what kind of dog is called a teddy bear

The Zuchon is a small designer dog with a height around 12 inches and weighing 12 to 14 pounds. Zuchon is a portmanteau name combining the two breed names and is not accepted as a breed by the AKC or any other major recognised dog breed registry. [2] It is a dog that does not shed but it also requires maintenance with regular grooming. Because it is a hybrid dog from two purebreds, it is known to have hybrid vigor, when they are first generation, could possibly have better health than the purebred dogs. [3] However, if they are not first generation, health problems can exist. The dog breed has a short history beginning only at the turn of the 21st century. [3]

Zuchon

Zuchon or Shichon is a hybrid breed dog or a designer dog. It is cross between Bichon Frisé and Shih Tzu.[1]

The Zuchon is also known as a Shichon or, less commonly, a Tzu Frise.[4] They reach an average height of 9-12 inches from the shoulder, and a weight of 8-25 pounds fully grown. 'Dog Breed Info' says the Zuchon is a dog "known for his endearing face, large expressive eyes, and his soft teddy-bear coat."[3]

The Zuchon usually has a longer coat that does not shed very much, if at all. This longer coat may lead to more time for maintenance and grooming.[3][5]

As hypoallergenic dogs, Zuchons are generally more suitable for homes with allergy problems amongst the inhabitants, although allergic reactions may still occur.[6]

This toy dog is said to have a "great" personality, and it is playful, lively and well-mannered.[3] They can be a bit stubborn, but when they are trained well, they are a good family pet.[2] They are easily trained.[2]

The Zuchon is a well-mannered dog known to be social, happy, and gentle. They become devoted to their families but need much attention and do not do well when left alone for long periods of time.[7] They are good therapy dogs.[5] Sometimes the Zuchon may be stubborn and in need of training. The Zuchon will remain active.[2][3][8]

They make fairly good watch dogs. When necessary, this dog will bark to alert its family that someone is nearby. This breed is typically good with other pets, especially when socialized at an early age. This dog gets along well with children, but it may be a good idea to socialize this breed at an early age as well as to supervise play time with children to make sure that the dog does not get hurt as a result of its small size.

An important feature with the Zuchon hybrid breed is its longevity. The average life-expectancy of a Zuchon is around 12â€“15 years.[3][9][5] The Zuchon, like many hybrid breeds, is usually healthy without showing the congenital defects that purebreds can have from inbreeding. However, this is only true if the Zuchon is a first generation dog.[2] When a multi-generation Zuchon is born, the possibility of health issues increases. Some possible defects known to designer dogs include canine hip dysplasia, deafness, epilepsy, and liver disease.[5][10]

Americans began breeding designer dogs in the 1990s.[11] The Zuchon is a cross between an oriental Shih Tzu and a Mediterranean Bichon FrisÃ©. Although this breed of dog is relatively new, its popularity and fame is growing quickly.[2] The Zuchon is still not thought of as an official breed of dog, only a cross-breed. This may change as the dog is becoming a popular toy dog being classified with all other toy dog purebreds. Organizations that recognise this breed include the American Canine Hybrid Club and the Designer Dogs Kennel Club.[2][3]


where does a good hash function for numerical data come from

Good hash functions, in the original sense of the term, are usually required to satisfy certain properties listed below. The exact requirements are dependent on the application, for example a hash function well suited to indexing data will probably be a poor choice for a cryptographic hash function.

Hash function

A hash function is any function that can be used to map data of arbitrary size to data of fixed size. The values returned by a hash function are called hash values, hash codes, digests, or simply hashes. One use is a data structure called a hash table, widely used in computer software for rapid data lookup. Hash functions accelerate table or database lookup by detecting duplicated records in a large file. An example is finding similar stretches in DNA sequences. They are also useful in cryptography. A cryptographic hash function allows one to easily verify that some input data maps to a given hash value, but if the input data is unknown, it is deliberately difficult to reconstruct it (or equivalent alternatives) by knowing the stored hash value. This is used for assuring integrity of transmitted data, and is the building block for HMACs, which provide message authentication.

Hash functions are related to (and often confused with) checksums, check digits, fingerprints, lossy compression, randomization functions, error-correcting codes, and ciphers. Although these concepts overlap to some extent, each has its own uses and requirements and is designed and optimized differently. The Hash Keeper database maintained by the American National Drug Intelligence Center, for instance, is more aptly described as a catalogue of file fingerprints than of hash values.

Hash functions are used in hash tables,[1] to quickly locate a data record (e.g.,Â a dictionary definition) given its search key (the headword). Specifically, the hash function is used to map the search key to a list; the index gives the place in the hash table where the corresponding record should be stored. Hash tables, also, are used to implement associative arrays and dynamic sets.[2]

Typically, the domain of a hash function (the set of possible keys) is larger than its range (the number of different table indices), and so it will map several different keys to the same index. So then, each slot of a hash table is associated with (implicitly or explicitly) a set of records, rather than a single record. For this reason, each slot of a hash table is often called a bucket, and hash values are also called bucket listing[citation needed] or a bucket index.

Thus, the hash function only hints at the record's location. Still, in a half-full table, a good hash function will typically narrow the search down to only one or two entries.

People who write complete hash table implementations choose a specific hash function—such as a Jenkins hash or Zobrist hashing—and independently choose a hash-table collision resolution scheme—such as coalesced hashing, cuckoo hashing, or hopscotch hashing.

Hash functions are also used to build caches for large data sets stored in slow media. A cache is generally simpler than a hashed search table, since any collision can be resolved by discarding or writing back the older of the two colliding items. This is also used in file comparison.

Hash functions are an essential ingredient of the Bloom filter, a space-efficient probabilistic data structure that is used to test whether an element is a member of a set.

When storing records in a large unsorted file, one may use a hash function to map each record to an index into a table T, and to collect in each bucket T[i] a list of the numbers of all records with the same hash value i. Once the table is complete, any two duplicate records will end up in the same bucket. The duplicates can then be found by scanning every bucket T[i] which contains two or more members, fetching those records, and comparing them. With a table of appropriate size, this method is likely to be much faster than any alternative approach (such as sorting the file and comparing all consecutive pairs).

A hash value can be used to uniquely identify secret information. This requires that the hash function is collision-resistant, which means that it is very hard to find data that will generate the same hash value. These functions are categorized into cryptographic hash functions and provably secure hash functions. Functions in the second category are the most secure but also too slow for most practical purposes. Collision resistance is accomplished in part by generating very large hash values. For example, SHA-1, one of the most widely used cryptographic hash functions, generates 160 bit values.

Hash functions can also be used to locate table records whose key is similar, but not identical, to a given key; or pairs of records in a large file which have similar keys. For that purpose, one needs a hash function that maps similar keys to hash values that differ by at most m, where m is a small integer (say, 1 or 2). If one builds a table T of all record numbers, using such a hash function, then similar records will end up in the same bucket, or in nearby buckets. Then one need only check the records in each bucket T[i] against those in buckets T[i+k] where k ranges between −m and m.

This class includes the so-called acoustic fingerprint algorithms, that are used to locate similar-sounding entries in large collection of audio files. For this application, the hash function must be as insensitive as possible to data capture or transmission errors, and to trivial changes such as timing and volume changes, compression, etc.[3]

The same techniques can be used to find equal or similar stretches in a large collection of strings, such as a document repository or a genomic database. In this case, the input strings are broken into many small pieces, and a hash function is used to detect potentially equal pieces, as above.

The Rabin–Karp algorithm is a relatively fast string searching algorithm that works in O(n) time on average. It is based on the use of hashing to compare strings.

This principle is widely used in computer graphics, computational geometry and many other disciplines, to solve many proximity problems in the plane or in three-dimensional space, such as finding closest pairs in a set of points, similar shapes in a list of shapes, similar images in an image database, and so on. In these applications, the set of all inputs is some sort of metric space, and the hashing function can be interpreted as a partition of that space into a grid of cells. The table is often an array with two or more indices (called a grid file, grid index, bucket grid, and similar names), and the hash function returns an index tuple. This special case of hashing is known as geometric hashing or the grid method. Geometric hashing is also used in telecommunications (usually under the name vector quantization) to encode and compress multi-dimensional signals.

Some standard applications that employ hash functions include authentication, message integrity (using an HMAC (Hashed MAC)), message fingerprinting, data corruption detection, and digital signature efficiency.

A hash procedure must be deterministicâ€”meaning that for a given input value it must always generate the same hash value. In other words, it must be a function of the data to be hashed, in the mathematical sense of the term. This requirement excludes hash functions that depend on external variable parameters, such as pseudo-random number generators or the time of day. It also excludes functions that depend on the memory address of the object being hashed in cases that the address may change during execution (as may happen on systems that use certain methods of garbage collection), although sometimes rehashing of the item is possible.

The determinism is in the context of the reuse of the function. For example, Python adds the feature that hash functions make use of a randomized seed that is generated once when the Python process starts in addition to the input to be hashed.[4] The Python hash is still a valid hash function when used in within a single run. But if the values are persisted (for example, written to disk) they can no longer be treated as valid hash values, since in the next run the random value might differ.

A good hash function should map the expected inputs as evenly as possible over its output range. That is, every hash value in the output range should be generated with roughly the same probability. The reason for this last requirement is that the cost of hashing-based methods goes up sharply as the number of collisions—pairs of inputs that are mapped to the same hash value—increases. If some hash values are more likely to occur than others, a larger fraction of the lookup operations will have to search through a larger set of colliding table entries.

Note that this criterion only requires the value to be uniformly distributed, not random in any sense. A good randomizing function is (barring computational efficiency concerns) generally a good choice as a hash function, but the converse need not be true.

Hash tables often contain only a small subset of the valid inputs. For instance, a club membership list may contain only a hundred or so member names, out of the very large set of all possible names. In these cases, the uniformity criterion should hold for almost all typical subsets of entries that may be found in the table, not just for the global set of all possible entries.

In other words, if a typical set of m records is hashed to n table slots, the probability of a bucket receiving many more than m/n records should be vanishingly small. In particular, if m is less than n, very few buckets should have more than one or two records. (In an ideal "perfect hash function", no bucket should have more than one record; but a small number of collisions is virtually inevitable, even if n is much larger than m â€“ see the birthday paradox).

When testing a hash function, the uniformity of the distribution of hash values can be evaluated by the chi-squared test.

It is often desirable that the output of a hash function have fixed size (but see below). If, for example, the output is constrained to 32-bit integer values, the hash values can be used to index into an array. Such hashing is commonly used to accelerate data searches.[5] On the other hand, cryptographic hash functions produce much larger hash values, in order to ensure the computational complexity of brute-force inversion.[2] For example, SHA-1, one of the most widely used cryptographic hash functions, produces a 160-bit value.

Producing fixed-length output from variable length input can be accomplished by breaking the input data into chunks of specific size. Hash functions used for data searches use some arithmetic expression which iteratively processes chunks of the input (such as the characters in a string) to produce the hash value.[5] In cryptographic hash functions, these chunks are processed by a one-way compression function, with the last chunk being padded if necessary. In this case, their size, which is called block size, is much bigger than the size of the hash value.[2] For example, in SHA-1, the hash value is 160 bits and the block size 512 bits.

In many applications, the range of hash values may be different for each run of the program, or may change along the same run (for instance, when a hash table needs to be expanded). In those situations, one needs a hash function which takes two parametersâ€”the input data z, and the number n of allowed hash values.

A common solution is to compute a fixed hash function with a very large range (say, 0 to 232 − 1), divide the result by n, and use the division's remainder. If n is itself a power of 2, this can be done by bit masking and bit shifting. When this approach is used, the hash function must be chosen so that the result has fairly uniform distribution between 0 and n − 1, for any value of n that may occur in the application. Depending on the function, the remainder may be uniform only for certain values of n, e.g. odd or prime numbers.

We can allow the table size n to not be a power of 2 and still not have to perform any remainder or division operation, as these computations are sometimes costly. For example, let n be significantly less than 2b. Consider a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) function P(key) that is uniform on the interval [0, 2b − 1]. A hash function uniform on the interval [0, n-1] is n P(key)/2b. We can replace the division by a (possibly faster) right bit shift: nP(key) >> b.

When the hash function is used to store values in a hash table that outlives the run of the program, and the hash table needs to be expanded or shrunk, the hash table is referred to as a dynamic hash table.

A hash function that will relocate the minimum number of records when the table is – where z is the key being hashed and n is the number of allowed hash values – such that H(z,n + 1) = H(z,n) with probability close to n/(n + 1).

Linear hashing and spiral storage are examples of dynamic hash functions that execute in constant time but relax the property of uniformity to achieve the minimal movement property.

Extendible hashing uses a dynamic hash function that requires space proportional to n to compute the hash function, and it becomes a function of the previous keys that have been inserted.

Several algorithms that preserve the uniformity property but require time proportional to n to compute the value of H(z,n) have been invented.

A hash function with minimal movement is especially useful in distributed hash tables.

In some applications, the input data may contain features that are irrelevant for comparison purposes. For example, when looking up a personal name, it may be desirable to ignore the distinction between upper and lower case letters. For such data, one must use a hash function that is compatible with the data equivalence criterion being used: that is, any two inputs that are considered equivalent must yield the same hash value. This can be accomplished by normalizing the input before hashing it, as by upper-casing all letters.

"A hash function that is used to search for similar (as opposed to equivalent) data must be as continuous as possible; two inputs that differ by a little should be mapped to equal or nearly equal hash values."[6]

Note that continuity is usually considered a fatal flaw for checksums, cryptographic hash functions, and other related concepts. Continuity is desirable for hash functions only in some applications, such as hash tables used in Nearest neighbor search.

In cryptographic applications, hash functions are typically expected to be practically non-invertible, meaning that it is not realistic to reconstruct the input datum x from its hash value h(x) alone without spending great amounts of computing time (see also One-way function).

For most types of hashing functions, the choice of the function depends strongly on the nature of the input data, and their probability distribution in the intended application.

If the data to be hashed is small enough, one can use the data itself (reinterpreted as an integer) as the hashed value. The cost of computing this "trivial" (identity) hash function is effectively zero. This hash function is perfect, as it maps each input to a distinct hash value.

The meaning of "small enough" depends on the size of the type that is used as the hashed value. For example, in Java, the hash code is a 32-bit integer. Thus the 32-bit integer Integer and 32-bit floating-point Float objects can simply use the value directly; whereas the 64-bit integer Long and 64-bit floating-point Double cannot use this method.

Other types of data can also use this perfect hashing scheme. For example, when mapping character strings between upper and lower case, one can use the binary encoding of each character, interpreted as an integer, to index a table that gives the alternative form of that character ("A" for "a", "8" for "8", etc.). If each character is stored in 8 bits (as in extended ASCII[7] or ISO Latin 1), the table has only 28 = 256 entries; in the case of Unicode characters, the table would have 17×216 = 7006111411200000000♠1114112 entries.

The same technique can be used to map two-letter country codes like "us" or "za" to country names (262 = 676 table entries), 5-digit zip codes like 13083 to city names (7005100000000000000â™ 100000 entries), etc. Invalid data values (such as the country code "xx" or the zip code 00000) may be left undefined in the table or mapped to some appropriate "null" value.

A hash function that is injective—that is, maps each valid input to a different hash value—is said to be perfect. With such a function one can directly locate the desired entry in a hash table, without any additional searching.

A perfect hash function for n keys is said to be minimal if its range consists of n consecutive integers, usually from 0 to nâˆ’1. Besides providing single-step lookup, a minimal perfect hash function also yields a compact hash table, without any vacant slots. Minimal perfect hash functions are much harder to find than perfect ones with a wider range.

If the inputs are bounded-length strings and each input may independently occur with uniform probability (such as telephone numbers, car license plates, invoice numbers, etc.), then a hash function needs to map roughly the same number of inputs to each hash value. For instance, suppose that each input is an integer z in the range 0 to N−1, and the output must be an integer h in the range 0 to n−1, where N is much larger than n. Then the hash function could be h = z mod n (the remainder of z divided by n), or h = (z × n) ÷ N (the value z scaled down by n/N and truncated to an integer), or many other formulas.

These simple formulas will not do if the input values are not equally likely, or are not independent. For instance, most patrons of a supermarket will live in the same geographic area, so their telephone numbers are likely to begin with the same 3 to 4 digits. In that case, if m is 10000 or so, the division formula (z

When the data values are long (or variable-length) character strings—such as personal names, web page addresses, or mail messages—their distribution is usually very uneven, with complicated dependencies. For example, text in any natural language has highly non-uniform distributions of characters, and character pairs, very characteristic of the language. For such data, it is prudent to use a hash function that depends on all characters of the string—and depends on each character in a different way.

In cryptographic hash functions, a Merkle–Damgård construction is usually used. In general, the scheme for hashing such data is to break the input into a sequence of small units (bits, bytes, words, etc.) and combine all the units b[1], b[2], …, b[m] sequentially, as follows

This schema is also used in many text checksum and fingerprint algorithms. The state variable S may be a 32- or 64-bit unsigned integer; in that case, S0 can be 0, and G(S,n) can be just S mod n. The best choice of F is a complex issue and depends on the nature of the data. If the units b[k] are single bits, then F(S,b) could be, for instance

Here highbit(S) denotes the most significant bit of S; the '*' operator denotes unsigned integer multiplication with lost overflow; '^' is the bitwise exclusive or operation applied to words; and P is a suitable fixed word.[8]

In many cases, one can design a special-purpose (heuristic) hash function that yields many fewer collisions than a good general-purpose hash function. For example, suppose that the input data are file names such as FILE0000.CHK, FILE0001.CHK, FILE0002.CHK, etc., with mostly sequential numbers. For such data, a function that extracts the numeric part k of the file name and returns k mod n would be nearly optimal. Needless to say, a function that is exceptionally good for a specific kind of data may have dismal performance on data with different distribution.

In some applications, such as substring search, one must compute a hash function h for every k-character substring of a given n-character string t; where k is a fixed integer, and n is k. The straightforward solution, which is to extract every such substring s of t and compute h(s) separately, requires a number of operations proportional to k·n. However, with the proper choice of h, one can use the technique of rolling hash to compute all those hashes with an effort proportional to k + n.

A universal hashing scheme is a randomized algorithm that selects a hashing function h among a family of such functions, in such a way that the probability of a collision of any two distinct keys is 1/n, where n is the number of distinct hash values desiredâ€”independently of the two keys. Universal hashing ensures (in a probabilistic sense) that the hash function application will behave as well as if it were using a random function, for any distribution of the input data. It will, however, have more collisions than perfect hashing and may require more operations than a special-purpose hash function. See also unique permutation hashing.[9]

One can adapt certain checksum or fingerprinting algorithms for use as hash functions. Some of those algorithms will map arbitrary long string data z, with any typical real-world distribution—no matter how non-uniform and dependent—to a 32-bit or 64-bit string, from which one can extract a hash value in 0 through n − 1.

This method may produce a sufficiently uniform distribution of hash values, as long as the hash range size n is small compared to the range of the checksum or fingerprint function. However, some checksums fare poorly in the avalanche test, which may be a concern in some applications. In particular, the popular CRC32 checksum provides only 16 bits (the higher half of the result) that are usable for hashing[citation needed][dubious – discuss]. Moreover, each bit of the input has a deterministic effect on each bit of the CRC32, that is one can tell without looking at the rest of the input, which bits of the output will flip if the input bit is flipped; so care must be taken to use all 32 bits when computing the hash from the checksum.[10][dubious – discuss]

Multiplicative hashing is a simple type of hash function often used by teachers introducing students to hash tables.[11] Multiplicative hash functions are simple and fast, but have higher collision rates in hash tables than more sophisticated hash functions.[12]

In many applications, such as hash tables, collisions make the system a little slower but are otherwise harmless. In such systems, it is often better to use hash functions based on multiplication—such as MurmurHash and the SBoxHash—or even simpler hash functions such as CRC32—and tolerate more collisions; rather than use a more complex hash function that avoids many of those collisions but takes longer to compute.[12] Multiplicative hashing is susceptible to a "common mistake" that leads to poor diffusion—higher-value input bits do not affect lower-value output bits.[13]

Some cryptographic hash functions, such as SHA-1, have even stronger uniformity guarantees than checksums or fingerprints, and thus can provide very good general-purpose hashing functions.

In ordinary applications, this advantage may be too small to offset their much higher cost.[14] However, this method can provide uniformly distributed hashes even when the keys are chosen by a malicious agent. This feature may help to protect services against denial of service attacks.

Tables of random numbers (such as 256 random 32-bit integers) can provide high-quality nonlinear functions to be used as hash functions or for other purposes such as cryptography. The key to be hashed is split into 8-bit (one-byte) parts, and each part is used as an index for the nonlinear table. The table values are then added by arithmetic or XOR addition to the hash output value. Because the table is just 1024 bytes in size, it fits into the cache of modern microprocessors and allows very fast execution of the hashing algorithm. As the table value is on average much longer than 8 bits, one bit of input affects nearly all output bits.

This algorithm has proven to be very fast and of high quality for hashing purposes (especially hashing of integer-number keys).

Modern microprocessors will allow for much faster processing, if 8-bit character strings are not hashed by processing one character at a time, but by interpreting the string as an array of 32 bit or 64 bit integers and hashing/accumulating these "wide word" integer values by means of arithmetic operations (e.g. multiplication by constant and bit-shifting). The remaining characters of the string which are smaller than the word length of the CPU must be handled differently (e.g. being processed one character at a time).

This approach has proven to speed up hash code generation by a factor of five or more on modern microprocessors of a word size of 64 bit.[citation needed]

Another approach[15] is to convert strings to a 32 or 64 bit numeric value and then apply a hash function. One method that avoids the problem of strings having great similarity ("Aaaaaaaaaa" and "Aaaaaaaaab") is to use a Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) of the string to compute a 32- or 64-bit value. While it is possible that two different strings will have the same CRC, the likelihood is very small and only requires that one check the actual string found to determine whether one has an exact match. CRCs will be different for strings such as "Aaaaaaaaaa" and "Aaaaaaaaab". Although, CRC codes can be used as hash values[16] they are not cryptographically secure since they are not collision-resistant.[17]

Locality-sensitive hashing (LSH) is a method of performing probabilistic dimension reduction of high-dimensional data. The basic idea is to hash the input items so that similar items are mapped to the same buckets with high probability (the number of buckets being much smaller than the universe of possible input items). This is different from the conventional hash functions, such as those used in cryptography, as in this case the goal is to minimize the probability of "collision" of every item.[18]

One example of LSH is MinHash algorithm used for finding similar documents (such as web-pages):

Let h be a hash function that maps the members of A and B to distinct integers, and for any set S define hmin(S) to be the member x of S with the minimum value of h(x). Then hmin(A) = hmin(B) exactly when the minimum hash value of the union A ∪ B lies in the intersection A ∩ B. Therefore,

In other words, if r is a random variable that is one when hmin(A) = hmin(B) and zero otherwise, then r is an unbiased estimator of J(A,B), although it has too high a variance to be useful on its own. The idea of the MinHash scheme is to reduce the variance by averaging together several variables constructed in the same way.

The term "hash" offers a natural analogy with its non-technical meaning (to "chop" or "make a mess" out of something), given how hash functions scramble their input data to derive their output.[19] In his research for the precise origin of the term, Donald Knuth notes that, while Hans Peter Luhn of IBM appears to have been the first to use the concept of a hash function in a memo dated January 1953, the term itself would only appear in published literature in the late 1960s, on Herbert Hellerman's Digital Computer System Principles, even though it was already widespread jargon by then.[20]


what were the main types of glass first made

During the Late Bronze Age in Egypt (e.g., the Ahhotep "Treasure") and Western Asia (e.g. Megiddo)[4] there was a rapid growth in glass-making technology. Archaeological finds from this period include colored glass ingots, vessels (often colored and shaped in imitation of highly prized hardstone carvings in semi-precious stones) and the ubiquitous beads. The alkali of Syrian and Egyptian glass was soda ash, sodium carbonate, which can be extracted from the ashes of many plants, notably halophile seashore plants: (see saltwort). The earliest vessels were 'core-formed', produced by winding a ductile rope of glass round a shaped core of sand and clay over a metal rod, then fusing it with repeated reheatings.

History of glass

The history of glass-making can be traced back to 3500 BC Asia in Mesopotamia, however, they may have been producing second-rate copies of glass objects from Egypt, where this complex craft actually originated.[1] Other archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or Egypt.[2] The earliest known glass objects, of the mid second millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as the accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[n 1] Glass products remained a luxury until the disasters that overtook the late Bronze Age civilizations seemingly brought glass-making to a halt.

Development of glass technology in India may have begun in 1730 BC.[3] In ancient China, though, glass-making seems to have had a late start compared to ceramics and metal work. From across the former Roman Empire archaeologists have recovered glass objects that were used in domestic, industrial and funerary contexts. Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry.

Naturally occurring glass, especially the volcanic glass obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or ancient Egypt.[2] Because of Egypt's favorable environment for preservation, the majority of well-studied early glass is found there, although some of this is likely to have been imported. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working (slags) or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing.[n 1]

Threads of thin glass of different colors made with admixtures of oxides were subsequently wound around these to create patterns, which could be drawn into festoons by using metal raking tools. The vessel would then be rolled smooth ('marvered') on a slab in order to press the decorative threads into its body. Handles and feet were applied separately. The rod was subsequently allowed to cool as the glass slowly annealed and was eventually removed from the center of the vessel, after which the core material was scraped out. Glass shapes for inlays were also often created in moulds. Much early glass production, however, relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stone working. This meant that the glass was ground and carved in a cold state.[5]

By the 15th century BC extensive glass production was occurring in Western Asia, Crete and Egypt and the Mycenaean Greek term

Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilizations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. It picked up again in its former sites, in Syria and Cyprus, in the 9th century BC, when the techniques for making colorless glass were discovered. The first glassmaking "manual" dates back to ca. 650 BC. Instructions on how to make glass are contained in cuneiform tablets discovered in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. In Egypt glass-making did not revive until it was reintroduced in Ptolemaic Alexandria. Core-formed vessels and beads were still widely produced, but other techniques came to the fore with experimentation and technological advancements. During the Hellenistic period many new techniques of glass production were introduced and glass began to be used to make larger pieces, notably table wares. Techniques developed during this period include'slumping' viscous (but not fully molten) glass over a mould in order to form a dish and'millefiori' (meaning 'thousand flowers') technique, where canes of multi-colored glass were sliced and the slices arranged together and fused in a mould to create a mosaic-like effect. It was also during this period that colorless or decolored glass began to be prized and methods for achieving this effect were investigated more fully.[12]

According to Pliny the Elder, Phoenician traders were the first to stumble upon glass manufacturing techniques at the site of the Belus River. Georgius Agricola, in De re metallica, reported a traditional serendipitous "discovery" tale of familiar type:

"The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass."[13]

This account is more a reflection of Roman experience of glass production, however, as white silica sand from this area was used in the production of glass within the Roman Empire due to its high purity levels. During the 1st century BC glass blowing was discovered on the Syro-Judean coast, revolutionizing the industry. Glass vessels were now inexpensive compared to pottery vessels. A growth of the use of glass products occurred throughout the Roman world.[citation needed] Glass became the Roman plastic, and glass containers produced in Alexandria[citation needed] spread throughout the Roman Empire. With the discovery of clear glass (through the introduction of manganese dioxide), by glass blowers in Alexandria circa 100 AD, the Romans began to use glass for architectural purposes. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, began to appear in the most important buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Over the next 1,000 years, glass making and working continued and spread through southern Europe and beyond.

Indian development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BC.[3] Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass bead along with a hoard of beads dating to that period, making it the earliest attested glass from the Indus Valley locations.[3] Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600â€“300 BC displays common colors.[3]

Chalcolithic evidence of glass has been found in Hastinapur, India.[14] Some of the texts which mention glass in India are the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka.[14] However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities, dating from the 3rd century BC, has been uncovered from the archaeological site in Takshashila, Pakistan, with bangles, beads, small vessels, and tiles discovered in quantity.[14]

By the 1st century AD, glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia.[14] Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the succeeding centuries.[14] The Satavahana period of India also produced short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass.[15]

In Chinese history, glass played a peripheral role in the arts and crafts, when compared to ceramics and metal work.[16] The limited archaeological distribution and use of glass objects are evidence of the rarity of the material. Literary sources date the first manufacture of glass to the 5th century AD.[17] However, the earliest archaeological evidence for glass manufacture in China comes from the late Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC to 221 BC).

Chinese learned to manufacture glass comparably later than the Mesopotamians, Egyptians and Indians.[18] Imported glass objects first reached China during the late Spring and Autumn period – early Warring States period (early 5th century BC), in the form of polychrome ‘eye beads’.[19] These imports created the impetus for the production of indigenous glass beads.

During the Han period (206 BC to 220 AD) the use of glass diversified. The introduction of glass casting in this period encouraged the production of moulded objects, such as bi disks and other ritual objects.[18] The Chinese glass objects from the Warring States period and Han Dynasty vary greatly in chemical composition from the imported glass objects. The glasses from this period contain high levels of barium oxide (BaO) and lead, distinguishing them from the soda-lime-silica glasses of Western Asia and Mesopotamia.[20] At the end of the Han Dynasty (AD 220), the lead-barium glass tradition declined, with glass production only resuming during the 4th and 5th centuries AD.[21]

Romans learned to manufacture glass comparably later than Asians. Glass objects have been recovered across the Roman Empire[22] in domestic, funerary[23] and industrial contexts.[24] Glass was used primarily for the production of vessels, although mosaic tiles and window glass were also produced. Roman glass production developed from Hellenistic technical traditions, initially concentrating on the production of intensely colored cast glass vessels.

However, during the 1st century AD, the industry underwent rapid technical growth that saw the introduction of glass blowing and the dominance of colorless or ‘aqua’ glasses. Production of raw glass was undertaken in geographically separate locations to the working of glass into finished vessels,[25][26] and by the end of the 1st century AD large scale manufacturing, primarily in Alexandria,[27] resulted in the establishment of glass as a commonly available material in the Roman world.

Islamic glass continued the achievements of pre-Islamic cultures, especially the Sasanian glass of Persia. The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820–897) described the clarity of such glass, "Its color hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container."[28] In the 8th century, the Persian chemist Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) described 46 recipes for producing colored glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book.[29] By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Arab Islamic Spain.

The Roman tradition of very fine glassmaking did not continue in the Middle Ages, and Anglo-Saxon glass and other regional traditions were mainly functional pieces, mostly somewhat crude forest glass. The claw beaker was popular as a relatively easy to make but impressive vessel that exploited the unique potential of glass. Only at the end of the period did European glass vessels once again become very fine in quality, imitating those imported from the Islamic world.

Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000Â AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.[30]

Until the 12th century, stained glass – glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring – was not widely used, but it rapidly became an important medium for Romanesque art and especially Gothic art. Almost all survivals are in church buildings, but it was also used in grand secular buildings. The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice. The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Domestic glass vessels in late medieval Northern Europe are known as Forest glass.

Anglo-Saxon glass has been found across England during archaeological excavations of both settlement and cemetery sites. Glass in the Anglo-Saxon period was used in the manufacture of a range of objects including vessels, beads, windows and was even used in jewelry.[31] In the 5th century AD with the Roman departure from Britain, there were also considerable changes in the usage of glass.[32] Excavation of Romano-British sites have revealed plentiful amounts of glass but, in contrast, the amount recovered from 5th century and later Anglo-Saxon sites is minuscule.[32]

The majority of complete vessels and assemblages of beads come from the excavations of early Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, but a change in burial rites in the late 7th century affected the recovery of glass, as Christian Anglo-Saxons were buried with fewer grave goods, and glass is rarely found. From the late 7th century onwards, window glass is found more frequently. This is directly related to the introduction of Christianity and the construction of churches and monasteries.[32][33] There are a few Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical[34] literary sources that mention the production and use of glass, although these relate to window glass used in ecclesiastical buildings.[32][33][35] Glass was also used by the Anglo-Saxons in their jewelry, both as enamel or as cut glass insets.[36][37]

The center for luxury Italian glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in dinnerware, mirrors, and other items. What made Venetian Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents still exist today; for a list of coloring agents, see below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the light, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye.[38]

The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Murano’s reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire might burn down the city’s mostly wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291. Murano's glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Many took a risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands.

Bohemian glass, or Bohemia crystal, is a decorative glass produced in regions of Bohemia and Silesia, now in the current state of the Czech Republic, since the 13th century.[39] Oldest archaeology excavations of glass-making sites date to around 1250 and are located in the Lusatian Mountains of Northern Bohemia. Most notable sites of glass-making throughout the ages are Skalice (German: Langenau), Kamenický Šenov (German: Steinschönau) and Nový Bor (German: Haida). Both Nový Bor and Kamenický Šenov have their own Glass Museums with many items dating since around 1600. It was especially outstanding in its manufacture of glass in high Baroque style from 1685 to 1750. In the 17th century, Caspar Lehmann, gem cutter to Emperor Rudolf II in Prague, adapted to glass the technique of gem engraving with copper and bronze wheels.

A very important advance in glass manufacture was the technique of adding lead oxide to the molten glass; this improved the appearance of the glass and made it easier to melt using sea-coal as a furnace fuel. This technique also increased the "working period" of the glass, making it easier to manipulate. The process was first discovered by George Ravenscroft in 1674, who was the first to produce clear lead crystal glassware on an industrial scale. Ravenscroft had the cultural and financial resources necessary to revolutionise the glass trade, allowing England to overtake Venice as the centre of the glass industry in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Seeking to find an alternative to Venetian cristallo, he used flint as a silica source, but his glasses tended to crizzle, developing a network of small cracks destroying its transparency. This was eventually overcome by replacing some of the potash flux with lead oxide to the melt.[40]

He was granted a protective patent in 1673, where production and refinement moved from his glasshouse on the Savoy to the seclusion of Henley-on-Thames.[41]

By 1696, after the patent expired, twenty-seven glasshouses in England were producing flint glass and were exporting all over Europe with such success that, in 1746, the British Government imposed a lucrative tax on it. Rather than drastically reduce the lead content of their glass, manufacturers responded by creating highly decorated, smaller, more delicate forms, often with hollow stems, known to collectors today as Excise glasses.[42] The British glass making industry was able to take off with the repeal of the tax in 1845.

Evidence of the use of the blown plate glass method dates back to 1620 in London and was used for mirrors and coach plates. Louis Lucas de Nehou and A. Thevart perfected the process of casting Polished plate glass in 1688 in France. Prior to this invention, mirror plates, made from blown "sheet" glass, had been limited in size. De Nehou's process of rolling molten glass poured on an iron table rendered the manufacture of very large plates possible.[43] This method of production was adopted by the English in 1773 at Ravenhead. The polishing process was industrialized around 1800 with the adoption of a steam engine to carry out the grinding and polishing of the cast glass.

The use of glass as a building material was heralded by The Crystal Palace of 1851, built by Joseph Paxton to house the Great Exhibition. Paxton's revolutionary new building inspired the public use of glass as a material for domestic and horticultural architecture. In 1832, the British Crown Glass Company (later Chance Brothers) became the first company to adopt the cylinder method to produce sheet glass with the expertise of Georges Bontemps, a famous French glassmaker.[n 4] This glass was produced by blowing long cylinders of glass, which were then cut along the length and then flattened onto a cast-iron table, before being annealed. Plate glass involves the glass being ladled onto a cast-iron bed, where it is rolled into a sheet with an iron roller. The sheet, still soft, is pushed into the open mouth of an annealing tunnel or temperature-controlled oven called a lehr, down which it was carried by a system of rollers.[44] James Hartley introduced the Rolled Plate method in 1847. This allowed a ribbed finish and was often used for extensive glass roofs such as within railway stations.

An early advance in automating glass manufacturing was patented in 1848 by the engineer Henry Bessemer. His system produced a continuous ribbon of flat glass by forming the ribbon between rollers. This was an expensive process, as the surfaces of the glass needed polishing and was later abandoned by its sponsor, Robert Lucas Chance of Chance Brothers, as unviable. Bessemer also introduced an early form of "Float Glass" in 1843, which involved pouring glass onto liquid tin.

In 1887, the mass production of glass was developed by the firm Ashley in Castleford, Yorkshire. This semi-automatic process used machines that were capable of producing 200 standardized bottles per hour, many times quicker than the traditional methods of manufacture.[45] Chance Brothers also introduced the machine rolled patterned glass method in 1888.[46]

In 1898, Pilkington invented Wired Cast glass, where the glass incorporates a strong steel-wire mesh for safety and security. This was commonly given the misnomer "Georgian Wired Glass" but it greatly post-dates the Georgian era.[47] The Machine Drawn Cylinder technique was invented in the USA and was the first mechanical method for the drawing of window glass. It was manufactured under licence in the UK by Pilkington from 1910 onwards.

In 1938, the polished plate process was improved by Pilkington which incorporated a double grinding process to give an improved quality to the finish. Between 1953 and 1957, Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers developed the revolutionary float glass process, the first successful commercial application for forming a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity.[48] This method gave the sheet uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern windows are made from float glass. Most float glass is soda-lime glass, but relatively minor quantities of specialty borosilicate[49] and flat panel display glass are also produced using the float glass process. The success of this process lay in the careful balance of the volume of glass fed onto the bath, where it was flattened by its own weight.[50] Full scale profitable sales of float glass were first achieved in 1960.


who plays mandy in season 1 of shameless

Levy moved back to Los Angeles after two years in New York City. Levy was cast as Mandy Milkovich in a five-episode role on the Showtime series Shameless within a few weeks of returning to the West Coast.[4] In March 2011, she landed the first lead role of her career on the sitcom Suburgatory, with Jeremy Sisto and Cheryl Hines.[8][9] Since being in the show she has been compared to Emma Stone, due in part to her red hair.[10] On May 9, 2014, Suburgatory was canceled by ABC after three seasons.

Jane Levy

Jane Colburn Levy (born December 29, 1989)[1] is an American actress. In early 2011, she received popular recognition starring as Tessa Altman, a leading character on the ABC comedy series Suburgatory (2011â€“14).

In 2012, Levy appeared in the films Fun Size and Nobody Walks. In 2013, Levy starred in the supernatural horror film Evil Dead directed by Fede Álvarez. In 2016, she teamed up with Alvarez again and starred in the horror film Don't Breathe.

Levy was born in Los Angeles, the daughter of Mary (nÃ©e Tilbury), an artist, and Lester Levy, a musician.[2] Her father is Jewish. Her mother is of English, Scottish, and Irish descent.[3] She attended Sir Francis Drake High School in San Anselmo, California. While in school, she was on the hip hop dancing team and was captain of the soccer team,[4][5] and appeared in community theatre productions of Annie and The Wizard of Oz.[4] She describes herself at school as being a "floater",[6] someone who got along with everyone. While at high school she visited England for five months.[6] She attended Goucher College for a semester before transferring to the Stella Adler Studio of Acting in New York City where she graduated from the Conservatory.[7]

Levy was named by both TV Guide and TheInsider.com as one of the breakout stars of 2011,[11][12] and was included on the top eleven list of funniest women compiled by AOL.[13] Forbes named her as one of the handful of entertainment stars on their list of 30 under 30 who are "reinventing the world" (a list of the brightest stars of the future).[14][15] Noting that Suburgatory was "one of the big hits of the new [TV] season" and that Levy would be seen in two upcoming films, Forbes called her "one to watch".[16]

Levy appeared in two films in 2012, Fun Size and Nobody Walks; the former was the first feature from Gossip Girl creator Josh Schwartz.[10] Released before Halloween, Fun Size co-starred Victoria Justice and comedian Chelsea Handler.[17] While filming it, Levy was disappointed that she failed to meet co-star Johnny Knoxville, as he was on set for the one week of shooting that she was not.[17] Levy later starred in the 2013 remake of the horror classic The Evil Dead,[18] as the drug-dependent Mia, replacing Lily Collins, who had originally been cast.[19] The following year, she starred in two independent films, About Alex and Bang Bang Baby.[20][21] In 2015, Levy co-starred opposite Rene Russo in Frank and Cindy.[22]

In 2016, Levy starred in her Evil Dead director Fede Alvarez's horror film Don't Breathe, the story of friends who break into the house of a wealthy blind man.[23] A sleeper hit, Don't Breathe also received positive reviews from critics and grossed over $156 million.[24] Also that year, she starred with Lucas Till in Monster Trucks, Paramount Animation's first live-action/CGI film, directed by Ice Age's Chris Wedge.[25][26] The film was filmed in 2014.

In 2017, Levy has appeared in I Don't Feel at Home in This World Anymore directed by Macon Blair, and will star in zombie comedy Office Uprising.[27] She played the female lead in the Pretenders, a romantic drama directed by James Franco.[28] Also in 2017, Levy appeared in the Showtime series Twin Peaks.[29]

On March 3, 2011, Levy married actor Jaime Freitas. According to court documents, the couple separated on October 31, 2011. In April 2013, Levy filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences.[30][31]

^[1] Replaced by Emma Greenwell after Season 1


who won the mens doubles at australian open 2018

Oliver Marach and Mate Pavić won the title, defeating Juan Sebastián Cabal and Robert Farah in the final, 6–4, 6–4.

2018 Australian Open – Men's Doubles

Henri Kontinen and John Peers were the defending champions, but lost in the second round to Radu Albot and Chung Hyeon.

Click on the seed number of a player to go to their draw section.


what part of the turkey does turkey ham come from

Turkey ham is produced from turkey meat such as cured turkey thigh meat and other meat from the animals, which can be machine-deboned.[4] Contrary to the product's name, turkey ham products do not contain any ham or pork products.[5] Some turkey ham products are manufactured with added water, which adds moisture and weight, and some include binders, which serves to bind the moisture and fat in the meat to improve texture.[6][7] Turkey ham is sometimes flavored to resemble the flavor of ham.[5] Turkey ham typically has a 5 percent fat content, and some turkey hams are produced as fat-free.[3][8] Turkey hams are typically produced in two sizes, whole and half-sized.[3]

Turkey ham

Turkey ham is a ready-to-eat, processed meat made from cooked or cured turkey meat, water and other ingredients such as binders. Turkey ham products do not contain any ham or pork products. Several companies in the United States produce turkey ham and market it under various brand names. It was invented circa 1975 by Jennie-O who first introduced it to consumers that year. Around January 1980, the American Meat Institute tried to ban use of the term "turkey ham" for products that are composed solely of turkey and contain no ham.

Turkey ham is a processed meat product made primarily from cooked or cured turkey meat and water, formed into the shape of a ham and often sold pre-sliced.[1][2] It is a ready-to-eat product that can be consumed cold or heated.[3]

Some U.S. producers and brands of turkey ham include Butterball, Cargill, Jennie-O, Louis Rich, Norbest and Oscar Meyer.[9][10][11][12]

Turkey ham was developed by Jennie-O and was first introduced to American consumers by the company in 1975.[a] Turkey ham was a successful venture for Jennie-O, as the processed meat brought in revenues that were ten times higher compared to those the company realized from unprocessed turkey thighs.[13]

Around January 1980, the American Meat Institute (AMI) attempted to ban the use of the term "turkey ham" for products that contain no ham and are entirely composed of turkey, which the AMI described as "flagrant consumer deception".[5] Use of the term "turkey ham" for such products was also opposed by some ham producers in the United States.[5] Circa this time, the U.S. government began requiring turkey ham producers to include the words "cured turkey thigh meat" on turkey ham packaging.[5] In 2010, it was written in the Handbook of Poultry Science and Technology, Secondary Processing that the term "cured turkey thigh meat" always followed the words "turkey ham" on American turkey ham packaging.[3]


what was the purpose of the last challenger mission

STS-51-L was the 25th mission of the United States Space Shuttle program, and disastrous final mission of the Space Shuttle Challenger. The mission to carry out several lessons from space and observe Halley's Comet never made its target landing date of February 3, 1986. A structural failure during its ascent phase 73 seconds after launch on January 28 from Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39 killed all seven crew members – Commander Dick Scobee, Pilot Michael J. Smith, Mission Specialists Ellison S. Onizuka, Judith A. Resnik and Ronald E. McNair, and Payload Specialists Gregory Jarvis and Christa McAuliffe—and destroyed the orbiter. The Rogers Commission determined that the cause of the destruction was due to the failure of an O-ring seal on the starboard Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). Space Shuttle flights were suspended for 32 months while the hazards with the shuttle were addressed.

STS-51-L

The tenth mission for Challenger, STS-51-L was scheduled to deploy the second in a series of Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, carry out the first flight of the Shuttle-Pointed Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-203) / Halley's Comet Experiment Deployable in order to observe Halley's Comet, and carry out several lessons from space as part of the Teacher in Space Project and Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP). The flight marked the first American orbital mission to involve in-flight fatalities. It was also the first American human spaceflight mission to launch and fail to reach space; the first such mission in the world had been the Soviet Soyuz 18a mission, in which the two crew members had survived. Gregory Jarvis was originally scheduled to fly on the previous shuttle flight (STS-61-C), but he was reassigned to this flight and replaced by Congressman Bill Nelson.[2]

Although the crew died in the Challenger disaster, their seating assignment chart depicts what would have happened if the mission was performed as planned.

During the ascent phase, 73 seconds after liftoff, the vehicle experienced a catastrophic structural failure resulting in the loss of crew and vehicle. The Rogers Commission later determined the cause of the accident to have been the failure of the primary and secondary (backup) O-ring seals on Challenger's right Solid Rocket Booster. The failure of these seals allowed a flamethrower-like flare to impinge upon one of two aft SRB attach struts, which eventually failed, freeing the booster to pivot about its remaining attachment points. The forward part of the booster cylinder struck the external tank inter-tank area, leading to a structural failure of the ET—the core structural component of the entire stack. A rapid burning of liberated propellants ensued. With the structural "backbone" of the stack compromised and breaking up, the SRBs flew off on their own, as did the orbiter, which rapidly disintegrated due to overwhelming aerodynamic forces. The launch had been approved despite a predicted ambient temperature of −3 °C (27 °F), well below the qualification limit of major components such as the SRBs, which had been certified for use only at temperatures above 4 °C (39 °F).[5] Evidence found in the remnants of the crew cabin showed that several of the emergency air supplies (PEAPs) carried by the astronauts had been manually activated, suggesting that forces experienced inside the cabin during breakup of the orbiter were not inherently fatal, and that at least three crew members were alive and capable of conscious action for a period following vehicle breakup.[6] "Tracking reported that the vehicle had exploded and impacted the water in an area approximately located at 28.64 degrees north, 80.28 degrees west."[7]

Divers from the USSÂ Preserver located what they believed to be the crew cabin on the ocean floor on March 7. A dive the following day confirmed that it was the cabin and that the remains of the crew were inside.[8] No official investigation into the Challenger disaster has concluded for certain the cause of death of the astronauts; it is almost certain that the disintegration itself did not kill the entire crew as 3 of the 4 Personal Egress Air Packs (PEAPs) that were recovered had been manually activated. This would only be done during an emergency or loss of cabin pressure. PEAPs do not provide a pressurized air flow and would still have resulted in the astronauts losing consciousness within several seconds.[9] There were media reports alleging that NASA had a tape recording of the crew panicking and on-board conversation following the disintegration during the 2 minute 45 second free fall before hitting the sea east of Florida. This was likely fabricated and no recording exists, as the crew may have been unconscious from loss of cabin pressure and the astronauts did not wear individual voice recorders.[10] The impact of the shuttle with the sea would have killed any still surviving astronauts on board, though they may have died before the impact of other causes.

Dick Scobee asked Kennedy Space Center engineer Ernie Reyes to design the mission patch seen above to represent the mission of 51-L. In it, Challenger is depicted launching from Florida and soaring into space to carry out a variety of goals. Among the prescribed duties of the five astronauts and two payload specialists (represented by the seven stars of the U.S. flag) was observation and photography of Halley's Comet, backdropped against the U.S. flag in the insignia. Surnames of the crew members encircle the scene, with the payload specialists being recognized below. The surname of the first teacher in space, Christa McAuliffe, is followed by a symbolic apple.[12]


what is the recording academy's full name

The Recording Academy (formerly the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences or NARAS) is a U.S. organization of musicians, producers, recording engineers, and other recording professionals. It is headquartered in Santa Monica, California. Neil Portnow is its current president.

The Recording Academy

The Recording Academy, which began in 1957, is known for its Grammy Awards (popularly referred to as "The Grammys"). In 1997, the Recording Academy under Michael Greene launched The Latin Recording Academy, which produces the Latin Grammy Awards.

The origin of the academy dates back to the beginning of the 1950s Hollywood Walk of Fame project. The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce asked the help of major recording industry executives in compiling a list of people in the music business who should be honored by Walk of Fame stars.[1][2] The music committee, made up of these executives, compiled a list, but as they worked, they realized there were many more talented industry people who would not qualify to be recognized with a Hollywood Boulevard bronze star. The founding committee members included Jesse Kaye, MGM Records; Lloyd Dunn and Richard Jones, Capitol Records; Sonny Burke and Milt Gabler, Decca Records; Dennis Farnon, RCA Records; and Axel Stordahl, Paul Weston, and Doris Day from Columbia Records.[3] This was the start of the academy and also of the Grammy Awards.[4][5][6]

The Producers and Engineers Wing (P&E Wing) is a part of the academy made up of producers, engineers, mixers, and other technically involved professionals. It is composed of almost 6,000 members. The producers and engineers wing addresses various aspects of issues facing the recording profession. They also support music and recording arts education. The P&E Wing also advocates for the use of professional usage of recording technology as well as the preservation of recordings.

The members of this division make up a large portion of those who vote on the Grammy Awards each year.

The Grammy University Network (Grammy U) is an organization for college students who are pursuing a career in the music industry. It offers forms of networking, interactive educational experiences and programs, advice from music professionals and internship opportunities.

The Recording Academy supports the MusiCares Foundation,[7] a philanthropic organization which provides money and services to musicians in an emergency or crisis.[citation needed]

The academy has twelve chapters in various locations throughout the United States. The twelve chapters are in Atlanta, Chicago, Florida, Los Angeles, Memphis, Nashville, New York City, the Pacific Northwest, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Texas, and Washington D.C.


who introduced the first microprocessor for intel in 1971

The chip design started in April 1970, when Federico Faggin joined Intel, and it was completed under his leadership in January 1971. The first commercial sale of the fully operational 4004 occurred in March 1971 to Busicom Corp. of Japan for which it was originally designed and built as a custom chip.[3] In mid-November of the same year, with the prophetic ad "Announcing a new era in integrated electronics", the 4004 was made commercially available to the general market. The 4004 was the first commercially available monolithic CPU, fully integrated in one small chip.[citation needed] Such a feat of integration was made possible by the use of the then-new silicon gate technology for integrated circuits, originally developed by Faggin (with Tom Klein) at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, which allowed twice the number of random-logic transistors and an increase in speed by a factor of five compared to the incumbent MOS aluminum gate technology.[4] Faggin also invented the bootstrap load with silicon gate and the “buried contact”, improving speed and circuit density compared with aluminum gate.[5][6][7][8][9]

Intel 4004

The Intel 4004 is a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel Corporation in 1971. It was the first commercially available microprocessor by Intel.[2] The 4004 was the first in a long line of Intel CPUs.

The 4004 microprocessor, the 4001 ROM, 4002 RAM, and 4003 Shift Register constituted the 4 chips in the Intel MCS-4 chip-set. With these components, small computers with varying amounts of memory and I/O facilities can be built.

Three other CPU chip designs were produced at about the same time: the Four-Phase Systems AL1, done in 1969; the MP944, completed in 1970 and used in the F-14 Tomcat fighter jet; and the Texas Instruments TMS-1000 chip, announced in September 17, 1971. Both the AL1 and the MP944 use several chips for the implementation of the CPU function. The TMS0100 chip was presented as a “calculator on a chip” with the original designation TMS1802NC.[10] This chip contains a very primitive CPU and can only be used to implement various simple 4-function calculators. It is the precursor of the TMS1000, introduced in 1974, which is considered the first microcontroller i.e., a computer on a chip containing not only the CPU, but also ROM, RAM, and I/O functions.[11] The MCS-4 family of 4 chips developed by Intel, of which the 4004 is the CPU or microprocessor, was far more versatile and powerful than the single chip TMS1000, allowing the creation of a variety of small computers for various applications.

Zilog, the first company entirely dedicated to microprocessors and microcontrollers, was started by F. Faggin and Ralph Ungermann, at the end of 1974. These devices formed the basis for later models of microcontrollers.

The first public mention of 4004 was an advertisement in the November 15, 1971 edition of Electronic News,[13]. The first delivery was to Busicom for their engineering prototype calculator in March 1971, [14][9] followed by their 141-PF prototype calculator commercially available in the market in July 1971[15]. Packaged in a 16-pin ceramic dual in-line package, the 4004 was the first commercially available computer processor designed and manufactured by chip maker Intel, which had previously made semiconductor memory chips. The chief designers of the chip were Federico Faggin, the leader of the project after the architectural definition was finalized with Busicom, who created the design methodology and the silicon-based chip design; Ted Hoff who formulated the architecture [16][17], both of Intel, and Masatoshi Shima of Busicom who assisted in the development.

Faggin, the sole chip designer among the engineers on the MCS-4 project, was the only one with experience in metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) random logic and circuit design. He also had the crucial knowledge of the new silicon gate process technology with self-aligned gates, which he had created at Fairchild in 1968. At Fairchild in 1968, Faggin also designed and manufactured the world's first commercial IC using SGT, the Fairchild 3708 [18] that was featured on the cover of Electronics (Sept. 29, 1969).[19] As soon as he joined the Intel MOS Department he created a new random logic design methodology based on silicon gate[15], and contributed many technology and circuit design inventions that enabled their single chip microprocessor to become a reality. His methodology set the design style for all the early Intel microprocessors and later for the Zilog Z80. He also led the MCS-4 project and was responsible for its successful outcome (1970–1971). Marcian "Ted" Hoff, head of the Application Research Department, contributed the architectural proposal for Busicom working with Stanley Mazor in 1969, then he moved on to other projects. When asked where he got the ideas for the architecture of the first microprocessor, Hoff related that Plessey, "a British tractor company",[20] had donated a minicomputer to Stanford, and he had "played with it some" while he was there. Shima designed the Busicom calculator firmware and assisted Faggin during the first six months of the implementation. The manager of Intel's MOS Design Department was Leslie L. Vadász.[21] At the time of the MCS-4 development, Vadasz's attention was completely focused on the mainstream business of semiconductor memories and he left the leadership and the management of the MCS-4 project to Faggin.

Busicom had designed their own special-purpose LSI chipset for use in their Busicom 141-PF calculator with integrated printer. They based their design on the architecture of the Olivetti Programma 101, the worldâ€™s first tabletop programmable calculator, which Olivetti introduced in 1965. Busicom commissioned Intel to develop their for production. Like the Olivetti Programma 101, the Busicom design used serial read-write memory. The Busicom memory was based on MOS shift registers rather than the costly Olivetti memory based on magnetostriction wire.

Intel determined the Busicom design was too complex, since serial memories required more components, and would use 40 pins, a packaging standard different from Intel’s own 16-pin standard. Intel proposed to develop a new design which could be produced with standard 16-pin DIP packaging, and would have a reduced instruction set.[22] The memory simplification would come from using Intel’s newly developed dynamic RAM memory. This new design was the 4004 chip, which is one of a set of 4 chips, along with ROM, DRAM, and serial-to-parallel shift register chips. The 4004 was subsequently designed by Federico Faggin [23] using silicon gate technology and built of approximately 2,300 transistors[1] and was followed the next year by the first ever 8-bit microprocessor, the 3,500 transistor 8008 (and the 4040, a revised and improved 4004). It was not until the development of the 40-pin 8080 in 1974, a project conceived and directed by Faggin [24] that the address and data buses would be separated, giving faster and simpler access to memory.

The 4004 employs a 10 µm process silicon-gate enhancement load pMOS technology on a 12 mm² die[25] and can execute approximately 92,000 instructions per second; a single instruction cycle is 10.8 microseconds.[26] The original clock rate design goal was 1 MHz, the same as the IBM 1620 Model I.[citation needed]

The Intel 4004 was designed by physically cutting sheets of Rubylith into thin strips to lay out the circuits to be printed, a process made obsolete by current computer graphic design capabilities.[27]

For the purpose of testing the produced chips, Faggin developed a tester for silicon wafers of MCS-4 family that was itself driven by 4004 chip. The tester also served as a proof for the management that Intel 4004 microprocessor could be used not only in calculator-like products, but also for control applications.[28]

When Faggin designed the MCS-4 family, he also christened the chips with distinct names: 4001, 4002, 4003, and 4004, breaking away from the numbering scheme used by Intel at that time which would have required the names 1302, 1105, 1507, and 1202 respectively. Had he followed Intel's number sequence, the idea that the chips were part of a family of components intended to work seamlessly together would have been lost.[29] Intel's early numbering scheme for integrated circuits used a four-digit number for each component. The first digit indicated the process technology used, the second digit indicated the generic function, and the last two digits of the number were used to indicate the sequential number in the development of the component. The 8008 microprocessor was originally called 1201, per Intelâ€™s naming conventions. Before its market introduction, the 1201 was renamed 8008, following the new naming convention started with the 4001/2/3/4.

Tadashi Sasaki attributes the basic invention to break the calculator into four parts with ROM (4001), RAM (4002), shift registers (4003) and CPU (4004) to an unnamed woman from the Nara Women's College present at a brainstorming meeting that was held in Japan prior to his first meeting with Robert Noyce from Intel, leading up to the Busicom deal.[30]

The 4004 is part of the MCS-4 family of LSI chips that can be used to build digital computers with varying amounts of memory. The other members of the MCS-4 family are memories and input/output circuits, which are necessary to implement a complete computer. The 4001 is a ROM (read-only memory) with four lines of output; the 4002 is a RAM (random access memory) with four lines of input/output. The 4003 is a static shift register to be used for expanding the I/O lines; e.g., for keyboard scanning or controlling a printer.[citation needed]

The 4004 includes control functions for memory and I/O, which are not normally handled by the microprocessor.[citation needed]

The minimum system specification described by Intel consists of a 4004 with a single 256-byte 4001 program ROM; there is no explicit need for separate RAM in minimal complexity applications thanks to the 4004's large number of onboard index registers, which represent the equivalent of 16 x 4-bit or 8 x 8-bit characters (or a mixture) of working RAM, nor for simple interface chips thanks to its built-in I/O lines. However, as project complexity increases, the various other support chips start to become useful.

Numerous versions of the Intel MCS-4 line of processors were produced. The earliest versions, marked C (like C4004), were ceramic and used a zebra pattern of white and gray on the back of the chips, often called "grey traces". The next generation of the chips was plain white ceramic (also marked C), and then dark grey ceramic (D). Many of the more recent versions of MCS-4 family were also produced with plastic (P).

The first commercial product to use a microprocessor was the Busicom calculator 141-PF. The 4004 was also used in the first microprocessor-controlled pinball game, a prototype produced by Dave Nutting Associates for Bally in 1974.

According to Nick Tredennick, a microprocessor designer and expert witness to the Boone/Hyatt patent case[clarification needed]:

Here are my opinions from [the] study [I conducted for the patent case]. The first microprocessor in a commercial product was the Four Phase Systems AL1. The first commercially available (sold as a component) microprocessor was the 4004 from Intel.

A popular myth has it that Pioneer 10, the first spacecraft to leave the solar system, used an Intel 4004 microprocessor. According to Dr. Larry Lasher of Ames Research Center, the Pioneer team did evaluate the 4004, but decided it was too new at the time to include in any of the Pioneer projects.[citation needed] The myth was repeated by Federico Faggin himself in a lecture for the Computer History Museum in 2006.[34]

Federico Faggin signed the 4004 with his initials because he knew that his silicon gate design embodied “the essence of the microprocessor”. In a corner of the die you can read "F.F."[29]

On November 15, 2006, the 35th anniversary of the 4004, Intel celebrated by releasing the chip's schematics, mask works, and user manual.[35] A fully functional 41 x 58Â cm,[36] 130x scale replica of the Intel 4004 was built using discrete transistors and put on display in 2006 at the Intel Museum in Santa Clara, California.[37]

On October 15, 2010, Faggin, Hoff, and Mazor were awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation by President Barack Obama for their pioneering work on the 4004.[38]


when did gareth southgate first play for england

He won the League Cup with both Aston Villa and Middlesbrough (in 1995–96 and 2003–04 respectively), and captained Crystal Palace to win the First Division championship in 1993–94. He also played in the 2000 FA Cup Final for Villa and the 2006 UEFA Cup Final for Middlesbrough. Internationally, Southgate made 57 appearances for the England national team between 1995 and 2004, featuring in the 1998 FIFA World Cup and both the 1996 and 2000 European Championships. His playing career ended in May 2006 at the age of 35, and after more than 500 league appearances.

Gareth Southgate

Gareth Southgate (born 3 September 1970) is an English football manager and former player who played as a defender or as a midfielder. He is the manager of the England national team.

He served as manager of Middlesbrough from June 2006 until October 2009, managed the England U21 team from 2013 to 2016, before becoming the England national team manager in 2016.

Born in Watford, Hertfordshire,[4] Southgate began his career at Crystal Palace, playing initially at right-back and then in central midfield. He became captain and led the club to the 1993–94 First Division title. After the South London club's relegation from the Premier League, he moved to Aston Villa for a fee of £2.5 million, having made 152 appearances over four seasons.

His nickname at Palace was 'Nord', given him because his precise way of speaking reminded one of the coaches of Denis Norden's vocal delivery.[5]

At Aston Villa, he was converted into a centre-back and was part of a formidable defence. In his first season, he lifted the League Cup and Aston Villa qualified for the UEFA Cup. Southgate played in every Premier League game during the 1998–99 season. He continued to play for Villa in the 1999–2000 season as Villa reached the FA Cup Final, but handed in a transfer request just before Euro 2000, claiming that "if I am to achieve in my career, it is time to move on."[6]

On 11 July 2001, Southgate signed for Middlesbrough for a Â£6.5 million fee. He joined on a four-year deal and was the first signing by Steve McClaren, whom he knew as an England coach.[7][8]

In July 2002, after Paul Ince left for Wolverhampton Wanderers, Southgate was appointed the new Middlesbrough captain. On 29 February 2004, he became the first Boro skipper in their 128-year history to lift a trophy, as they defeated Bolton Wanderers in the 2004 Football League Cup Final at the Millennium Stadium.[9]

Southgate rejected media rumours that he was set to move to Manchester United following Rio Ferdinand's ban for missing a drug test in January 2004.[10] He later committed his final playing years to Middlesbrough, signing until 2007. His final appearance as a professional player was in the 2006 UEFA Cup Final against Sevilla, which Boro lost 4â€“0 at the Philips Stadion in Eindhoven.[9]

Southgate made his debut for England as a substitute against Portugal in December 1995 under the management of Terry Venables.[11] Southgate played every minute of their matches as hosts England reached the semi-final of UEFA Euro 1996, in which they faced Germany. The match was determined in a penalty shoot-out; Southgate's penalty was saved, and England were eliminated.[12] The song "Southgate (Euro '96)" by The Business is a reference to this event. Southgate managed to make light of his blunder later that year by appearing in an advert for Pizza Hut,  also featuring Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle, who had missed crucial penalties at the 1990 FIFA World Cup.[13]

Southgate also played in the 1998 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2000.[14] His 50th cap came in a 1–1 draw with Portugal at Villa Park in September 2002.[11] On 11 June 2003, he played the full 90 minutes in a 2–1 Euro 2004 qualifying win over Slovakia at his club ground of the Riverside Stadium, competing against Middlesbrough's striker Szilárd Németh.[15]

Southgate was capped 57 times for England and scored twice.[11] His first goal came on 14 October 1998 against Luxembourg in a Euro 2000 qualifier, his second on 22 May 2003 against South Africa in a friendly.[11] He is Aston Villa's most capped England player, having played 42 of his 57 internationals whilst with Villa.[16]

Southgate was handed his first managerial role at Middlesbrough in June 2006 after Steve McClaren had left to manage England. His appointment drew controversy as he did not have the required coaching qualifications (the UEFA Pro Licence) to manage a top-flight club.[17] He was allowed to stay on as manager, however, by the Premier League in November 2006; Middlesbrough successfully argued that, because Southgate had recently been an international player, he had no opportunity to undertake the coaching courses.[18] He did go on to complete his coaching qualifications.[19]

In his first season in charge, Southgate guided Middlesbrough to 12th position in the Premier League. His biggest win as a manager was an 8–1 victory against Manchester City in May 2008. In December 2007, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger suggested Southgate as one of several English managers who were "all good enough" to manage the national team.[20] He faced some criticism early in the 2007–08 season after Boro had a spell in the relegation zone, but they later pulled clear of the bottom three.[21]

In November 2008, Southgate took Middlesbrough up to 8th place after an away win against on-form Aston Villa; however, Boro would thereafter go 14 games without a win, finally defeating Liverpool at home 2–0 on 28 February 2009.[22] After an away defeat against Stoke City, some of the travelling supporters were calling for his dismissal after only achieving one win in 18 games and relegation survival looking unlikely. On 24 March, chairman Steve Gibson announced that sacking Southgate would not "help the situation".[23] Middlesbrough finished in 19th position and were relegated to the Championship after a 2–1 defeat at West Ham United.[24] Southgate said he was determined to get the club back into the Premier League, praised the supporters and said that he felt for them.[25]

On 20 October 2009, shortly after a 2â€“0 victory over Derby County, Southgate was dismissed as manager with Middlesbrough in fourth place in the Championship. The dismissal was controversial as he had taken Boro to within one point of the top position,[26][27] but Gibson said he had made the decision weeks earlier in the best interests of the club.[28]

In August 2013, Southgate was named manager of the England under-21 team, signing a three-year contract.[29] In his first game in charge, they beat Moldova 1â€“0 in a European Championships qualifier thanks to a goal from Saido Berahino.[30] Under Southgate England qualified for the finals of the European Under-21 Championship in 2015, where they were knocked out in the group stages, finishing last in their group.

Southgate was put in temporary charge of the senior England team on 27 September 2016, when Sam Allardyce resigned after one game due to the 2016 English football scandal.[31] England were in the early stages of qualifying for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. After winning his first game in charge 2–0 against Malta,[32] under Southgate's leadership, England went on to draw 0–0 with Slovenia,[33] beat Scotland 3–0,[34] and in his last game in temporary charge, drew 2–2 with Spain, despite leading 2–0 and conceding goals in the 89th and 96th minutes.[35] Southgate's spell as caretaker manager ended on 15 November.[36]

On 30 November 2016, Southgate was appointed as England manager on a four-year contract.[37]

The England team qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup on 5 October 2017, with a 1â€“0 home win over Slovenia.[38]

After wins against Tunisia and Panama saw England qualify behind Belgium in their 2018 FIFA World Cup group, Southgate's England side beat Colombia 4–3 on penalties in the round of 16 after a 1–1 draw on 3 July 2018 to claim his nation's first ever World Cup penalty shoot-out victory and a place in the quarter-final.[39] On 7 July 2018, Southgate's England side beat Sweden in a 2–0 win in the 2018 FIFA World Cup quarter finals, with Southgate becoming the first England manager to reach the semi-finals of the World Cup since Sir Bobby Robson's side at the 1990 FIFA World Cup.[40] This success bought Southgate significant admiration from England fans.[41] For the semi-final with Croatia, fans dressed up in waistcoats in tribute to Southgate's iconic waistcoat, which he wore during England's matches: retailer Marks & Spencer reported a 35% increase in sales of waistcoats,[42][43][44] and the hashtag 'WaistcoatWednesday' trended on Twitter.[44][45] A week after the end of the tournament, Southgate tube station in Enfield, London, was renamed to "Gareth Southgate" for two days in recognition of Southgate's achievement.[46][47] Southgate was also lauded for personal qualities shown in the World Cup, including consoling an opposition player whose missed penalty had seen England win.[48]

On 11 July 2018, Southgate's England side suffered a 2–1 defeat to Croatia after extra time in the semi-finals of the 2018 FIFA World Cup. Kieran Trippier opened the scoring for England with a free kick, before a goal from Ivan Perišić sent the tie into extra time. Mario Mandžukić scored the winner for Croatia in the second half of extra time. With England trailing, the match also saw England play the final ten minutes of extra time with ten men as Trippier suffered an injury after Southgate had already made his permitted substitutions.[49] Following a 2-0 defeat to Belgium in the third place play-off, England ended the World Cup in fourth place.[50] Harry Kane, a striker and the England team captain, also won the Golden Boot as the tournament's top goal-scorer.[47]

In 2003, Southgate and close friend and current Crystal Palace goalkeeping coach Andy Woodman co-wrote Woody & Nord: A Football Friendship. This book describes an enduring friendship forged in the Crystal Palace youth team that has survived Southgate and Woodman's wildly differing fortunes in the professional game. The book won the Sports Book of the Year award for 2004 from the National Sporting Club (now the British Sports Book Awards).[51][52]

Southgate was also a co-commentator for ITV at the 2006 World Cup, covering group games alongside Clive Tyldesley.[53] His appointment as Middlesbrough manager two days before the start of the tournament meant that he left Germany before the knockout phase began, with David Pleat replacing him as Tyldesley's co-commentator.[citation needed] He resumed a role as pundit and co-commentator after he finished his tenure at Middlesbrough in 2010, working on FA Cup and UEFA Champions League matches for ITV as well as acting as a pundit on England games.[54][55]

In January 2011, Southgate was appointed as the FA's head of elite development, to work with Sir Trevor Brooking.[56] He left the post in July 2012, and ruled himself out of consideration for the role of technical director,[57] for which he had been a leading candidate.[58]

Southgate attended Hazelwick School in Crawley, West Sussex. Southgate is married to Alison; the couple have two children.[59]


who wrote i need you by the beatles

"I Need You" is a song by the Beatles and appears on the album Help!. It is the second George Harrison song the band released[2] after two albums without any songwriting contribution from Harrison. It was performed in their second film, Help! and is the second video produced showing George Harrison singing lead vocal (after "I'm Happy Just to Dance with You" from A Hard Day's Night).

I Need You (Beatles song)

The song was recorded on 15 and 16 February 1965.[3] This was the first recording session for the group in 1965 and included two others, "Ticket to Ride" and "Another Girl", both of which were also included on the Help! album. The song is often assumed to be addressing Harrison's relationship with Pattie Boyd, whom he had met in March 1964 while filming A Hard Day's Night[2] (they married in January 1966).[4]

Some Beatles' books have claimed that George wrote it in the Bahamas while separated from Pattie, but this can't be true as recording began on February 15th, 1965, and the Bahamas scenes weren't shot until the following week.[5]

The song is in A major (actually a little less than half a semitone below A, as were "Ticket to Ride" and "Another Girl", also recorded that day). The recording's distinctive lead guitar cadences were achieved through Harrison's first recorded use of a volume pedal,[2][3] (used again on the Lennon composition "Yes It Is" from the same sessions) and by common guitar suspended chords in the key of A. These form the introduction and most of the verse of the song and give a quasi-modal effect relieved in the verse by a line in the relative minor (with a simple backing harmony from Lennon and McCartney), the whole making a fourteen-bar ternary verse-structure. This, after a repeat, segues easily into a second, bridge melody that introduces a cowbell for contrast and is based on a simple IV-V-I chord progression that passes through the dominant key to resolve back on the verse.[1]

An interesting feature is the use of an imperfect cadence (resolving on A Major) in the climax of the bridge (on "I just can't go on anymore") which uses II (B7) and V (E7) chords.[6] Many such aspects of the song are developed in Harrison's song "If I Needed Someone" on the group's next album, Rubber Soul.

George Martin kept notes during the session that documented the unusual arrangement, which was: