when did ultron first appear in the comics

The character initially appeared as an unnamed character in a cameo in The Avengers #54 (1968), with a first full appearance in Avengers #55 (1968). Ultron was created by writer Roy Thomas and artist John Buscema. Thomas, who has acknowledged he finds naming characters difficult, said he liked the -tron suffix and went from there.[3] Thomas said the idea of the character and his appearance were heavily based on Makino, an obscure robotic villain who appeared in an issue of the Captain Video comic book.[1] He liked the robot's malicious looking smile, showing this to Buscema.[3]

Ultron

Ultron (/ˈʌltrən/) is a fictional supervillain appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is most recognized as a nemesis of the Avengers, and has a quasi-familial relationship with his creator Hank Pym. He was the first Marvel Comics character to wield the fictional metal alloy adamantium.[1]

Ultron has been voiced by Tom Kane and by Jim Meskimen in several media adaptations. The character is played by James Spader in the 2015 film Avengers: Age of Ultron.[2]

Although Ultron first appears in Avengers #54 (1968), the character is disguised for the majority of the issue as the "Crimson Cowl", with his face only revealed on the last page of the issue and no name given to the character. The character leads the Masters of Evil against the Avengers, having hypnotized Edwin Jarvis into working for him. In the following issue Avengers #55 (August 1968), the character is identified as Ultron-5, The Living Automaton.[4] In Avengers #57–58 (October–November 1968), a flashback sequence revealed that Ultron created the "synthezoid" Vision as a weapon to destroy the Avengers. The Vision—having Wonder Man's brain patterns—destroys Ultron with the Avengers' aid.[5]

Further flashbacks reveal that Ultron is Hank Pym's creation, and is based on Pym's brain patterns. The robot gradually developed its own intelligence and rebelled, and almost immediately develops an Oedipus complex, whereby it feels irrational hatred for Hank, and demonstrates an interest in the Wasp (Janet van Dyne). Rebuilding itself, learning how to turn itself on, and upgrading five times, Ultron then hypnotizes and brainwashes his "father" into forgetting that the robot had ever existed.[6]

The character's next appearance is in Avengers #66–68 (July–September 1969), where the character, now referring to itself as Ultron-6, uses the fictional alloy adamantium to upgrade his body to an almost indestructible state and takes the new name Ultimate Ultron. His plans to destroy humanity are again thwarted by the Avengers.[7]

A crossover story between Avengers #127 (Sept. 1974) and Fantastic Four #150 (Sept. 1974) features Ultron (as Ultron-7), recreated by Maximus with the body of the android Omega, attacking the wedding of the Inhuman Crystal and the Avenger Quicksilver, and battling the Avengers, Inhumans and Fantastic Four before being destroyed once again.[8] The character next appears in Avengers #161–162 (July–Aug. 1977) as Ultron-8 where he is responsible for Jocasta's creation as a robotic bride.[9] Shortly afterwards, in Avengers #170–171 (April–May 1978), the Avengers, with Ms. Marvel's aid, battle and defeat Ultron-8.[10]

His next appearances are in Avengers #201–202 (Nov.–Dec 1980) as Ultron-9 and in Marvel Two-In-One #92–93 (Oct.–Nov. 1982) as Ultron-10; both appearances feature brainwashed heroes re-creating and then defeating the robotic menace.[11][12] After being briefly recreated as Ultron-11 by the Beyonder and appearing on Battleworld during the Secret Wars,[13] and for a brief encounter with the Thing,[14] Ultron is destroyed again. The Thing, however, does bring Ultron's head back to Earth as a souvenir. Ultron-11's head is dropped and forgotten by the Thing when there is an attack by the alien Dire Wraiths.[15]

A new version, known as Ultron-12, enters into an alliance with the Grim Reaper and the villain's allies (Nekra; the Erik Josten Goliath; Man-Ape and the Black Talon) in a bid to destroy Wonder Man. Although the villains are defeated by the West Coast Avengers, Ultron-12 begins to form a relationship with his "father" Henry Pym.[16] Ultron-12 begins calling itself Ultron Mark 12, in an effort to sound more human.[17] Rebuilding itself, Ultron-11 comes into conflict with Hank and Ultron-12. With Wonder Man's assistance, they destroy Ultron-11. Ultron-12 then deactivates, but tells Pym it was glad it could help save him.[18]

Doctor Doom rebuilds Ultron using a combination of all of Ultron's previous personalities with a particularly strong dose of Ultron-12, believing this mix will make Ultron subservient. Instead, all 12 iterations coexist as separate personalities, resulting in a form of madness which culminates with Ultron-12 mutilating himself in an attempt to remove some of his other personalities. Karnak, Daredevil and Gorgon destroy Ultron by severing his neck cables.[19]

Another version, known as Ultron-13, appears and is stopped by the West Coast Avengers.[20] After escaping captivity, this version attempts to obtain a new form of vibranium called Nuform, but is repelled by the combined efforts of Iron Man, the Black Panther and Spider-Man.[21] Ultron-13 next briefly appears as a captive of a highly advanced Doombot, but is freed when the Doombot is defeated by Deathlok.[22]

Ultron-13 escapes from prison and upgrades into the Ultimate Ultron (technically Ultron-14), and captures the West Coast Avenger Mockingbird to use Mockingbird's brain patterns to create the new robotic mate Alkhema. Alkhema aids Ultron but both are eventually jettisoned into space through a ruse by the Vision.[23] The character reappears with Alkhema, and together they plan to create a "volcanic winter" by placing bombs underneath several volcanoes. The West Coast Avengers stop the pair once again, and Alkhema rebels and leaves Ultron.[24] Another version, known as Ultron-15, is found by the Vision, but is discovered to have been "infected" by human emotion and is seriously deteriorating, displaying symptoms that resemble alcoholism. This iteration and Jocasta decide to explore the world with the Vision for a time.[25]

After a brief cameo appearance as Ultron-17,[26] the character - with the aid of Ultron-16 - slaughters the population of the fictional state Slorenia, having perfected a process that allows it to control a vast army of Ultron drones (mainly made of titanium steel and about a tenth of the army only made of secondary adamantium), while attempting to acquire neural patterns from his 'family'- Pym, Janet, the Vision, Wonder Man, Scarlet Witch, and the Grim Reaper- to create a new 'family' of robots that would allow him to create a more diverse range of personalities. However, he is finally defeated by the Avengers, Goliath using vibranium against him, acknowledging his own guilt and self-loathing over the belief that Ultron's twisted persona reflects his own darker thoughts.[27][28]

The Avengers discovered that Ultron's creations (Vision, Jocasta and Alkhema) have a secret program included - they are subconsciously compelled to rebuild Ultron. In this case, it is Alkhema who unintentionally rebuilds Ultron when attempting to create a new species of bio-synthezoids. However, Ultron-18 is composed of steel not adamantium, and is destroyed when Alkhema's subterranean base exploded after Hawkeye shot Alkhema with a vibranium arrow at Alkhema's request. Ultron's head was recovered by Antigone, an artificial girl and one of the synthezoids.[29]

Iron Man encounters a version from an old version of Iron Man's armor and Ultron-18's head that leads the cult known as the Sons of Yinsen in an attempt to conquest via religion. The character is defeated by Iron Man and Jocasta.[30] Another version (possibly Ultron-13) creates the cyborg Victor Mancha as a sleeper agent against the Avengers. Mancha, however, rebels and joins the Runaways.[31] This version first poses as "Doctor Doom" before revealing itself, and is defeated in a battle against the Runaways and Excelsior.[32]

When Marvel launched a new title called The Mighty Avengers by Brian Michael Bendis and Frank Cho, Ultron interfaces with Iron Man's armor, which had been integrated with Tony Stark's biology. This allows Ultron's program to transform Iron Man into a new version who has the Wasp's appearance albeit with a metallic skin. This version takes control of Iron Man's technology. He kills Lindy Reynolds, causing the Sentry to battle Ultron, nearly tearing his head off. This version is eventually destroyed by New Avenger Ares using a computer virus (created by the Skrull agent Criti-Noll impersonating Hank Pym) to wipe Ultron's program from Iron Man's armor, changing Stark back to normal. Ultron's image later briefly appears on one of his maker's computers.[33]

However, this was not the end of Ultron, for his disembodied consciousness was thrown into the depths of space. He spent a few months floating through the cosmos as radio waves and energy. Eventually his signal was picked up by an outlying group of Phalanx who were attempting to contact their parent race, the Technarchy. Fascinated by what he found, Ultron decided that the Phalanx lacked direction from a singular consciousness, and that he would be perfect for the role. Through sheer force of will, he merged himself with the Phalanx's programming. In turn, the Phalanx viewed Ultron as the sympathetic father they had yearned for. Under Ultronâ€™s guidance, the Phalanx began the Annihilation: Conquest by invading the Kree space. Later by taking control of Adam Warlock's body, Ultron hopes to achieve "true techno-organic perfection" but is eventually forced to abandon Adam's body by the Technarchy Warlock and is later destroyed in combat by Wraith and Quasar.[34]

In the limited series Avengers/Invaders, it is revealed that S.H.I.E.L.D. Life Model Decoys have been partly replaced with versions of Ultron. When the original Human Torch appears in the present, they covertly parasitize the Human Torch's unique android physiology and become more human. The combined super teams (but mainly the Human Torch himself), however, discover the plan and destroy the androids.[35]

In the Mighty Avengers, Ultron is shown to infiltrate Jocasta and the Infinite Avengers Mansion. He names himself Ultron Pym and seeks to kill and replace his father before using his Infinite Mansion to conquer the universe.[36] Pym eventually offers Ultron a compromise, allowing Jocasta to become Ultron's bride, on the condition that Ultron banishes himself to ultraspace. Ultron agrees, but warns that he will be ruler of all someday.[37]

In The Avengers, the team visits a possible future in which almost all of humanity is destroyed by Ultron. Kang the Conqueror attempts to enlist them to defeat the robotic foe, but another group of heroes and villains, plucked from all over time and space, ends up destroying this version.[38]

Later, also in Avengers, a cabal of super-intelligent supervillains discover a Galadorian Spaceknight's inert body and attempt to reactivate its power source, hoping to exploit. Although the Avengers interrupt their attempts, the body activates, revealing that Ultron's consciousness was contained within and had escaped destruction after Annihilation: Conquest. The new version escapes and Iron Man gravely foresees that when he returns, it will bring the apocalypse for humanity.[39]

During the Age of Ultron storyline, which takes place in an alternate universe, Ultron has returned and conquers the world while slowly remolding it into his image. His Ultron Sentinels are guarding the streets looking for any fugitives. Hawkeye runs into the Ultron Sentinels as he was rescuing the Superior Spider-Man yet manages to destroy the Ultron Sentinels present.[40] It is later revealed that Ultron is actually in the future and has been using Vision as a conduit to punish humanity.[41] While one strike team travels into the future to fight Ultron, Wolverine and the Invisible Woman go back in time to kill Pym before Ultron's creation in the first place.[42] This results in a world where Tony Stark controls an army of robotic drones and Morgan le Fay has conquered half of the world.[43] Traveling back in time once more, Wolverine succeeds in stopping himself from killing Pym, and Wolverine, Pym and Susan Storm come up with a different plan. This plan results in a different outcome of the prior confrontation between the Avengers and the Intelligencia - a 'back door' installed into Ultron at his original creation allows Hank and Iron Man to destroy the robot, instead, averting the events that led to the "Age of Ultron".[44]

It is later revealed that years earlier, the Avengers had trapped an unidentified iteration of Ultron in deep space after sealing him inside a Vibranium Quinjet. In the present, the Quinjet crash lands on Titan, freeing Ultron. By hijacking the ISAAC computer, he transforms Titan into Planet Ultron, and launches a plan to infect the entire universe with a nanite virus that transforms organic creatures into Ultron Sentries. The ensuing confrontation with the Avengers leads to Ultron inadvertently merging with his maker, transforming the two into a human/machine hybrid. The resulting creation playing on Hank's self-loathing of his own human weakness causes an acceptance of this new state. He is defeated when Starfox's powers force Ultron to love himself, causing the part of Ultron that is now Hank to accept his old weakness and flaws while the villain has a mental breakdown and flees into space.[45]

As part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel" branding, Ultron's fused form with "Hank Pym" resurfaced. While on his way back to Earth, Pym helped the crew of a spaceship that was being attacked by a hostile insectoid alien. After coming aboard the spaceship, Hank introduced himself as well as his "friend" Ultron to the crew.[46] He later returns to Earth, where the Wasp and Captain America discover that Ultron has taken complete control and is using Pym's face to fool his maker's old friends.[47] After Ultron incapacitates Deadpool, Cable, and the Human Torch, the Wasp initiates the Icarus Protocol and Iron Man is called in to help stop Ultron with the aid of the Hulkbuster Armor.[48] The Avengers end up defeating Ultron by plunging the hybrid into the sun, but both Hank and Ultron survive and continue to do battle with one another internally.[49]

During the Secret Empire storyline, Ultron's fused form had set up a base in a unidentified forest. Upon being alerted by the approach of Sam Wilson's task force by a robot version of Edwin Jarvis, Ultron decides to give his "family" a warm welcome.[50] When Tony Stark A.I.'s team and Captain America's team confront each other, they are captured by Ultron who forces both teams to sit at a dinner table. Ultron argues that he is doing this because the Avengers have become less of a family over the years as so many of them jump to obey Captain America or Iron Man despite past experience confirming that this should be a bad idea, but the Tony Stark A.I. counters that the only reason the team failed as a family was because of Hank Pym's attack on Wasp. Outraged, Ultron nearly attacks the other heroes, but Scott Lang is able to talk him down by arguing that Pym remains his own inspiration. Ultron allows the Tony Stark A.I.'s team to leave with the fragment, arguing that he will leave Captain America's plans with Hydra alone as it appears to be the best chance for world peace.[51]

During the Infinity Countdown, Ultron discover that the Infinity Stones were restored and began a quest to collect them all.[52] He goes to claim the Soul Gem while the aliens he infected with his virus are sent to Earth to take the Space Stone from Wolverine, and while they failed at their task, Ultron was able to steal the Soul Gem from Magus after ruthlessly killing him. Unbeknownst to Ultron, however, as he claimed the Soul Stone, the fragment that is of Hank's soul, entered the Soul World where he is greeted by the fragment of Gamora's soul, who revealed that he was going to be trapped there forever.[53] Ultron has also completely controlled the planet Saiph with Ultron hybrids and had captured the Silver Surfer. When Adam Warlock went to Saiph, he discovers the hybrids infusing the Soul Stone into the Surferâ€™s forehead while at the same time trying to transforming him into an Ultron hybrid.[54]

The visual appearance and powers of the character have varied, but common powers include superhuman levels of strength, speed, stamina, durability, and reflexes; flight at subsonic speeds; and various offensive weapons such as concussive blasts of energy fired from its optical sensors or hands and an "encephalo-ray", which places victims into a deathlike coma. The latter ray also allows Ultron to mesmerize and mind-control victims, or implant subliminal hypnotic commands within their minds to be enacted at a later time. Ultron also has the ability to convert electromagnetic radiation into electrical energy for use or storage. Ultron has a genius intellect, a capacity for creative intelligence and self-repair, superhuman cybernetic analytical capabilities, and the ability to process information and make calculations with superhuman speed and accuracy. The character is an expert roboticist and strategist.

Ultron's outer armor is usually composed primarily of adamantium, which is almost completely impervious to damage (the first use of the term "adamantium" in Marvel Comics was made in reference to Ultron in Avengers #66, published in July 1969). Most Ultron units are powered by a small internal nuclear furnace and incorporate a "program transmitter" which can beam part or all of Ultron's memory/personality system into other computer systems or duplicate robotic bodies. Ultron can also control other machines remotely. Ultron has occasionally reformed itself with a humanoid appearance above the waist and the appearance of a complex machine, including tractor beam apparatus for flight, below the waist. A later Ultron model developed hive-mind technology, allowing it to animate and control hundreds of other Ultron bodies simultaneously,[55] although only the 'prime' Ultron was composed of adamantium while others were made of steel or secondary adamantium due to the lack of resources to give all the Ultrons adamantium bodies.[56] Ultron also used an internal molecular rearranger that renders the adamantium components of its workings more malleable and so has the ability to restructure its physical form. What circuitry Ultron has is carefully shielded to protect from damage, although the Scarlet Witch is capable of causing malfunctions with her hex power,[57] Johnny Storm, using his nova burst, managed to damage Ultron's internal circuits while its outer armor remained intact,[58] and Wonder Man was once able to destroy an Ultron by throwing it so hard its internal systems were damaged.[18]

The 1995 limited series The Last Avengers Story features a possible future in which Ultron-59 manipulates fellow Avengers foe Kang the Conqueror into attacking the Avengers. Ultron is destroyed by the Vision, sacrificing his own artificial life.[59]

The Fantastic Four storyline "Death of The Invisible Woman" features an advanced humanoid called Alex Ultron, a member of the futuristic The Last Defenders.[60]

In the Marvel Adventures alternate universe, Ultron is a highly-intelligent "neural network" that controls a section of the United States defense forces.[61]

In Mark Millar and Steve McNiven's 2008-2009 "Old Man Logan" story arc that appeared in Wolverine, Ultron Eight is the husband of Spider-Man's youngest daughter (Ashley Barton).[62]

In the first arc of the fourth Avengers series, Kang wages a war with Ultron in the not-too-distant future which causes the disruption of all time. The cause of the disruption is apparently Kang's recruiting of army after army from the timelines to battle Ultron - all to no avail: Ultron is supreme in this particular future.[63]

The title Avengers Next, set in the alternate universe known as MC2, features an upgraded version of Ultron named Ultron Extreme.[64]

In the Earth-110 reality, Ultron assisted Doctor Doom, Hulk, Magneto, Namor, and the Red Skull in taking over Manhattan.[65]

The Ultimate Marvel version of the character is initially depicted as the Ultron Sentries, a group of robots created by Hank Pym alongside the partner robot Vision II. Although both robots were rejected by Nick Fury, the Ultron Sentries were used helping the Ultimates fight against the Liberators.[66] However, one unit develops an independent mind and emotions as a result of a chance encounter with the Scarlet Witch.[67] This unit appears as Yellowjacket and is in part responsible for Scarlet Witch's murder. Motivated by jealousy after having fallen in love, Yellowjacket's person of romance had feelings only for Quicksilver. Despite being the creator of android duplicates of Ultimates, Yellowjacket/Ultron is ultimately destroyed by its maker.[68]

The 2013 crossover Age of Ultron storyline,[69] involves a post-apocalyptic future in which Ultron has taken over the world and exterminated most of the world's superheroes.[70] After Wolverine and the Invisible Woman try to avert this timeline by killing Hank Pym before Ultron's creation,[71] the resulting worse future prompts Wolverine to go back again and stop his past self from killing Pym, instead suggesting that Pym implant a command code in Ultron that will allow Pym to shut the robot down when he reaches a certain level of development.[72]

In the 2014 Original Sin storyline, the Time Gem transports the Avengers to a future where Ultron has conquered the world and created his own team of robotic Avengers to police the remaining human population.[73] This timeline is later revisited when someone posing as Doctor Doom uses his time machine to assemble a team of Avengers from across history to help liberate the planet from Ultron's rule,[74] culminating in the temporally-displaced Avengers defeating Ultron and convincing Doom–in reality a Doombot that worked with the Avengers A.I. team–to bring peace to the world by seeking his own path rather than blindly following Doom's example.[75]

During the 2015 Secret Wars crossover event, the southern part of Battleworld is a wasteland uncontrolled by a baron. The wastelands are controlled by three ruling factions: Annihilus and his insect swarm, Marvel Zombies, and Ultron, who calls his realm "Perfection". When not battling among themselves the factions assault a great wall made out of Ben Grimm called SHEILD, manned by those banished from Battleworld, called Hel-Rangers. Eventually the three factions unite the powers and overrun the wall.[76][77][78]

Ultron was ranked number 23 by IGN's Top 100 Comic Book Villains list,[95] was listed number 189 in Wizard's Top 200 Greatest Villains Ever list,[96] and was ranked as the 189th Greatest Comic Book Character Ever in Wizard's list of the 200 Greatest Comic Book Characters of All Time.[97]


what do you call a person who does waxing

There are many drawbacks of waxing as well.  Waxing can be painful when the strip is removed from the skin. Although the pain is not long-lasting, it can be intense, particularly in sensitive areas.  Another drawback to waxing is the expense: waxing is usually performed by a licensed esthetician and in some cases the cost can be high, depending on the area waxed and the number of sittings required. There are do-it-yourself waxing supplies, but they may be difficult to use on oneself on some areas on the body.

Waxing

This article is about hair removal.  For the term referring to the process of a view of the Moon from Earth progressing from a "new moon" to a "full moon", see lunar phase.

Waxing is a form of semi-permanent hair removal which removes the hair from the root. New hair will not grow back in the previously waxed area for four to six weeks, although some people will start to see regrowth in only a week due to some of their hair being on a different human hair growth cycle. Almost any area of the body can be waxed, including eyebrows, face, pubic hair (called bikini waxing), legs, arms, back, abdomen, knuckles and feet. There are many types of waxing suitable for removing unwanted hair.

Strip waxing (soft wax) is accomplished by spreading a wax thinly over the skin. A cloth or paper strip is applied and pressed firmly, adhering the strip to the wax and the wax to the skin. The strip is then quickly ripped against the direction of hair growth, as parallel as possible to the skin to avoid trauma to the skin. This removes the wax along with the hair. There are different forms of strip waxing or soft waxing: heated, cold or pre-made strips. Unlike cold waxing, heated wax is spread easily over the skin. Cold waxing is thicker, which makes it more difficult to spread smoothly over the skin. Pre-made strips come with the wax on them, and they come in different sizes for different area uses.[1]

Stripless wax (as opposed to strip wax), also referred to as hard wax,[2] is applied somewhat thickly and with no cloth or paper strips. The wax then hardens when it cools, thus allowing the easy removal by a therapist without the aid of cloths. This waxing method is very beneficial to people who have sensitive skin. Stripless wax does not adhere to the skin as much as strip wax does, thus making it a good option for sensitive skin as finer hairs are more easily removed because the hard wax encapsulates the hair as it hardens. The stripless waxing method can also be less painful.

The following factors are known to make those who are waxed more prone to "skin lifting," where the top layer of skin is torn away during waxing treatment:

There are many benefits to waxing versus other forms of hair removal. It is an effective method to remove large amounts of hair at one time. It is a long-lasting method, as hair in waxed areas will not grow back for two to eight weeks. When hair is shaved or removed by depilatory cream, the hair is removed at the surface rather than the hair root. Within a few days, the hair can reappear back at the surface. With these methods, hair tends to grow back in a rough stubble. Areas that are repeatedly waxed over long periods of time often exhibit regrowth that is softer.

Another drawback of waxing is that some people experience ingrown hairs, red bumps, and minor bleeding. This is more likely to occur when waxing areas with thick hair, especially the first few times when follicles are strongest.


who is the sasquatch in the jack links commercials

Brian Steele is an American actor who has had many roles as monsters and creatures on television and in films.

Brian Steele

2006-2014 Steele portrayed the Prank redeeming Sasquatch in over 40 Messin' with Sasquatch Commercials for Jack Links Jerky. On television, Steele played the Bigfoot called Harry in the series Harry and the Hendersons before moving on to play creatures in theatrical motion pictures, with roles like Mr. Wink in Hellboy 2: The Golden Army wearing over 130 pounds of makeup.[1] Steele has portrayed Drake Beast in Blade: Trinity, Sammael in Hellboy, Lycan werewolves in Underworld and Underworld: Rise of the Lycans, William Corvinus in Underworld: Evolution, T-600 in Terminator Salvation,[2] Berzerker Predator in Predators,[3] and a Bigfoot in Eduardo Sánchez horror-thriller film Exists.[4]

Brian Steele has participated in multiple ultra-distance, self-supported cycling races, including the Tour Divide mountain bike race and the Trans Am Bike Race.


who sang patches i'm depending on you son

"Patches" (sometimes known as "Patches (I'm Depending On You)")[1] is a country soul song written by General Johnson and Ron Dunbar and best known by the 1970 hit version of Clarence Carter. It won the 1971 Grammy Award for Best Rhythm & Blues Song.

Patches (Chairmen of the Board song)

The song was written by General Johnson, the lead singer of Chairmen of the Board, with Ron Dunbar, who worked in A&R and record production at the Invictus record label, owned and overseen by Brian Holland, Lamont Dozier, and Eddie Holland, formerly of Motown. Dunbar was often credited with co-writing hit songs at Invictus with "Edyth Wayne", a pseudonym used by Holland-Dozier-Holland during the time when they were in legal dispute with Motown and its music publishing arm Jobete to which they had been contracted.[2]

The song tells a story about how a boy born and raised in poverty in Alabama "on a farm way back up in the woods" took over responsibility for his family from his dying father. "Patches" was included on Chairmen of the Board's first album, The Chairmen of the Board (later reissued as Give Me Just a Little More Time), and was the B-side of the group's July 1970 single, "Everything's Tuesday", their third chart hit.[3][4]

The blind blues singer Clarence Carter heard the song, later saying: "I heard it on the Chairmen of the Board LP and liked it, but I had my own ideas about how it should be sung. It was my idea to make the song sound real natural..."[5] Initially he thought "that it would be degrading for a black man to sing a song so redolent of subjugation" but was persuaded to do so by record producer Rick Hall, who told him that it related to his own personal history as he was growing up.[6]

Carter recorded the song at the FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama, with Hall as producer and musicians including Junior Lowe (guitar), Jesse Boyce (bass), and Freeman Brown (drums).[5] Carter's recording was released in July 1970 and was described by a Billboard reviewer as a "powerful blues item" featuring a "blockbuster vocal work-out."[7] The record rose to #4 on the Hot 100,[8] #2 on the R&B chart,[9] and #2 on the UK singles chart.[10]

Following Carter's success, the song won the 1971 Grammy Award for Best Rhythm & Blues Song for its writers, Johnson and Dunbar.[11]

A reggae version was recorded late in 1970 by The Rudies, later known as Greyhound. Another version by Canadian country singer Ray Griff reached #26 on the US country music chart the same year. The song was also recorded by Alabama some time before 1980, Jerry Reed in 1982, and by George Jones and B. B. King on the album Rhythm, Country and Blues in 1994.[12]

In 1984, the song was rewritten in Portuguese as "Marvin" by the Brazilian band Titãs.[12] A later acoustic recording of the song, featured on the album Titãs - Acústico MTV, became popular in Brazil.

A parody version of the song performed by Joe Cumia, brother of Anthony Cumia of Opie and Anthony fame, titled "Black Earl" was often played on the Ron and Fez show.


what do the lyrics to zombie by the cranberries mean

"Zombie" is a protest song by Irish rock band The Cranberries, written about the 1993 IRA bombing in Warrington, and in memory of two young victims, Johnathan Ball and Tim Parry.[1] It was released in September 1994 as the lead single from their second studio album, No Need to Argue (1994). It preceded the release of No Need to Argue by two weeks. The song was written by the band's lead singer Dolores O'Riordan, and reached No. 1 on the charts in Australia, Belgium, France, Denmark and Germany.

Zombie (song)

It won the "Best Song" award at the 1995 MTV Europe Music Awards.[2]

In 2017, the song was released as an acoustic, stripped down version on the band's Something Else album.[3]

The lyrics and chords of "Zombie" were written by Dolores O'Riordan during the Cranberries' English Tour in 1993. The song was written in response to the death of Johnathan Ball and Tim Parry, who had been killed in the IRA bombing in Warrington earlier that year.[4]

The lyrics also reference the Irish Easter Rising  with the lines: Itâ€™s the same old theme / Since nineteen-sixteen / In your head, in your head, they're still fightin' / With their tanks, and their bombs / And their bombs, and their guns / In your head, in your head, they are dying.

The Rough Guide to Rock identified the album No Need to Argue as "more of the same" as the Cranberries' debut album, except for the song "Zombie", which had an "angry grunge" sound and "aggressive" lyrics.[5] The Cranberries played the song on their appearance on the U.S. show Saturday Night Live in 1995 in a performance that British author Dave Thompson calls "one of the most powerful performances that the show has ever seen".[6]

AllMusic said the song "trivialized" the events of the Troubles, and that the "heavy rock trudge" of the song did not play to the band's strengths.[7]

"Zombie" was released with a music video in October 1994. The video was directed by Samuel Bayer, and produced by Doug Friedman and H.S.I. Productions.

In the video, Dolores O'Riordan is covered in gold makeup and appears in front of a cross with a group of boys also covered in gold makeup. The video also includes clips of children playing war games, and of British soldiers from the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (as evident from their thin red line tactical recognition flashes) on patrol in Northern Ireland during the Troubles. It also shows shots of various murals.

The video was filmed in Belfast, Northern Ireland.

As of October 2018, the video has over 790 million views on YouTube.

UK and European CD1 single

UK and European CD2 single

UK and European 7" single

US two-track promo CD (PRCD 6857-2)

UK VHS single (PRCD 6857-2)

Bad Wolves released a cover version on January 19, 2018 as the third single from their debut album Disobey.[55][56] O'Riordan had been scheduled to record vocals with the heavy metal group at the time of her death. The cover was released without her vocals as a tribute. Bad Wolves slightly altered the lyrics, inserting a reference to drones and replacing "since 1916" with "in 2018".[56] Bad Wolves also added two extra stanzas to the end of the song which were not present in the original song. The band's cover topped the US Billboard Mainstream Rock chart in May 2018 for three weeks. It peaked at No. 54 on the Hot 100.[57] In June 2018, at a concert in New York City, Bad Wolves donated $250,000 to O'Riordan's children.[58]

The song's music video was directed by Wayne Isham and was released on January 18, 2018, the day before the band released the song as a single.[59]

The video begins with text discussing the cover's background and the passing of O'Riordan. The video then cuts to shots of the band performing the song in a black room, wearing black clothing and playing black instruments interspersed with close-up scenes of a woman being covered in gold paint. The video then cuts in between shots of the band performing and the woman interacting with vocalist Tommy Vext which mainly involve her smearing gold paint on a glass pane between the two of them. After the guitar solo, she etches "1-15-18", the date of O'Riordan's death, into the paint. The woman's appearance (gold body paint, gold dress, and gold beaded headdress) is nearly identical to that of O'Riordan in The Cranberries' original Zombie music video. The video ends with a quote by Vext.


where did frasier go in the last episode

Frasier finishes his story as the plane lands – not in San Francisco, but in Chicago, where Charlotte has moved – and says to Anne, "Wish me luck."

Goodnight, Seattle

"Goodnight, Seattle" is the series finale of the American sitcom Frasier. It aired on May 13, 2004, in the 11th year of the series. In syndication, it is a two-part episode.[1]

Frasier (Kelsey Grammer) is on an airplane when he is surprised by the anxiety the woman sitting next to him suffers during the flight. The woman introduces herself as Dr. Anne Ranberg (Jennifer Beals), also a psychiatrist, and after brief deliberation, Frasier decides to disclose what is on his mind, in hopes that it will help pass the time on the flight.

Frasier's girlfriend, Charlotte, is leaving for Chicago, leaving Frasier devoid of any current love life. To commemorate her leaving for Chicago, Frasier and Charlotte sleep together on her final night in Seattle, resulting in a problem as Frasier misses his regularly scheduled radio show, which results in station manager Kenny Daly taking over in a pinch who quickly starts to enjoy himself. Once Frasier arrives, he bumps into his agent Bebe, where he learns about a job opening on a San Francisco television network after a death occurs there, but Frasier quickly declines, citing his comfort with his present situation at KACL. In the meantime, his brother Niles (David Hyde Pierce) and Niles' wife Daphne (Jane Leeves) are anticipating the birth of their child, while his father, Martin (John Mahoney), is set to be married to Ronee (Wendie Malick). A mishap occurs when Martin schedules the wedding for May 15th instead of July 15th. Frasier and Niles agree to plan the wedding in eight days.

As the two are frantically putting the wedding together, both Frasier and Niles encounter numerous difficulties. Three of Daphne's brothers, Simon, Stephen, and Michael, are in Seattle in anticipation of Daphne's childbirth. Frasier has arranged for a ceremonial cannon-firing when Martin and Ronee are officially declared married. However, the person Frasier puts in position has a heat stroke, making him unusable. Stephen volunteers to do the job instead and is told the cue from Frasier. However, Frasier and Niles also have to deal with finding a new flower girl, as the three brothers have accidentally intoxicated her. Roz (Peri Gilpin) allows her daughter Alice to do the job in the flower girl's stead, but upon receiving the same cue as Stephen was told, Stephen fires off the cannon, creating havoc in the neighborhood. Daphne and Niles realize Eddie has eaten the rings and take him to a local veterinarian. While they are at the vet's office, Daphne goes into labor. Frasier, Martin, and Ronee all hurry to the clinic, where Daphne has given birth to the couple's first child, whom they name David. Ronee suggests that she and Martin get married in the clinic, so Daphne and Niles do not miss out, and Frasier marries them.

Later, a mover (the same from the first episode) returns to Frasier's residence to take away Martin's chair. Frasier calls Lilith to ask after Frederick. Afterwards, he finds himself with the peace and quiet he was once desperate for. However, with Martin having moved out and Niles and Daphne busy with their new son, Frasier realises that he is lonely. He decides to take the job in San Francisco. The following day, Frasier and his colleagues learn that Roz has been promoted to station manager. Frasier invites his brother, father, Daphne, Ronee, and Roz to his apartment to announce his move to San Francisco. However, before the dinner, Frasier begins handing out gifts of significance. When an ominous phone call answered by the answering machine from a doctor reveals potentially bad news regarding Frasier's future outlook, the attendees fear the worst. Frasier then informs them of his impending move to San Francisco, where his new show will begin the following week. Later, during the celebration, Frasier reveals his reasoning for taking the job, citing that with Daphne and Niles' child, Martin and Ronee's marriage, and Roz's promotion, each of them have now begun a new phase of their lives, and that he now desires to do the same. Frasier then recites Alfred Lord Tennyson's poem "Ulysses". He reads the same poem at the end of his final show at KACL, where he thanks the staff and listeners for the past eleven years before closing, as ever, with the words "Goodnight, Seattle."

The poem Frasier quotes in this episode is a shortened version of Alfred, Lord Tennysonâ€™s "Ulysses".

"It may be that the gulfs will wash us down;

It may be we shall touch the Happy Isles,
And though we are not now that strength which in old days
Moved earth and heaven, that which we are, we are—
[Scene shifts to Frasier’s KACL booth.]
Made weak by time and fate, but strong in will;
To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield."

The episode was viewed by 33.7 million being the 11th most watched series finale and the 7th most watched from NBC.[2][3]

The episode had an overwhelming positive reception.[4][5][6][7][8][9] In 2011, the finale was ranked #17 on the TV Guide Network special, TV's Most Unforgettable Finales.[10]


who came up with a cure for tuberculosis

In 1944 Albert Schatz, Elizabeth Bugie, and Selman Waksman isolated streptomycin produced by a bacterial strain Streptomyces griseus. Streptomycin was the first effective antibiotic against M. tuberculosis.[99] This discovery is generally considered the beginning of the modern era of tuberculosis, although the true revolution began some years later, in 1952, with the development of isoniazid, the first oral mycobactericidal drug.[99] The advent of rifampin in the 1970s hastened recovery times, and significantly reduced the number of tuberculosis cases until the 1980s.

History of tuberculosis

Consumption, phthisis and the White Plague are all terms used to refer to tuberculosis throughout history. It is generally accepted that Mycobacterium tuberculosis originated from other, more primitive organisms of the same genus Mycobacterium. In 2014, results of a new DNA study of a tuberculosis genome reconstructed from remains in southern Peru suggest that human tuberculosis is less than 6,000 years old. Even if researchers theorize that humans first acquired it in Africa about 5,000 years ago,[1] there is evidence that the first tuberculosis infection happened about 9,000 years ago.[2] It spread to other humans along trade routes. It also spread to domesticated animals in Africa, such as goats and cows. Seals and sea lions that bred on African beaches are believed to have acquired the disease and carried it across the Atlantic to South America. Hunters would have been the first humans to contract the disease there.[1]

Scientific work investigating the evolutionary origins of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex has concluded that the most recent common ancestor of the complex was a human-specific pathogen, which underwent a population bottleneck. Analysis of mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units has allowed dating of the bottleneck to approximately 40,000 years ago, which corresponds to the period subsequent to the expansion of Homo sapiens sapiens out of Africa. This analysis of mycobacterial interspersed repetitive units also dated the Mycobacterium bovis lineage as dispersing approximately 6,000 years ago, which may be linked to animal domestication and early farming.[3]

Human bones from the Neolithic show a presence of the bacteria. There have also been a claim of evidence of lesions characteristic of tuberculosis in a 500,000 years old Homo erectus fossile, although this finding is controversial.[4]

Results of a genome study reported in 2014 suggest that tuberculosis is newer than previously thought. Scientists were able to recreate the genome of the bacteria from remains of 1,000-year-old skeletons in southern Peru. In dating the DNA, they found it was less than 6,000 years old. They also found it related most closely to a tuberculosis strain in seals, and have theorized that these animals were the mode of transmission from Africa to South America.[1] The team from University of Tubingen believe that humans acquired the disease in Africa about 5,000 years ago.[1] Their domesticated animals, such as goats and cows, contracted it from them. Seals acquired it when coming up on African beaches for breeding, and carried it across the Atlantic. In addition, TB spread via humans on the trade routes of the Old World. Other researchers have argued there is other evidence that suggests the tuberculosis bacteria is older than 6,000 years.[1] This TB strain found in Peru is different from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain likely brought by European colonists.[5] However, this result is criticised by other experts from the field,[1] for instance because there is evidence of the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 9000 year old skeletal remains.[2]

Although relatively little is known about its frequency before the 19th century, its incidence is thought to have peaked between the end of the 18th century and the end of the 19th century. Over time, the various cultures of the world gave the illness different names: phthisis (Greek), consumptione (Latin), yaksma (India), and chaky oncay (Incan), each of which make reference to the "drying" or "consuming" affect of the illness, cachexia.

In the 19th century, TB's high mortality rate among young and middle-aged adults and the surge of Romanticism, which stressed feeling over reason, caused many to refer to the disease as the "romantic disease".

In 2008, evidence for tuberculosis infection was discovered in human remains from the Neolithic era dating from 9,000 years ago, in Atlit Yam, a settlement in the eastern Mediterranean.[6] This finding was confirmed by morphological and molecular methods; to date it is the oldest evidence of tuberculosis infection in humans.

Evidence of the infection in humans was also found in a cemetery near Heidelberg, in the Neolithic bone remains that show evidence of the type of angulation often seen with spinal tuberculosis.[7] Some authors call tuberculosis the first disease known to mankind.

Signs of the disease have also been found in Egyptian mummies dated between 3000 and 2400 BC.[8] The most convincing case was found in the mummy of priest Nesperehen, discovered by Grebart in 1881, which featured evidence of spinal tuberculosis with the characteristic psoas abscesses.[9] Similar features were discovered on other mummies like that of the priest Philoc and throughout the cemeteries of Thebes. It appears likely that Akhenaten and his wife Nefertiti both died from tuberculosis, and evidence indicates that hospitals for tuberculosis existed in Egypt as early as 1500 BC.[10]

The Ebers papyrus, an important Egyptian medical treatise from around 1550 BC, describes a pulmonary consumption associated with the cervical lymph nodes. It recommended that it be treated with the surgical lancing of the cyst and the application of a ground mixture of acacia seyal, peas, fruits, animal blood, insect blood, honey and salt.

The Old Testament mentions a consumptive illness that would affect the Jewish people if they stray from God. It is listed in the section of curses given before they enter the land of Canaan.[11]

The first references to tuberculosis in non-European civilization is found in the Vedas. The oldest of them (Rigveda, 1500 BC) calls the disease yaksma.[12] The Atharvaveda calls it balasa. It is in the Atharvaveda that the first description of scrofula is given.[13] The Sushruta Samhita, written around 600 BC, recommends that the disease be treated with breast milk, various meats, alcohol and rest.[14] The Yajurveda advises sufferers to move to higher altitudes.[14]

The Classical Chinese word ao 癆 "consumption; tuberculosis" was the common name in traditional Chinese medicine and fèijiéhé 肺結核 (lit. "lung knot kernel") "pulmonary tuberculosis" is the modern medical term. Lao is compounded in names like xulao 虛癆 with "empty; void", láobìng 癆病 with "sickness", láozhài 癆瘵 with "[archaic] sickness", and feilao 肺癆 with "lungs". Zhang and Unschuld explain that the medical term xulao 虛癆 "depletion exhaustion" includes infectious and consumptive pathologies, such as laozhai 癆瘵 "exhaustion with consumption" or laozhaichong 癆瘵蟲 "exhaustion consumption bugs/worms".[15] They retrospectively identify feilao 肺癆 "lung exhaustion" and infectious feilao chuanshi 肺癆傳尸 "lung exhaustion by corpse [evil] transmission as "consumption/tuberculosis".[16] Describing foreign loanwords in early medical terminology, Zhang and Unschuld note the phonetic similarity between Chinese feixiao 肺消 (from Old Chinese **pʰot-ssew) "lung consumption" and ancient Greek phthisis "pulmonary tuberculosis".[17]

The (c. 400 BCE – 260 CE) Huangdi Neijing classic Chinese medical text, traditionally attributed to the mythical Yellow Emperor, describes a disease believed to be tuberculosis, called xulao bing (虛癆病 "weak consumptive disease"), characterized by persistent cough, abnormal appearance, fever, a weak and fast pulse, chest obstructions, and shortness of breath.[18][verification needed]

The Huangdi Neijing describes an incurable disease called huaifu 壞府 "bad palace", which commentators interpret as tuberculous. "As for a string which is cut, its sound is hoarse. As for wood which has become old, its leaves are shed. As for a disease which is in the depth [of the body], the sound it [generates] is hiccup. When a man has these three [states], this is called 'destroyed palace'. Toxic drugs do not bring a cure; short needles cannot seize [the disease].[19] Wang Bing's commentary explains that fu 府 "palace" stands for xiong 胸 "chest", and huai "destroy" implies "injure the palace and seize the disease". The Huangdi Neijing compiler Yang Shangshan notes, "The [disease] proposed here very much resembles tuberculosis... Hence [the text] states: poisonous drugs bring no cure; it cannot be seized with short needles."[20]

The (c. 200â€“250 CE) Shennong Bencaojing pharmacopeia, attributed to the legendary inventor of agriculture Shennong "Divine Farmer", also refers to tuberculosis[21]

The Zhouhou beiji fang 肘后备急方 "Handbook of Prescriptions for Emergencies", attributed to the Daoist scholar Ge Hong (263-420), uses the name of shizhu 尸疰 "corpse disease; tuberculosis" and describes the symptoms and contagion: "This disease has many changing symptoms varying from thirty-six to ninety-nine different kinds. Generally it gives rise to a high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalised pains, making all positions difficult. Gradually, after months and years of suffering, this lingering disease brings about death to the sufferer. Afterwards it is transferred to others until the whole family is wiped out."[22]

Song dynasty (920–1279) Daoist priest-doctors first recorded that tuberculosis, called shīzhài 尸瘵 (lit. "corpse disease") "disease which changes a living being into a corpse",[23] was caused by a specific parasite or pathogen, centuries earlier than their contemporaries in other countries. The Duanchu shizhai pin 斷除尸瘵品 "On the Extermination of the Corpse Disease" is the 23rd chapter in Daoist collection Wushang xuanyuan santian Yutang dafa 無上玄元三天玉堂大法 "Great Rites of the Jade Hall of the Three Heavens of the Supreme Mysterious Origins" (Daozang number 103). The text has a preface dated 1126, written by the Song dynasty Zhengyi Dao master Lu Shizhong 路時中, who founded the Yutang dafa 玉堂大法 tradition, but internal evidence reveals that the text could not have been written before 1158.[24]

The disaster of the contagious disease, which changes a living being into a corpse, is caused by the infectious [nature] of the nine [kinds of] parasites (ch'ung 蟲). It is also caused by overworking one's mind and exhausting one's energy, injuring one's ch'i and loosening one's sperm—all of which happen to common folk. When the original vitality is being [gradually] exhausted, the evil aura begins to be transmitted through the affected vital ch'i [of the sick body].... The aspects of the illness vary, and the causes of contamination are different. Rooms and food are capable of gradual contamination, and the clothes worn by the indisposed are twined easily with the infectious ch'i and these two become inseparable.... The symptoms of the disease: When it begins, the sufferer coughs and pants; he spits blood [pulmonary hemorrhage]; he is emaciated and skinny; cold and fever affect him intermittently, and his dreams are morbid. This is the evidence that this person is suffering from the disease which is also known as wu-ch'uan 屋傳 [contagious disease contracted from a sick-room].... The disease may be contracted by a healthy person who happens to have slept in the same bed with the patient, or worn his clothes. After the death of the sufferer, the clothes, curtains, bed or couch, vessels and utensils used by him are known to have been contaminated by and saturated with the polluted ch'i in which the noxious ku 蠱 [parasites or germs] take their abode. Stingy people wish to keep them for further use, and the poorer families cannot afford to get rid of them and buy everything anew. Isn't this lamentable, since it creates the cause of the great misfortune yet to come![25]

This passage refers to the cause of TB in ancient medical terminology of jiuchong 九蟲 "Nine Worms" and gu 蠱 "supernatural agents causing disease", and qi. The Nine Worms generically meant "bodily parasites; intestinal worms" and were associated with the sanshi 三尸 "Three Corpses" or sanchong 三蟲 "Three Worms", which were believed to be biospiritual parasites that live in the human body and seek to hasten their host's death. Daoist medical texts give different lists and descriptions of the Nine Worms. The Boji fang 博濟方 "Prescriptions for Universal Dispensation", collected by Wang Gun王袞 (fl. 1041), calls the supposed TB pathogen laochong 癆蟲 "tuberculosis worms".[26]

This Duanchu shizhai pin chapter (23/7b-8b) explains that the present Nine Worms does not refer to the intestinal weichong 胃蟲 "stomach worms", huichong 蛔蟲 "coiling worm; roundworm", or cun baichong 寸白蟲 "inch-long white worm; nematode", and says the supposed six TB worms are "six kinds" of parasites, but the next chapter (24/20a-21b) says they are "six stages/generations" of reproduction.[27] Daoist priests allegedly cured tuberculosis through drugs, acupuncture, and burning fulu "supernatural talismans/charms". Burning magic talismans would cause the TB patient to cough, which was considered an effective treatment.

To cure the disease, it is necessary to produce a spout of smoke by burning off thirty-six charms, and instruct the patient to inhale and to swallow up its fumes, whether he likes it or not. By the time all charms are used up, the smoke should also be dispersed. It may be difficult for the patient to bear the odour of the smoke at first, but once he gets used to such a smell, it does not really matter. Whenever the patient feels that there is phlegm in his throat, he is advised to cough and spit it out. If the patient is greatly affected by the symptoms, it will be good if his spittle is thick and if he can spit it out. When the patient is less affected by the wicked ch'i, he does not have much phlegm to eject, but if he is deeply affected, he tends to vomit and to expectorate heavily until everything is cleared up, and then his illness is cured. When the wicked element is rooted out, it does not need to be fumigated any more [with charms].[28]

In addition, Daoist healers would burn talismans in order to fumigate the clothes and belongings of the deceased, and would warn the family of the tuberculosis victim's family to throw away everything into a changliu shui 長流水 "everflowing stream". According to Liu Ts'un-yan,[29] "This proves that the priests of the time actually wanted to destroy all the belongings of the deceased, using charms as a camouflage."

The first classical text to mention the disease is Herodotus' Histories in which he relates how a Persian general, Pharnouches, abandoned Xerxes' campaign against the Spartans due to consumption.[30]

Hippocrates, in Book 1 of his Of the Epidemics, describes the characteristics of the disease: fever, colorless urine, cough resulting in a thick sputa, and loss of thirst and appetite. He notes that most of the sufferers became delirious before they succumbed to the disease.[31] Hippocrates and many other at the time believed phthisis to be hereditary in nature.[32] Aristotle disagreed, believing the disease was contagious.

Pliny the Younger wrote a letter to Priscus in which he details the symptoms of phthisis as he saw them in Fannia:

The attacks of fever stick to her, her cough grows upon her, she is in the highest degree emaciated and enfeebled.

Galen proposed a series of therapeutic treatments for the disease, including: opium as a sleeping agent and painkiller; blood letting; a diet of barley water, fish, and fruit. He also described the phyma (tumor) of the lungs, which is thought to correspond to the tubercles that form on the lung as a result of the disease.[33]

Vitruvius noted that "cold in the windpipe, cough, plurisy, phthisis, [and] spitting blood", were common diseases in regions where the wind blew from north to northwest, and advised that walls be so built as to shelter individuals from the winds.[34]

Aretaeus was the first person to rigorously describe the symptoms of the disease in his text De causis et signis diuturnorum morborum:[35]

Voice hoarse; neck slightly bent, tender, not flexible, somewhat extended; fingers slender, but joints thick; of the bones alone the figure remains, for the fleshy parts are wasted; the nails of the fingers crooked, their pulps are shrivelled and flat...Nose sharp, slender; cheeks prominent and red; eyes hollow, brilliant and glittering; swollen, pale or livid in countenance; the slender parts of the jaws rest on the teeth as, as if smiling; otherwise of cadaverous aspect...

In his other book De curatione diuturnorum morborum, he recommends that sufferers travel to high altitudes, travel by sea, eat a good diet and drink plenty of milk.[36]

In South America, reports of a study in August 2014 revealed that TB had likely been spread via seals that contracted it on beaches of Africa, from humans via domesticated animals, and carried it across the Atlantic. A team at the University of Tubingen analyzed tuberculosis DNA in 1,000-year-old skeletons of the Chiribaya culture in southern Peru; so much genetic material was recovered that they could reconstruct the genome. They learned that this TB strain was related most closely to a form found only in seals.[1] In South America, it was likely contracted first by hunters who handled contaminated meat. This TB is a different strain from that prevalent today in the Americas, which is more closely related to a later Eurasian strain.[5][37]

Prior to this study, the first evidence of the disease in South America was found in remains of the Arawak culture around 1050 BC.[38] The most significant finding belongs to the mummy of an 8 to 10-year-old Nascan child from Hacienda Agua Sala, dated to 700 AD. Scientists were able to isolate evidence of the bacillus.[38]

During the Middle Ages, no significant advances were made regarding tuberculosis. Avicenna and Rhazes continued to consider to believe the disease was both contagious and difficult to treat. Arnaldus de Villa Nova described etiopathogenic theory directly related to that of Hippocrates, in which a cold humor dripped from the head into the lungs.

In Medieval Hungary, the Inquisition recorded the trials of pagans. A document from the 12th century recorded an explanation of the cause of illness. The pagans said that tuberculosis was produced when a dog-shaped demon occupied the person's body and started to eat his lungs. When the possessed person coughed, then the demon was barking, and getting close to his objective, which was to kill the victim.[39]

With the spread of Christianity, monarchs were seen as religious figures with magical or curative powers. It was believed that royal touch, the touch of the sovereign of England or France, could cure diseases due to the divine right of sovereigns.[40] King Henry IV of France usually performed the rite once a week, after taking communion.[41] So common was this practice of royal healing in France, that scrofula became known as the "mal du roi" or the "King's Evil".

Initially, the touching ceremony was an informal process. Sickly individuals could petition the court for a royal touch and the touch would be performed at the King's earliest convenience. At times, the King of France would touch afflicted subjects during his royal walkabout. The rapid spread of tuberculosis across France and England, however, necessitated a more formal and efficient touching process. By the time of Louis XIV of France, placards indicating the days and times the King would be available for royal touches were posted regularly; sums of money were doled out as charitable support.[41][42] In England, the process was extremely formal and efficient. As late as 1633, the Book of Common Prayer of the Anglican Church contained a Royal Touch ceremony.[43] The monarch (king or queen), sitting upon a canopied throne, touched the afflicted individual, and presented that individual with a coin – usually an Angel, a gold coin the value of which varied from about 6 shillings to about 10 shillings – by pressing it against the afflicted's neck.[41]

Although the ceremony was of no medical value, members of the royal courts often propagandized that those receiving the royal touch were miraculously healed. André du Laurens, the senior physician of Henry IV, publicized findings that at least half of those that received the royal touch were cured within a few days.[44] The royal touch remained popular into the 18th century. Parish registers from Oxfordshire, England include not only records of baptisms, marriages, and deaths, but also records of those eligible for the royal touch.[40]

Girolamo Fracastoro became the first person to propose, in his work De contagione, that phthisis was transmitted by an invisible virus. Among his assertions were that the virus could survive between two or three years on the clothes of those suffering from the disease and that it was usually transmitted through direct contact or the discharged fluids of the infected, what he called fomes. He noted that phthisis could be contracted without either direct contact or fomes, but was unsure of the process by which the disease propagated across distances.[45]

Paracelsus advanced the belief that tuberculosis was caused by a failure of an internal organ to accomplish its alchemical duties. When this occurred in the lungs, stony precipitates would develop causing tuberculosis in what he called the tartaric process.[46]

Franciscus Sylvius began differentiating between the various forms of tuberculosis (pulmonary, ganglion). He was the first person to recognize that the skin ulcers caused by scrofula resembled tubercles seen in phthisis,[47] noting that "phthisis is the scrofula of the lung" in his book Opera Medica, published posthumously in 1679. Around the same time, Thomas Willis concluded that all diseases of the chest must ultimately lead to consumption.[48] Willis did not know the exact cause of the disease but he blamed it on sugar[49] or an acidity of the blood.[47] Richard Morton published Phthisiologia, seu exercitationes de Phthisi tribus libris comprehensae in 1689, in which he emphasized the tubercle as the true cause of the disease. So common was the disease at the time that Morton is quoted as saying "I cannot sufficiently admire that anyone, at least after he comes to the flower of his youth, can [sic] dye without a touch of consumption."[50]

In 1720, Benjamin Marten proposed in A New Theory of Consumptions more Especially of Phthisis or Consumption of the Lungs that the cause of tuberculosis was some type of animalculaâ€”microscopic living beings that are able to survive in a new body (similar to the ones described by Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1695).[51] The theory was roundly rejected and it took another 162 years before Robert Koch demonstrated it to be true.

In 1768, Robert Whytt gave the first clinical description of tuberculosis meningitis[52] and in 1779, Percivall Pott, an English surgeon, described the vertebral lesions that carry his name.[42] In 1761, Leopold Auenbrugger, an Austrian physician, developed the percussion method of diagnosing tuberculosis,[53] a method rediscovered some years later in 1797 by Jean-Nicolas Corvisart of France. After finding it useful, Corvisart made it readily available to the academic community by translating it into French.[54]

William Stark proposed that ordinary lung tubercles could eventually evolve into ulcers and cavities, believing that the different forms of tuberculosis were simply different manifestations of the same disease. Unfortunately, Stark died at the age of thirty (while studying scurvy) and his observations were discounted.[55] In his Systematik de speziellen Pathologie und Therapie, J. L. Schönlein, Professor of Medicine in Zurich, proposed that the word "tuberculosis" be used to describe the affliction of tubercles.[56][57]

The incidence of tuberculosis grew progressively during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, displacing leprosy, peaking between the 18th and 19th century as field workers moved to the cities looking for work.[42] When he released his study in 1808, William Woolcombe was astonished at the prevalence of tuberculosis in 18th-century England.[58] Of the 1,571 deaths in the English city of Bristol between 1790 and 1796, 683 were due to tuberculosis.[59] Remote towns, initially isolated from the disease, slowly succumbed. The consumption deaths in the village of Holycross in Shropshire between 1750 and 1759 were one in six (1:6); ten years later, 1:3. In the metropolis of London, 1:7 died from consumption at the dawn of the 18th century, by 1750 that proportion grew to 1:5.25 and surged to 1:4.2 by around the start of the 19th century.[60] The Industrial Revolution coupled with poverty and squalor created the optimal environment for the propagation of the disease.

"Chopin coughs with infinite grace."

It was during this century that tuberculosis was dubbed the White Plague,[61] mal de vivre, and mal du siècle. It was seen as a "romantic disease". Suffering from tuberculosis was thought to bestow upon the sufferer heightened sensitivity. The slow progress of the disease allowed for a "good death" as sufferers could arrange their affairs.[62] The disease began to represent spiritual purity and temporal wealth, leading many young, upper-class women to purposefully pale their skin to achieve the consumptive appearance. British poet Lord Byron wrote, "I should like to die from consumption", helping to popularize the disease as the disease of artists.[63] George Sand doted on her phthisic lover, Frédéric Chopin, calling him her "poor melancholy angel".[64]

In France, at least five novels were published expressing the ideals of tuberculosis: Dumas's La Dame aux camélias, Murger's Scènes de la vie de Bohème, Hugo's Les Misérables, the Goncourt brothers' Madame Gervaisais and Germinie Lacerteux, and Rostand's L'Aiglon. The portrayals by Dumas and Murger in turn inspired operatic depictions of consumption in Verdi's La traviata and Puccini's La bohème. Even after medical knowledge of the disease had accumulated, the redemptive-spiritual perspective of the disease has remained popular[65] (as seen in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge based in part on La traviata and the musical adaptations of Les Misérables).

In large cities the poor had high rates of tuberculosis. Public-health physicians and politicians typically blamed both the poor themselves and their ramshackle tenement houses (conventillos) for the spread of the dreaded disease. People ignored public-health campaigns to limit the spread of contagious diseases, such as the prohibition of spitting on the streets, the strict guidelines to care for infants and young children, and quarantines that separated families from ill loved ones.[66]

Though removed from the cultural movement, the scientific understanding advanced considerably. By the end of the 19th century, several major breakthroughs gave hope that a cause and cure might be found.

One of the most important physicians dedicated to the study of phthisiology was René Laennec, who died from the disease at the age of 45, after contracting tuberculosis while studying contagious patients and infected bodies.[67] Laennec invented the stethoscope[53] which he used to corroborate his auscultatory findings and prove the correspondence between the pulmonary lesions found on the lungs of autopsied tuberculosis patients and the respiratory symptoms seen in living patients. His most important work was Traité de l’Auscultación Mediate which detailed his discoveries on the utility of pulmonary auscultation in diagnosing tuberculosis. This book was promptly translated into English by John Forbes in 1821; it represents the beginning of the modern scientific understanding of tuberculosis.[64] Laennec was named professional chair of Hôpital Necker in September 1816 and today he is considered the greatest French clinician.[68][69]

Laennec's work put him in contact with the vanguard of the French medical establishment, including Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis. Louis would go on to use statistical methods to evaluate the different aspects of the disease's progression, the efficacy of various therapies and individuals' susceptibility, publishing an article in the Annales d'hygiÃ¨ne publique entitled "Note on the Relative Frequency of Phthisis in the Two Sexes".[70] Another good friend and co-worker of Laennec, Gaspard Laurent Bayle, published an article in 1810 entitled Recherches sur la Pthisie Pulmonaire, in which he divided pthisis into six types: tubercular phthisis, glandular phthisis, ulcerous phthisis, phthisis with melanosis, calculous phthisis, and cancerous phthisis. He based his findings on more than 900 autopsies.[61][71]

In 1869, Jean Antoine Villemin demonstrated that the disease was indeed contagious, conducting an experiment in which tuberculous matter from human cadavers was injected into laboratory rabbits, which then became infected.[72]

On 24 March 1882, Robert Koch revealed the disease was caused by an infectious agent.[64] In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen discovered the X-ray, which allowed physicians to diagnose and track the progression of the disease,[73] and although an effective medical treatment would not come for another fifty years, the incidence and mortality of tuberculosis began to decline.[74]

Villemin's experiments had confirmed the contagious nature of the disease and had forced the medical community to accept that tuberculosis was indeed an infectious disease, transmitted by some etiological agent of unknown origin. In 1882, Prussian physician Robert Koch utilized a new staining method and applied it to the sputum of tuberculosis patients, revealing for the first time the causal agent of the disease: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, or Koch's bacillus.[76]

When he began his investigation, Koch knew of the work of Villemin and others who had continued his experiments like Julius Conheim and Carl Salmosen. He also had access to the "pthisis ward" at the Berlin CharitÃ© Hospital.[77] Before he confronted the problem of tuberculosis, he worked with the disease caused by anthrax and had discovered the causal agent to be Bacillus anthracis. During this investigation he became friends with Ferdinand Cohn, the director of the Institute of Vegetable Physiology. Together they worked to develop methods of culturing tissue samples. 18 August 1881, while staining tuberculous material with methylene blue, he noticed oblong structures, though he was not able to ascertain whether it was just a result of the coloring. To improve the contrast, he decide to add Bismarck Brown, after which the oblong structures were rendered bright and transparent. He improved the technique by varying the concentration of alkali in the staining solution until the ideal viewing conditions for the bacilli was achieved.

After numerous attempts he was able to incubate the bacteria in coagulated blood serum at 37 degrees Celsius. He then inoculated laboratory rabbits with the bacteria and observed that they died while exhibiting symptoms of tuberculosis, proving that the bacillus, which he named tuberculosis bacillus, was in fact the cause of tuberculosis.[78]

He made his result public at the Physiological Society of Berlin on 24 March 1882, in a famous lecture entitled Ãœber Tuberculose, which was published three weeks later. Since 1882, 24 March has been known as World Tuberculosis Day.[79]

On 20 April 1882, Koch presented an article entitled Die Ã„tiologie der Tuberculose in which he demonstrated that Mycobacterium was the single cause of tuberculosis in all of its forms.[78]

In 1890 Koch developed tuberculin, a purified protein derivative of the bacteria.[80] It proved to be an ineffective means of immunization but in 1908, Charles Mantoux found it was an effective intradermic test for diagnosing tuberculosis.[81]

If the importance of a disease for mankind is measured from the number of fatalities which are due to it, then tuberculosis must be considered much more important than those most feared infectious diseases, plague, cholera, and the like. Statistics have shown that 1/7 of all humans die of tuberculosis.

The advancement of scientific understanding of tuberculosis, and its contagious nature created the need for institutions to house sufferers.

The first proposal for a tuberculosis facility was made in paper by George Bodington entitled An essay on the treatment and cure of pulmonary consumption, on principles natural, rational and successful in 1840. In this paper, he proposed a dietary, rest, and medical care program for a hospital he planned to found in Maney.[82] Attacks from numerous medical experts, especially articles in The Lancet, disheartened Bodington and he turned to plans for housing the insane.[83]

Around the same time in the United States, in late October and early November 1842, Dr. John Croghan, the owner of Mammoth Cave, brought 15 tuberculosis sufferers into the cave in the hope of curing the disease with the constant temperature and purity of the cave air.[84] Patients were lodged in stone huts, and each was supplied with a slave to bring meals.[85] One patient, A. H. P. Anderson, wrote glowing reviews of the cave experience:[86]

[S]ome of the invalids eat at their pavillions while others in better health attend regularly the table d'hote which is very good indeed, having a considerable variety and being almost daily (I've noted but 2-3 omissions) graced with a saddle of venison or other game.

By late January, early February 1843, two patients were dead and the rest had left. Departing patients died anywhere from three days to three weeks after resurfacing; John Croghan died of tuberculosis at his Louisville residence in 1849.[87]

Hermann Brehmer, a German physician, was convinced that tuberculosis arose from the difficulty of the heart to correctly irrigate the lungs. He therefore proposed that regions well above sea level, where the atmospheric pressure was less, would help the heart function more effectively. With the encouragement of explorer Alexander von Humboldt and his teacher J. L. Schönlein, the first anti-tuberculosis sanatorium was established in 1854, 650 meters above sea level, at Görbersdorf.[88] Three years later he published his findings in a paper Die chronische Lungenschwindsucht und Tuberkulose der Lunge: Ihre Ursache und ihre Heilung.

Brehmer and one of his patients, Peter Dettweiler, became proponents for the sanatorium movement, and by 1877, sanatoriums began to spread beyond Germany and throughout Europe. Dr. Edward Livingston Trudeau subsequently founded the Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium in Saranac Lake, New York in 1884. One of Trudeau's early patients was author Robert Louis Stevenson; his fame helped establish Saranac Lake as a center for the treatment of tuberculosis. In 1894, after a fire destroyed Trudeau's small home laboratory, he organized the Saranac Laboratory for the Study of Tuberculosis; renamed the Trudeau Institute, the laboratory continues to study infectious diseases.[89]

Peter Dettweiler went on to found his own sanatorium at Falkenstein in 1877 and in 1886 published findings claiming that 132 of his 1022 patients had been completely cured after staying at his institution.[90] Eventually, sanatoriums began to appear near large cities and at low altitudes, like the Sharon Sanatorium in 1890 near Boston.[91]

Sanatoriums were not the only treatment facilities. Specialized tuberculosis clinics began to develop in major metropolitan areas. Sir Robert Philip established the Royal Victoria Dispensary for Consumption in Edinburgh in 1887. Dispensaries acted as special sanatoriums for early tuberculosis cases and were opened to lower income individuals. The use of dispensaries to treat middle and lower-class individuals in major metropolitan areas and the coordination between various levels of health services programs like hospitals, sanatoriums, and tuberculosis colonies became known as the "Edinburgh Anti-tuberculosis Scheme".[92]

At the beginning of the 20th century, tuberculosis was one of the UK's most urgent health problems. A royal commission was set up in 1901, The Royal Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Relations of Human and Animal Tuberculosis. Its remit was to find out whether tuberculosis in animals and humans was the same disease, and whether animals and humans could infect each other. By 1919, the Commission had evolved into the UK's Medical Research Council.

In 1902, the International Conference on Tuberculosis convened in Berlin. Among various other acts, the conference proposed the Cross of Lorraine be the international symbol of the fight against tuberculosis. National campaigns spread across Europe and the United States to tamp down on the continued prevalence of tuberculosis.

After the establishment in the 1880s that the disease was contagious, TB was made a notifiable disease in Britain; there were campaigns to stop spitting in public places, and the infected poor were pressured to enter sanatoria that resembled prisons; the sanatoria for the middle and upper classes offered excellent care and constant medical attention.[93] Whatever the purported benefits of the fresh air and labor in the sanatoria, even under the best conditions, 50% of those who entered were dead within five years (1916).[93]

The promotion of Christmas Seals began in Denmark during 1904 as a way to raise money for tuberculosis programs. It expanded to the United States and Canada in 1907â€“1908 to help the National Tuberculosis Association (later called the American Lung Association).

In the United States, concern about the spread of tuberculosis played a role in the movement to prohibit public spitting except into spittoons.

The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was developed from attenuated bovine-strain tuberculosis by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin in 1906. It was called "BCG" (Bacille Calmette-Guérin). The BCG vaccine was first used on humans in 1921 in France,[94] but it was not until after World War II that BCG received widespread acceptance in Great Britain, and Germany.[95] In the early days of the British National Health Service X-ray examination for TB increased dramatically but rates of vaccination were initially very low. In 1953 it was agreed that secondary school pupils should be vaccinated, but by the end of 1954 only 250,000 people had been vaccinated. By 1956 this had risen to 600,000, about half being school children.[96]

As the century progressed, some surgical interventions, including the pneumothorax or plombage technique—collapsing an infected lung to "rest" it and allow the lesions to heal—were used to treat tuberculosis.[97] Pneumothorax was not a new technique by any means. In 1696, Giorgio Baglivi reported a general improvement in tuberculosis sufferers after they received sword wounds to the chest. F.H. Ramadge induced the first successful therapeutic pneumothorax in 1834, and reported subsequently the patient was cured. It was in the 20th century, however, that scientists sought to rigorously investigate the effectiveness of such procedures. In 1939, the British Journal of Tuberculosis published a study by Oli Hjaltested and Kjeld Törning on 191 patients undergoing the procedure between 1925 and 1931; in 1951, Roger Mitchell published several articles on the therapeutic outcomes of 557 patients treated between 1930 and 1939 at Trudeau Sanatorium in Saranac Lake.[98] The search for a medicinal cure, however, continued in earnest.

During the Nazi occupation of Poland, SS-Obergruppenführer Wilhelm Koppe organized the execution of more than 30,000 Polish patients suffering from tuberculosis - little knowing or caring that a cure was nearly at hand.

The British epidemiologist Thomas McKeown had shown that 'treatment by streptomycin reduced the number of deaths since it was introduced (1948-71) by 51 per cent...'.[100] However, he also showed that the mortality from TB in England and Wales had already declined by 90 to 95% before streptomycin and BCG-vaccination were widely available, and that the contribution of antibiotics to the decline of mortality from TB was actually very small: '...for the total period since cause of death was first recorded (1848â€“71) the reduction was 3.2 per cent'.[100]:82 These figures have since been confirmed for all western countries (see for example the decline in TB mortality in the USA) and for all then known infectious diseases. McKeown explained the decline in mortality from infectious diseases by an improved standard of living, particularly by better nutrition, and by better hygiene, and less by medical intervention. McKeown, who is considered as the father of social medicine,[101] has advocated for many years, that with drugs and vaccines we may win the battle but will lose the war against Diseases of Poverty.[102] Thereto, efforts and resources should be primarily directed toward improving the standard of living of people in low resource countries, and toward improving their environment by providing clean water, sanitation, better housing, education, safety and justice, and access to medical care. Particularly the work of Nobel laureates Robert W. Fogel (1993)[103][104][105][106] and Angus Deaton (2015)[101] have greatly contributed to the recent reappreciation of the McKeown thesis. A negative confirmation of the McKeown thesis was that increased pressure on wages by IMF loans to post-communist Eastern European were strongly associated with a rise in TB incidence, prevalence and mortality.[107]

Hopes that the disease could be completely eliminated were dashed in the 1980s with the rise of drug-resistant strains. Tuberculosis cases in Britain, numbering around 117,000 in 1913, had fallen to around 5,000 in 1987, but cases rose again, reaching 6,300 in 2000 and 7,600 cases in 2005.[108] Due to the elimination of public health facilities in New York and the emergence of HIV, there was a resurgence of TB in the late 1980s.[109] The number of patients failing to complete their course of drugs is high. New York had to cope with more than 20,000 TB patients with multidrug-resistant strains (resistant to, at least, both rifampin and isoniazid).

In response to the resurgence of tuberculosis, the World Health Organization issued a declaration of a global health emergency in 1993.[110] Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.[111]