and stopped it with touchpads. The photo finish using a photograph with lines on it was introduced to determine the results of sprints. All of this demonstrated that Japan was now part of the first world and a technological leader, and at the same time demonstrated how other countries might modernize.[19] In preparation for the games, 200,000 stray cats and dogs were rounded-up and euthanized.[22]

Unfortunately, however, the construction projects resulted in some environmental damage, forced relocations for some residents, and loss of some industries. In addition, corruption by politicians and construction companies resulted in cost overruns and some shoddy work.[22]

Although public opinion about the Olympics in Japan had initially been split, by the time the games started almost everyone was behind them. The broadcast of the opening ceremony was watched by over 70% of the viewing public, and the women's volleyball team's gold medal match was watched by over 80%.[19]

As with many other Olympics, observers later stated that 1964 Olympic preparation and construction projects had had a negative effect on the environment and lower income people.[23]

The Cary Grant film Walk, Don't Run was filmed during the Tokyo Olympics, and set in Tokyo during the Olympics. A message at the beginning of the film thanks the Japanese Government and Tokyo Police for putting up with them filming in crowded Tokyo.

The Studio Ghibli film From Up on Poppy Hill takes place one year before the Tokyo Olympics.

Tokyo has attempted to bring the Olympic Games back to the city, having unsuccessfully bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics, which were awarded to Rio de Janeiro. Tokyo will host the 2020 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Paralympics games.[24] Tokyo will be the first Asian city to host the games twice.

North Korea withdrew its athletes from Japan just before the beginning of the Olympics when the IOC refused the athletes who participated in the GANEFO (Games of the New Emerging Forces) which was held in Jakarta, Indonesia. Indonesia and China also did not attend the 1964 Summer Olympics due to GANEFO issues.


the medical term for excessive thirst or craving large amounts of liquid is

Polydipsia is excessive thirst or excess drinking.[1] The word derives from the Greek πολυδίψιος (poludípsios) "very thirsty",[2] which is derived from πολύς (polús, "much, many") + δίψα (dípsa, "thirst"). Polydipsia is a nonspecific symptom in various medical disorders. It also occurs as an abnormal behaviour in some non-human animals, such as in birds.[3]

Polydipsia

This symptom is characteristically found in diabetics, often as one of the initial symptoms, and in those who fail to take their anti-diabetic medications or whose condition is poorly controlled. It can also be caused by a change in the osmolality of the extracellular fluids of the body, hypokalemia, decreased blood volume (as occurs during major hemorrhage), and other conditions that create a water deficit.[1] This is usually a result of osmotic diuresis. Diabetes insipidus ("tasteless" diabetes, as opposed to diabetes mellitus) can also cause polydipsia.[1] Polydipsia is also a symptom of anticholinergic poisoning. Zinc is also known to reduce symptoms of polydipsia by causing the body to absorb fluids more efficiently (reduction of diarrhea, induces constipation) and it causes the body to retain more sodium; thus a zinc deficiency can be a possible cause. The combination of polydipsia and (nocturnal) polyuria is also seen in (primary) hyperaldosteronism (which often goes with hypokalemia). Antipsychotics can have side effects such as dry mouth that may make the patient feel thirsty.

Primary polydipsia describes excessive thirst and water intake caused in the absence of physiological stimuli to drink. This includes both psychogenic primary polydipsia and non-psychogenic primary polydipsia, such as in patients with autoimmune chronic hepatitis with severely elevated globulin levels.[4]

Psychogenic polydipsia is an excessive water intake[1] seen in some patients with mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, and/or the developmentally disabled. It should be taken very seriously, as the amount of water ingested exceeds the amount that can be excreted by the kidneys,[1] and can on rare occasions be life-threatening as the body's serum sodium level is diluted to an extent that seizures and cardiac arrest can occur.

While psychogenic polydipsia is generally not found outside the population of serious mental disorders, there is some anecdotal evidence of a milder form (typically called 'habit polydipsia' or 'habit drinking') that can be found in the absence of psychosis or other mental conditions. The excessive levels of fluid intake may result in a false diagnosis of diabetes insipidus, since the chronic ingestion of excessive water can produce diagnostic results that closely mimic those of mild diabetes insipidus. As discussed in the entry on diabetes insipidus, "Habit drinking (in its severest form termed psychogenic polydipsia) is the most common imitator of diabetes insipidus at all ages. While many adult cases in the medical literature are associated with mental disorders, most patients with habit polydipsia have no other detectable disease. The distinction is made during the water deprivation test, as some degree of urinary concentration above isosmolar is usually obtained before the patient becomes dehydrated." However, prior to a water deprivation test, consideration should be given to a psychiatric consult to see whether it is possible to rule out psychogenic polydipsia or habit polydipsia.

Polydipsia is a symptom (evidence of a disease state), not a disease in itself. As it is often accompanied by polyuria, investigations directed at diagnosing diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus can be useful. Blood serum tests can also provide useful information about the osmolality of the body's extracellular fluids. A decrease in osmolality caused by excess water intake will decrease the serum concentration of red blood cells, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and sodium.[1]


what is the meaning of chaldeans in the bible

The names Chaldea and Chaldaea are latinizations of the Greek Khaldaía (Χαλδαία), a hellenization of Akkadian māt Kaldu or Kašdu. The name appears in Hebrew in the Bible as Kaśdim (כשדים)[6] and in Aramaic as Kaldo (ܟܠܕܘ). Its inhabitants are called Chaldeans. The Hebrew word first appears in the Bible alongside Urfa as Arfa-ksad (ארפ־כשד), the Light of the Chaldeans (אוּר כַּשְׂדִּים), and as one of the five original Semitic nations of the Bible which include Lud, Elam, Ashur and Aram.

Chaldea

Chaldea[1] (/kælˈdiːə/) or Chaldaea[2] was a Semitic-speaking nation which existed between the late 10th or early 9th and mid-6th centuries BC, after which it and its people were absorbed and assimilated into Babylonia.[3] It was located in the marshy land of the far southeastern corner of Mesopotamia and briefly came to rule Babylon.

During a period of weakness in the East Semitic speaking kingdom of Babylonia, new tribes of West Semitic-speaking migrants[4] arrived in the region from the Levant between the 11th and 9th centuries BC. The earliest waves consisted of Suteans and Arameans, followed a century or so later by the Kaldu, a group who became known later as the Chaldeans or the Chaldees. The Hebrew Bible uses the term כשדים (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Septuagint, although there is some dispute as to whether Kasdim in fact means Chaldean or refers to the south Mesopotamian Kaldu. These migrations did not affect the powerful kingdom of Assyria in the northern half of Mesopotamia, which repelled these incursions.

The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon (6th century BC) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although the last rulers, Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar, were from Assyria.[5]

These nomad Chaldeans settled in the far southeastern portion of Babylonia, chiefly on the left bank of the Euphrates. Though for a short time the name later commonly referred to the whole of southern Mesopotamia in Hebraic literature, this was a geographical and historical misnomer, as Chaldea proper was in fact only the plain in the far southeast formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and averaging about a hundred miles in width.

Chaldea describes two separate territories.

In the early period, between the early 9th century and late 7th century BC, it was the name of a small sporadically independent migrant-founded territory under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC) in southeastern Babylonia, extending to the western shores of the Persian Gulf.[6] At some point after the Chaldean tribes settled in the region it eventually became called mat Kaldi "land of Chaldeans" by the native Mesopotamians, the Assyrians and Babylonians. The expression mat Bit Yakin is also used, apparently synonymously. Bit Yakin was likely the chief or capital city of the land. The king of Chaldea was also called the king of Bit Yakin, just as the kings of Babylonia and Assyria were regularly styled simply king of Babylon or Assur, the capital city in each case. In the same way, what is now known as the Persian Gulf was sometimes called "the Sea of Bit Yakin", and sometimes "the Sea of the Land of Chaldea".

The boundaries of the early lands settled by Chaldeans in the early 800s BC have not been identified with precision by historians. Chaldea generally referred to the low, marshy, alluvial land around the estuaries of the Tigris and Euphrates, which in ancient times discharged their waters through separate mouths into the sea. From the tenth to late seventh centuries BC, Chaldea, like the rest of Mesopotamia and much of the ancient Near East, Anatolia, Caucasus and North Africa came to be dominated by the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911â€“608 BC), which was based in northern Mesopotamia. Between 608 BC and 557 BC, when the Chaldean tribe had burst their narrow bonds and obtained their short lived period of ascendency over all of Babylonia, they briefly gave their name to the whole land, which was then called Chaldea by some peoples, particularly the Jews, although this term eventually fell out of use. The Old Testament book of the prophet Habakkuk describes the Chaldeans as "a bitter and swift nation".[7]

Unlike the East Semitic Akkadian-speaking Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians, whose ancestors had been established in Mesopotamia since at least the 30th century BC, the Chaldeans were not a native Mesopotamian people, but were late 10th or early 9th century BC West Semitic Levantine migrants to the south eastern corner of the region, who had played no part in the previous 3,000 years or so of Sumero-Akkadian and Assyro-Babylonian Mesopotamian civilization and history.[8][9]

The ancient Chaldeans seem to have migrated into Mesopotamia sometime between c. 940â€“860 BC, a century or so after other new Semitic arrivals, the Arameans and the Suteans, appeared in Babylonia, c. 1100 BC. They first appear in written record in the annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III during the 850s BC. This was a period of weakness in Babylonia, and its ineffectual native kings were unable to prevent new waves of semi-nomadic foreign peoples from invading and settling in the land.[10]

Though belonging to the same West Semitic speaking ethnic group and migrating from the same Levantine regions as the earlier arriving Aramaeans, they are to be differentiated; the Assyrian king Sennacherib, for example, carefully distinguishes them in his inscriptions.

The Chaldeans were rapidly and completely assimilated into the dominant Assyro-Babylonian culture, as was the case for the earlier Amorites, Kassites, Suteans and Arameans before them. By the time Babylon fell in 539 BC, the Chaldean tribes had already disappeared as a distinct race, becoming completely absorbed into the general population of southern Mesopotamia, and the term "Chaldean" was no longer used or relevant in describing a specific ethnicity or race of men. However, the term lingered in some quarters until the Seleucid period, after which it disappeared, but this later term was used only in relation to a socio-economic class of astrologers with no ethnic implications, and not a race of people or land. The nation of Chaldea in southeast Mesopotamia seems to have disappeared even before the fall of Babylon, and the succeeding Achaemenid Empire (546-332 BC) did not retain a province or land called Chaldea, and made no mention of a Chaldean race in its annals.

The Chaldeans originally spoke a West Semitic language similar to but distinct from Aramaic. However, they eventually adopted the Akkadian language of the Assyrians and Babylonians. During the Assyrian Empire, the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III introduced an Eastern Aramaic dialect as the lingua franca of his empire in the mid 8th century BC. As a result of this innovation, in late periods both the Babylonian and Assyrian dialects of Akkadian became marginalised, and Mesopotamian Aramaic took its place across Mesopotamia, including among the Chaldeans. This language in the form of Eastern Aramaic neo-Aramaic dialects still remains the mother tongue of the now Christian Assyrian people of northern Iraq, north east Syria, south eastern Turkey and north western Iran to this day.

One form of this once widespread language is used in Daniel and Ezra, but the use of the name "Chaldee" to describe it, first introduced by Jerome, is linguistically incorrect and a misnomer.

In the Hebrew Bible, the prophet Abraham is stated to have originally come from "Ur of the Chaldees" (Ur Kaśdim). If this city is identified with the ancient Sumerian city state of Ur, it would be within what would only many centuries later become the Chaldean homeland south of the Euphrates.

However, it must be pointed out that no evidence has been discovered indicating that the Chaldeans existed in Mesopotamia (or anywhere else in historical record) at the time Abraham (circa 1800â€“1700 BC) lived, the evidence instead shows the Chaldeans as arriving some eight or nine hundred years later.[11]. Thus the Biblical text in relation to Abraham and Ur of the Chaldees is in actuality a retrospective use of the term, used simply because at the time these Talmudic/Biblical texts were written down in the 6th century BC in Babylon, the Chaldean dynasty was then in power in Babylonia. The traditional identification with a site in Assyria (a nation in Upper Mesopotamia predating Chaldea by well over thirteen hundred years, and never recorded in historical annals as ever having been inhabited by the much later arriving Chaldeans) would then imply the much later sense of "Babylonia".

Some interpreters have additionally identified Abraham's birthplace with Chaldia in Anatolia on the Black Sea, a distinct region utterly unrelated geographically, culturally and ethnically to the southeast Mesopotamian Chaldea. According to the Book of Jubilees, Ur KaÅ›dim (and Chaldea) took their names from Ura and Kesed, descendants of Arpachshad. [12]

The term "Chaldean" has fairly recently been revived, initially to describe those Assyrians who broke from the Assyrian Church of the East between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries and entered communion with the Catholic Church. This is a historic, ethnic and geographic inaccuracy. After initially calling it "The Church of Assyria and Mosul" in 1553 AD and designating its first leader as the "Patriarch of the East Assyrians", it was later renamed the Chaldean Catholic Church in 1683. However, this line also reverted to the original Assyrian church, whereas the modern Chaldean Catholic Church was only founded in northern Mesopotamia 1830. The term "Chaldean Catholic" should thus be understood purely as a Christian denomination (much like Baptist or Anglican) rather than a racial, ethnic or historical term, as the modern Chaldean Catholics are accepted as Assyrian people,[13] later converts to Catholicism, and long indigenous to the Assyrian homeland in northern Mesopotamia, rather than relating to long extinct Chaldeans who hailed from the Levant and settled in the far southeastern parts Mesopotamia before wholly disappearing during the sixth century BC. There has been no accredited academic study nor historical, archaeological, linguistic, genetic, geographic or anthropological evidence that links the modern Chaldean Catholics of northern Iraq to the ancient Chaldeans of southeastern Iraq. The evidence points clearly to their being one and the same people as, and hailing from the same region as, the Assyrians. In other words, they are in fact a part of the Assyrian continuity.

The naming by Rome is believed to be due to a misinterpretation of the term Ur Kasdim, the supposed north Mesopotamian birthplace of Abraham in Hebraic tradition as Ur of the Chaldees, and a reluctance to use the earlier terms, such as Assyrians, East Assyrians, East Syrians and Nestorians, due to their connotations with the Assyrian Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church.[14]

It is noteworthy that the term "Chaldeans" already had a long history of misapplication by Rome,[15] having been previously officially used by the Council of Florence in 1445 AD as a new name for a group of Greek Nestorians of Cyprus who entered in Full Communion with the Catholic Church. Rome then used the term Chaldeans to indicate the members of the Church of the East in Communion with Rome primarily in order to avoid the terms Nestorian, Assyrian and Syriac, which were theologically unacceptable, having connotations to churches doctrinally and politically at odds with The Vatican. This was also done in 1681 AD for Joseph I and later, after his line reverted to the Assyrian church, in 1830 AD when Yohannan Hormizd, of the line of Alqosh, became the first so called "Patriarch of Babylon of the Chaldeans" of the modern Chaldean Catholic Church. In addition, Rome had also long inaccurately used the name Chaldea to designate the completely unrelated Chaldia in Asia Minor on the Black Sea.

The region that the Chaldeans eventually made their homeland was in relatively poor southeastern Mesopotamia, at the head of the Persian Gulf. They appear to have migrated into southern Babylonia from The Levant at some unknown point between the end of the reign of Ninurta-kudurri-usur II (a contemporary of Tiglath-Pileser II) circa 940 BC, and the start of the reign of Marduk-zakir-shumi I in 855 BC, although there is no historical proof of their existence prior to the late 850s BC.[16]

For perhaps a century or so after settling in the area, these semi-nomadic migrant Chaldean tribes had no impact on the pages of history, seemingly remaining subjugated by the native Akkadian speaking kings of Babylon or by perhaps regionally influential Aramean tribes. The main players in southern Mesopotamia during this period were Babylonia and Assyria, together with Elam to the east and the Aramaeans, who had already settled in the region a century or so prior to the arrival of the Chaldeans.

The very first written historical attestation of the existence of Chaldeans occurs in 852 BC,[17] in the annals of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III, who mentions invading the southeastern extremes of Babylonia and subjugating one Mushallim-Marduk, the chief of the Amukani tribe and overall leader of the Kaldu tribes,[18] together with capturing the town of Baqani, extracting tribute from Adini, chief of the Bet-Dakkuri, another Chaldean tribe.

Shalmanesser III had invaded Babylonia at the request of its own king, Marduk-zakir-shumi I, the Babylonian king being threatened by his own rebellious relations, together with powerful Aramean tribes pleaded with the more powerful Assyrian king for help. The subjugation of the Chaldean tribes by the Assyrian king appears to have been an aside, as they were not at that time a powerful force, or a threat to the native Babylonian king.

Important Kaldu regions in southeastern Babylonia were Bit-Yâkin (the original area the Chaldeans settled in on the Persian Gulf), Bet-Dakuri, Bet-Adini, Bet-Amukkani, and Bet-Shilani.

Chaldean leaders had by this time already adopted Assyro-Babylonian names, religion, language and customs, indicating that they had become Akkadianized to a great degree.

The Chaldeans remained quietly ruled by the native Babylonians (who were in turn subjugated by their Assyrian relations) for the next seventy-two years, only coming to historical prominence for the first time in Babylonia in 780 BC, when a previously unknown Chaldean named Marduk-apla-usur usurped the throne from the native Babylonian king Marduk-bel-zeri (790–780 BC). The latter was a vassal of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser IV (783–773 BC), who was otherwise occupied quelling a civil war in Assyria at the time.

This was to set a precedent for all future Chaldean aspirations on Babylon during the Neo Assyrian Empire; always too weak to confront a strong Assyria alone and directly, the Chaldeans awaited periods when Assyrian kings were distracted elsewhere in their vast empire, or engaged in internal conflicts, then, in alliance with other powers stronger than themselves (usually Elam), they made a bid for control over Babylonia.

Shalmaneser IV attacked and defeated Marduk-apla-usur, retaking northern Babylonia and forcing on him a border treaty in Assyria's favour. The Assyrians allowed him to remain on the throne, although subject to Assyria. Eriba-Marduk, another Chaldean, succeeded him in 769 BC and his son, Nabu-shuma-ishkun in 761 BC, with both being dominated by the new Assyrian king Ashur-Dan III (772â€“755 BC). Babylonia appears to have been in a state of chaos during this time, with the north occupied by Assyria, its throne occupied by foreign Chaldeans, and continual civil unrest throughout the land.

Chaldean rule proved short lived. A native Babylonian king named Nabonassar (748–734 BC) defeated and overthrew the Chaldean usurpers in 748 BC, restored indigenous rule, and successfully stabilised Babylonia. The Chaldeans once more faded into obscurity for the next three decades. During this time both the Babylonians and the Chaldean and Aramean migrant groups who had settled in the land once more fell completely under the yoke of the powerful Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III (745–727 BC), a ruler who introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of his empire. The Assyrian king at first made Nabonassar and his successor native Babylonian kings Nabu-nadin-zeri, Nabu-suma-ukin II and Nabu-mukin-zeri his subjects, but decided ruled Babylonia directly from 729 BC. He was followed by Shalmaneser V (727–722 BC), who also ruled Babylon in person.

When Sargon II (722â€“705 BC) ascended the throne of the Assyrian Empire in 722 BC after the death of Shalmaneser V, he was forced to launch a major campaign in his subject states of Persia, Mannea and Media in Ancient Iran to defend his territories there. He defeated and drove out the Scythians and Cimmerians who had attacked Assyria's Persian and Median vassal colonies in the region. At the same time, Egypt began encouraging and supporting rebellion against Assyria in Israel and Canaan, forcing the Assyrians to send troops to deal with the Egyptians.

These events allowed the Chaldeans to once more attempt to assert themselves. While the Assyrian king was otherwise occupied defending his Iranian colonies from the Scythians and Cimmerians and driving the Egyptians from Canaan, Marduk-apla-iddina II (the Biblical Merodach-Baladan) of Bit-YÃ¢kin, allied himself with the powerful Elamite kingdom and the native Babylonians, briefly seizing control of Babylon between 721 and 710 BC. With the Scythians and Cimmerians vanquished, the Medes and Persians pledging loyalty, and the Egyptians defeated and ejected from southern Canaan, Sargon II was free at last to deal with the Chaldeans, Babylonians and Elamites. He attacked and deposed Marduk-apla-iddina II in 710 BC, also defeating his Elamite allies in the process. After defeat by the Assyrians, Merodach-Baladan fled to his protectors in Elam.

In 703, Merodach-Baladan very briefly regained the throne from a native Akkadian-Babylonian ruler Marduk-zakir-shumi II, who was a puppet of the new Assyrian king, Sennacherib (705–681 BC). He was once more soundly defeated at Kish, and once again fled to Elam where he died in exile after one final failed attempt to raise a revolt against Assyria in 700 BC, this time not in Babylon, but in the Chaldean tribal land of Bit-Yâkin. A native Babylonian king named Bel-ibni (703–701 BC) was placed on the throne as a puppet of Assyria.

The next challenge to Assyrian domination came from the Elamites in 694 BC, with Nergal-ushezib deposing and murdering Ashur-nadin-shumi (700â€“694 BC), the Assyrian prince who was king of Babylon and son of Sennacherib. The Chaldeans and Babylonians again allied with their more powerful Elamite neighbours in this endeavour. This prompted the enraged Assyrian king Sennacherib to invade and subjugate Elam and Chaldea and to sack Babylon, laying waste to and largely destroying the city. Babylon was regarded as a sacred city by all Mesopotamians, including the Assyrians, and this act eventually resulted to Sennacherib's being murdered by his own sons while he was praying to the god Nisroch in Nineveh.

Esarhaddon (681â€“669 BC) succeeded Sennacherib as ruler of the Assyrian Empire. He completely rebuilt Babylon and brought peace to the region. He conquered Egypt, Nubia and Libya and entrenched his mastery over the Persians, Medes, Parthians, Scythians, Cimmerians, Arameans, Israelites, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Urartians, Pontic Greeks, Cilicians, Phrygians, Lydians, Manneans and Arabs. For the next 60 or so years Babylon and Chaldea remained peacefully under direct Assyrian control. The Chaldeans remained subjugated and quiet during this period, and the next major revolt in Babylon against the Assyrian empire was fermented not by a Chaldean, Babylonian or Elamite, but by Shamash-shum-ukin, who was an Assyrian king of Babylon, and elder brother of Ashurbanipal (668-627 BC), the new ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.

Shamash-shum-ukin (668â€“648 BC) had become infused with Babylonian nationalism after sixteen years peacefully subject to his brother, and despite being Assyrian himself, declared that the city of Babylon and not Nineveh or Ashur should be the seat of the empire.

In 652 BC, he raised a powerful coalition of peoples resentful of their subjugation to Assyria against his own brother Ashurbanipal. The alliance included the Babylonians, Persians, Chaldeans, Medes, Elamites, Suteans, Arameans, Israelites, Arabs and Canaanites, together with some disaffected elements among the Assyrians themselves. After a bitter struggle lasting five years, the Assyrian king triumphed over his rebellious brother in 648 BC, Elam was utterly destroyed, and the Babylonians, Persians, Medes, Chaldeans, Arabs and others were savagely punished. An Assyrian governor named Kandalanu was then placed on the throne of Babylon to rule on behalf of Ashurbanipal. The next 22 years were peaceful, and neither the Babylonians nor Chaldeans posed a threat to the dominance of Ashurbanipal.

However, after the death of the mighty Ashurbanipal (and Kandalanu) in 627 BC, the Neo Assyrian Empire descended into a series of bitter internal dynastic civil wars which were to be the cause of its downfall.

Ashur-etil-ilani (626–623 BC) ascended to the throne of the empire in 626 BC, but was immediately engulfed in a torrent of fierce rebellions instigated by rival claimants. He was deposed in 623 BC by an Assyrian general (turtanu) named Sin-shumu-lishir (623–622 BC), who was also declared king of Babylon. Sin-shar-ishkun (622–612 BC), the brother of Ashur-etil-ilani, took back the throne of empire from Sin-shumu-lishir in 622 BC, but was then himself faced with unremitting rebellion against his rule by his own people. Continual conflict among the Assyrians led to a myriad of subject peoples, from Cyprus to Persia and The Caucasus to Egypt, quietly reasserting their independence and ceasing to pay tribute to Assyria.

Nabopolassar, a previously obscure and unknown Chaldean chieftain, followed the opportunistic tactics laid down by previous Chaldean leaders to take advantage of the chaos and anarchy gripping Assyria and Babylonia and seized the city of Babylon in 620 BC with the help of its native Babylonian inhabitants.

Sin-shar-ishkun amassed a powerful army and marched into Babylon to regain control of the region. Nabopolassar was saved from likely destruction because yet another massive Assyrian rebellion broke out in Assyria proper, including the capital Nineveh, which forced the Assyrian king to turn back in order to quell the revolt. Nabopolassar took advantage of this situation, seizing the ancient city of Nippur in 619 BC, a mainstay of pro-Assyrianism in Babylonia, and thus Babylonia as a whole.

However, his position was still far from secure, and bitter fighting continued in the Babylonian heartlands from 620 to 615 BC, with Assyrian forces encamped in Babylonia in an attempt to eject Nabopolassar. Nabopolassar attempted a counterattack, marched his army into Assyria proper in 616 BC, and tried to besiege Assur and Arrapha (modern Kirkuk), but was defeated by Sin-shar-ishkun and chased back into Babylonia after being driven from Idiqlat (modern Tikrit) at the southernmost end of Assyria. A stalemate seemed to have ensued, with Nabopolassar unable to make any inroads into Assyria despite its greatly weakened state, and Sin-shar-ishkun unable to eject Nabopolassar from Babylonia due to constant rebellions and civil war among his own people.

Nabopolassar's position, and the fate of the Assyrian empire, was sealed when he entered into an alliance with another of Assyria's former vassals, the Medes, the now dominant people of what was to become Persia. The Median Cyaxares had also recently taken advantage of the anarchy in the Assyrian Empire, while officially still a vassal of Assyria, he took the opportunity to meld the Iranian peoples; the Medes, Persians, Sagartians and Parthians, into a large and powerful Median-dominated force. The Medes, Persians, Parthians, Chaldeans and Babylonians formed an alliance that also included the Scythians and Cimmerians to the north.

While Sin-shar-ishkun was fighting both the rebels in Assyria and the Chaldeans and Babylonians in southern Mesopotamia, Cyaxares (hitherto a vassal of Assyria), in alliance with the Scythians and Cimmerians launched a surprise attack on civil-war-bleaguered Assyria in 615 BC, sacking Kalhu (the Biblical Calah/Nimrud) and taking Arrapkha (modern Kirkuk). Nabopolassar, still pinned down in southern Mesopotamia, was not involved in this major breakthrough against Assyria. From this point however, the alliance of Medes, Persians, Chaldeans, Babylonians, Sagartians, Scythians and Cimmerians fought in unison against Assyria.

Despite the sorely depleted state of Assyria, bitter fighting ensued. Throughout 614 BC the alliance of powers continued to make inroads into Assyria itself, although in 613 BC the Assyrians somehow rallied to score a number of counterattacking victories over the Medes-Persians, Babylonians-Chaldeans and Scythians-Cimmerians. This led to a coalition of forces ranged against it to unite and launch a massive combined attack in 612 BC, finally besieging and sacking Nineveh in late 612 BC, killing Sin-shar-ishkun in the process.

A new Assyrian king, Ashur-uballit II (612â€“605 BC), took the crown amidst the house-to-house fighting in Nineveh, and refused a request to bow in vassalage to the rulers of the alliance. He managed to fight his way out of Nineveh and reach the northern Assyrian city of Harran, where he founded a new capital. Assyria resisted for another seven years until 605 BC, when the remnants of the Assyrian army and the army of the Egyptians (whose dynasty had also been installed as puppets of the Assyrians) were defeated at Karchemish. Nabopolassar and his Median, Scythian and Cimmerian allies were now in possession of much of the huge Neo Assyrian Empire. The Egyptians had belatedly come to the aid of Assyria, fearing that, without Assyrian protection, they would be the next to succumb to the new powers, having already been raided by the Scythians.

The Chaldean king of Babylon now ruled all of southern Mesopotamia (Assyria in the north was ruled by the Medes),[19] and the former Assyrian possessions of Aram (Syria), Phoenicia, Israel, Cyprus, Edom, Philistia, and parts of Arabia, while the Medes took control of the former Assyrian colonies in Ancient Iran, Asia Minor and the Caucasus.

Nabopolassar was not able to enjoy his success for long, dying in 604 BC, only one year after the victory at Karchemish. He was succeeded by his son, who took the name Nebuchadnezzar II, after the unrelated 12th century BC native Akkadian-Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar I, indicating the extent to which the migrant Chaldeans had become infused with native Mesopotamian culture.

Nebuchadnezzar II and his allies may well have been forced to deal with remnants of Assyrian resistance based in and around Dur-Katlimmu, as Assyrian imperial records continue to be dated in this region between 604 and 599 BC.[20] In addition, the Egyptians remained in the region, possibly in an attempt to aid their former Assyrian masters and to carve out an empire of their own.

Nebuchadnezzar II was to prove himself to be the greatest of the Chaldean rulers, rivaling another non-native ruler, the 18th century BC Amorite king Hammurabi, as the greatest king of Babylon. He was a patron of the cities and a spectacular builder, rebuilding all of Babylonia's major cities on a lavish scale. His building activity at Babylon, expanding on the earlier major and impressive rebuilding of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, helped to turn it into the immense and beautiful city of legend. Babylon covered more than three square miles, surrounded by moats and ringed by a double circuit of walls. The Euphrates flowed through the center of the city, spanned by a beautiful stone bridge. At the center of the city rose the giant ziggurat called Etemenanki, "House of the Frontier Between Heaven and Earth," which lay next to the Temple of Marduk. He is also believed by many historians to have built The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (although others believe these gardens were built much earlier by an Assyrian king in Nineveh) for his wife, a Median princess from the green mountains, so that she would feel at home.

A capable leader, Nebuchadnezzar II conducted successful military campaigns; cities like Tyre, Sidon and Damascus were subjugated. He also conducted numerous campaigns in Asia Minor against the Scythians, Cimmerians, and Lydians. Like their Assyrian relations, the Babylonians had to campaign yearly in order to control their colonies.

In 601 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II was involved in a major but inconclusive battle against the Egyptians. In 599 BC, he invaded Arabia and routed the Arabs at Qedar. In 597 BC, he invaded Judah, captured Jerusalem, and deposed its king Jehoiachin. Egyptian and Babylonian armies fought each other for control of the Near East throughout much of Nebuchadnezzar's reign, and this encouraged king Zedekiah of Judah to revolt. After an eighteen-month siege, Jerusalem was captured in 587 BC, thousands of Jews were deported to Babylon, and Solomon's Temple was razed to the ground.

Nebuchadnezzar successfully fought the Pharaohs Psammetichus II and Apries throughout his reign, and during the reign of Pharaoh Amasis in 568 BC it is rumoured that he may have briefly invaded Egypt itself.

By 572, Nebuchadnezzar was in full control of Babylonia, Chaldea, Aramea (Syria), Phonecia, Israel, Judah, Philistia, Samarra, Jordan, northern Arabia, and parts of Asia Minor. Nebuchadnezzar died of illness in 562 BC after a one-year co-reign with his son, Amel-Marduk, who was deposed in 560 BC after a reign of only two years.

Neriglissar succeeded Amel-Marduk. It is unclear as to whether he was in fact an ethnic Chaldean or a native Babylonian nobleman, as he was not related by blood to Nabopolassar's descendants, having married into the ruling family. He conducted successful military campaigns against the Hellenic inhabitants of Cilicia, which had threatened Babylonian interests. Neriglissar reigned for only four years and was succeeded by the youthful Labashi-Marduk in 556 BC. Again, it is unclear whether he was a Chaldean or a native Babylonian.

Labashi-Marduk reigned only for a matter of months, being deposed by Nabonidus in late 556 BC. Nabonidus was certainly not a Chaldean, but an Assyrian from Harran, the last capital of Assyria, and proved to be the final native Mesopotamian king of Babylon. He and his son, the regent Belshazzar, were deposed by the Persians under Cyrus II in 539 BC.

When the Babylonian Empire was absorbed into the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the name "Chaldean" lost its meaning in reference a particular ethnicity or land, but lingered for a while as a term solely and explicitly used to describe a societal class of astrologers and astronomers in southern Mesopotamia. The original Chaldean tribe had long ago became Akkadianized, adopting Akkadian culture, religion, language and customs, blending into the majority native population, and eventually wholly disappearing as a distinct race of people, as had been the case with other preceding migrant peoples, such as the Amorites, Kassites, Suteans and Arameans of Babylonia.

The Persians considered this Chaldean societal class to be masters of reading and writing, and especially versed in all forms of incantation, sorcery, witchcraft, and the magical arts. They spoke of astrologists and astronomers as Chaldeans, and it is used with this specific meaning in the Book of Daniel (Dan. i. 4, ii. 2 et seq.) and by classical writers, such as Strabo.

The disappearance of the Chaldeans as an ethnicity and Chaldea as a land is evidenced by the fact that the Persian rulers of the Achaemenid Empire (539â€“330 BC) did not retain a province called "Chaldea", nor did they refer to "Chaldeans" as a race of people in their written annals. This is in contrast to Assyria, and for a time Babylonia also, where the Persians retained the names Assyria and Babylonia as designations for distinct geo-political entities within the Achaemenid Empire. In the case of the Assyrians in particular, Achaemenid records show Assyrians holding important positions within the empire, particularly with regards to military and civil administration.[21]

This absence of Chaldeans from the historical record continues throughout the Macedonian Empire, Seleucid Empire, Parthian Empire, Roman Empire, Sassanid Empire, Byzantine Empire and after the Arab Islamic conquest and Mongol Empire.

By the time of Cicero in the 2nd century BC, "Chaldean" appears to have completely disappeared even as a societal term for Babylonian astronomers and astrologers; Cicero refers to "Babylonian astrologers" rather than Chaldean astrologers.[22] Horace does the same, referring to "Babylonian horoscopes" rather than Chaldean[23] in his famous Carpe Diem ode. Cicero views the Babylonian astrologers as holding obscure knowledge, while Horace thinks that they are wasting their time and would be happier "going with the flow".

The terms Chaldee and Chaldean were henceforth only found only in Hebraic and Biblical sources dating from the 6th and 5th centuries BC, and referring specifically to the period of the Chaldean Dynasty of Babylon.

After an absence from history of 2,236 years, the name was revived in 1683 AD by the Roman Catholic Church in the form of the Chaldean Catholic Church as the new name for the "Church of Assyria and Mosul" (so named in 1553 AD). This was a church founded and populated not by the long extinct Chaldean tribe of southeastern Mesopotamia, who had disappeared from the pages of history over twenty two centuries previously, but founded in northern Mesopotamia by a breakaway group of ethnic Assyrians long indigenous to Upper Mesopotamia (Assyria) who had hitherto been members of the Assyrian Church of the East before entering communion with Rome.[24][25]


who was the sound effects guy on police academy

Michael Leslie Winslow (born September 6, 1958) is an American actor, beatboxer, and comedian billed as the "Man of 10,000 Sound Effects"[1] for his ability to make realistic sounds using only his voice. He is best known for his roles in all eight Police Academy films as Larvell Jones. He has also appeared in Spaceballs, Cheech and Chong's Next Movie, The Love Boat, and commercials for Cadbury and GEICO.

Michael Winslow

Winslow was born in Spokane, Washington, the son of Robert and Verdie Winslow.[2] He attended the Lisa Maile School of Acting, Modeling and Imaging.

Winslow grew up at Fairchild Air Force Base where, according to his own account, he had few constant friends to call on. In order to pass his time, he would imitate the sounds of engines, animals, anything that made noise. Following his high school and college periods, he performed in nightclubs and theaters, where his sound imitation skills won him positive appraisal and enough money to move to and perform his act in Hollywood.[3]

His first television appearance was on The Gong Show in which he squeezed in sound-alikes of Benji the movie dog, Star Trek, and Jimi Hendrix's "Purple Haze". He is best known for his role as Sgt. Larvelle "Motor Mouth" Jones in the Police Academy series of movies and TV shows. In 1985, Island Records released a 12" of Michael Winslow entitled "I Am My Own Walkman". He also appeared as a radar operator in the movie Spaceballs, in which he performs all the sound effects during his scene himself. Mel Brooks (who wrote, directed, produced, and co-starred in the film), stated that by doing so, Winslow saved the film money. Winslow is also a motivational speaker. Since the fall of 2008, Winslow has hosted the motion-picture television series called "Way Back Wednesday with Winslow" on the cable superstation WGN America, which features movies mostly released in the 1980s. He continues to perform stand-up comedy around the globe.

Michael Winslow debuted his own iPhone and iPod Touch apps in 2010, bringing his sound effects and comedy to a mobile platform. ThatsKungFu generates Winslow's kung fu fighting sounds when the device is swung in a fighting motion.[4] NoizeyMan, billed as the "World's Noiziest App", contains video, ringtones, sound effects, and mini games, all created by Winslow.[5]

In 2011 Winslow worked with Orlando, Florida-based game development studio Phyken Media[6] on a mobile game for iOS[7] and Android platforms[8] entitled Wizard Ops Chapter 1,[9] providing all the sound effects for the game. He also lent his voice on Wizard Ops Tactics, a turn-based tactical game and spiritual successor to the previous game.

He was also featured in a commercial for GEICO Insurance during their "we hired a celebrity" ad campaign.[10]


who plays the vulcan on star trek enterprise

Jolene Blalock (born March 5, 1975) is an American actress and model, best known for playing the Vulcan first officer T'Pol on the UPN science-fiction series Star Trek: Enterprise. She has also guest-starred on television series and films and has appeared in several feature films.

Jolene Blalock

Jolene Blalock was born and raised in San Diego, California, with three siblings.[1] She spent her childhood developing surfing and artistic skills.[2] She said of her childhood:[3]

I was such an awkward-looking child, I've no idea what happened. I didn't have a good childhood because I never could get along with other kids. I was the child that sat in the corner eating lunch by herself. I worked in the library at lunchtime because I had no real friends. I read a lot and educated myself a different way because me and school didn't get along. Even boys were never interested in me. I remember playing kiss-chase in the first and second grade. I would run but no one would ever chase me.

Blalock left home at 17 to model in Europe and Asia.[2] She has appeared on the cover of many men's lifestyle magazines, was twice featured in Maxim's "Girls of Maxim" gallery, and was named the 10th sexiest woman in the world in 2003 by FHM. She posed for a clothed fashion layout in Playboy in April 2002. She was later interviewed by the magazine for its "20Q" section in February 2005.

Blalock spent years dieting as a model and was relieved to move into acting, saying: "I'm jaded by my experiences in the modelling industry. You're never skinny or perfect enough and it was difficult mentally making the transition to acting."[1]

She made her television debut on the sitcom Veronica's Closet, before guest appearances on Love Boat: The Next Wave, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, JAG and starring as Medea in a television movie adaptation of Jason and the Argonauts (2000). She also appeared in the movie On the Edge (2001) and the miniseries The Diamond Hunters (2001) before being cast on Star Trek: Enterprise.[1][2]

Landing a role on Enterprise was Blalock's biggest break and she described it as a dream come true.[1] She admitted she was excited at being a newcomer to the series:[4]

We're really fortunate. More than 100 people are working together on this every day and we haven't had one argument. It's incredible. I've had bad days in my personal life, but it's always a joy to go to work. There's also a sense of immortality that the show gives you, that you're working on something that will never die, that your contribution will last forever. That's a very special feeling.

She has not participated in conventions or given interviews regarding her role on Star Trek: Enterprise except for FedCon XIV in May 2005, but did agree to join the cast reunion for an interview during the Blu-ray conversion and production.[5] She also appeared as a parody version of herself attending a Star Trek convention in a 2009 episode of the sitcom 10 Items or Less titled "Star Trok".

Blalock appeared in the film Slow Burn with LL Cool J and Ray Liotta which was shot in 2003 between seasons two and three of Enterprise, unveiled at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2005, and finally saw limited theatrical release in 2007.

She guest-starred in two episodes of Stargate SG-1 as Ishta, leader of a group of female Jaffa.

She was scheduled to appear on an episode of Lost during the 2005â€“2006 season as a former love interest of Sawyer (Josh Holloway). Though she filmed some scenes, the flashback scenes in that episode were changed from Sawyer to Michael (Harold Perrineau) and her scenes were never used in an episode nor featured as "deleted scenes" in the DVD set's bonus material. Set photos from the shooting of a scene surfaced in 2008.[6]

She played Captain Lola Beck in Starship Troopers 3: Marauder, which was released directly to DVD in the United States on August 5, 2008.

She made an appearance on the House episode titled "Teamwork" as Lexa, the wife of the porn star featured as the patient in this episode (airdate: November 16, 2009).

She played Sister Nicci, a Sister of the Dark, in the second season of Legend of the Seeker, appearing in episode nine, "Dark", broadcast on January 23, 2010, and episode 10, "Perdition", broadcast on January 30, 2010.

Blalock had a supporting role as Stacy in the William Kaufman action thriller Sinners and Saints, set in post-Katrina New Orleans, which premiered in Los Angeles on June 30, 2010.

She is married to Michael Rapino, CEO of Live Nation. The two met when he booked her for a beer commercial in Los Angeles.[1] He lived in England and while working on Star Trek: Enterprise, she found conducting a long-distance relationship difficult, running up an "astronomical" phone bill.[1] She proposed to him and the two married in Negril, Jamaica, on April 22, 2003. They have three children.[7][8][9][10][11]

Blalock is a passionate dog lover and appeared on the cover of the popular British dog publication K9 Magazine.[12]


who is ellaria sand on game of thrones

Ellaria Sand is a fictional character in the A Song of Ice and Fire series of high fantasy novels by American author George R. R. Martin and its television adaptation, Game of Thrones. The character is portrayed by Indira Varma in the TV show.[1] Ellaria first appears in A Storm of Swords (2000), and while she is only mentioned in A Feast for Crows (2005), she returns in A Dance with Dragons (2011).

Ellaria Sand

Ellaria Sand is a bastard from Dorne but is not discriminated against for this, as Dorne's views and customs towards children born out of wedlock differ from those of the rest of Westeros, where bastards are often discriminated against.[2] She is the paramour of Oberyn Martell, as even in Dorne a Prince cannot marry a bastard. She is the mother of the youngest four Sand Snakes (Oberyn's bastard daughters). Like Oberyn, she is bisexual.[2]

In the novels, Ellaria Sand is mostly a background character. She is not a point of view character; rather, her actions are witnessed and interpreted through the eyes of other people.[citation needed]

Ellaria comes with Oberyn to King's Landing, as part of Tyrion Lannister's efforts to win them to the Iron Throne. Oberyn, however, clearly wants revenge for his sister's death, apparently committed on the orders of Tywin Lannister, during King Robert's rebellion.[2] Oberyn wants Ellaria to sit with him at Joffrey Baratheon's wedding, causing trouble when Olenna Tyrell calls her "the serpent's whore". Later, when Tyrion is condemned for poisoning Joffrey Baratheon, Oberyn acts as his champion in a Trial by Combat against Ser Gregor Clegane, who had raped and murdered Oberyn's sister, Elia Martell, during the Sack of King's Landing. Oberyn wounds Gregor with a poisoned spear but is killed by Gregor. Afterwards, Ellaria returns to Dorne.

Gregor Clegane apparently dies of the poison after spending days in agony (Oberyn having treated the poison to work slowly). His skull is sent to Dorne, where Oberyn's brother, Doran Martell, the ruling Prince of Dorne, sees it. Despite Gregor and Tywin's deaths, Oberyn's bastard daughters want revenge. Ellaria argues against revenge, saying all those they want revenge against are dead and the Lannisters they are now targeting took no part in their kin's deaths. She reminds them Oberyn died for trying to avenge his sister's death and worries they will get killed if they try to get vengeance for him, and will draw her daughters into the cycle of revenge. Doran sends her back to her father, Lord Harmen Uller of Hellholt with her youngest daughter Loreza Sand.[3]

Ellaria Sand's storyline is very similar to her storyline in A Storm of Swords.

Ellaria goes to Doran Martell, Prince of Dorne and Oberyn's brother, to try to persuade him to take revenge for his brother's death. However, Doran refuses, as Oberyn's death was caused by trial by combat, and therefore by Westerosi law, Gregor Clegane did not murder Oberyn.[4] Ellaria soon realises after this that Jaime Lannister is sailing for Dorne, and Ellaria presumes correctly that Jaime is planning to rescue Cersei and Jaime's daughter Myrcella, who is in Dorne and betrothed to Doran's son, Trystane. When Jaime arrives at the Water Gardens, a residence of House Martell where Myrcella and Ellaria are situated, the Sand Snakes, Oberyn's bastard daughters, one of which is Ellaria's daughter, attack Jaime and Bronn, acting under orders from Ellaria. However, the skirmish ends when Jaime, Bronn, the Sand Snakes and Ellaria are all arrested by the Martell guards. Soon after this, Doran and Jaime reach a deal where Trystane will still marry Myrcella, but the two will live in King's Landing and Trystane will be granted a seat on the Small Council. Ellaria is threatened with death by Doran if she ever defies him and she feigns allegiance to him. She kisses Myrcella goodbye at the docks, secretly wearing lipstick coated with a slow-acting poison, which kills Myrcella on the ship headed for King's Landing.

After Doran Martell realises that Myrcella has been murdered, Ellaria stabs Doran, while in King's Landing, Obara and Nymeria, who had snuck onto the ship headed to King's Landing, kill Trystane. This makes Ellaria the de facto ruler of Dorne.[5] A while later, Ellaria meets Olenna Tyrell, whose son and grandchildren have been killed by Cersei, the present Queen of the Seven Kingdoms. Ellaria then reveals her allegiance to Daenerys Targaryen. Later, Martell and Tyrell ships can be seen in Daenerys' fleet heading for Westeros.[6]

Ellaria and the Sand Snakes arrive in Dragonstone with Daenerys and her fleet. They discuss the conquest of Westeros. Daenerys sends Yara and Theon Greyjoy and their fleet to take Ellaria and the Sand Snakes back to Dorne so they can gather their army. On their way, Euron Greyjoy attacks them and burns Yara's fleet. He kills Obara and Nymeria and captures Yara, Ellaria and Tyene. He later takes them to King's Landing and gives Ellaria and Tyene to Cersei as a gift.

In the dungeons Cersei recalls the death of Oberyn Martell and explains how much she loved Myrcella. Then she kisses Tyene using the same poison that Ellaria used to murder Myrcella. She tells Ellaria that she will be watching Tyene die and after Tyene's death, she will be kept alive to watch as her daughter's body rots away.

Ellaria Sand is played by the British actress Indira Varma in the television adaption of the series of books.[7] She won the Empire Hero Award along with the rest of the cast in 2015.[8][9] She was also nominated, along with the rest of the cast for Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016.[10]