what is the significance of pretorius's miniatures

Pretorius performs experiments creating life similar to Henry's. He unveils to Henry a group of various homunculiâ€”miniature living humans which he has kept in bottles, and claims to have grown from "seed" like cultures. Each figure represents a different character: a queen, which he claims was his first experiment, a king which is madly in love with the Queen and has a resemblance to Henry VIII, an archbishop which disapproves of what the King is doing, the Devil (a man in a black suit), a ballerina dancer, a mermaid (grown from "an experiment with seaweed") which lives in water. Pretorious gleefully compares his own visage to that of the Devil: "There's a certain resemblance to me, don't you think? Or do I flatter myself?" He says sometimes he thinks life would be more interesting if they were all devils. He has been unsuccessful, however, in creating a full-sized human. He proposes to Henry that together they create a mate for his monster, with Henry building the body and Pretorius supplying an artificially-grown brain. Henry initially balks at the idea, but Pretorius reminds him that he is capable of exposing him to the authorities as the creator of the Monster who has done so much damage. Later, he meets the Monster in a crypt where he has gone to steal bodies and is dining using the top of a coffin as a picnic table. When the Monster asks him 'Friend?' he gives him the remains of his chicken. He tells the Monster of his plans to create a mate for him.

Doctor Septimus Pretorius

Septimus Pretorius is a fictional character who appears in the Universal film Bride of Frankenstein (1935). He is played by British stage and film actor Ernest Thesiger.[1] Some sources claim he was originally to have been played by Bela Lugosi or Claude Rains.[2] Others indicate that the part was conceived specifically for Thesiger.[3]

Doctor Pretorius is a renegade mad scientist who persuades Henry Frankenstein to resume his experiments with bringing dead flesh to life. An amoral egomaniac, he has no regard for human life or ethics and cares only for his own prestige as a scientist.

Along with his sinister qualities, Pretorius is responsible for a large share of the film's dark humor. He eats a picnic dinner in a crypt, trades prissy banter with the Monster and laments that the tiny ballerina he created "will only dance to Mendelssohn's 'Spring Song.'" He claims that gin is his only weakness. Then later in the film, he claims his cigars are his only weakness when he first meets the Monster. Pretorius also delivers the famous toast "To a new world of gods and monsters!" midway through the film.

Septimus Pretorius, Frankenstein's former teacher, is a tall, emaciated-looking man with an unusually large nose and devilish pointed ears. A professor of philosophy, Pretorius first points young Henry on the path toward his unwholesome experiments in giving life to the dead. He himself is "booted out" from his teaching post "for knowing too much." Pretorius seeks out his former student after learning that the Monster has survived being trapped in the burning windmill in the climax of the first film. Pretorius himself acknowledges that he may be insane in a conversation with Frankenstein ("You think I'm mad? Perhaps I am!").

The Monster, eager for companionship of any kind, considers Pretorius his friend, and from then on is willing to do anything that the impish scientist desires, such as kidnapping Henry's wife, Elizabeth, in order to force him to help Pretorius. Henry agrees, and together the two scientists create the Bride of Frankenstein. Unfortunately, even the Bride finds her would-be husband repulsive, and the heartbroken Monster decides to end his life by blowing up the laboratory. He instructs Henry and Elizabeth to run but barks at Pretorius to stay, saying that they "belong dead". Before Pretorius can move, the Monster blows up the laboratory and the castle. Frankenstein and Elizabeth escape but Pretorius's fate is not revealed. The Monster, however, returned in the next sequel.

Dr. Pretorius is frequently identified as homosexual, or as near to homosexual as could be presented on-screen in 1935. (There is, of course, no direct reference to homosexuality in the film.) Bride of Frankenstein director James Whale was openly gay and frequently included camp elements in his films. He directed Thesiger (himself identified in some sources as more or less openly gay)[4] to play the part as an "over the top caricature of a bitchy and aging homosexual."[3] Gay film historian Vito Russo stops short of identifying Pretorius as gay, calling him instead "sissified"[5] ("sissy" itself being Hollywood code for "homosexual"). Pretorius serves as a figure of seduction and temptation, pulling Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non-procreative life. The Breen Office, responsible for enforcing Hollywood's Production Code, let Pretorius' behavior pass unchallenged. A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication even more clear, having Pretorius say to Frankenstein, "'Be fruitful and multiply.' Let us obey the Biblical injunction: you of course, have the choice of natural means; but as for me, I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way."[6]

Pretorius appears in Kim Newman's crossover novel Dracula Cha Cha Cha, as a colleague of H. P. Lovecraft's Herbert West. He appears as one of the horror movie spoofs in Jesus Christ Vampire Hunter and also appears in Allan Rune Pettersson's novel Frankenstein's Aunt Returns.

In the Amicus horror film The House That Dripped Blood (1970), Geoffrey Bayldon, playing a mysterious antique shop owner, is made up and costumed to look like Ernest Thesiger as Pretorius.[citation needed]

In the 1973 NBC-TV miniseries Frankenstein: The True Story, James Mason portrays a Pretorius-like figure named Dr. Polidori (named for Lord Byron's real-life physician, John William Polidori, who was part of the 1816 gathering that produced Mary Shelley's novel and also the author of the story "The Vampyre"). Mason's Dr. Polidori enlists Victor to assist in creating the female creature Prima (Jane Seymour).

The 1986 film From Beyond adds a Dr. Edward Pretorius at Miskatonic University (played by Ted Sorel) as a dark mentor for Crawford Tillinghast (Jeffrey Combs). This Pretorius is an impotent sadist (with a room full of bondage gear) who is assimilated by "the Beyond" and attempts to drag others into it, boasting that the pineal gland growth brought on by the resonator is like "an orgasm of the mind".

The 1989 Akif Pirinçci novel Felidae and its 1994 animated feature film adaptation feature an insane Professor Preterius in the backstory performing increasingly dark experiments on the cat Claudandus.

In the 1998 independent film Gods and Monsters, directed by Bill Condon, Ernest Thesiger as Pretorius is played by Arthur Dignam in a flashback about the filming of Bride of Frankenstein. An earlier scene shows Brendan Fraser as Whale's gardener watching Bride of Frankenstein on television, specifically the climatic scene of Pretorius and Frankenstein unveiling the Bride.

In the 2007 Frankenstein TV movie, the character of Professor Jane Pretorius is based on Septimus Pretorius and served as Victoria Frankenstein's boss.

In the Dark Horse novel Universal's Monsters series "The Bride Of Frankenstein: Pandora's Bride," Doctor Septimus Pretorius somehow survives the blowing up of the tower lab along with the Bride and they escape to Germany where he teaches her and she becomes her own woman.

In Mary Shelley's Frankenhole, the character Professor Sanguinaire Polidori (voiced by Scott Adsit) is based on Septimus Pretorius.


does shuri become black panther in the comics

After T'Challa is left recovering from critical injuries sustained in battle, Shuri is tested and found suitable for the role of Black Panther and ruler of Wakanda. She possesses all the enhanced abilities given to the Black Panther via ancient Wakandan ritual, is a skilled martial artist, allowed access to extensive advanced technologies and wealth, and uses learned transmorphic capabilities.

Shuri (comics)

Shuri is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was created by writer Reginald Hudlin and artist John Romita, Jr., first appearing in Black Panther vol. 4 #2 (May 2005). Shuri is a princess of the fictional African kingdom of Wakanda. She is the daughter of T'Chaka and sister of T'Challa, who is the king of Wakanda and the Black Panther, an earned title and rank given to the chief of the nation. She has a genius level intellect alongside her brother Tâ€™Challa.

Along with her role in the comics, Shuri has made appearances in related television series and video games. Letitia Wright portrays the character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe in the 2018 films Black Panther and Avengers: Infinity War; Wright will reprise the character in the 2019 Untitled Avengers film.

Created by writer Reginald Hudlin and John Romita, Jr., Shuri first appeared in Black Panther vol. 4, #2 (May 2005). The character, originally written as a princess of Wakanda and supporting character, trains to and eventually successfully succeeds her older brother T'Challa, becoming the Black Panther and ruler of Wakanda in her own right.[1][2]

The princess of Wakanda, Shuri is T'Chaka's youngest child and only daughter. From a very young age, Shuri coveted the Black Panther mantle. She attempts to challenge the then-Black Panther, her uncle S'yan, for the mantle, only to discover that he had already been defeated by her older half-brother T'Challa.[3] During an attack on Wakanda by Klaw and a group of his mercenaries, she uses the Ebony Blade to defeat the Russian Radioactive Man, killing him in the process. Shell-shocked by her first kill, T'Challa promises to train her in hand-to-hand combat, enabling her to fight on her own terms should she ever need to take his place as leader of Wakanda.[4]

While T'Challa and his wife Queen Ororo are away as members of the Fantastic Four, American battleships aligned with Erik Killmonger moved in on Wakanda. With their King away, Shuri and her advisers decide to sneak onto the ships in the night and incapacitate them. During the raid Shuri is captured by Killmonger's men and thrown in a cell. She challenges Killmonger himself to a fight but, seeing her as beneath him, he sends a group of his men to battle her. She defeats them easily and is broken out of her cell by Zuri, one of T'Challa's advisers.[5] After T'Challa and Ororo leave the Fantastic Four and return to Wakanda, the Skrulls invade Wakanda as a part of Secret Invasion. Shuri and her uncle S'yan lead most of the Wakandan army on an assault again the invading Skrulls, while T'Challa and Ororo battle their leaders.[6]

Prince Namor of Atlantis attempts to recruit T'Challa for the Cabal, a secret council of supervillains run by Doctor Doom. He rejects the offer but is attacked by the various members, and is left in a comatose state. Queen Ororo nominates Shuri as his successor, and she successfully completes the various trials, granting herself access to the heart-shaped herb. However, when she consumes the herb, the Wakandan Panther God does not imbue her with the powers of the Black Panther, instead rejecting her due to her lifelong jealousy of her brother's mantle and her arrogance in its presence.[1] When the powerful villain Morlun threatens to annihilate Wakanda entirely, Shuri takes on the Black Panther identity and outfit anyway, and manages to both save Wakanda and resurrect her comatose brother. Through her humble act of self-sacrifice she earns the mantle of the Black Panther, and the Panther God grants her its accompanying powers.[2]

When a now powerless T'Challa discovers that Doctor Doom infected many Wakandan officials and advisers with nanites, he goes off in search of a way to stop him, leaving Shuri as acting ruler of Wakanda.[7] Shuri tracks down and fights Namor, trying to suss out for herself what part he played in her brother's injuries. Together, T'Challa and Shuri discover that the infected Wakandans, calling themselves the Desturi, intend to stage a revolution, seizing power in Wakanda for themselves.[8]

With Doctor Doom's Desturi successfully overthrowing the incumbent Wakandan government as seen in the Doomwar storyline, he finds himself with access to the world's largest supply of vibranium. Shuri and a re-powered T'Challa, who were able to avoid infection from Doom's nanites due to their heightened senses, remain the only Wakandans not under Doom's control. They team up with Colossus, Nightcrawler, and Wolverine of the X-Men to regain control in Wakanda. They succeed, but Doom steals a large portion of the vibranium. Shuri travels the globe, attempting to destroy Doom's criminal network and recover the stolen vibranium. Doom uses vibranium's inherent mystical qualities to take control of all processed vibranium on the planet, and Shuri and the other heroes attempt to fight and stop him. They succeed when T'Challa uses Doom's own mystical ploys against him, rendering all processed vibranium on the planet inert.[9]

With Wakanda struggling economically as seen in the "Klaws of the Panther" storyline, Shuri travels to the Savage Land to meet with Ka-Zar and obtain a stock of natural vibranium present there. They are attacked by Klaw, who wants the vibranium for his own use. They defeat him, but a volcanic eruption caused by his sound waves covers the vibranium and renders it unobtainable. She tracks down other stockpiles in Madripoor and New York, but Klaw already has A.I.M. troops excavating both sites and fights ensue. Klaw had created a monster called M.U.S.I.C. using the vibranium, and intended to place it on an AIM space station to enslave the world. With help from various other heroes, including Wolverine, Spider-Man and Black Widow, Shuri is able to thwart his scheme.[10]

Following Namor's attack on Wakanda during Avengers vs. X-Men, Shuri declares war on Atlantis, despite her brother's protests.[11] The Wakandans virtually level Atlantis, leaving only a few Atlantean survivors.[volume & issue needed] She also banishes her brother from the Golden City, from where she rules Wakanda.[volume & issue needed] In retaliation for Shuri's assault on Atlantis at a time in which he had been suing for peace, Namor tells Thanos' agents that Wakanda is the location of their target, Thanos' son, in the hopes of vengeance against Shuri and her people.[volume & issue needed]

During the 2013 "Infinity" storyline, it is shown that Shuri is the head of the Wakandan School for Alternative Studies.[12]

When Wakanda is attacked by the Cabal during the "Time Runs Out" storyline, Shuri sacrifices herself by staying behind in order to hold off Proxima Midnight so T'Challa can escape.[13] Her death is later confirmed when her spirit is seen among those of the past Black Panthers.[14]

As part of Marvel's 2015 branding All-New, All-Different Marvel, T'Challa is shown trying to revive Shuri's body. Shuri's soul had transcended to the Djalia which was a spiritual plane consisting of the entire memories of Wakanda. There Shuri trained under the tutelage of a griot spirit who had taken the form of her mother, Ramonda. As they trained the griot spirit shared the memories of not only Wakanda but also before the nation had formed. With the help of Manifold, T'Challa was able combine his technology and Manifold's bending of reality to bring Shuri's soul back to the physical plane. After her revival Shuri had been imbued with the power similar to that of the griot spirit. She had then been informed of the events taking place in her absence including the rogue Dora Milaje and the rebellion led by Tetu and Zenzi. Shuri had then set out to confront the rogue Dora Milaje and convince them to join forces with T'Challa in order to stop the rebellion and the march against the Golden City, which she was successful in doing. With the united power of Shuri, T'Challa, Manifold, the Dora Milaje and the forces of Wakanda, Tetu was defeated although Zenzi had escaped. As the rebellion came to an end Shuri joined Wakanda's council that had been established by T'Challa.[15]

Before undergoing the trials to become the Black Panther, Shuri was an extensively trained martial artist.[6] After the trials, like the Black Panthers before her, Shuri consumed the heart-shaped herb; this granted her enhanced speed, agility, strength, endurance and senses. Her uniform is composed of vibranium.[2]

Through her training underneath the tutelage of a griot spirit while in the Djalia, Shuri had been imbued with new supernatural abilities that allowed her to transform her body into a flexible stone-like material which also granted her an enhanced durability that cannot be dented by normal gunfire or powerful directed energy weapons. Shuri is also capable of Animorphism which allows her to transform herself and whoever she is in direct contact with into a flock of black birds[16] or singular large dark bird.[17]

Shuri's training in the Djalia also imbued her with super-speed[18] and the ability to temporarily reanimate Wakandan corpses.[19] Reanimating Wakandan corpses takes a lot of energy from her, meaning she can do it for only a short period of time.

A character similar to Shuri, T'Challa's younger sister T'Channa, appeared in the Marvel Mangaverse. She turned her back on the Wakandan people, instead becoming an apprentice and later the successor of Doctor Doom.[20]


who won show me the money season 2

The winner of the second season was hip hop trio Soul Dive, mentored by MC Meta.[9]

Show Me the Money (South Korean TV series)

Show Me the Money (SMTM; Korean: 쇼미더머니) is a South Korean rap competition TV show that airs on Mnet. The show has grown in popularity since the first season aired in 2012, and it is credited with increasing the South Korean public's interest in hip hop.[1][2][3]

When SMTM first aired in 2012, it was the only show on South Korean television to focus on hip hop,[3] and the first show on Mnet about hip hop since the music channel cancelled Hip Hop the Vibe in 2004.[4] Han Dong-chul, the chief producer of SMTM, later said of the show, "My goal was to let people know that there is more than just idol dance music in Korea."[3]

The format of each season varies, but generally consists of contestants going head to head in a series of challenges until only one rapper remains. The show includes a mixture of rookie and experienced rappers, with the experienced rappers typically serving as "producers," a role that includes being both mentors and judges.[5]

The first season of SMTM began airing on June 22, 2012 and was hosted by Eun Ji-won of the K-pop group Sechs Kies.[4] The season paired experienced rappers Double K, Verbal Jint, 45RPM, MC Sniper, Miryo, Hoony Hoon, Joosuc, and Garion with rookie rappers.[6] Notable contestants included Cheetah, one of the show's few female rappers, who would later become the runner-up for first season of SMTM spin-off, Unpretty Rapstar.[7]

Rookie rapper Loco, under the mentorship of Double K, won the competition and went on to sign with hip hop label AOMG. He later appeared on season 4 as a producer.[8]

The second season of SMTM began airing on June 7, 2013 and was again hosted by Eun Ji-won. Contestants were split into two hip hop crews, "Meta Crew," lead by MC Meta of the group Garion, and "D.O Crew," lead by Lee Hyun Do, formerly of '90s hip hop duo Deux.[9] The season's contestants included several rappers who would go on to become well-known artists, including LE of EXID,[10] Mad Clown,[11] and Swings.[12]

The third season of SMTM saw a number of prominent Korean hip hop figures' participation. The producers split themselves loosely along the lines of larger Korean hip hop labels, leading to Tablo and Masta Wu representing "Team YG," Dok2 and The Quiett representing "Team Illionaire," Swings and San E representing "Team Brand New Music,"  and "Team YDG". The season was won by Bobby from K-Pop idol group iKON,[13] together with his producers Dok2 and The Quiett of Team Illionaire.

Mnet's fourth season of SMTM features YG judges Jinusean and Tablo, San E and Verbal Jint from Brand New Music, AOMG judges Jay Park and Loco (first season winner came back as a producer), and judges Zico of Block B and Paloalto (Hi-Lite Records). No contestants auditioned this year with more idol rappers, most notably, Song Min-ho of Winner, and veterans such as Black Nut and P-Type. Many of the contestants from Season 3 came back as well. The winner of this season was Basick with his producers team San E and Verbal Jint from Brand New Music.

The fifth season of SMTM featured four different producer teams consisting of: AOMG judges Simon Dominic & Gray, YG Entertainment judges Kush & Zion T, judges Dok2 & The Quiett of Illionaire Records and Gill & Mad Clown. This season held open auditions in LA for the first time with guest judge Timbaland. It also saw the participation of many popular and well known artists in the Korean hip hop scene as well as notable participants of past seasons such as G2, Reddy, C Jamm, BewhY, Bizniz, Onesun, Jin Doggae, J'Kyun, Xitsuh, Snacky Chan, One, Sanchez, Dayday, Junoflo, Myundo, Super Bee and Flowsik. This season's winner was BewhY with his producer team of Simon Dominic and Gray from AOMG.

Mnet’s “Show Me the Money 6” began airing on June 30, 2017 and ended on September 1, 2017. The sixth season had four producer teams, Zico & Dean,[14] Choiza & Gaeko of Dynamic Duo,[15] Tiger JK & Bizzy[16] and Jay Park & Dok2.[17] Both rappers from previous seasons and new rappers participated, including Nucksal, QWALA, Hash Swan, LTAK, NO:EL, Hanhae, Punchnello, JJK, Junoflo, J'Kyun, Ja Mezz, Rhythm Power members Boi-B, Geegoin, and Hangzoo, Microdot, Young B (winner of High School Rapper), New Champ, IGNITO, Kebee, Sleepy (Untouchable), Killagramz, Born Kim, Jin Doggae, Rudals, BIGONE (former 24K member Kim Daeil), and former SMTM1 producer, Double K.

American artist and producer Swizz Beatz was a special judge for the New York auditions of the show. "Show Me the Money 6" landed in New York and Los Angeles May 6 and May 9.

This season drew more participants than ever before. For “Show Me the Money 5”, approximately 9,000 people auditioned to have a chance to compete on the show. “Show Me the Money 6” had over 12,000 people interested in auditioning for the show—the largest applicant pool the show ever had. As a result of the huge number of applicants, the first round of auditions in Korea took place over the course of two days. First round auditions occurred April 29–30 at Samsan World Gymnasium in Incheon. This was also the first time that auditions were held in New York City. The format for the New York auditions will be the same as the first round auditions in South Korea. New York auditions took place on May 6 at Brooklyn Studios. The Los Angeles auditions were held on May 9 at LA Anderson Warehouse.

The winner for this season was Rhythm Power's Hangzoo with his producer team of Zico and Dean of FANXYCHILD.

In 2017, CJ E&M, the production company behind Show Me The Money, accused the creators of the Chinese rap competition show, The Rap of China, of plagiarism. A spokesperson for CJ E&M said that even though the logo, rules, and formats of the two shows were strikingly similar, The Rap of China was not a licensed version of the original South Korean show.[19][20]


who invented the zöopraxiscope which projected still photographs in rapid succession

The zoopraxiscope is an early device for displaying motion pictures. Created by photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879, it may be considered the first movie projector. The zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion. The stop-motion images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892â€“1894, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by hand. Some of the animated images are highly complex, featuring multiple combinations of sequences of animal and human movement.

Zoopraxiscope

The device appears to have been one of the primary inspirations for Thomas Edison and William Kennedy Dickson's Kinetoscope, the first commercial film exhibition system.[1] Images from all of the known seventy-one surviving zoopraxiscope discs have been reproduced in the book Eadweard Muybridge: The Kingston Museum Bequest (The Projection Box, 2004).


where does british columbia get its oil from

British Columbia's oil fields lie at the gas-prone northwest end of the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, and its oil industry is secondary to the larger natural gas industry. Drilling for gas and oil takes place in Peace Country of north-eastern British Columbia, around Fort Nelson (Greater Sierra oil field), Fort St. John (Pink Mountain, Ring Border) and Dawson Creek

Petroleum industry in Canada

Petroleum production in Canada is a major industry which is important to the economy of North America. Canada has the third largest oil reserves in the world and is the world's fifth largest oil producer and fourth largest oil exporter.[1] In 2015 it produced an average of 621,610 cubic metres per day (3.9 Mbbl/d) of crude oil and equivalent. Of that amount, 61% was upgraded and non-upgraded bitumen from oil sands, and the remainder light crude oil, heavy crude oil and natural-gas condensate.[2] Most of Canadian petroleum production is exported, approximately 482,525 cubic metres per day (3 Mbbl/d) in 2015, with almost all of the exports going to the United States.[3] Canada is by far the largest single source of oil imports to the United States, providing 43% of US crude oil imports in 2015.[4]

The petroleum industry in Canada is also referred to as the Canadian "Oil Patch"; the term refers especially to upstream operations (exploration and production of oil and gas), and to a lesser degree to downstream operations (refining, distribution, and selling of oil and gas products). In 2005, almost 25,000 new oil wells were spudded (drilled) in Canada. Daily, over 100 new wells are spudded in the province of Alberta alone.[5] Although Canada is one of the largest oil producers and exporters in the world, it also imports significant amounts of oil into its eastern provinces since its oil pipelines do not extend all the way across the country and many of its oil refineries cannot handle the types of oil its oil fields produce. In 2014 it imported 86,400 cubic metres per day (0.5 Mbbl/d) into its eastern provinces while simultaneously exporting 453,700 cubic metres per day (2.9 Mbbl/d) from its western provinces and east coast offshore oil fields.[6]

The Canadian petroleum industry developed in parallel with that of the United States. The first oil well in Canada was dug by hand (rather than drilled) in 1858 by James Miller Williams near his asphalt plant at Oil Springs, Ontario. At a depth of 20 metres (66 ft) he struck oil, one year before "Colonel" Edwin Drake drilled the first oil well in the United States.[7] Williams later went on to found "The Canadian Oil Company" which qualified as the world’s first integrated oil company.

Petroleum production in Ontario expanded rapidly, and practically every significant producer became his own refiner. By 1864, 20 refineries were operating in Oil Springs and seven in Petrolia, Ontario. However, Ontario's status as an important oil producer did not last long. By 1880 Canada was a net importer of oil from the United States.

Canada's unique geography, geology, resources and patterns of settlement have been key factors in the history of Canada. The development of the petroleum sector helps illustrate how they have helped make the nation quite distinct from the United States. Unlike the United States, which has a number of different major oil producing regions, the vast majority of Canada's petroleum resources are concentrated in the enormous Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin (WCSB), one of the largest petroleum-containing formations in the world. It underlies 1,400,000 square kilometres (540,000 sq mi) of Western Canada including most or part of four western provinces and one northern territory. Consisting of a massive wedge of sedimentary rock up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) thick extending from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Canadian Shield in the east, it is far distant from Canada's east and west coast ports as well as its historical industrial centres. It is also far from American industrial centres. Because of its geographic isolation, the area was settled relatively late in the history of Canada, and its true resource potential was not discovered until after World War II. As a result, Canada built its major manufacturing centres near its historic hydroelectric power sources in Ontario and Quebec, rather than its petroleum resources in Alberta and Saskatchewan. Not knowing about its own potential, Canada began to import the vast majority of its petroleum from other countries as it developed into a modern industrial economy.

The province of Alberta lies at the centre of the WCSB and the formation underlies most of the province. The potential of Alberta as an oil-producing province long went unrecognized because it was geologically quite different from American oil producing regions. The first oil well in western Canada was drilled in southern Alberta in 1902, but did not produce for long and served to mislead geologists about the true nature of Alberta's subsurface geology. The Turner Valley oil field was discovered in 1914, and for a time was the biggest oil field in the British Empire, but again it misled geologists about the nature of Alberta's geology. In Turner Valley, the mistakes oil companies made led to billions of dollars in damage to the oil field by gas flaring which not only burned billions of dollars worth of gas with no immediate market, but destroyed the field's gas drive that enabled the oil to be produced. The gas flares in Turner Valley were visible in the sky from Calgary, 75 km (50 mi) away. As a result of the highly visible wastage, the Alberta government launched vigorous political and legal attacks on the Canadian Government and the oil companies that continued until 1938 when the province set up the Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board and imposed strict conservation legislation.

The status of Canada as an oil importer from the US suddenly changed in 1947 when the Leduc No. 1 well was drilled a short distance south of Edmonton. Geologists realized that they had completely misunderstood the geology of Alberta, and the highly prolific Leduc oil field, which has since produced over 50,000,000 m3 (310,000,000 bbl) of oil was not a unique formation. There were hundreds more Devonian reef formations like it underneath Alberta, many of them full of oil. There was no surface indication of their presence, so they had to be found using reflection seismology. The main problem for oil companies became how to sell all the oil they had found rather than buying oil for their refineries. Pipelines were built from Alberta through the Midwestern United States to Ontario and to the west coast of British Columbia. Exports to the U.S. increased dramatically.

Most of the oil companies exploring for oil in Alberta were of U.S. origin, and at its peak in 1973, over 78 per cent of Canadian oil and gas production was under foreign ownership and over 90 per cent of oil and gas production companies were under foreign control, mostly American. This foreign ownership spurred the National Energy Program under the Trudeau government.[8]

Although around a dozen companies operate oil refineries in Canada, only three companies - Imperial Oil, Shell Canada and Suncor Energy - operate more than one refinery and market products nationally. Other refiners generally operate a single refinery and market products in a particular region. Regional refiners include North Atlantic Refining in Newfoundland, Irving Oil in New Brunswick, Valero Energy in Quebec, Federated Co-operatives in Saskatchewan, Chevron in British Columbia, and Husky Energy in Alberta, BC, and Saskatchewan.[9] While Petro Canada was once owned by the Canadian government, it is now owned by Suncor Energy, which continues to use the Petro Canada label for marketing purposes. In 2007 Canada's three biggest oil companies brought in record profits of $11.75 billion, up 10 percent from $10.72 billion in 2006. Revenues for the Big Three climbed to $80 billion from about $72 billion in 2006. The numbers exclude Shell Canada and ConocoPhillips Canada, two private subsidiaries that produced almost 500,000 barrels per day in 2006.[10]

The vast majority (97%) of Canadian oil production occurs in three provinces: Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Newfoundland and Labrador. In 2015 Alberta produced 79.2% of Canada's oil, Saskatchewan 13.5%, and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador 4.4%. British Columbia and Manitoba produced about 1% apiece.[11] The four Western Canada provinces of Alberta, British Columbia, Saskatchewan and Manitoba all produce their oil from the vast and oil rich Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, which is centered on Alberta but extends into the other three Western provinces and into the Northwest Territories. The province of Newfoundland and Labrador produces its oil from offshore drilling on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland in the western Atlantic Ocean.[12]

Alberta is Canada's largest oil producing province, providing 79.2% of Canadian oil production in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, crude bitumen, synthetic crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. In 2015 Alberta produced an average of 492,265 cubic metres per day (3.1 Mbbl/d) of Canada's 621,560 cubic metres per day (3.9 Mbbl/d) of oil and equivalent production.[11] Most of its oil production came from its enormous oil sands deposits, whose production has been steadily rising in recent years. These deposits give Canada the world's third largest oil reserves, which are rivaled only by similar but even larger oil reserves in Venezuela, and conventional oil reserves in Saudi Arabia. Although Alberta has already produced over 90% of its conventional crude oil reserves, it has produced only 5% of its oil sands, and its remaining oil sands reserves represent 98% of Canada's established oil reserves.[13]

In addition to being the world's largest producer of oil sands bitumen in the world, Alberta is the largest producer of conventional crude oil, synthetic crude, natural gas and natural gas liquids products in Canada.

Alberta's oil sands underlie 142,200 square kilometres (54,900 sq mi) of land in the Athabasca, Cold Lake and Peace River areas in northern Alberta - a vast area of boreal forest which is larger than England. The Athabasca oil sands is the only large oil field in the world suitable for surface mining, while the Cold Lake oil sands and the Peace River oil sands must be produced by drilling.[14] With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude. This technology grew and developed in Alberta. Many companies employ both conventional strip mining and non-conventional methods to extract the bitumen from the Athabasca deposit. About 24 billion cubic metres (150 Gbbl) of the remaining oil sands are considered recoverable at current prices with current technology.[13] The city of Fort McMurray developed nearby to service the oil sands operations, but its remote location in the otherwise uncleared boreal forest became a problem when the entire population of 80,000 had to be evacuated on short notice because of the 2016 Fort McMurray Wildfire which enveloped the city and destroyed over 2,400 homes.[15]

Major oil fields are found in southeast Alberta (Brooks, Medicine Hat, Lethbridge), northwest (Grande Prairie, High Level, Rainbow Lake, Zama), central (Caroline, Red Deer), and northeast (heavy crude oil found adjacent to the oil sands.)

Structural regions include: Foothills, Greater Arch, Deep Basin.

There are five oil sands upgraders in Alberta which convert crude bitumen to synthetic crude oil, some of which also produce refined products such as diesel fuel. These have a combined capacity of 1.3 million barrels per day (210,000 m3/d) of crude bitumen.[16]

Since it is Canada's largest oil producing province, Alberta is the hub of Canadian crude oil pipeline systems. About 415,000 kilometres (258,000 mi) of Canada’s oil and gas pipelines operate solely within Alberta’s boundaries and fall under the jurisdiction of the Alberta Energy Regulator. Pipelines that cross provincial or federal borders are regulated by the National Energy Board.[17] Major pipelines carrying oil from Alberta to markets in other provinces and US states include:[18]

There are four oil refineries in Alberta with a combined capacity of over 458,200 barrels per day (72,850 m3/d) of crude oil. Most of these are located on what is known as Refinery Row in Strathcona County near Edmonton, Alberta, which supplies products to most of Western Canada. In addition to refined products such as gasoline and diesel fuel, the refineries and upgraders also produce off-gases, which are used as feedstock by nearby petrochemical plants.[16]

Two of the largest producers of petrochemicals in North America are located in central and north central Alberta. In both Red Deer and Edmonton, world class polyethylene and vinyl manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's oil refineries provide the raw materials for a large petrochemical industry to the east of Edmonton. There are hundreds of small companies in Alberta dedicated to providing various services to this industryâ€”from drilling to well maintenance, pipeline maintenance to seismic exploration.

While Edmonton (population 1.36 million in 2015[20]) is the provincial capital and is considered the pipeline, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the Canadian oil industry, its rival city Calgary (population 1.44 million[20]) is the main oil company head office and financial centre, with more than 960 senior and junior oil company offices. Calgary also has regional offices of all six major Canadian banks, some 4,300 petroleum, energy and related service companies, and 1,300 financial service companies, helping make it the second largest head office city in Canada after Toronto.[21]

Saskatchewan is Canada's second largest oil-producing province after Alberta, producing about 13.5% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This included light crude oil, heavy crude oil, and natural-gas condensate. Most of its production is heavy oil but, unlike Alberta, none of Saskatchewan's heavy oil deposits are officially classified as bituminous sands. In 2015 Saskatchewan produced an average of 83,814 cubic metres per day (527,000Â bbl/d) oil and equivalent production.[11]

All of Saskatchewan's oil is produced from the vast Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin, about 25% of which underlies the province. Lying toward the shallower eastern end of the sedimentary basin, Saskatchewan tends to produce more oil and less natural gas than other parts. It has four major oil producing regions:[23]

There are two heavy oil upgraders in Saskatchewan.[25]

The majority of the province's refining capacity is in a single complex in the provincial capital of Regina:[25]

Oil and gas activity is regulated by the Saskatchewan Industry and Resources (SIR).[26]

Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producing province, producing about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum in 2015. This consisted almost exclusively of light crude oil produced by offshore oil facilities on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In 2015 these offshore fields produced an average of 27,373 cubic metres per day (172,000Â bbl/d) of light crude oil.[11]

Newfoundland has one oil refinery, the Come By Chance Refinery, which has a capacity of 115,000 barrels per day (18,300Â m3/d). The refinery was built before the discovery of oil offshore Newfoundland to process cheap imported oil and sell the products mainly in the United States. Unfortunately the startup of the refinery in 1973 coincided with the 1973 oil crisis which quadrupled the price of the refinery's crude oil supply. This and technical problems caused the refinery to go bankrupt in 1976. It was restarted under new owners in 1986 and has gone through a series of owners until the present date when it is operated by North Atlantic Refining Limited.[27] However despite the fact that major oil fields were subsequently discovered offshore of Newfoundland, the refinery was not designed to process the type of oil they produced, and it did not process any Newfoundland oil at all until 2014. Until then all of Newfoundland's production went to refineries in the United States and elsewhere in Canada, while the refinery imported all its oil from other countries.[28]

British Columbia produced an average of 8,643 cubic metres per day (54,000Â bbl/d) oil and equivalent in 2015, or about 1.4% of Canada's petroleum. About 38% of this liquids production was light crude oil, but most of it (62%) was natural-gas condensate.[11]

Oil and gas activity in BC is regulated by the Oil and Gas Commission (OGC).[29]

BC has only two remaining oil refineries.[9]

There once were four oil refineries in the Vancouver area, but Imperial Oil, Shell Canada, and Petro Canada converted their refineries to product terminals in the 1990s and now supply the BC market from their large refineries near Edmonton, Alberta, which are closer to Canada's oil sands and largest oil fields.[30] Chevron's refinery is at risk of closure due to difficulties in getting oil supply from Alberta via the capacity-limited Trans Mountain Pipeline, its only pipeline link to the rest of Canada.[31]

In June 2016 Chevron put its oil refinery in Burnaby, BC up for sale, along with its fuel distribution network in British Columbia and Alberta. “The company acknowledges these are challenging times and we need to be open to changing market conditions and opportunities as they arise,” a company representative said. The refinery, which started production in 1935, has 430 employees. Chevron's offer to sell follows Imperial Oil's sale of 497 Esso gas stations in B.C. and Alberta. It is unclear what will happen if Chevron fails to sell its BC assets.[32]

Manitoba produced an average of 7,283 cubic metres per day (46,000Â bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or about 1.2% of Canada's petroleum production.[11]

Manitoba's oil production is in southwest Manitoba along the northeast flank of the Williston Basin, a large geological structural basin which also underlies parts of southern Saskatchewan, North Dakota, South Dakota and Montana. Unlike in Saskatchewan, very little of Manitoba's oil is heavy crude oil.[33]

There are no oil refineries in Manitoba.

The Northwest Territories produced an average of 1,587 cubic metres per day (10,000Â bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or about 0.2% of Canada's petroleum production.[11] There is an historic large oil field at Norman Wells, which has produced most of its oil since it started producing 1937, and is continuing to produce at low rates. There used to be an oil refinery at Norman Wells, but it was closed in 1996 and all of the oil is now pipelined out to refineries in Alberta.[34]

Extensive drilling was done in the Canadian Arctic during the 1970s and 1980s by such companies as Panarctic Oils Ltd., Petro Canada and Dome Petroleum. After 176 wells were drilled at a cost of billions of dollars, a modest 1.9 billion barrels (300×10^6 m3) of oil were found. None of the finds were big enough to pay for the multibillion-dollar production and transportation schemes required to bring the oil out, so all the wells which had been drilled were plugged and abandoned.[36] In addition, after the Deepwater Horizon explosion in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, new rules were introduced which discouraged companies from drilling in the Canadian Arctic offshore.[37]

Ontario produced an average of 157 cubic metres per day (1,000Â bbl/d) of light crude oil in 2015, or less than 0.03% of Canada's petroleum production. Onshore production in other provinces east of Ontario was even more insignificant.[11]

Ontario was the centre of the Canadian oil industry in the 19th century. It had the oldest commercial oil well in North America (dug by hand in 1858 at Oil Springs, Ontario, a year before the Drake Well was drilled in Pennsylvania), and having the oldest producing oil field in North America (producing crude oil continuously since 1861). However, it reached its production peak and started to decline more than 100 years ago.[38]

Canada had one of the worldâ€™s first oil pipelines in 1862 when a pipeline was built to deliver oil from Petrolia, Ontario to refineries at Sarnia, Ontario. However, Ontario's oil fields began to decline toward the end of the 19th century, and by World War II Canada was importing 90% of its oil. By 1947, only three Canadian crude oil pipelines existed. One was built to handle only Alberta production. A second moved imported crude from coastal Maine to Montreal, while the third brought American oil into Ontario.[39] However, in 1947 the first big oil discovery was made in Alberta when Leduc No. 1 struck oil in a suburb of Edmonton, Alberta. It was followed by many even larger discoveries in Alberta, so pipelines were built to take the newly discovered oil to refineries in the American Midwest and from there to refineries in Ontario.[40]

Despite having very little oil production, Eastern Canada has a large number of oil refineries. The ones in Ontario were built close to the historic oil fields of southern Ontario; the ones in provinces to the east were built to process oil imported from other countries. After Leduc No. 1 was discovered in 1947, the much larger oil fields in Alberta began to supply Ontario refineries. After the 1973 oil crisis drastically increased the price of imported oil, the economics of refineries became unfavorable, and many of them closed. In particular, Montreal, which had six oil refineries in 1973, now has only one.[42]

Newfoundland and Labrador

The province of Newfoundland and Labrador is Canada's third largest oil producer with 27,373 cubic metres per day (172,000 bbl/d) of light crude oil from its Grand Banks offshore oil fields in 2015, about 4.4% of Canada's petroleum. See the Newfoundland and Labrador section above for details. Most of the other offshore production was in the province of Nova Scotia, which produced 438 cubic metres per day (2,750 bbl/d) of natural gas condensate from its Sable Island offshore natural gas fields in 2015, or about 0.07% of Canada's petroleum.[11]

Canadian conventional oil production peaked in 1973, but oil sands production is forecast to increase to at least 2020

US oil production (crude oil only) and Hubbert high estimate.

Mexican production peaked in 2004 and is now in decline

Broadly speaking Canadian conventional oil production (via standard deep drilling) peaked in the mid-1970s, but East Coast offshore basins being exploited in Atlantic Canada did not peak until 2007 and are still producing at relatively high rates.[43]

Production from the Alberta oil sands is still in its early stages and the province's established bitumen resources will last for generations into the future. The Alberta Energy Regulator estimates that the province has 50 billion cubic metres (310,000 MMbbl) of ultimately recoverable bitumen resources. At the 2014 production rate of 366,300 cubic metres per day (2.3 Mbbl/d), they would last for about 375 years. The AER projects that bitumen production will increase to 641,800 cubic metres per day (4.0 Mbbl/d) by 2024, but at that rate they would still last for about 213 years.[44]:3-10 – 3-26 Because of the enormous size of the known oil sands deposits, economic, labor, environmental, and government policy considerations are the constraints on production rather than finding new deposits.

In addition, the Alberta Energy Regulator has recently identified over 67 billion cubic metres (420 Gbbl) of unconventional shale oil resources in the province.[44]:4-3 This volume is larger than the province's oil sands resources, and if developed would give Canada the largest crude oil reserves in the world. However, due to the recent nature of the discoveries there are not yet any plans to develop them.

These oil fields are or were economically important to the Canadian economy:

There are three components of the Canadian petroleum industry: upstream, midstream and downstream.

The upstream oil sector is also commonly known as the exploration and production (E&P) sector.[45][46][47]

The upstream sector includes the searching for potential underground or underwater crude oil and natural gas fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently drilling and operating the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. With the development of methods for extracting methane from coal seams,[48] there has been a significant shift toward including unconventional gas as a part of the upstream sector, and corresponding developments in liquified natural gas (LNG) processing and transport. The upstream sector of the petroleum industry includes Extraction of petroleum, Oil production plant, Oil refinery and Oil well.

The midstream sector involves the transportation (by pipeline, rail, barge, or truck), storage, and wholesale marketing of crude or refined petroleum products. Pipelines and other transport systems can be used to move crude oil from production sites to refineries and deliver the various refined products to downstream distributors.[45][46][47] Natural gas pipeline networks aggregate gas from natural gas purification plants and deliver it to downstream customers, such as local utilities. The midstream operations are often taken to include some elements of the upstream and downstream sectors. For example, the midstream sector may include natural gas processing plants which purify the raw natural gas as well as removing and producing elemental sulfur and natural gas liquids (NGL) as finished end-products. Midstream service providers in Canada refer to Barge companies, Railroad companies, Trucking and hauling companies, Pipeline transport companies, Logistics and technology companies, Transloading companies and Terminal developers and operators. Development of the massive oil sand reserves in Alberta would be facilitated by development of a North American pipeline network which would transport dilbit to refineries or export facilities.[49]

Canada's oil sands for example are landlocked and it is crucial to the petroleum industry that transportation of petroleum products keep pace with production. Currently landlocked Canadian oil sands petroleum products suffer huge losses on price differentials. Until Canadian crude oil, Western Canadian Select, accesses international prices like LLS or Maya crude oil by getting to tidewater (south to the US Gulf ports via Keystone XL for example, west to the BC Pacific coast via the proposed Northern Gateway line to ports at Kitimat, BC or north via the northern hamlet of Tuktoyaktuk, near the Beaufort Sea.,[50] the Alberta government (and to some extent, the Canadian government) loses from $4 billion to $30 billion [51] in tax and royalty revenues, because the primary product of the oil sands, Western Canadian Select (WCS), the bitumen crude oil basket, is discounted so heavily against West Texas Intermediate (WTI) while Maya crude oil, a similar product close to tidewater, is reaching peak prices.[51] Calgary-based Canada West Foundation warned in April 2013, that Alberta is "running up against a [pipeline capacity] wall around 2016, when we will have barrels of oil we canâ€™t move."[50]

Frustrated by delays in getting approval for Keystone XL (via the US Gulf of Mexico), the Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines (via Kitimat, BC) and the expansion of the existing TransMountain line to Vancouver, British Columbia, Alberta has intensified exploration of two northern projects "to help the province get its oil to tidewater, making it available for export to overseas markets." [50] Under Prime Minister Stephen Harper, the Canadian government spent $9 million by May, 2012, and $16.5 million by May, 2013, to promote Keystone XL.[52]

In the United States, Democrats are concerned that Keystone XL would simply facilitate getting Alberta oil sands products to tidewater for export to China and other countries via the American Gulf Coast of Mexico.[52]

Port Metro Vancouver has a number of petroleum terminals, including: Suncor's Burrard Products Terminal, Imperial Oil Limited'a Ioco in Burrard Inlet East, Kinder Morgan Westridge Kinder Morgan Westridge in Burnaby, Shell Canada's Shellburn, Chevron Canada Ltd.'s Stanovan in Burnaby.[53]

The downstream sector commonly refers to the refining of petroleum crude oil and the processing and purifying of raw natural gas,[45][46][47] as well as the marketing and distribution of products derived from crude oil and natural gas. The downstream sector touches consumers through products such as gasoline or petrol, kerosene, jet fuel, diesel oil, heating oil, fuel oils, lubricants, waxes, asphalt, natural gas, and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) as well as hundreds of petrochemicals. Midstream operations are often included in the downstream category and considered to be a part of the downstream sector.

Crude oil, for example, Western Canadian Select (WCS) is a mixture of many varieties of hydrocarbons and most usually has many sulfur-containing compounds. The refining process converts most of that sulfur into gaseous hydrogen sulfide. Raw natural gas also may contain gaseous hydrogen sulfide and sulfur-containing mercaptans, which are removed in natural gas processing plants before the gas is distributed to consumers. The hydrogen sulfide removed in the refining and processing of crude oil and natural gas is subsequently converted into byproduct elemental sulfur. In fact, the vast majority of the 64,000,000 metric tons of sulfur produced worldwide in 2005 was byproduct sulfur from refineries and natural gas processing plants.[54][55]

See also Energy policy of Canada

The jurisdiction over the petroleum industry in Canada, which includes energy policies regulating the petroleum industry, is shared between the federal and provincial and territorial governments. Provincial governments have jurisdiction over the exploration, development, conservation, and management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products. Federal jurisdiction in energy is primarily concerned with regulation of inter-provincial and international trade (which included pipelines) and commerce, and the management of non-renewable resources such as petroleum products on federal lands.[56]

Oil and Gas Policy and Regulatory Affairs Division (Oil and Gas Division) of Natural Resources Canada (NRCan) provides an annual review of and summaries of trending of crude oil, natural gas and petroleum product industry in Canada and the United States (US)[57]

The petroleum industry is also regulated by the National Energy Board (NEB), an independent federal regulatory agency. The NEB regulates inter-provincial and international oil and gas pipelines and power lines; the export and import of natural gas under long-term licenses and short-term orders, oil exports under long-term licenses and short-term orders (no applications for long-term exports have been filed in recent years), and frontier lands and offshore areas not covered by provincial/federal management agreements.

In 1985, the federal government and the provincial governments in Alberta, British Columbia and Saskatchewan agreed to deregulate the prices of crude oil and natural gas. Offshore oil Atlantic Canada is administered under joint federal and provincial responsibility in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador.[56]

There were few regulations in the early years of the petroleum industry. In Turner Valley, Alberta for example, where the first significant field of petroleum was found in 1914, it was common to extract a small amount of petroleum liquids by flaring off about 90% of the natural gas. According to a 2001 report that amount of gas that would have been worth billions. In 1938 the Alberta provincial government responded to the conspicuous and wasteful burning of natural gas. By the time crude oil was discovered in the Turner Valley field, in 1930, most of the free gas cap had been flared off.[58] The Alberta Petroleum and Natural Gas Conservation Board (today known as the Energy Resources Conservation Board) was established in 1931 to initiate conservation measures but by that time the Depression caused a waning of interest in petroleum production in Turner Valley which was revived from 1939-1945.[59]


who sings the song breathe from grey's anatomy

"Breathe (2 AM)" is a song by American singer-songwriter Anna Nalick. The single was first released in 2004, then it was re-released in 2006 and charted at #45 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #4 on the Adult Contemporary in the United States, as well as #79 on the Australian singles charts. "Breathe (2 AM)" has been certified Gold by RIAA.[4] The song was featured prominently in shows like ABC's Grey's Anatomy episodes "As We Know It" and "Song Beneath the Song", as well as other shows such as the WB series Charmed, Smallville and the movies A Lot like Love and Griffin & Phoenix (both films the female character was played by Amanda Peet).

Breathe (2 AM)

The verses tell the stories of three characters: a friend of the narrator's who has fallen into an unhappy relationship, an alcoholic soldier at Fort Bliss, and the narrator's experience of writing and performing a song. Chuck Taylor describes it as "an introspective yet confessional tale about learning to handle everyday challenges â€” and remembering to take time to breathe."[5]

Lifted from Nalick's debut album Wreck of the Day, "Breathe (2 AM)" is backed with the non-album track "Home" (acoustic version) and "Catalyst" (acoustic version).

The two tracks "Home" and "Catalyst" do not appear on the 2006 re-release of Wreck of the Day either.


what is a complete metabolic panel blood test

The comprehensive metabolic panel, or chemical screen, (CMP; CPT code 80053) is a panel of 14 blood tests which serves as an initial broad medical screening tool. The CMP provides a rough check of kidney function, liver function, diabetic and parathyroid status, and electrolyte and fluid balance, but this type of screening has its limitations. Abnormal values from a CMP are often the result of false positives and thus the CMP may need to be repeated (or a more specific test performed), requiring a second blood drawing procedure and possibly additional expense for the patient, even though no disease is present. This test is also known as SMA12+2 test.

Comprehensive metabolic panel

The CMP is an expanded version of the basic metabolic panel (BMP), which does not include liver tests. A CMP (or BMP) can be ordered as part of a routine physical examination, or may be used to monitor a patient with a chronic disease, such as diabetes mellitus or hypertension.

Previous names for the panel of tests have been Chem 12, Chemistry panel, Chemistry screen, SMA 12, SMA 20 and SMAC (Sequential Multiple Analysis - Computer).[1]  The tests are performed on machines based on the AutoAnalyzer invented in 1957.

Typically, the patient fasts for ten or twelve hours before the blood is drawn for the testâ€”this is particularly important for getting a useful blood glucose measurement. CMPs are also frequently performed on nonfasting patients, but the glucose level in those cases is not as useful. The following tests are then performed:[1]

These tests help screen for a wide variety of problems. The glucose test in particular helps screen for diabetes mellitus and pre-diabetes. The calcium test can indicate or monitor bone diseases or diseases of the parathyroid gland or kidneys. Calcium salts, lithium, thiazide diuretics, thyroxine, and vitamin D can all increase levels and may interfere with this test.[2]

Electrolyte levels and the balance among them are tightly regulated by the body. Both individual values and ratios among the values are significant; abnormalities among either can indicate problems such as an electrolyte disturbance, acid-base imbalance, or kidney dysfunction.

Tests of protein levels in the blood help screen for both kidney and liver disorders.

The U.S. NIH provides ranges considered within normal limits, though optimal levels may vary by individual.[3]

Compare also the ranges given at Reference ranges for blood tests.

0.7 - 1.3 (men)


who sings last thing i needed first thing this morning

"Last Thing I Needed First Thing This Morning" is a song written by Gary P. Nunn and Donna Farar, and recorded by American country music artist Willie Nelson.  It was released in October 1982 as the third single from his album Always on My Mind. The song reached number two on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart[1] and number one on the RPM Country Tracks chart in Canada.[2]

American singer-songwriter Chris Stapleton featured a cover of the song on his studio album From A Room: Volume 1 (2017).[3]


who sings background on i hope you dance

"I Hope You Dance" is a crossover country pop song written by Mark Sanders and Tia Sillers and recorded by country singer Lee Ann Womack with Sons of the Desert. The song, which was featured on Womack's 2000 album of the same name, reached number one on both the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks and Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts, and also reached number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 100. It is considered to be Womack's signature song,[1][2] and it is the only Billboard number one for both Womack and Sons of the Desert. "I Hope You Dance" won the 2001 CMA, ACM, NSAI, ASCAP and BMI awards for Song of the Year. It also won the Grammy Award for Best Country Song and was nominated for Song of the Year. "I Hope You Dance" is ranked 352 in the list "Songs of the Century" compiled by Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "I Hope You Dance" reached its 2 million sales mark in the United States in October 2015,[3] and as of August 2016, it has sold 2,093,000 digital copies in the US.[4]

I Hope You Dance

Womack told The Today Show, "You can't hear those lyrics and not think about children and—and—and hope for the future and things you want for them. And those are the things I want for them in life. I want them to feel small when they stand beside the ocean." She also said, "Sometimes I have fun and lighthearted things. But even "I Hope You Dance." I was so shocked to see the way the kids got it. When—when I say kids, I mean, you know, like teen-agers. And we saw a big difference in our audience and—and the young kids that were coming out to the shows and really into "I Hope You Dance." It turned into like a prom and graduation theme."[5] Womack told The Early Show, "I thought it was very special. It made me think about Aubrie and Anna Lisa. And I—I didn't know—I can't predict if something's going to be a big hit or not. But it certainly hit home with a lot of people, connected with a lot of people and took me a lot of new places that I had not been able to go before and took my career to a new level."[6]

Womack told Billboard, "It made me think about my daughters and the different times in their lives. As a parent, you just hope those are the kinds of things you will make your children think of. But it can be so many things to different people. Certainly, it can represent everything a parent hopes for their child, but it can also be for a relationship that's ending as a fond wish for the other person's happiness or for someone graduating, having a baby, or embarking on a new path. It fits almost every circumstance I can think of."[7] In another interview with Billboard, Womack said, "When a song really connects with so many people, it's because they felt something when they heard it. This song makes you think about and feel for the people you really love in your life. Who doesn't have someone like that in their life?"[8]

In 2006 Womack told Billboard about an incident at the Country Radio Seminar and said, "I made some new friends at radio, caught up with friends that I had known since the beginning of my career and was able to enjoy a few drinks. Unfortunately, the next day I was performing at the MCA luncheon in front of a crowd of radio folks and, feeling a bit under the weather, I completely blanked out on the lyrics of 'I Hope You Dance,' of all songs. Lucky for me, most of the audience was hung over too and had a good sense of humor about it."[9]

"I Hope You Dance" is a mid-tempo country pop ballad in which the narrator, a mother, expresses her wishes to her children.

Two versions of Womack's recording were released. The original version features Sons of the Desert (who, like Womack, were signed to MCA at the time) singing a counterpoint chorus alongside Womack's main chorus, while a second version of the song released for pop radio omits the counterpoint chorus in favor of background vocals to accompany the main chorus. The song was also Sons of the Desert's first Top 40 country hit since "Leaving October" in 1998. The music video features Lee Ann Womack singing the song to her daughters.

Editors at Billboard gave the song a positive review and wrote, "This is a career record. Years from now, when critics are discussing Womack's vocal gifts and impressive body of work, this is a song that will stand out. It's one of those life-affirming songs that makes you pause and take stock of how you're living. It's filled with lovely poetry that will make listeners think. It's a great song, and Womack does it justice. Her sweet, vulnerable voice perfectly captures the tender sentiment of the lyric. The production is clean and understated, letting Womack's stunning vocal and the great lyric take center stage. Excellence deserves to be rewarded.[10] Ken Barnes of USA Today listed the "I Hope You Dance" as the fourth best song of 2000 and wrote, "Uplifting message song whose greeting-card sentiments and imprecise rhymes are outweighed by a gorgeous performance by today's reigning pure-country vocalist.[11]

Womack performed the song at The Early Show on October 4, 2000[12] It was also performed on The Tonight Show in June 2000.

US CD Single[13]

US CD Promo [14]

UK CD Single[15]

Australia CD Single [16]

"I Hope You Dance" was covered by Irish singer/songwriter Ronan Keating and released as the first single from his greatest hits compilation, 10 Years of Hits. The single was released in September 2004, peaking at number two on the UK Singles Chart. The single featured a new version of "This Is Your Song", a song recorded when Keating lost his mother in 1998. Royalties from sales of the single were donated to the organization Breast Cancer Care.

A Gladys Knight cover version is included in the 2008 film Tyler Perry's The Family That Preys.

The track was chosen for Lauren Alaina by singer Jennifer Lopez in season 10 of American Idol.

In 2012, Dutch singer Glennis Grace recorded a Dutch version, ("Dat Is Mijn Wens"), with lyrics by producer Edwin Evers, for her album "This Is My Voice".

Voice actress Michelle Creber covers the song on her album Timeless: Songs of a Century.

In 2013, CCM singer Mandisa covered the song on the deluxe version of her album, Overcomer.

In July 13, 2014, Sarah Darling makes a song selection from Rising Star.

In September 22, 2015, Emily Ann Roberts covered a song choice selection from the Blind Audition from The Voice (U.S. season 9).

In January 2016, Jennifer Lopez covered the song during her Las Vegas Residency All I Have


why does the g train only have 4 cars

To increase service and reduce waiting time due to the 63rd Street Connector cutbacks, the G would need more trains, but there were not enough cars available in the system. The solution was to reduce the length of trains in order to increase service frequency.[19] Historically, the G line had run 8 60-foot (18 m) car trains or 6 75-foot (23 m) car trains; both were shorter than the typical 600-foot (180 m) length of B Division trains because ridership was deemed too low to justify running full-length G trains in frequent intervals.[19] Under the 2001 plan, trains were shortened from six 75-foot (23 m) cars to four, sticking all the leftover cars together to make the extra trains for the G, and the additional trains needed for V service.[19][39] Thus, G service now operates 300-foot (91 m) trains, half the length of normal B Division standards. It also operates One Person Train Operation (OPTO) service during late nights and weekends.[19]

G (New York City Subway service)

The G Crosstown Local is an 11.4-mile-long (18.3Â km)[2] rapid transit service in the B Division of the New York City Subway. Its route emblem, or "bullet", is colored light green since it uses the IND Crosstown Line.[3]

The G operates at all times between Court Square in Long Island City, Queens, and Church Avenue in Kensington, Brooklyn, making local stops along its entire route. The G is the only non-shuttle service in the system that does not serve Manhattan. It suffers from constant service disruptions, infrequent train headways, few free transfers to other services, and low rolling stock capacity, leading to criticism from politicians and residents of the neighborhoods through which it travels. Since the 2000s, several improvements have been made to the G, including a route extension in Brooklyn and a full-route audit that identified solutions for issues on the G service.

The G serves two stations in Queens: Court Square and 21st Street, which are both in Long Island City. Prior to 2010, it served all stations on the IND Queens Boulevard Line between Court Square and 71st Avenue in Forest Hills. In 1939 and 1940, the G also used the now-demolished IND World's Fair Line to access the 1939 New York World's Fair. From 1976 to 2009, the G short-turned at Smith–Ninth Streets.

The original Brooklyn–Queens Crosstown Local service began on August 19, 1933, as a shuttle between Queens Plaza on the IND Queens Boulevard Line and Nassau Avenue. This service was designated GG because the IND used double letters to indicate local service. Starting on April 24, 1937, GG trains were extended to Forest Hills–71st Avenue during rush hours, serving as the Queens Boulevard local while E trains ran express west of Continental Avenue.[4] The entire IND Crosstown Line was completed on July 1, 1937, including the connection to the IND Culver Line.[5] GG service ran at all times between Forest Hills–71st Avenue and Church Avenue. Soon after, it was cut back to Smith–Ninth Streets.[6]

The 1939 World's Fair was served by GG trains, some of which were marked as S Special. The trains ran via the short-lived[7] IND World's Fair Line to Horace Harding Boulevard. Trains were extended to the World's Fair Station at all times during the fair, supplemented by PM hour E trains.[8] The fair closed on October 28, 1940, and GG service was truncated back to Forest Hillsâ€“71st Avenue,[9][10] since the World's Fair Line was being demolished that year.[7]

On July 1, 1968,[4] service was again extended to Church Avenue during rush hours. During these times, the F train operated as an express on the IND Culver Line.[4][11] This service pattern ended on August 30, 1976, due to budget cuts and because of complaints from many customers at local stations on the IND Culver Line who wanted direct access to Manhattan. Afterwards the GG was cut back to Smith–Ninth Streets.[11][12][13] On August 27, 1977, GG service was cut back to Queens Plaza during late nights, being replaced by the F.[14] Effective May 6, 1985, use of double letters to indicate local service was discontinued, so the GG was relabeled G.[15][16]

On May 24, 1987, the N and R services switched terminals in Queens. As part of the reroute plan, Queens Plaza became the northern terminal for the G train on evenings, weekends and late nights.[17] Three years later, on September 30, 1990, G service was extended to 179th Street during late nights to replace the F, which terminated at 21st Street–Queensbridge.[18]

Beginning on March 23, 1997, due to construction on the connector between the IND 63rd Street Line and the IND Queens Boulevard Line, G trains terminated at Court Square on evenings, nights and weekends. On August 31, 1997, late night service was permanently cut back from 179th Street to Court Square as a result of the F running local east of Queens Plaza, which meant that the G only ran along the Queens Boulevard Line on weekdays.[19] On December 16, 2001, the 63rd Street Connector opened and Court Square became the northern terminal for the G train during weekdays, while G service was extended to Forest Hillsâ€“71st Avenue at all other times, which represented the reverse of the previous pattern. Service along the IND Queens Boulevard Line was replaced by the new V train during weekdays.[11][19] The G was to be truncated to Court Square at all times to make room for the V, but due to rider opposition, it was cut back only on weekdays until 8:30 pm.[19]

On July 5, 2009, the G was once again extended south at all times to Church Avenue.[20] This was required for overhaul of the Culver Viaduct, which caused the express tracks at Smith–Ninth Streets and Fourth Avenue/Ninth Street—used to switch G trains between tracks after they terminated at Smith–Ninth Streets—to be temporarily taken out of service.[6][11][19] This had several benefits. First, five stations previously served by only the F train had more frequent service. Additionally, riders from northern Brooklyn and Long Island City had a direct route to Kensington. Finally, since the Church Avenue terminal had four tracks to store terminating G trains, as opposed to only one storage track at Smith–9th Streets, this reduced delays on both services because terminating G trains could switch to the storage tracks without having to wait in the station for another train to leave, as had occurred at Smith–Ninth Street.[11] On July 19, 2012, MTA officials made this extension permanent because it provided more direct connections between Kensington and north Brooklyn.[6][19]

Due to the MTA financial crisis in the late 2000s, the G was to be cut back from Forest Hillsâ€“71st Avenue to Court Square at all times beginning June 27, 2010.[21] However, due to planned track repairs during the times the G normally ran on the IND Queens Boulevard Line, it ceased running on that line on April 19.[19] In addition, train headways were reduced, which inconvenienced about 201,000 weekly commuters since they had to wait longer for G trains.[22][23]

Flood waters from Hurricane Sandy caused significant damage to the Greenpoint Tubes under the Newtown Creek. Although the G was back in service days after the hurricane, the tube needed permanent repairs. To allow for these repairs, G service ran only between Nassau Avenue and Church Avenue for twelve weekends between July and December 2013. This schedule was also in effect daily between July 25 and September 2, 2014.[2]

The G suffers from a wide range of issues that has resulted in complaints by people living along the route.[24] Historically, it has only connected Brooklyn and Queens,[19] resulting in many people thinking of the G as the subway system's "outcast"[25] and the "unwanted drunk uncle everyone has."[26] One reporter wrote of the G, "[Riders] need it because it goes where no other train does, but they hate that they need it." Compounding to the G's "outcast" reputation, some of the G's stations along the Crosstown Line are in bad shape.[26] Since 2001, however, a series of service cuts and missing connections to other lines has worsened public opinion of the G.[26]

Since December 2001, the G's northern terminus has been cut back from Forest Hills to Court Square during the weekdays,[27] and since June 2010, this service pattern has applied 24/7.[19][28] This service pattern not only puts more ridership pressure on the E route—already one of the system's busiest before 2001[29]—but also required G trains' lengths to be shortened by about one-third, from 450 feet (140 m) to 300 feet (91 m).[19] In addition, between 2001 and 2010, weekend service along the G to Forest Hills had been intermittent, with frequent service changes due to "track work".[30][26] The 2010 route reduction did increase service frequency on the remainder of the route.[19] Finally, the G has few transfers to other lines, with missing transfer points to the J, M, and Z trains at Broadway and the 2, 3, 4, 5, B, Q, D, N, R, and W trains at Fulton Street,[19][31] as well as a lack of an ADA-accessible transfer to the 7 and <7> trains at Court Square.[19]

When the connector to the IND 63rd Street Line from the IND Queens Boulevard Line was completed in December 2001, it not only introduced the new V service, but also allowed up to nine additional trains to and from Manhattan on the Queens Boulevard Line during peak hours.[27] However, to make room for the V train on Queens Boulevard, the G had to terminate at Court Square on weekdays.[32] The reroute of the G was part of the original plans of the 63rd Street tunnel and connector, going back to the late 1960s.[33][34][35] The service plan was designed to redistribute Queens-bound passenger loads on the crowded IND Queens Boulevard Line, which ran under 53rd Street while in Manhattan. In turn, this plan was intended to bring better service and transfer opportunities as the V train allowed direct access to 53rd Street and the IND Sixth Avenue Line for Queens Boulevard Local customers. The New York Times prematurely described the service plan as "complex and heavily criticized" because it put more crowding on the E train.[29]

In response to complaints from G riders at public hearings about losing a major transfer point to Manhattan-bound trains at Queens Plaza, the MTA agreed to a number of compromises, including installing a moving sidewalk in the passageway between Court Square and 23rd Street–Ely Avenue (now served by the E and M trains) on the Queens Boulevard Line.[19] In addition, a free out-of-system MetroCard transfer to 45th Road–Court House Square on the IRT Flushing Line was created at those two stations.[19] This special transfer was discontinued when construction of an in-system transfer at the corner of 23rd Street and 45th Road that opened on June 3, 2011, which made only the Flushing Line station ADA-accessible.[19] The MTA provided $17 million in funding for making the Crosstown Line accessible as part of the 2015–2019 Capital Program.[36][37]

The MTA also agreed to extend the G to Forest Hills–71st Avenue during evenings and weekends (when the V was not running), and run more trains on that route. There was a four-hour period where the G, R, and V, as well as the Queens Boulevard line's express services, the E and the F, were all supposedly running at once since the V stopped running at midnight and the G was extended to 71st Avenue at 8:00 p.m. The authority "had spent several hundred thousand dollars on tests, trying to figure out a way to keep the G train running past Court Square and farther into Queens on weekdays, but because of the addition of the V train, which shared space along the Queens Boulevard Line with the trains already there (the E, F and R trains), G trains could not fit during the daytime, when service is heaviest."[29]

However, due to construction on the Queens Boulevard Line, the G train frequently terminated at Court Square even at times when the published timetable said it ran to 71st Avenue.[19] Some riders were suspicious that the service disruptions were "simply a de facto way to implement the original plan of halving G train service." The original plans called for the G terminate at Court Square at all times; that plan was shelved in 2001 in the face of community opposition, but the MTA decided to implement it in 2010.[19][28] An MTA spokesman said, "It's not personalâ€¦. If you want to keep the system up to date, you need to make sure the track and switching are all in good repair."[30]

Community groups such as Save the G! and the Riders Alliance have been frequent activists for improvements of G service. Save the G! regularly lobbied the MTA for more G train service since the original cutbacks when the V was introduced in 2001. They made the restoration of service to the Queens Boulevard Line at all times an issue in the 2002 New York gubernatorial race, but the transit authority said, "Unfortunately, putting the G back to full service is just not an option, given our track capacityâ€”and that's not likely to change."[38]

This, however, meant there would be more riders packed into smaller trains, and led some passengers to miss trains because they were standing at the wrong part of the platform.[40] In the past, there have been signs indicating where the train stops at some stations, in addition to the "4" and "6" markers next to the tracks used by train operators as stop points. Still, the overall lack of visual identifiers of train stop points on the platforms, the differing stop points during different times of day, and the location of staircases, transfer passageways and platform benches have been cited as a cause of passengers missing trains or being bunched into single cars.[19][41] Beginning in 2013, additional signs were installed along G train platforms.[42] In 2014, several improvements were implemented due to an infusion of extra funding, with G trains to be lengthened in 2019 (see below).[41][43][44][45]

Save the G!, the Riders Alliance, and other organizations have also lobbied for the creation of new free out-of-system transfers to nearby stations. The most prominent is between Broadway on the Crosstown Line and either Hewes Street or Lorimer Street on the BMT Jamaica Line, which are both about three blocks away; this transfer has been previously proposed.[19][31] In 2005, an MTA spokesperson stated, "We have no intention of making that a permanent free transfer."[46] This sentiment was repeated in 2013, with the MTA citing the loss of around $770,000 in revenue if the transfer were to become free.[19][47] Temporary free transfers have been provided in the past, including one to Lorimer Street in 1999 due to suspended service over the Williamsburg Bridge on the J, M, and Z trains, and again during the Summer 2014 G service suspension north of Nassau Avenue.[19][48] The temporary Lorimer Street–Broadway transfer is due to be reinstated for 18 months beginning in January 2019, when the BMT Canarsie Line tunnels under the East River are closed for construction related to the Fix and Fortify program initiated by the MTA after Hurricane Sandy.[49][50]

A second transfer, from Fulton Street to the busy Atlantic Avenue–Barclays Center complex in Downtown Brooklyn, was rejected by the MTA due to the long walking distance between the two stations, as well as the fact that there is a transfer to Manhattan-bound A and C trains at Hoyt–Schermerhorn Streets.[19][31]

Most stations along the IND Crosstown Line were built with multiple exits to the street. Over the years, many lower-use exits were closed (as they were in other parts of the subway), as the city was concerned that they were a magnet for criminals;[51] this resulted in G trains along the Crosstown Line needing to stop at the locations closest to the exits.[19] However, in July 2005, in response to community pressure, the MTA agreed to re-open the South Portland Avenue exit of the Fulton Street station. The New York Times described it as a "minor victory" for "a maligned line."[51] Additionally, exits to the intersection of Powers Street, Hope Street, and Union Avenue at Metropolitan Avenue are planned to be reopened before 2019 to address possible capacity constraints due to the L train shutdown.[52]

Additionally, in 2019, the Court Square station will get several new stairways to accommodate increased ridership from L train riders during the reconstruction of the BMT Canarsie Line tunnels under the East River, which is scheduled to start in January of that year.[52]

The G train's southern extension to Church Avenue, implemented in 2009 and confirmed permanently in 2012, has also been an improvement, as it reduced the need for riders from Park Slope and Kensington to make multiple train transfers to get to northern Brooklyn and Queens.[6][11][19]

State Senators Daniel Squadron and Martin Malave Dilan requested a "Review of the G Line" since the route had been maligned by riders because of its unreliability.[40] The review, conducted in 2013, recommended a few service implements for the G.[19][41][40] On June 9, 2014, a budget surplus in the MTA caused these improvements to be implemented. These improvements included an increase in the number of trains per hour, from six trains per hour to 7.5 trains per hour during evening rush hour; uniform stopping locations for trains, whereas previously, trains stopped at different places along the platform at different times of the day; public service announcement systems on platforms along the IND Crosstown Line; relocated benches; and new CCTV systems installed for OPTO.[41][43][53] Such improvements eliminated the infamous "G train sprint,"[40] wherein riders ran for G trains that stopped at the other end of the platforms.[54][55] Despite the influx of ridership, train lengths did not change. However, the G is expected to get full length trains to accommodate displaced L train riders in 2019. This is made possible because the delivery of new R179 subway cars consists to other routes makes it possible for older fleet from these other routes to be passed onto the G.[43][44][45]

Since 2010, ridership on the G has risen 17%, with approximately 150,000 riders per weekday in 2015.[25] It is the route with the fastest growing ridership base in the entire system.[40] These improvements will also have the side benefit of being able to accommodate the growing ridership base in gentrified neighborhoods along the G, like Park Slope, Carroll Gardens, Bedford-Stuyvesant, Williamsburg, Greenpoint, and Long Island City. This is due in part because the G's weekday frequencies have become more dependable as a result of its 2013 review.[19][25] However, weekend service was still lacking, according to some riders.[25]

The G uses the following lines with the same service pattern at all times.[56]

For a more detailed station listing, see the articles on the lines listed above.

The G train is shown in the TV series Girls, as the show's main character, Hannah, lives in Greenpoint (near a stop along the G) and sometimes uses the route.[25][57]


which seat is the stroke seat in rowing

In the sport of rowing, each rower is numbered by boat position in ascending order from the bow to the stern (with the exception of single sculls). The person who is seated on the first seat is always the 'bow', the closest to the stern is commonly referred to as the'stroke'. There are some exceptions to this: Rowers in continental Europe number from stern up to bow.  Certain crew members have other informal titles and roles.

Boat positions

Examples are given for the largest common boat, the sweep oar eight (which is always coxed), but the same principles apply to smaller boats, sculling boats, and coxless boats.

The "stroke" is the rower closest to the stern of the boat and usually the most competitive rower in the crew. Everyone else follows the stroke's timing - placing their blades in and out of the water at the same time as stroke. The stroke can communicate with the coxswain (when in a stern coxed boat) to give feedback on how the boat feels. During a race, it is the stroke's responsibility to establish the crew's rate (number of strokes per minute) and rhythm. (In coxed boats, the coxswain will assist the stroke in establishing the rate). Because of the great responsibilities, the rower in the stroke seat will usually be one of the most technically sound members of the boat, capable of setting a good rhythm. The stroke is typically the best rower in the boat.

The next rower ('seven' in an eight) sits directly behind stroke and is typically both fit and skilled: this rower acts as a buffer between the stroke and the rest of the crew. They closely follow the rhythm set by the stroke and help transmit this rhythm to the rest of the boat, and particularly to the rowers rowing on the same side as seven, since rowers tend to look at the blades on their side of the boat to check their timing. If the strokeman increases or decreases the stroke rate it is essential that seven follows this change so that it is translated to the rest of the crew. Number seven usually watches the back of stroke so that they can time when to move up the slide and copy their rhythm. The job of seven is to emulate the rhythm of the strokeman.

The middle rowers of a crew (numbers 2 and 3 in a four, and 3, 4, 5 and 6 in an eight) are normally the most powerful and heaviest rowers, colloquially known as the Fuel Tank, Engine Room, Power House or Meat Wagon.  The boat pitches and yaws less in the middle, and the rowers there have less effect on these movements, being closer to the centre of mass and centre of buoyancy.  Therefore, the rowers in the middle of the boat do not have to be as technically sound or reactive to the movements of the boat, and can focus more on pulling as hard as they can. It is common practice among crews to put the most technically proficient rowers at the bow and stern and the physically strongest and heaviest rowers in the centre.

The rower closest to the bow of the boat, is usually called either "bow" or the "bowman". In coxless boats, the bowman is often responsible for giving calls to the crew. The bow pair of bow and "two", who are the two rowers closest to the boat's bow, are more responsible for the stability (called "set") and the direction of the boat than any other pair of rowers, and are often very technical rowers. The bow of a stern-coxed boat is subject to the greatest amount of pitching, requiring the bow pair to be adaptable and quick in their movements.

Boats that are bow coxed rely on communication between the bowman and the cox - as the cox cannot see boats coming up from behind. Bowmen tend to be the smallest of the rowers in the boat.

In coxless pairs, quadruple sculls and coxless fours, one of the rowers will be designated to steers. They will control the rudder using lines attached to the toe of one shoe, which pivots around the ball of the foot. The rower who steers is chosen according to experience and the nature of the course on which the boat is rowing: bow has a clear view ahead when looking over one's shoulder, whereas stroke may be able to steer well on a straight course by pointing the stern at a reference point. A rower steering in the middle of a four or quad is not uncommon, since bow and stroke have other duties already.

Traditionally a boat is organized so that alternate rowers row on port and starboard (or strokeside and bowside), with stroke on port side (having their blade to their own right) (strokeside). This is sometimes reversed, so that stroke is on the other side (having their blade to their own left); such a boat is usually described as 'bow rigged'. This is often on the basis of the abilities of the available personnel, to allow putting an experienced starboard side (bowside) rower in the stroke seat, for example but it is the norm for UK coastal rowers where racing is done clockwise around buoys. The eight in the illustration at the top of this article is rigged strokeside. If the eight were bow rigged, the oar for the stroke (number 8) rower would be on the other side of the boat (bowside/starboard).

There are other options, and in particular in fours the middle pair may row on the same side: this arrangement means that there is less yawing of the boat through the water throughout the course of the stroke, making it more efficient. The two rowers in the middle, rowing in a 'tandem', need to be well matched and synchronised to make this work (i.e. avoid clashing blades), and the bow person, rowing with a significant gap between them and stroke on their side of the boat, also needs to be able to adapt to the larger space in front of them.  Recently around half of finalists in World Cup and World Championships regattas have been rigged with a tandem middle pair, though it is less common at lower levels of competition.  Occasionally eights are rigged with one or more tandems: several rigs are possible.

The role of a coxswain is to:

A boat without a cox is known as a coxless or'straight' boat. While coxless pairs and fours are commonplace, because of the speed and lack of maneuverability eights always have a cox.

Some boats are bow-coxed or 'bowloaders' with the coxswain lying in the bow behind the bowman rather than stern-coxed or'sternloader', with the coxswain sitting in the stern opposite the Stroke.  Bowloader eights are rare due to the length of the boat, this would make it difficult for the cox to know where the stern is.

Coxswains used to communicate to the crew by shouting or through a megaphone that was strapped to their head. However, since the late 1970s a "cox box" or speaker and microphone system has enabled even the bowman to hear the coxswain's commands. Such a system is particularly important in bowloaders as the coxswain is facing away from the crew, making it hard for the crew to hear the coxwainâ€™s commands unaided.