what is the toll price of the florida turnpike

Tolls on the turnpike are an average of 6.7 cents per mile (4.2 ¢/km) for cars and other two-axle vehicles using SunPass.[10] A trip on the entire turnpike (not including the Homestead Extension) would cost $20.93 with cash/Toll-by-Plate, and $16.69 with SunPass.[11] The ticket system is operated between the Lantana and Three Lakes Barrier tolls and on a coin system south of Lantana and north of Kissimmee, with the portion between the Golden Glades toll barrier north to I-595 in Davie being a cashless toll system, similar to the HEFT. The turnpike was originally entirely on the ticket system, but due to congestion in the Miami and Orlando metro areas, a coin system was implemented in those sections of the turnpike in the 1990s.[12] The SunPass electronic toll collection system, in use since 1999, has become the primary method of paying tolls on the turnpike, with 80% of customers using the electronic tolling as of October 2009.[13][14][15] SunPass can be used on most Florida toll roads, and with conjunction with other electronic toll collection systems in Florida (E-Pass and LeeWay). SunPass users benefit from an average of a 25% discount on tolls and access to SunPass-only exit ramps.[16] SunPass transponders are available at the gift shop and gas stations at all service plazas, as well as Publix and CVS/pharmacy stores statewide.[17]

Florida's Turnpike

Florida's Turnpike, designated as State Road 91 (SR 91) and the Ronald Reagan Turnpike, is a toll road in Florida, maintained by Florida's Turnpike Enterprise (FTE). Spanning approximately 309 miles (497 km) along a north–south axis, the turnpike is in two sections. The SR 91 mainline runs roughly 265 miles (426 km), from its southern terminus at an interchange with Interstate 95 (I-95) in Miami Gardens to an interchange with I-75 in Wildwood at its northern terminus. The Homestead Extension of Florida's Turnpike (abbreviated HEFT and designated as SR 821) continues from the southern end of the mainline for another 48 miles (77 km) to US Highway 1 (US 1) in Florida City.

The mainline opened in stages between 1957 and 1964, while the extension was completed in 1974. The former runs through Miami, Fort Lauderdale, West Palm Beach where it parallels I-95, and Orlando where it crosses I-4.[2] Florida's Turnpike is one of the busiest highways in the country (according to the IBBTA, the highway is the nation's third most heavily traveled toll road[3]).

The main section of Florida's Turnpike begins at the northern end of the Golden Glades Interchange in Miami Gardens as a six-lane highway, and passes through the Golden Glades Toll Barrier, a cashless toll point, similar to the ones on the HEFT. About 2 miles (3.2 km) north of the toll gantry, it passes by Sun Life Stadium to the west before intersecting with the northern end of the HEFT at the Dade/Broward County line 4 miles (6.4 km) from Golden Glades, continuing the HEFT's mile marker. The highway goes through the inland suburbs of Miramar, Hollywood, and Davie, with an exit at Hollywood Boulevard (SR 820) at mile 50, and passing west of the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Hollywood just south the Griffin Road (SR 818) interchange (exit 53). In Davie, about 8 miles (13 km) north of the Homestead Extension interchange, it intersects with I-595, providing direct access to Alligator Alley and Ft. Lauderdale International Airport. After two more interchanges, one with Sunrise Boulevard (SR 838) in Plantation and Commercial Boulevard (SR 870) in Tamarac, it crosses the Cypress Creek Toll Plaza in North Lauderdale, the second on the mainline. Just 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the toll plaza, it intersects with the Pompano Beach Service Plaza, the first of seven full service plazas on the mainline, and where the Turnpike's Operations center is located. Still in Pompano Beach, it has a northbound only exit with Atlantic Boulevard (SR 814), followed by full interchanges with Coconut Creek Parkway/Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard (County Road 912) (exit 67) and Sample Road (SR 834) (exit 69). It then enters Deerfield Beach with an interchange with the Sawgrass Expressway in Coconut Creek (exit 71), the final interchange in Broward County. The Turnpike then enters Palm Beach County, with an interchange in each Boca Raton (Glades Road, exit 75), Delray Beach (Atlantic Avenue, exit 81) and Boynton Beach (Boynton Beach Boulevard, exit 86).[4][5][6]

In central Palm Beach County at mile marker 88, the Ticket system of the turnpike begins at the Lantana Toll Plaza. The turnpike narrows to a four-lane highway as it goes through a less developed portion of Palm Beach County, crossing with interchanges with Lake Worth Road, followed by the Lake Worth/West Palm Beach Service Plaza at mile marker 94. In West Palm Beach, the highway has interchanges with US 98/SR 80 (Southern Boulevard), a SunPass only interchange at Jog Road, followed by an interchange at Okeechobee Boulevard (exit 99) that heads directly into downtown West Palm Beach. North of the interchange, the highway enters stretch of sparse development between this point and Port St. Lucie, intersecting with the Beeline Highway, another SunPass only interchange before leaving West Palm Beach. Just north of the SR 786 interchange in Palm Beach Gardens (exit 109), I-95 parallels the Turnpike to the east for about 20 miles (32Â km) with I-95 visible from the turnpike as it has an interchange with SR 706 (exit 116) in Jupiter and into Martin County. It breaks off as it crosses the Thomas B. Manuel Bridge over the St. Lucie Canal,[7] crossing I-95 without an interchange just south of the SR 714 interchange, the only exit in Martin County. I-95 heads west towards the western fringes of St. Lucie County development, while the turnpike takes a path along the central areas of the county. The Turnpike has two interchanges in Port St. Lucie, one at Becker Road (exit 138), the third SunPass only exit, and SR 716 (exit 142), followed by the Port St. Lucie-Fort Pierce service plaza at mile marker 144. The turnpike intersects I-95 one last time just south of SR 70 (exit 152) in Fort Pierce, as I-95 continues to head up the east coast of Florida and the turnpike curves inland towards Orlando.[4][6]

North of the SR 70 interchange, the Turnpike enters a rural area, with cattle farms and orange groves lining the road for most of the section between Fort Pierce and Kissimmee, with only one interchange with SR 60 in Yeehaw Junction (exit 193), although there are two service plazas in this area, one at Fort Drum at mile marker 184 and the other, Canoe Creek, at mile marker 229. Between Fort Pierce and Yeehaw Junction, the turnpike travels in a nearly east-west direction heading inland, with a 40.5 miles (65.2 km) gap between the two exits, the second longest of any US expressway.[8] Between Yeehaw Junction and Kissimmee, the turnpike, returning to a north-northwest direction towards Orlando, has a 48.9 miles (78.7 km) (47 miles (76 km) southbound) stretch without an exit, the longest of any US expressway.[8] At mile marker 236, the ticket system ends at the Three Lakes toll plaza, as the turnpike enters the Orlando Area and development starts to reappear on the turnpike. The SunPass only interchange located at Kissimmee Park Road, a partial interchange featuring a northbound on- and southbound off-ramp only, is named for Senator N. Ray Carroll, longtime Osceola County banker, citrus grower and cattle rancher.[4][6][9] After interchanges with US 192/US 441 (exit 242 northbound, exit 244 southbound) and the Osceola Parkway (exit 249), it enters Orange County, and Orlando. Exit 251 features a partial interchange with SR 417 (Central Florida GreeneWay), with an exit from the northbound Turnpike to northbound SR 417 and entrance from southbound SR 417 to southbound Turnpike. Exit 254 is a massive interchange with both Orange Blossom Trail and the Beachline Expressway, where the Turnpike expands to eight lanes north of the interchange, and then it intersects with Consulate Drive (exit 255), a southbound only, SunPass only interchange.[4][6]

After passing the I-4 interchange (exit 259) near many of Orlando's theme parks, the Turnpike moves in a northwest direction first passing by the Turkey Lake Service Plaza at mile marker 263, where the FDOT district headquarters of the Turnpike are located. The Turnpike has the next two interchanges with Orlando area tollways, the East-West Expressway (exit 265) and the Western Expressway (exit 267A), where in between the two exits, the turnpike expands to become a 12 lane highway, and reverting to an eight-lane highway north of the SR 429 interchange. The last two Orange County interchanges are with SR 50 five miles apart at exit 267B and 272, with the turnpike becoming a four-lane highway north of exit 272, and staying that way for the rest of its northward journey. The Turnpike then enters Lake County, heading in a northwestern direction, where hilly countryside become a part of the terrain for the remainder of the expressway. At mile 285, it has a northbound exit/southbound entrance with US 27, followed by the Leesburg toll plaza at mile 288, and a southbound exit/northbound entrance with US 27 at mile 289. The last interchange in Lake County is with County Road 470 (exit 296), which does not provide cash.[4][6]

At mile marker 299, the turnpike passes through the final service plaza, the Okahumpka service plaza. Between US 301 (exit 304) and the northern terminus (mile 309) is considered to be a free movement as there is no toll for anyone traveling within this section. The tollway ends with an interchange with I-75 in Wildwood, about 20 miles south of Ocala.[4][6] Exit 304 provides access to southbound I-75 through that interstate's exit 329 while northbound I-75 travelers can access the turnpike at this exit.

As the Turnpike and its system of roads are primary routes for emergency evacuations, tolls may be suspended, in cooperation with the state's emergency operations center and county governments, when a state or national emergency, most common being a hurricane watch, warrant rapid movement of the population.[18]

Eight service plazas are located along the Turnpike, spaced about 45 miles (72Â km) apart. All eight plazas are open 24 hours a day and located on the center median of the turnpike for access from both directions and offer gasoline, diesel fuel, internet access, travel and tourism info and tickets, picnic areas, TV news, gift shops offering Florida Lottery, family-friendly restrooms, and public phones. A convenience store/gas station is located at the Snapper Creek plaza on the Homestead Extension of the Turnpike, while the remaining seven are full-service plazas, featuring a selection of franchised fast food restaurants. Three of the service plazas (Pompano, Port St. Lucie/Fort Pierce, Turkey Lake) also provide E85 ethanol.[19] The Turkey Lake plaza also has an electric vehicle charger for Tesla Motors vehicles.[20]

The operation of Sunshine State Parkway gas stations and service centers were originally bid out under separate contracts, and as a result, differing petroleum brands operated concurrently along the Parkway, with varying levels of service and pricing.[21] This practice was discontinued in 1995 when all service center operations were combined to improve supply and continuity of service; with Martin Petroleum, a Florida Corporation, operating the stations with Citgo brand fuel at its stations.[22][23] Since then, the Venezuelan government, under President Hugo ChÃ¡vez, nationalized Citgo, and in 2006, political controversy resulted in a movement to remove the brand from the turnpike.[24] Currently, the gas stations are under the Shell Brand.

In 2009, Areas U.S.A. signed a 30-year contract for operation of food and retail concessions, taking over operations from Martin Petroleum and HMSHost. Florida Turnpike Services, L.L.C., Areas' partner, replaced the Citgo brand and changed over the restaurant brands.[25][26] The reconstruction and renovation of six of the service plazas began on November 1, 2010, to be completed in 2012. The Okahumpka and Ft. Pierce plazas will begin reconstruction when the other plaza projects are complete. Total renovation costs are estimated at $160 million.[27]

Florida's Turnpike Enterprise is operating with an intelligent transportation systems (ITS), used to detect and manage incidents on the Enterprise's roadways. The ITS are managed by two traffic management centers (TMC), one located in Pompano Beach, and the other located in Ocoee, operated by Florida's Turnpike Enterprise 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The system, consisting of closed-circuit television (CCTV) traffic cameras, dynamic message signs (DMS), highway advisory radio (HAR), and radar vehicle detection system (RVDS), allow the TMC to see anything from congestion to crashes, to disabled vehicles that may pose a threat to the Turnpike's motorists. When necessary, the TMC will activate the dynamic message signs (DMS) and highway advisory radio stations (HAR) to alert motorists of the potential situation, as well as AMBER/Silver Alerts.[28][29]

The Safety Patrol (also known as Road Rangers, and currently sponsored by State Farm) offers free roadside assistance on Florida's Turnpike mainline and Homestead Extension. Utility trucks patrol one of 12 designated zones looking for stranded motorists to provide services such as fuel, tire changes, use of a cellular phone; and also watching out for crashes and road debris. The Traffic Management Center dispatches them to accidents, debris removal, disabled vehicles, or anything that may potentially affect the traveling public; they also assist the Florida Highway Patrol (FHP) with traffic maintenance with incidents involving blockage of lanes.[30]

In the years following World War II, Florida was experiencing unprecedented growth in population and tourism, along with a revitalized citrus industry recovering from a harsh freeze early in the decade; the increased traffic load quickly burdened the state's highway system. South Florida businessman and accountant firm owner Charles B. Costar was concerned that a trip down the east coast of Florida would take days on the available road network, passing through every small beachside town, siphoning off the traffic before visitors reached South Florida. After driving on the Pennsylvania Turnpike during a vacation there, he envisioned a similar high-speed turnpike in Florida. In 1953, Costar led a lobby group that resulted in state legislature creating the "Florida Turnpike Act," which Governor Dan McCarty signed into law on July 11, 1953, as well as the Florida State Turnpike Authority, which had the ability to plan, design, and construct bond-financed toll roads, in which Costar was instrumental to create, to be repaid through the collection of tolls from Turnpike customers.[13]

Thomas B. Manuel, known as the "Father of the Turnpike," served as chairman of the Florida State Turnpike Authority from January 1955 to January 1961. Manuel debated with state legislature members opposed to tollways, emphasizing the need for a good highway system in a tourism-driven state. During the 1955 legislative session, many small-county legislators and others opposed to the Parkway, formed a "kill the 'Pike'" coalition; Manuel won over the legislators at his headquarters in the Floridan Hotel near the capitol. Only four votes against the turnpike were entered at the end of the session's roll call, and the Legislature granted permission to build with a $70 million bond issue in June 1955. A Turnpike bridge in Stuart bears his name to honor his contributions.[13]

Construction on the Parkway began on July 4, 1955, starting at what is now the Golden Glades Interchange.[31] In October 1956, all work on the Sunshine State Parkway north of Ft. Pierce was abandoned and plans for a state-long turnpike were shelved due to passage of the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, which provided for construction of limited-access highways in the corridors that had been under study for the Parkway Extension. One was Interstate 95, which was slated to connect Jacksonville with Miami in a similar alignment to the planned Sunshine State Parkway Coastal Route. This resulted in completion of a truncated 110 miles (180Â km) highway that ran from Miami to Fort Pierce, opening on January 25, 1957.[13]

In January 1959, Governor LeRoy Collins, favoring a Parkway extension from Fort Pierce to Orlando, stated that building the Parkway north of Orlando would be unnecessary due to the interstate highway system. In late May 1959, the Board authorized a study for the Parkway Extension to Orlando, and connecting the Interstate routes in Florida. In 1961, Governor Collins approved the sale of $80 million in bonds to finance the parkway extension from Fort Pierce to Wildwood, adding another 156 miles (251 km) of roadway and shifting Interstate 75's route six miles (10 km) eastward from its original alignment. The extension was opened in three stages; a 61 miles (98 km) section between Yeehaw Junction and Orlando opened on July 17, 1963, a section linking Fort Pierce and Yeehaw Junction opened on November 22, 1963, and the section between Orlando and the northern terminus of I-75 opened on July 24, 1964, completing the mainline.[2][13]

The Bureau of Public Roads approved an Interstate 95 alignment that used 41 miles (66Â km) of the Turnpike from PGA Boulevard (SR 786) in Palm Beach Gardens north to SR 70 in Ft. Pierce in the 1950s.[32][33] In the mid-1960s, the State Road Department authorized traffic counts be conducted to determine if the separation of Interstate 95 from the Turnpike was feasible, with arguments that using a concurrent alignment was costing Florida money for Federal Highway funding, but not without the concern of losing toll revenue.[34] Over time, the interstate adopted a route closer to U.S. Route 1, including parallel between Stuart and Palm Beach Gardens, with the turnpike being removed from the I-95 alignment in 1973, and I-95 being completed in 1987.[35][36]

With the St. Petersburg Times in 1963, a team led by Martin Waldron wrote a total of 150,000 words as part of the newspaper's coverage of unchecked spending by the Florida Turnpike Authority that led to estimated costs quadrupling from initial estimates of $100 million.[37] Waldron received a tip about excessive spending by John Hammer, chairman of the Florida Turnpike Authority, which included expensive hotels and meals, corsages for his secretary and overcharging for a chartered plane.[38] His coverage earned the newspaper the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service in 1964, the first for the newspaper, and led to changes in the way the state of Florida managed highway construction projects.[37][39]

With Florida still growing in population in the 1960s, preliminary studies began for expanding portions of the Turnpike to six lanes in South Florida and additional northâ€“south highways in that area. Dade County and the State Road Department developed a plan for the West Dade Expressway (now known as the Homestead Extension of Florida's Turnpike), beginning at the Turnpike near the Dade County/Broward County line, turning westward and southward, terminating at Florida City in southern Dade County. In 1967, the Florida State Turnpike Authority was authorized to perform engineering and feasibility studies on the West Dade Expressway, and the Bee Line Connector extension, now known as the Martin Andersen Beachline Expressway. The results of the studies came in December 1968, but due to an uncertain bond market and an unknown future for the toll authority, decisions on the roads were delayed.[13]

The Florida Department of Transportation was created in July 1969, with the Florida State Turnpike Authority becoming a part of the new FDOT. Soon after, FDOT and Orange and Dade County officials agreed the Bee Line Connector and Homestead Extension of Florida's Turnpike would be financed by revenue bond issues as extensions of Florida's Turnpike. The Beeline Expressway opened in 1973 and the Homestead Extension opened in 1974 as a part of the Turnpike mainline.[13]

From its opening in January 1957 to April 12, 1968, the road was known as the Sunshine State Parkway (SSP). On April 12, 1968, the road was renamed to its current name of Florida's Turnpike, to identify that the toll road was located in Florida and to avoid confusion from other Florida landmarks such as the Sunshine Skyway Bridge.[13][40] The Sunshine State Parkway moniker was commonly used for the next decade and remnants of the name can be seen on several Turnpike maintenance buildings.[41][42]

On September 1, 1971, the Turnpike switched from a sequential exit numbering system to a hybrid numbering system, where adjacent exit numbers differed by 4 south of SR 60 (exit 60 at the time) and 5 north of SR 60.[43][44]

Between 1974 and 1986, the turnpike experienced little change other than maintenance as the original bonds on the road were being paid off.[13] During this period, the turnpike experienced the first of five toll hikes on February 15, 1979, when the cost of a trip from Golden Glades to Wildwood increased to $5.90 from $4.80, the road's original toll.[45]

In 1988, the Office of Florida's Turnpike was formed, with $220 million worth of revenue bonds being sold in April 1989 to renovate the toll plazas, service centers and improve the road with the reduction of urban congestion. Fifteen new interchanges were planned in the early 1990s with four of them opened by July 1991.[13] Also during this time, sections of the turnpike were converted from a ticket system to a coin system due to urban congestion, with several mainline toll plazas being built. The section between the Golden Glades Plaza and Lantana was converted in 1990, with the opening of the Cypress Creek and Lantana Toll Plazas. Coin baskets were installed in 1994 after years of delays.[46][47][48] The portion north of Kissimmee was converted in on August 20, 1995, with the addition of the Three Lakes Toll Plaza and the Wildwood toll plaza at mile 304 being replaced by the Leesburg toll barrier on July 7, 1995.[49][50][51]

The improvements also came with a series of toll hikes between 1989 and 1993 to make the toll rates more uniform six cents per mile (3.7 ¢/km) throughout the turnpike's length. The first one was enacted on April 1, 1989, which raised the rate to $9.95.[52] The second one, on July 1, 1991, affected only the section north of Lantana, raising the trip's cost to $12.35.[53][54] The last one took effect on July 11, 1993, increasing the trip's cost to $14.40.[55]

In 1989, the Turnpike switched its exit numbering system to the mile-log system, starting from the south end of the Homestead Extension, 13 years before Florida's interstates integrated it into their system.[43][56][57]

Because he "was one of America's most beloved presidents and a true world leader", as the Legislature put it, Florida's Turnpike was designated by the Florida Legislature in 1998 as the Ronald Reagan Turnpike, with 20 signs throughout the turnpike showing the designation.[58]

In April 1999, SunPass was introduced to the public, with SunPass only interchanges and lanes being introduced throughout the 2000s.[13] The latest toll hike took effect on March 7, 2004, increasing the toll rate for non SunPass users to $18.20, with SunPass users still using the 1993 toll rates.[59][60]

The HEFT ceased cash toll collections on February 19, 2011, becoming an exclusive electronic toll road, a move announced in November 2009. The manned toll plazas were converted into electronic toll gantries, and the only ways to pay are either by SunPass transponders or a "toll-by-plate" program.[61][62] The Turnpike mainline began its conversion to a cashless toll road with the Golden Glades toll barrier being converted into a toll gantry on January 25, 2014, and no longer accepts cash.[63][64] The portion south of I-595 was converted on August 29, 2015.[65]

Between 2005 and 2012, the Turnpike spent $380 million doubling the amount of lanes from SR 528 to the northernmost interchange with SR 50 west of Winter Garden (exit 272). Most of the section was expanded from four to eight lanes, with the section between SR 408 and SR 429 being expanded from six to 12 lanes. The portion between SR 528 and Interstate 4 opened in 2008, with the portion between I-4 and SR 408 being finished in 2010, SR 408 to Beulah Road (at the north end of the SR 429 interchange) opened in March 2011, and the portion between Beulah Road and SR 50 (exit 272) was completed in 2012.[66]

In 2007, legislation was passed in Florida to index toll rates across the state to the national Consumer price index (CPI), to be enacted by the end of June 2012. As a result, the toll rates on roads on Florida's Turnpike Enterprise were raised on June 24, 2012, an increase of 11.7% to reflect the previous five years. The legislation allows for SunPass rates to be raised slightly each year, with cash rates going up every five years, with SunPass rates staying about a quarter cheaper than cash rates.[67][68] In keeping with the legislation, SunPass and toll-by-plate rates were raised again on July 1, 2013 by 2.1%, with cash toll rates projected to stay the same through at least 2014.[67][69] Toll rate increases were scheduled for every five years, and mid-2017 was the next scheduled date for such an increase. However, a combination of a low inflation rate and problems within the relevant state authorities caused multiple cancellations and changes in schedule for the next increase.[70][71] The final projected date for an increase in tolls was eventually set for October 29, 2017.[citation needed]

The Turnpike Enterprise and OOCEA (now CFX) agreed to build a partial interchange between SR 417 and Florida's Turnpike in the late 2000s, after negotiations dating back to a 1991 field study.[72][73] The interchange is being built in two phases. The first phase, built by CFX, added ramps from southbound SR 417 to southbound Florida's Turnpike and from northbound Florida's Turnpike to northbound SR 417. Construction on the first phase began in September 2013 and opened on January 26, 2015. The second phase, completing the interchange, will be built by the Turnpike Enterprise with construction beginning in late 2014 and expected to be completed in 2017, several years ahead of its original completion date.[74][75]

Work began in 2006, and is ongoing as of June 2012, along the Turnpike in Broward County to widen the section from Griffin Road (exit 53) to Atlantic Boulevard (exit 66) from six to eight lanes.[76][77]

Plans are in the works to widen the road from the Lake Worth Road interchange (exit 93) to the Palm Beach-Martin County line from four to eight lanes.[78][79]

Florida's Turnpike Enterprise plans to convert the entire Turnpike to an all electronic toll road, like the HEFT.[15][62][80] Work to convert the section of the Turnpike mainline between I-595 and Lantana is planned to begin in 2018.[63][81] The project also includes several road and interchange improvements along that stretch of the Turnpike.[82]

A study is currently under way to eventually reconstruct the northern end of the Turnpike at its junction with Interstate 75 to improve the traffic merge pattern between I-75 and State Road 44, with congestion and some drivers suddenly changing lanes on I-75 between the Turnpike junction and SR 44 a major issue in the area.[83][84] The project is not scheduled for construction funding until 2015.[83]

The Turnpike Enterprise is also studying possible developer-funded future interchanges near mile marker 279 (servicing Minneola and Clermont) and at County Road 468 (mile marker 300, servicing The Villages and Lady Lake). Neither project is funded or scheduled for construction at this time.[85]

North of the HEFTâ€“Mainline interchange, the mainline continues the mileage from mile 47 from the HEFT. The spur of the mainline south of the HEFT to the Golden Glades Interchange assumes an alternate numbering system that suffixes an X to each exit number.[56]


where is rushden on a map of the uk

Rushden is a town and civil parish located in the county of Northamptonshire, England.

Rushden

Redirects from Rushden Lakes (Retail Park) see section 5 (below)

List of places

The parish of Rushden covers an area of some 9,000 acres (36.42Â km2), and is part of the district of East Northamptonshire. The population of Rushden is 29,272 (Census 2011),[1] making it the fifth largest town in the county. The Rushden-Higham urban area, which includes the adjoining town of Higham Ferrers, has an estimated population of 36,410. The estimated population of Rushden in 2015 was 30,282 [2].

Rushden lies on the A6 midway between Bedford and Kettering. The southern limits of the town border on the county of Bedfordshire, and to its north lies the River Nene (locally pronounced Nen) which flows into The Wash. Rushden lies in a small valley, with a stream or brook known as Sidney Brook flowing through the centre of the town. During the late 1960s and 70s this stream was culverted to prevent flash flooding.[2] From whichever way Rushden is approached, the streets and roads can be seen stretching out in the valley, with the spire of St Mary's church prominent above its rooftops.

Peter Bone MP is the local MP representing Wellingborough. As a result of recent electoral changes, Rushden has been divided into five wards for both District and Town Council purposes. With the following re-classifications: Rushden Spencer (formerly North), Rushden Hayden (formerly East), Rushden Bates (formerly South), Rushden Sartoris (formerly South) and Rushden Pemberton (formerly West).

Rushden's growth has resulted from a number of industries, including lacemaking and farming, and especially shoemaking and associated trades. In the mid-1900s there were well over 100 boot and shoe factories in Rushden but today there are only four shoemaking companies left in Rushden.[3]

One of the most renowned is Sanders and Sanders, which makes boots for the British Army and several other defence departments throughout the world. Some of the redundant factories have been converted into flats, and MPs support for government help has been limited.[5] Today, as with many towns in England, industry in the town is varied, and mostly situated in an out-of-town industrial estate. As with the industry, town centre shopping in Rushden has changed considerably although there are still many shops. Rushden has the oldest toy shop in the county.[6] In 1893 a short branch line railway opened linking Rushden and Higham Ferrers with the Midland Main Line. The line was closed in 1959 and dismantled. In 1991 the trackbed was converted into a pocket park.[7]

The former Rushden railway station is now owned by the Rushden Historical Transport Society,[8] which operates a museum and real ale bar. The society often holds special events, including an annual 3-day transport cavalcade.[9] The society aims to rebuild the branch line from Higham Ferrers to Wellingborough.

There is also a privately owned museum in Rushden which is situated in the town's Hall Park. It is open between the months of May and October.

Rushden Hall is the oldest domestic building in the town, once owned by many families throughout the years including the Sartoris family and the Pembertons family. The hall now functions as the head office of the town council and some rooms are available for hiring. It lies in 32 acres (13Â ha) of land which now is a public park (Hall Park).

The 1970s ITV Police Drama series Hunters Walk was filmed on location in Rushden and the surrounding villages.

In late 2010, Rushden began to undergo a regeneration project, with the aim to making the town centre a more spacious and attractive place to shop. Rushden Splash Pool on Station Road and the Pemberton Centre, slightly out of town were planned to move to a new site to make room for in the town centre from the move of Splash and a knock on move of Alfred Street School to the Site of the Pemberton Centre. Plans were drawn up for a move to Manor Park, an open space out of town to the south side of Rushden. This however was put on hold in 2010 due widespread local opposition and the economic downturn.[10]

In early 2011, improvements to the High Street began with regeneration on the ‘southern gateway’ and a creation of a 'town square' in the middle of the High Street.[11]

Also a greenway cycle and foot path was created joining existing footpaths with a new one along the old railway line through the town. This linked Ferrers School to Rushden town centre and then out of Rushden to Crown Park, a small out of town retail/business park with a DIY store and Waitrose Supermarket.

Rushden has many supermarkets and convenience stores. Once Rushden was home to one of the five Safeway megastores in the country until they were bought by Wm Morrison; the store was then bought by Waitrose and turned into one of its five Food and Home stores which included a selection of home products from John Lewis. In 2006, Asda announced they would build a new Â£40m superstore near the town centre. The store opened in the autumn of 2006 and is now one of the biggest supermarkets in the town. In May 2007 Budgens announced it would be closing its store in the town because of the loss of trade to the new Asda store [12] the former Budgens site is now a Wilko store. Asda added a new petrol filling station with a kiosk shop to the site in the autumn of 2016.

A new Â£140 million out of town leisure and shopping centre known as the Rushden Lakes Shopping Centre opened in July 2017. The development is situated near Waitrose just off the A45, on the site of the former Skew Bridge dry ski slope which had been derelict for some years.

The land was purchased by LXB Retail Properties for £4.5 million in 2011 and the development was later sold to The Crown Estate. When finalised, the development will include a cinema, shops, hotels, visitor centre, restaurants, a leisure centre and a marina, with Marks & Spencer as its flagship store. A link to the River Nene will also be incorporated.[13] The new 244-acre (99 ha) facility will create around 2,000 jobs. Despite opposition from the local councils of Corby, Northampton, Bedford and Kettering, the Rushden Lakes proposal was approved by East Northants Council in October 2012,[14] but the application was automatically referred to the Secretary of State. The Secretary of State, Eric Pickles, approved the planning application and gave the go-ahead for the Rushden Lakes development on Thursday 12 June 2014.[15] Rushden Lakes is currently still in development today, where the first section of the area opened on Friday 28 July 2017, with shops such as Marks & Spencer, Primark, New Look, JD Sports and H&M opening on the same day.

Rushden has two main leisure facilities, The Pemberton Centre and Splash Pool. Both are managed by Freedom Leisure, as so membership covers both venues. The Pemberton Centre is a large leisure and conference centre including a large hall, conference rooms, sport hall, gym, young person’s gym, squash courts and dance studio. The Splash Pool is situated close to the town centre and includes a 25-metre-lane (82 ft) swimming pool with a learner area, beach area and indoor slide.[16]

The town's football club, Rushden Town merged with nearby Irthlingborough Diamonds in 1992 to become Rushden & Diamonds. The new club moved to Nene Park, on the outskirts of Irthlingborough, and played there until going into liquidation in 2011.

A new club AFC Rushden & Diamonds was set up in 2011 which has groundshared with Rushden & Higham United at their Hayden Road ground from the 2017/18 season.

A smaller club, Rushden & Higham United compete in the United Counties League, and play at the Hayden Road ground where Rushden Town played until 1992.[17]

Junior Football is catered for by South Rushden Junior Football Club, who will offer football for boys and girls from 4 years of age.

Rugby Union is played at Manor Park, the home of Rushden & Higham RUFC. The club was created in October 1951. Over the years the club has played at Chamberlain's Field, near the old Higham railway station, Saffron Meadows, and the John White's ground in Rushden and now plays at Manor Park, Rushden, on pitches rented weekly from the town council.

Rushden has two golf courses. A 9-hole course south of Rushden called John Whites also houses a driving range.[18] Rushden Golf Club is a larger 18 hole course to the East of Rushden.[19]

Rushden has its own Air Training Corps Squadron, No 858 (Rushden) Squadron Air Training Corps 858 (Rushden) Squadron. It is run by civilian staff who are officers that are commissioned in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve (Training Branch), assisted by adult Senior NCOâ€™s and civilian instructors; all which are volunteers.[citation needed]

Crime has been on the rise in Rushden rapidly in the last few years. Numerous murders and violent crimes have taken place. Most notably the murder of 23 year old Steven Smith[20] who was stabbed to death in an act of 'pure aggression' on October 25th 2014. On Sunday January the 25th a 15 year old boy[21] was stabbed in the back by a group of youths. In December 2015 over 287[22] crimes were committed in Rushden and Higham Ferrers alone.

Before the single-sex senior schools were merged, the former girls school in Rushden was named "Chichele Girls School" after Henry Chichele who was born in the neighbouring town of Higham Ferrers.

Rushden is home to one secondary school, Rushden Academy. It is part of The East Northamptonshire College together with The Ferrers Specialist Arts College (Higham Ferrers) and Huxlow School (Irthlingborough). Rushden has 8 Primary Schools:

For adult education, Rushden is served by a 'Learning Centre' which is located in the town centre. The Learning Centre is operated by Bedford College, and offers Information Technology, English Language and Mathematics courses.

At present, Rushden is one of the largest towns in the country without an operational railway station. However, there are proposals by The Association of Train Operating Companies to build a new railway station on the Midland Main Line (to the West of Rushden) to be known as Rushden Parkway. This is supported by local transport campaigners.[23] Currently, the nearest railway station is at Wellingborough about five miles (6Â km) away, on the Midland Main Line, although no bus service currently links Rushden to Wellingborough station - the X46 bus service stops at Midland Road in Wellingborough about half a mile from the station.

The heritage Rushden, Higham and Wellingborough Railway currently operate services from Rushden's station.

The main routes serving Rushden are Stagecoach services 50/49 with connections to Kettering and Bedford and the X46/47 providing links with Raunds, Wellingborough, Irchester and Northampton. There are also services that connect Rushden to the small villages in North Bedfordshire and has its own bus service within the town, the Rushden-Higham link. The Link runs 3 routes and are:

Several major UK airports are only within 60 miles or 1 hour driving distance of the town, including Luton, East Midlands, Birmingham and Stansted.

In terms of roads, Rushden is bypassed by the A6 which has connections to Kettering (Northbound) and Bedford and Luton (Southbound). The A45 connects Rushden to the East coast as well as Northampton and the M1 motorway westbound.

Bedford, Burton Latimer, Chelveston, Corby, Finedon, Higham Ferrers, Irchester, Irthlingborough, Kettering, Milton Keynes, Newton Bromswold, Northampton, Oundle, Podington, Raunds, Riseley, St Neots, Thrapston, Wellingborough, Wollaston, Wymington


what is the difference between ex gratia and compensation

Ex gratia (/ˌɛks ˈɡreɪʃiə/;[1] also spelled ex-gratia) is Latin for "by favour", and is most often used in a legal context. When something has been done ex gratia, it has been done voluntarily, out of kindness or grace. In law, an ex gratia payment is a payment made without the giver recognising any liability or legal obligation.

Ex gratia

Compensation payments are often made ex gratia when a government or organization is prepared to compensate victims of an event such as an accident or similar, but not to admit liability to pay compensation, or for causing the event.


who played cadet alex stone in major payne

Steven Martini is a writer, actor, composer, editor, and singer/songwriter. His first break was as Cadet Alex J. Stone in Major Payne. He and his brother Derick Martini wrote the films Smiling Fish and Goat on Fire and Lymelife. Based on experiences from the Martinis' childhood, Lymelife won the FIPRESCI award at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival, and premiered at the 2009 Sundance Film Festival. Martini is also known for being the singer/songwriter for the Los Angeles-based band The Spaceship Martini.

Steven Martini

After the release of Major Payne, Martini moved to Los Angeles to work in film and television. Derick soon followed suit, and, before long, they started making Smiling Fish and Goat on Fire, in which they play the titular brother characters.[1] The Martini brothers have gone on to portray Alex and Morris Karnofsky in Louis, a silent film they co-wrote, based on the historical brothers who helped Louis Armstrong get his first trumpet.

The story of Lymelife is based on Steven and Derick's childhood in the New York suburbs of Long Island.[2] After the incidents of the film, Steven moved from Long Island back into his birthplace of New York City, where he attended the Professional Children's School.[3] There, he met the Culkin brothers, who would go on to portray the Martini brothers on film. It was during this period that Steven met his first true love, Adrianna, whose father had Lyme disease. This relationship is the basis of the love story between Rory Culkin and Emma Roberts in the film.

During the Sundance Labs, Kieran Culkin played the role of Scott, which is based on Steven, and was later played by his brother Rory Culkin. Steven played Jimmy, the role eventually played by Kieran, and based on older brother Derick. Alec Baldwin played their father. His brother William Baldwin co-produced Lymelife.

Early roles include Major Payne and the TV series Prince Street Steven's writing career began with Smiling Fish and Goat on Fire, a film he and his brother financed for $50,000 and starred as the title roles, which won the Discovery Award at the 1999 Toronto International Film Festival. Smiling Fish was co-written and directed by Steven's friend and fellow Professional Children's School alumni, Kevin Jordan.[1] The film drew from experiences in the Martini brothers' lives.[4]

His second script, Lymelife, was accepted in the Sundance Institute's Film Program, where he and Derick shot, edited, and scored several scenes, which were reviewed by celebrity creative advisers.[5] Some of this experience was recorded in "Sundance 20", a documentary film made by director Doug Pray.

Martini is currently the singer/songwriter of The Spaceship Martini, who recorded the score of Lymelife and the end credits song Running Out of Empty.[6] "Spaceship" is Martini's nickname, based on his "out there" demeanor.[7]

Martini started editing Lymelife during the 22-day film shoot in New Jersey on Final Cut Pro, a program he learned during pre-production. The film's score evolved out of the editing process.


who did cromartie play for in the nfl

Antonio Cromartie (born April 15, 1984) is a former American football cornerback. He played college football at Florida State and was drafted in the first round (19th overall) by the San Diego Chargers in the 2006 NFL Draft. He was selected to four Pro Bowls and was a first-team All-Pro in 2007 after leading the league in interceptions. Cromartie is credited with the longest play in NFL history, returning a missed field goal 109 yards for a touchdown in 2007.[1] He also played for the Arizona Cardinals, New York Jets and Indianapolis Colts.

Antonio Cromartie

Cromartie was born in Tallahassee, Florida, to Haitian American parents.[2][3] He was a versatile player at Tallahassee's Lincoln High School. Throughout his senior season, Cromartie recorded 12 tackles and 2 interceptions, returned 3 punts and 2 kicks for TDs, had 450 yards and 1 touchdown on 30 catches and ran the ball 13 times for 242 yards and 3 touchdowns. This was enough to earn Cromartie 2002 USA Today defensive player of the year.[4] Considered a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Cromartie ranked sixth among cornerback prospects in the nation.[5] Cromartie also participated in the 2003 U.S. Army All-American Bowl.

Cromartie also ran track in high school and placed 3rd in the 110-metres hurdles and as a member of the 4 x 100-metres relay team at the Class 5A County track meet. He also cleared 14.3 meters in triple jump.[6]

Cromartie decided to stay close to home for college and accepted an athletic scholarship offer from Florida State University, where he played for coach Bobby Bowden's Florida State Seminoles football team from 2003 to 2004. After flashing playmaking potential as a nickelback and kick returner his first two years, Cromartie tore the anterior cruciate ligament in his left knee in July, 2005 during voluntary workouts before his junior year and was forced to miss the entire 2005 season. He was potentially going to play at wide receiver during his junior year.[7]

In addition to football, Cromartie also joined the Florida State Seminoles track team in 2004. He was a member of the FSU track team that won the ACC Championship in 2004, where he placed 10th in the 200 meters with a time of 21.35 seconds.[8] He ran a career-best time of 46.39 seconds in the 400 meters at the NCAA Division I Championships, placing 6th in the prelims.[9] He was timed at 21.27 seconds in the 200 meters.

Despite being removed from competitive football for an entire year, Cromartie was still selected as the 19th overall pick of the first round of the 2006 NFL Draft by the Chargers based on his great potential.[citation needed]

After not performing much at the NFL Scouting Combine, on March 16, 2006, just 8 months after surgery to repair his torn ACL, Cromartie performed at his pro day in 2006 for scouts.[11][12]

On July 25, 2006, Cromartie signed a 5-year, $13.5 million contract with $7.35 million guaranteed with the Chargers. In his first season with the Chargers, Cromartie saw action at cornerback and on special teams. Toward the end of the season, Cromartie handled some punt and kickoff return duties. In a game against the Oakland Raiders, Cromartie returned a kickoff 91 yards, the longest return for the team since 2001.

Cromartie wore jersey No. 25 his rookie season but switched to No. 31 as a Charger for subsequent years, the reverse of #13, the jersey he wore at Florida State.

On October 28, 2007, Cromartie had two interceptions, returning one 70 yards for a touchdown, and a fumble recovery for another touchdown while leading the Chargers to a 35â€“10 victory against the Houston Texans. He was subsequently nominated for the AFC Defensive Player of the Week award.

The following week, Cromartie made NFL history. Minnesota Vikings kicker Ryan Longwell came onto the field to attempt a 58-yard field goal to end the first half. The Chargers put Cromartie in the endzone to return the field goal in case of a missed kick. The field goal attempt missed the goalposts and fell toward the back of the endzone. Cromartie intercepted the football, came down with both feet in bounds, two inches from the back of the end zone, and began the return. Cromartie returned the missed field goal 109 yards for a touchdown at The Metrodome, setting a record for the longest play in NFL history. This record can be equaled but never exceeded (barring a rule change); a regulation football field is 100 yards long, the end zones are 10 yards deep, a play ends when the ball crosses the goal line, and all plays are rounded down to the nearest yard. Therefore, according to the current rules of the game, 109 is the theoretical maximum for plays in the NFL.

The next week Cromartie made his first NFL start in place of the injured Quentin Jammer and intercepted three passes thrown by Peyton Manning of the Indianapolis Colts; the last of which was a leaping one-handed interception in front of Colts WR Reggie Wayne.[13] Cromartie called the interception the best play of his short career.[14] He is the first player to intercept Peyton Manning three times in one game during the regular season, and earned Defensive Player of the Week honors for his performance in the game.[15]

On November 24, Cromartie became the starting cornerback, replacing Drayton Florence (who became a free agent at the end of the season). In the AFC Divisional game against the Colts, Cromartie recorded another interception against Peyton Manning, and his defensive efforts during the game (including a forced fumble against Marvin Harrison) helped the Chargers knock off the defending champion Colts.

On December 16, Cromartie set a franchise record by recording his 10th interception of the season, breaking the previous record of 9 interceptions set by Charlie McNeil in 1961. His 10 interceptions led the NFL for number of interceptions in 2007. In addition, Cromartie had 2 post season interceptions.

Cromartie was one of three cornerbacks selected to the 2007 AFC Pro Bowl team, his first selection. At the Pro Bowl, Cromartie intercepted two passes.

Cromartie was not as successful in 2008, his third season. After stating before the season began that he'd like to break the all-time interception record in a season (14), he managed only 2 interceptions for the season. At the end of the season, Cromartie announced that he played the entire season with a broken hip. The injury was sustained in the first week of the season against the Carolina Panthers.

He finished the 2009 regular season with 3 interceptions, 33 tackles, and 10 passes defended.

Cromartie was traded to the New York Jets on March 4, 2010 for a third-round draft pick in the 2011 NFL Draft that turned into a second-round pick based on Cromartie's performance.[16] In his first regular season game with the Jets, Cromartie intercepted an errant throw from Joe Flacco which he returned 66 yards.[17] Cromartie performed well, but he was inconsistent throughout the season. He finished the regular season with 3 interceptions and broke up 18 passes, but he gave up 7 touchdowns.[18] His kickoff return in the wild card round against the Indianapolis Colts helped to set up Nick Folk's game-winning field goal.[19]

The Jets re-signed Cromartie to a four-year, $32 million contract on August 1, 2011.[18] In the home opener against the Dallas Cowboys on September 11, Cromartie gave up two touchdowns to Dez Bryant and Miles Austin but rebounded the following week intercepting two passes by Luke McCown.[20] Cromartie was named the AFC Defensive Player of the Week for his performance against the Jaguars.[21] In Week 3 against the Oakland Raiders, Cromartie committed four errant penalties for 46 total yards. He later fumbled a kickoff return which resulted in a turnover that led to a Raiders go-ahead touchdown. He left the game in the second half and was transported to Eden Medical Center where he was diagnosed with bruised ribs and a pulmonary contusion.[22]

During the 2012 season, after Darrelle Revis went down due to a torn ACL, Cromartie became the #1 cornerback and performed well, finishing the year with 3 interceptions, 13 passes defended, and 30 tackles in all 16 games started. For his efforts, Cromartie was elected to attend the Pro Bowl for the 2nd time of his career.

After the 2013 season, Cromartie was elected to attend the Pro Bowl as a replacement. It was the third election of his career. Cromartie was released by the Jets on March 9, 2014.[23]

Cromartie signed a one-year, $3.25 million contract with the Arizona Cardinals on March 19, 2014.[24] He made the Pro Bowl that year as well

On March 12, 2015, Cromartie signed a four-year, $32 million deal to return to the Jets.[25] On February 22, 2016, the Jets released Cromartie after just one season.[26]

On August 22, 2016, Cromartie signed a one-year contract with the Indianapolis Colts.[27] On October 4, 2016, after just four games with the team, Cromartie was released.[28]

On March 5, 2018, after spending the entire 2017 season out of football, Cromartie officially announced his retirement from football.[29][30]

He is the cousin of Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie who played cornerback for the New York Giants, and Marcus Cromartie, a free agent cornerback.

Cromartie married Terricka Cason, who starred on E!'s Candy Girls, on July 2, 2010.[31] Cason gave birth to a daughter in April 2010[31] a son in early 2012,[32] twins in 2016, and in August 2017 a daughter.[33] Cromartie has 13 children in total with many different women.[34][35][36]

In 2016, he knelt in protest of police brutality and racial oppression during the playing of the national anthem. He was released from the Colts in October. Terricka Cromartie believed that his release was due to his action.[37]


where do the rivers of the northern colombian andes flow

Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Magdalena River. This 1,600-kilometer (994 mi)-long river rises near a point some 180 km (112 mi) north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Magdalena River is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 km (497 mi) from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters (984 ft).

Geography of Colombia

The Republic of Colombia is a transcontinental country largely situated in the northwest of South America, with territories in North America. Colombia is bordered to the northwest by Panama; to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru;[1] and it shares maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Haiti.[2][3] Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru.[4] Despite its large territory, Colombia's population is not evenly distributed, with most Colombians living in the mountainous western portion of the country as well as the northern coastline, most living in or near the capital city of Bogotá. The southern and eastern portions of the country are mostly sparsely inhabited tropical rainforest, and inland tropical plains containing large estates or large livestock farms, oil and gas production facilities, small farming communities and indigenous tribes.

Colombia usually classifies its geography into five natural regions, from the Andes mountain range, a region shared with Ecuador, Venezuela; the Pacific Ocean coastal region shared with Panama and Ecuador; the Caribbean Sea coastal region, shared with Venezuela and Panama; the Llanos (plains), shared with Venezuela; to the Amazon Rainforest region shared with Venezuela, Brazil, Peru and Ecuador. Colombia is the only South American country which borders both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

Despite this The World Factbook makes no difference between Amazon region of Colombia (predominantly jungle) and the Orinoquia region of Colombia (predominantly plains). The World Factbook considers most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.

The chief western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 15,000 ft (4,572 m) (4,670 m).[5] The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 17,000 ft (5,182 m). The valley of the slow-flowing and muddy Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. In the east, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called llanos cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area.

This cross section of the republic does not include two of Colombia's regions: the Caribbean coastal lowlands and the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, both in the northern part of the country. The lowlands in the west are mostly swampy; the reed-filled marshes of the area are called ciÃ©nagas by the people of Colombia. The Guajira Peninsula in the east is semiarid. The Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta is a spectacular triangular snowcapped block of rock that towers over the eastern part of this lowland. Here can be found the highest peak of the country named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m).[5]

Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 18,700 ft (5,700 m), and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 percent of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands.

The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.

The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 9,840 ft (2,999 m) above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 4,985 ft (1,519 m) above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.

The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 124 mi (200 km) of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands.

The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form a towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes that is 500 mi (805 km) long. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 10,825 ft (3,299 m). The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 17,602 ft (5,365 m) above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.

In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters (8,202 and 8,858 ft), three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters (8,694 ft) above sea level.

To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquirá and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters (18,022 ft) above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia.

The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula and Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub, in the extreme north, bear little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters (18,701 ft) and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.

The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.

The city of Cartagena is a petrochemical, seaport(#1 in the country) and tourist city(#1 in the country). Santa Marta is also a seaport and tourist city but is a smaller-scale city by comparison. Barranquilla is located some 25 miles (40Â km) from the Caribbean coastline but it is a more developed city with a greater number of industries and commercial places, widely known for its abilities in all forms of metalwork and construction. Its inhabitants have the highest education level of the region and the city is famous for being the starting point and focus of the region and the country's development as the first city in the country with the use of phones, public lighting, air mail, planes and industrial works.

The Caribbean region merges next to and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17% of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s.

The region also includes the peninsular archipelago of San Andres Island and the Insular Territories of Colombia, which are disputed in part by Nicaragua. However, the Colombian Navy protects such territories with the use of force when necessary to avoid foreign invasion and the islands are home to 2 important bases for defense and custom controls, formerly used for research of classified projects with civilian assistance as the local universities often research in the area of oceanography and marine biology but also in the fields of biochemistry, genetics, immunology and Colombia is known for its advances in medical fields in experimental surgery, breast implant development or prosthetics and immunology and these facilities serve as containment and secure experimentation labs to complement those in Barranquilla and other undisclosed locations within the coast territories.

The Insular Region is considered by some as a geopolitical region of Colombia which comprises the areas outside the continental territories of Colombia and includes the San Andrés y Providencia Department in the Caribbean sea and the Malpelo and Gorgona Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Insular region subregions include other group of islands;

The western third of the country is the most geographically complex. Starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered. In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland, which has been proposed as a possible alternate to the Panama Canal as a human-made route between the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans. Colombia occupies most of the Andes mountain range northern extremity sharing a bit with Venezuela which splits into three branches between the Colombia-Ecuador border.

In the 1980s, only 3% of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudó, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.

The Atrato Swamp—in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama—is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan-American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this region, although it could have devastating consequences on the fragile environment.

The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers, or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2% of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where extensive cattle raising is practiced.

The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Serranía de la Macarena, an outlier of the Andes has unique vegetation and wildlife believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes.

Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, river that crosses into Venezuela and flows into the Atlantic Ocean. Those south of the Río Guaviare flow into the Amazon Basin. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south.

The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15 °C (59 °F), and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1 °C (1.8 °F). More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5 °C (41 °F) at night to 17 °C (62.6 °F) during the day.

Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters (2,953 ft) in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters (2,953 and 6,496 ft) are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters (6,496 ft) to about 3,500 meters (11,483 ft) constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters (14,764 ft) are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).

About 86% of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24 and 38 °C (75.2 and 100.4 °F), and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.

Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 7,600 millimeters (299.2 in) annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world. The highest average annual precipitation in the world is estimated to be in Lloro, Colombia, with 13,299 mm (523.6 in).[6] In eastern Colombia, it decreases from 6,350 millimeters (250 in) in portions of the Andean piedmont to 2,540 millimeters (100 in) eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.

The temperate zone covers about 8% of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters or 4,879 feet) and Cali (1,030 meters or 3,379 feet) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19 and 24 °C (66.2 and 75.2 °F), depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.

The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6% of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10 and 19 °C (50.0 and 66.2 °F), and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.

Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of 350 millimeters (13.8Â in) recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.

Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined "ethnocultural" groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group has distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Colombia's proximity to the equator influences its climates. The lowland areas are continuously hot. Altitude affects temperature greatly. Temperatures decrease about 3.5 °F (1.9 °C) for every 1,000-foot (305 m) increase in altitude above sea level. Rainfall varies by location in Colombia, tending to increase as one travels southward. This is especially true in the eastern lowlands. For example, rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (762 mm) per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in (5,080 mm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.

Altitude affects not only temperature, but also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The mountainous parts of the country can be divided into several vegetation zones according to altitude, although the altitude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the latitude.

The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below 1,000 m (3,300 ft), is the zone of tropical crops such as bananas. The tierra templada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 1,000 to 2,000 m (3,300 to 6,600 ft), is the zone of coffee and maize. Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from 2,000 to 3,200 m (6,600 to 10,500 ft). In the "zona forestada" (forested zone), which is located between 3,200 and 4,000 m (10,500 and 13,100 ft), many of the trees have been cut for firewood. Treeless pastures dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes of 4,000 to 4,500 m (13,100 to 14,800 ft). Above 4,500 m (14,800 ft), where temperatures are below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of permanent snow and ice.

Vegetation also responds to rainfall patterns. A scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeast. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rainforest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched.

The Andean range is located in Colombia from the southwest (Ecuador border) toward the northeast (Venezuela border) and is divided in the Colombian Massif (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Andes, Central Andes and West Andes) that form two long valleys, Magdalena and Cauca follow by the rivers of the same name.

The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by savanna and rainforest, crossed by rivers belonging to the Amazon and Orinoco basins. The northern part, called "Los Llanos" is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin. It is usually called Amazonía.

At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains. The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.

Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chiefly at the north (Chocó).

The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation). Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the Montes de María and the Serranía de San Lucas.

In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chiefly the Serranía del Darién and the Serranía del Baudó.

In the eastern Region, there is the Serranía de la Macarena and there are formations belonging to the Guyana Shield.

The natural resources of Colombia are varied and extensive with most of its territory and oceans still unexplored. Colombia has one of the largest open pit coal mines in the world in the region of Cerrejon in the Guajira Peninsula. It also has oil rigs and natural gas extraction in the eastern plains. Colombia is the main producer of emeralds and an important participant in gold, silver, iron, salt, platinum, petroleum, nickel, copper, hydropower and uranium extraction.[7]

The main environmental issues affecting Colombia are deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions and other main cities. The collateral damaged produced by attacks against oil pipeline infrastructure by rebel guerrillas in the Colombian armed conflict has produced long term damage to the environment. The armed groups also deforest large areas to cultivate illegal crops and open unauthorized highways in protected areas.

Snowfields and glaciers in Colombia are limited to the highest peaks and ranges in the Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental and above the 4,700-meter elevation on the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The total area of snowfields and glaciers was estimated to be about 104 square kilometers in the early 1970s.

Historical, geographical, and pictorial records point toward a consistent and progressive depletion of ice-and-snow masses in the Colombian Andes since the end of the "Little Ice Age" in the late 1800s. Many glaciers have disappeared during the 20th century, and others are expected to disappear in the coming decades.[8]

Land boundaries: total: 6,6724Â km

Coastline: 3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)

Climate: tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands

Terrain: flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains

Elevation extremes: lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,975 m note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation

Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower

Land use: arable land: 1.43% permanent crops: 1.68% other: 96.89% (2012)

Irrigated land: 10,870 km² (2011)

Total renewable water resources: 2,132Â km3 (2011)

Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural): total: 12.65Â km3 (55%/4%/41%) per capita: 308 m3/yr (2010)

Natural hazards: highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts

Environment - international agreements: party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea

Colombia has four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.

The Orinoco and Amazon Rivers mark limits with Colombia to Venezuela and Peru respectively.


what are the parts of a buckle called

The buckle essentially consists of four main components: the frame, chape, bar, and prong. The oldest Roman buckles are of a simple "D"-shaped frame, in which the prong or tongue extends from one side to the other. In the 14th century, buckles with a double-loop or "8"-shaped frame emerged. The prongs of these buckles attach to the center post. The appearance of multi-part buckles with chapes and removable pins, which were commonly found on shoes, occurred in the 17th century.

Buckle

The buckle or clasp is a device used for fastening two loose ends, with one end attached to it and the other held by a catch in a secure but adjustable manner.[1] Often taken for granted, the invention of the buckle has been indispensable in securing two ends before the invention of the zipper. The basic buckle frame comes in a variety of shapes and sizes depending on the intended use and fashion of the era.[2] Buckles are as much in use today as they have been in the past. Used for much more than just securing oneâ€™s belt, instead it is one of the most dependable devices in securing a range of items.

The word "buckle" enters Middle English via Old French and the Latin buccula or "cheek-strap," as for a helmet. Some of the earliest buckles known are those used by Roman soldiers to strap their body armor together and prominently on the balteus and cingulum. Made out of bronze and expensive, these buckles were purely functional for their strength and durability vital to the individual soldier. The baldric was a later belt worn diagonally over the right shoulder down to the waist at the left carrying the sword, and its buckle therefore was as important as that on a Roman soldierâ€™s armor.[3]

Bronze Roman buckles came in various types. Not only used for practical purposes, these buckles were also decorated. A Type I Roman buckle was a “buckle-plate” either decorated or plain and consisted of geometric ornaments. Type IA Roman buckles were similar to Type I buckles but differed by being long and narrow, made of double sheet metal, and attached to small D-shaped buckles (primarily had dolphin-heads as decorations). Type IB “buckle-loops” were even more similar to Type IA buckles, only difference being that instead of dolphin-heads, they were adorned with horse-heads. There were also Type II buckles (Type IIA and Type IIB) used by Romans, but all types of Roman buckles could have served purposes for simple clothing as well, and predominantly, as a military purpose.[4]

Aside from the practical use found in Roman buckles, Scythian and Sarmatian buckles incorporated animal motifs that were characteristic to their respective decorative arts.[5] These motifs often represented animals engaged in mortal combat. These motifs were imported by many Germanic peoples and the belt buckles were evident in the graves of the Franks and Burgundies. And throughout the Middle Ages, the buckle was used mostly for ornamentation until the second half of the 14th century where the knightly belt and buckle took on its most splendid form.[6]

Buckles remained exclusively for the wealthy until the 15th century where improved manufacturing techniques made it possible to easily produce a cheaper molded item available to the general population.[7]

The frame is the most visible part of the buckle and holds the other parts of the buckle together. Buckle frames come in various shapes, sizes, and decorations. The shape of the frame could be a plain square or rectangle, but may be oval or made into a circular shape. A reverse curve of the frame indicated that the whole buckle was intended to be used for securing a thick material, such as leather. This reverse curve shape made it easier to thread the intended thick material end over the bar. But the shape of the frame is not limited to simply squares and ovals, the decoration of the frame itself defines the shape it will turn out to be. Since the frame is the largest part of the buckle, any and all decorations are placed on it. Decorations range from wedged shapes, picture references to people and animals, and insignia of a desired organization.[2]

The part of the frame that strap goes through prior to putting the tongue/prong through the hole is often referred to as the 'end bar'. The 'center bar' holds the tongue and the part (if present) that holds the tip of the strap in place is called the 'keeper' or 'keeper bar' these terms are used when additional information is needed to describe a buckle for measurements or design. Note that if a separate piece of leather or metal is attached to the strap for holding the tip of the belt/strap in place that is sometimes also called a 'keeper'.

Chapes or "caps" of various designs could be fitted to the bar to enable one strap end to be secured before fastening the other, adjustable end. This made buckles easily removable and interchangeable, leading to a significant advantage since buckles were expensive.[2] Unfortunately, the teeth or spikes on the semi-circular chapes damaged the straps or belts, making frequent repairs of the material necessary. Buckles fitted with "T"-, anchor-, or spade-shaped chapes avoided this problem but needed a slotted end in the belt to accommodate them.[8]

The belt buckle chapse are frequently made in a form of a plate, thus the name buckle plate.

The prong (also named pin) is typically made out of steel or other types of metal. In conventional belts, the prong fits through the buckle to secure the material at a pre-set length.[9]

The prong is usually referred to as the tongue of the buckle in America, as in 'lock-tongued buckle'. Prong is only used when the tongue is permanently fixed in position.[10]

The bar served to hold the chape and prong to the frame. When prongs and chapes are removed from the buckle design, the buckle incorporated a movable bar relying on the tension of the adjusted belt to keep it in place.[11]

The first known buckles to be used were made out of bronze for their strength and durability for military usage.[12][13]

For the last few hundred years, buckles have been made from brass (an alloy of copper and zinc). In the 18th century, brass buckles incorporated iron bars, chapes, and prongs due to the parts being made by different manufactures. Silver was also used in buckle manufacturing for its malleability and for being strong and durable with an attractive shine. White metal, any bright metallic compound, was also used in all styles of buckles; however, if iron was present, rust will form if it is allowed to be exposed and remain in damp conditions.[14]

Pearl buckles have been made from pearly shells and usually for ladiesâ€™ dresses. Since a reasonable size flat surface was needed to make a buckle, oyster was commonly used to make these types of buckles. The quality and color of course vary, ranging from layers of yellow and white to brown or grey.[15]

When preferred materials were scarce during the Great Depression of the 1930s and the two World Wars, buckles became a low priority and manufactures needed to find ways to continue to produce them cheaply. Makers turned to wood as a cheap alternative since it was easily worked by hand or simple machinery by impressing the designs onto the wood. But there were problems using wood. Any attempt to brighten the woodâ€™s dull appearance with painted designs or plasterwork embellishments immediately came off if the buckle were to be washed.[16]

Buckles were not entirely made out of leather because a frame and bar of leather would not be substantial enough to carry a prong or the full weight of the belt and anything the belt and buckle intend to support. However, leather (or dyed suede, more common to match a lady’s garment color) was used more as a “cover-up” for cheap materials to create a product worthy of buying.[17]

Buckles were not made out of glass; rather the glass was used as a decorative feature that covered the entire frame of a metal buckle. One method of creating glass buckles was gluing individual discs of glass to the metal frame. Another more intricate method was to set a wire into the back of a glass disc, and then threading the wire through a hole in the fretted frame of the buckle. The glass was further secured by either bending it over the back of the frame or splayed out like a rivet.[18]

Celluloid, a type of thermoplastic invented in 1869, was used sparingly and only for decoration until after World War I where it began to be produced on a wider commercial scale. After World War II, the chemical industry saw a great expansion where Celluloid and other plastics such as Casein and Bakelite formed the basis of the buckle-making industry.[19] Many thermoplastic polymers such as nylon are now used in snap-fit buckles for a wide variety of applications.

Although any device that serves to secure two loose ends is casually called a buckle, if it consists of two separate pieces with one for a hook and the other for a loop, it should be called a clasp. Clasps became increasingly popular at the turn of the 19th century with one clear disadvantage: since each belt end was fixed to each clasp piece, the size of the belt was typically not adjustable unless an elastic panel was inserted.[20]

A buckle without a chape or prongs is called a buckle trim or slide. It may have been designed this particular way or it may have lost its prongs through continuous use. This type was frequently used in home dress-making (belt end being secured with the simple hook-and-eye) and was purely used for decoration for items such as shoe fronts to conceal unattractive elastic fitting.[8]

The belt buckle is the conventional buckle with a frame, bar and prong gives the most reliable and easy-to-use closure for a belt. It is not meant, by design, to offer much space for decoration, but for its time-tested reliability.[8]

A conventional buckle that is formed by a male buckle member (the hook end) and a female buckle member (the catch end). The male buckle member consists of a center guide rod forwardly extending from the front side with two spring arms equally spaced from the center rod. The two spring arms each have a retaining block that terminates at the front end. The female buckle member has a front open side and two side holes which hold and secure the two spring arms of the male buckle member.[21] This sort of buckle may be found on backpacks, belts, rifle slings, and boots. It is also known as the "parachute buckle".

The bottom part of the blimp, also known as a gondola, is called the buckle.

Spur buckle is a term used to designate:


what does tpc stand for in tpc sawgrass

Tournament Players Club (TPC) is a chain of public and private golf courses operated by the PGA Tour. Most of the courses either are or have been hosts for PGA Tour events, with the remainder having frequently hosted events on the second-tier Web.com Tour or the over-50s PGA Tour Champions.

Tournament Players Club

The flagship Tournament Players Club for the PGA Tour was TPC Sawgrass in Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida, designed in 1980 and now the headquarters of the PGA Tour. TPC courses are designed to accommodate the large crowds attracted to high-profile tournaments. One of the drivers for the development of the chain by the PGA Tour, is that by holding tournaments on its own courses, it avoids sharing the proceeds with external course owners.

In 2007, the PGA Tour reached an agreement with Heritage Golf Group for the sale of four TPC courses; TPC Eagle Trace, TPC Michigan, TPC Piper Glen, and TPC Prestancia. Although they would be owned and operated by Heritage Golf Group, all would retain their TPC branding.[1] In February 2008, TPC Tampa Bay became the fifth course to be bought by Heritage Golf Group. The Tampa Bay course also retained its TPC branding under a licensing agreement.[2]


which casino game is played with a set of chinese dominos

Pai gow (Chinese: 牌九; pinyin: pái jiǔ; Jyutping: paai4 gau2) is a Chinese gambling game, played with a set of 32 Chinese dominoes. It is played in major casinos in China (including Macau); the United States (including Las Vegas, Nevada; Reno, Nevada; Connecticut; Atlantic City, New Jersey; Pennsylvania; and cardrooms in California); Canada (including Edmonton, Alberta and Calgary, Alberta); Australia; and, New Zealand. It dates back to at least the Song dynasty.

Pai gow

The name "pai gow" is sometimes used to refer to a card game called pai gow poker (or “double-hand poker”), which is loosely based on pai gow.

Tiles are shuffled on the table and are arranged into eight face-down stacks of four tiles each in an assembly known as the woodpile. Individual stacks or tiles may then be moved in specific ways to rearrange the woodpile, after which the players place their bets.

Next, each player (including the dealer) is given one stack of tiles and must use them to form two hands of two tiles each. The hand with the lower value is called the front hand, and the hand with the higher value is called the rear hand. If a player's front hand beats the dealer's front hand, and the player's rear hand beats the dealer's rear hand, then that player wins the bet. If a player's front and rear hands both lose to the dealer's respective hands, the player loses the bet. If one hand wins and the other loses, the player is said to push, and gets back only the money he or she bet. Generally seven players will play, and each player's hands are compared only against the dealer's hands.

There are 35,960 possible ways to select 4 of the 32 tiles when the 32 tiles are considered distinguishable. However, there are 3620 distinct sets of 4 tiles when the tiles of a pair are considered indistinguishable. There are 496 ways to select 2 of the 32 tiles when the 32 tiles are considered distinguishable. There are 136 distinct hands (pairs of tiles) when the tiles of a pair are considered indistinguishable.

The name "pai gow" is loosely translated as "make nine" or "card nine". This reflects the fact that, with a few high-scoring exceptions, the maximum score for a hand is nine. The value of a hand is determined by adding up the total number of pips on its two tiles and dropping the tens digit. Examples:

There are special ways in which a hand can score more than nine points. The double-one tiles and double-six tiles are known as the Day and Teen tiles, respectively. The combination of a Day or Teen with an eight results in a Gong, worth 10 points, while putting either of them with a nine creates a Wong, worth 11. However, when a Day or Teen is paired with any other tile, the standard scoring rules apply.

The 1-2 and the 2-4 tiles are called Gee Joon tiles and act as limited wild cards. When used as part of a hand, these tiles may be scored as either 3 or 6, whichever results in a higher hand value. For example, a hand of 1-2 and 5-6 scores as seven rather than four.

The 32 tiles in a Chinese dominoes set can be arranged into 16 pairs, as shown in the picture at the top of this article. Eleven of these pairs have identical tiles, and five of these pairs are made up of two tiles that score the same, but look different. (The latter group includes the Gee Joon tiles, which can score the same, whether as three or six.) If a hand is made up of a pair, it always scores higher than a non-pair, no matter what the value of the pips are. (Pairs are often thought of as being worth 12 points each.)

When the player and dealer both have a pair, the higher-ranked pair wins. Ranking is determined not by the sum of the tiles' pips, but rather by aesthetics; the order must be memorized. The highest pairs are the Gee Joon tiles, the Teens, the Days, and the red eights. The lowest pairs are the mismatched nines, eights, sevens, and fives.

When the player and dealer display hands with the same score, the one with the highest-valued tile (based on the pair rankings described above) is the winner. For example, a player's hand of 3-4 and 2-2 and a dealer's hand of 5-6 and 5-5 would each score one point. However, since the dealer's 5-5 outranks the other three tiles, he would win the hand.

If the scores are tied, and if the player and dealer each have an identical highest-ranking tile, the hand is ruled a copy and the dealer wins. For example, if the player held 2-2 and 1-6, and the dealer held 2-2 and 3-4, the dealer would win since the scores (1 each) and the higher tiles (2-2) are the same. The lower-ranked tile in each hand is never used to break a tie.

There are two exceptions to the method described above. First, although the Gee Joon tiles form the highest-ranking pair, they are considered to have no value when evaluating ties. Second, any zero-zero tie is won by the dealer, regardless of the tiles in the two hands.

The key element of pai gow strategy is to present the optimal front and rear hands based on the tiles dealt to the player. There are three ways to arrange four tiles into two hands when no two of them form a pair. However, if there is at least one pair among the tiles, there are only two distinct ways to form two hands.

Using the tiles shown at right, the following hands and scores are possible:

The player must decide which combination is most likely to give a set of front/rear hands that can beat the dealer, or at least break a tie in the player's favor. In some cases, a player with weaker tiles may deliberately attempt to attain a push so as to avoid losing the bet outright. Many players rely on superstition or tradition to choose tile pairings.