how many spark plugs in a honda civic hybrid

The two spark plugs in each cylinder can fire either sequentially or simultaneously, enabling more efficient burning during lean-burn mode and more often lean-burn operation. The engine can operate at a lean 22:1 air-to-fuel ratio more than 60 percent of the time on a flat road. The VTEC cylinder idling system of the engine closes the valves in three of the four cylinders when the car is decelerating, reduces the power lost to the engine by 50 percent, and allows the IMA to extract more electrical energy during braking. The rocker arms operating the intake and exhaust valves have two modes: valve-lift mode or idle mode. They are engaged via a synchronizing piston. During deceleration, the synchro piston disengages the lift-mode rocker arm so that the valves remain at rest, effectively sealing off the cylinder.

Honda Civic Hybrid

The Honda Civic Hybrid was a variation of the Honda Civic with a hybrid electric powertrain. Honda introduced the Civic Hybrid in Japan in December 2001 and discontinued it in 2015. In the United States, it was the first hybrid automobile to be certified as an Advanced Technology Partial Zero-Emissions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) from the California Air Resources Board (CARB).

The Civic Hybrid uses an Integrated Motor Assist hybrid system similar to that of the Honda Insight. The Civic Hybrid was only marketed in sedan configurations.

The Civic hybrid, based on the seventh generation Civic, was first introduced to the Japanese market in December 2001. Honda claimed it was the most fuel efficient 5-passenger gasoline-powered production vehicle in the world at the time.[1] It was introduced to the U.S. in spring 2002 as a 2003 model. It is the first hybrid vehicle to be certified as an Advanced Technology Partial Zero- Emissions Vehicle (AT-PZEV) from CARB.[2]

The first generation of the Honda Civic Hybrid was based on the seventh generation Honda Civic. It was the first mainstream vehicle from Honda equipped with a gasoline-electric hybrid system and became the second hybrid model of the company after Insight. Model with manual transmission was rated city 46 mpg‑US (5.1 L/100 km; 55 mpg‑imp) / highway 51 mpg‑US (4.6 L/100 km; 61 mpg‑imp) according to United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) fuel mileage estimates,[3] about the same combined mileage as for the Toyota Prius, and became the most fuel-efficient five-passenger sedan ever sold in North America at the time.[4]

The following is a list of its technical features:[5][6][7]

An electric motor is sandwiched between the gasoline engine and the transmission, providing up to 13 horsepower. The motor also acts as a generator, to recharge the car's nickel-metal hydride battery located between the rear seat and the trunk, and as a starter motor.

The motor in Civic hybrid is about a quarter-inch (6.4Â mm) thicker than that of the Insight. Through improvements to the magnetic coils of the DC brushless motor, it achieves 30 percent greater assisting and regenerative torque than the previous model without increasing the size.

It generates more torque (46 versus 36 pound-feet) than the motor in Insight. The electricity is stored in a battery consisting of 120 1.2-volt Ni-MH D-cells wired in series. The battery can charge and discharge more rapidly and efficiently though the total capacity is reduced from the Insight's (6.0 versus 6.5 AH). Efficiency of the battery modules is increased, through a reduction in energy losses. The battery is housed with the electrical controller in a package called the Intelligent Power Unit (IPU). The new packaging reduces the size of the system by 50 percent and allows the IMA equipment be placed behind the rear seat in the trunk. The unit weighs only 63 lb (29 kg) and is one-third smaller than that of the Insight.

An idle stop feature shuts off the engine automatically when stopped, then restarts immediately when the driver removes their foot from the brake. This auto idle stop system contributes to both greater fuel efficiency and lower emissions. During stop and go driving, the engine will turn off when the car comes to a stop for the first time, however, if the car does not go above 10 mph (16 km/h) and stops again, the engine will not turn off unless the car is stopped for more than 15 seconds.[8]

With assistance from the electric motor, the combined torque at below 3,700 rpm is greater than that available from the non-hybrid Civic's 1.7-liter engine.

Fuel efficiency is further improved by six percent by utilizing: a new front air dam and rear spoiler, along with revised underbody panels, reducing the drag coefficient from 0.30 to 0.28; replacing traditional power steering with electrical power result as reduction in parasitic losses and special lower rolling resistance tires. The Dunlop tires improve ride quality and reduce road noise compared with other hybrids like Insight and Prius. When compared with Insight, a wider tire improves stability at highway speed. Car and Driver reported that the car can accelerate 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 10.9 seconds.

The Civic hybrid is estimated to be 40 percent more fuel efficient than its non-hybrid counterpart.[9]

There was a minor refresh of the design between the 2003 and 2004 model years which affected the front and rear bumper covers, hood and head lights. On the interior, a small center console replaced the driver's arm rest and the rear seats got adjustable head rests. [11]

2006–08: 176.7 in (4,488 mm)(USDM)
2006–08: 4,540 mm (178.7 in)(JDM)

The second generation Civic Hybrid is based on the eighth generation Civic. As with other Civics, there are some styling differences to the exterior between the North American and the Japanese market models.

The powertrain of the second generation Civic hybrid is similar to that of the first generation.

The following is a list of major changes:

By using high-performance magnets and high-density windings, Honda is able to increase the power output of the electric motor by 50% to 20 hp (15 kW) at 2,000 rpm when compared with the first generation. The inverter that controls motor speed is integrated with the motor's ECU for more precise control, resulting in greater efficiency and fuel economy. The output of battery is increased by around 30 percent to 158.4 V. The battery storage box is designed for better cooling performance and vibration resistance to enhance long-term reliability. The higher output of electric motor enables the car to run on electricity only, at a steady 15 to 20 mph (24–32 km/h) when cruising on a flat surface.

An internal electric motor is added to the air-conditioner, so it can be powered by either the engine, an electric motor, or both. At a stop, the compressor powered by the battery keeps the cabin cool. An additional compressor that is powered by the petrol engine also engages if rapid cooling is required. When the interior temperature is stable, air conditioning is provided by the battery solely. As soon as the brake pedal is lifted, the petrol engine comes back to life again.

The new three stage i-VTEC valvetrain has low-rpm, high-rpm and cylinder idle mode. High output valve timing helps the engine to increase its output by 9 percent. During deceleration, the engine is kept idle. There is no combustion in all four cylinders and the cylinders are sealed shut, reducing pumping losses by engine. As a result, recovery of energy wasted during braking is improved by 10 percent.

A digital display is incorporated in the instrument dash showing how much electricity is sent to the battery or how much is used. When the car is braked moderately, maximum number of green LEDs light up showing energy recaptured. When the car is braked harder, the conventional brakes are activated.

Car and Driver found the car, when compared with previous generation, faster, offered greater refinement, quieter at highway speed, has a stiffer body and a revised suspension that handles bumps better and quietly.[14]

It is estimated that, when compared to a gasoline engine only Civic sedan of 2006 with an automatic transmission, the Civic hybrid provides an increase of fuel economy in city driving of about 63 percent and an increase of fuel economy in highway driving of about 27 percent. The CVT transmission is designed to achieve the highest efficiency for a given RPM.[15]

A class-action lawsuit filed in 2012 alleged that Honda falsely advertised the fuel economy of the Civic Hybrid and that owners were getting significantly lower mileage.[16] The Los Angeles Times reported in May 2012 that at least 36 small-claims lawsuits had also been filed against Honda over alleged false advertisement of gas mileage.[17]

Some users reported that the fuel economy of the Civic Hybrid was reduced after Honda installed a software update to prolong the life of the hybrid battery by reducing the electric motor's output and putting more reliance on the gasoline engine.[18]

A Consumer Reports survey found a very high rate of battery failure in Civic Hybrids 2nd-generation Civic Hybrids, describing the failure rate for 2009-2010 models as "shocking", with over 30% of responders reporting they had needed a battery replacement within the last 12 months.[19] Honda acknowledged problems with the 2006-2008 models which could cause the batteries to "deteriorate and eventually fail";[17] software updates were issued to prolong the life of the battery, but some owners reported these updates led to reduced fuel economy and power.[18] The 132 NiMH cell pack suffers from imbalance as individual cells can't be monitored or charged. Monitoring is available at a 12 cell sub-pack level, but charging isn't. After years/miles of use, the cells become imbalanced as the cells charge/discharge at slightly different rates from one another. Eventually, strong cells are limiting the upper capacity of the pack and weak cells are limiting the lower capacity of the pack thereby reducing the usable capacity of the pack. There are higher capacity non-OEM packs available for less than the OEM price, and many owners have achieved years-long extensions of usable battery life by utilizing a grid charger. A grid charger is a home-made or purchased charger that connects your car to the power-grid. These devices impart a long, slow "balancing" charge where all cells are gently charged to their maximum capacity. This can temporarily restore balance and dramatically improve usable capacity for months at a time.

In March 2015, Honda sent 2009-2011 owners a letter indicating that all versions, not just the PHEV states, would get the 10 year/150,000Â mi warranty on the IMA battery. Reference Service Bulletin #15-006.[20]

The Civic hybrid ranks as the second best selling electric hybrid car in the U.S.[21]

Consumer Reports ran an article in April 2006 stating that hybrid vehicles would not pay for themselves over 5 years of ownership. However, there was an error in the calculation of depreciation for the hybrid vehicles. It resulted in overstating how much extra money the hybrids would cost their owners during the first five years of ownership.[22] When corrected, the Honda Civic Hybrid did have a payback period of slightly less than 5 years.[23] In October 2010 Vincentric performed a hybrid cost of ownership analysis for the USA market. In this analysis it compared hybrids' 5-year cost of ownership to their all-gas counterparts. The analysis showed that the 2010 Honda Civic Hybrid cost an additional $1830 over a 2010 Honda Civic EX 2D Coupe with an Automatic Transmission (the report assume 15,000 miles are driven annually and fuel prices are based on a weighted average over the five months prior to October 2010).[24]

In August 2010, Autoblog reported that a replacement battery for the Civic Hybrid retailed at $2,100.[25]

The Civic hybrid was introduced to Malaysia in August 2007.[26] It was launched in China in November 2007 and in India in June 2008.[27]

The Honda Civic Hybrid competed in 24 Hours Nürburgring in 2007, finishing 108th out of 220 teams starting. The twenty-four hour race is held around the Nürburgring, one of the world's most grueling courses.[28] A Group N spec Honda Civic hybrid raced in the Jim Clark rally and took second in class.[29]

The last Civic Hybrid was launched during 2011 in the U.S. and Canada as a 2012 model. It has a larger 1.5-liter i-VTEC engine that produces 90 horsepower and 97 pound-feet of torque[34] and a lithium-ion battery pack instead of nickel-metal hydride. The larger engine replaces the 1.3-L engine for better mid-range torque.[35] The DC brushless permanent magnet motor, which is placed between the engine and continuously variable transmission, provides 17 kW (23 hp) and 78 pound-feet of torque and weighs 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) less.[35] The 2012 Civic Hybrid has an EPA rating of 44 mpg‑US (5.3 L/100 km; 53 mpg‑imp) for the city and highway driving cycles, an improvement from 40 mpg‑US (5.9 L/100 km; 48 mpg‑imp) city and 43 mpg‑US (5.5 L/100 km; 52 mpg‑imp) highway for the previous generation.[36]

The Civic Hybrid has the latest Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) parallel hybrid system, with a new 20 kW lithium-ion battery — a first for a Honda hybrid vehicle.[35] The new battery is 5 kW more powerful, 9 kg (20 lb) lighter and takes up 36% less space.[35] Battery capacity is increased from 35 kAh to 100 kAh (4.5 Ah).[35]

It comes with improved aerodynamics and Honda ECO Assist technology.[37] The ECO Assist technology is an information system to help the driver adopt a more fuel-efficient driving style,[38] and is proven to improve fuel economy by about 10% for Honda's hybrid vehicles in Japan.[39]

Production of the Civic hybrid sedan was moved from Suzuka, Japan to Indiana, United States in early 2013, following the production of the Acura ILX hybrid commenced at Indiana plant in April 2012, after production capacity was expanded to 250,000.[40]

In February 2009, Honda reported that since 2001 they had sold more than 255,000 Civic Hybrids, including more than 190,000 units sold in North America.[41] For a time, the Civic Hybrid was the second-best-selling hybrid electric car in the U.S.[21]

It is reported that over 50,000 Civic Hybrids were sold during 2007 worldwide.[42]

In January 2012, Heather Peters was awarded $9,867 by a Los Angeles Superior Court small-claims commissioner after alleging that her 2006 Civic Hybrid did not meet mileage claims advertised by the manufacturer.[43]

Honda won an appeal against this decision when a judge ruled that the vehicleâ€™s fuel-economy ratings complied with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's requirements, and that such ratings are for the purpose of comparison among vehicles.[44]

Consumers who purchased or leased a 2003 through 2009 Honda Civic Hybrid had until April 19, 2013 to claim a cash payment and Rebate Certificate from the class action lawsuit settlement. However, the Settlement Administrator has already begun to review claims and began mailing checks last month to those with validated claims.

In March 2012 Honda Canada issued a release pledging to honor the USA class action settlement with owners and lessees in Canada when it was finalized in the USA. To date there has been no follow up to parties concerned, but shortly after the Honda release a class action was launched in Quebec courts on behalf of Quebec and Canadian owners and lessees.

Honda announced that the Civic Hybrid will be discontinued after the 2015 model year due to poor sales along with the Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Honda Civic GX, and Acura ILX Hybrid.


who played sonny's wife in dog day afternoon

After realizing they cannot make a simple getaway, Sonny demands that a helicopter be landed on the roof to fly him and Sal out of the country. When they are informed that the asphalt roof of the bank will not support a helicopter, Sonny demands that a vehicle drive him and Sal to an airport so that they can board a jet. He also demands pizzas (which are delivered to the scene) for the hostages and that his wife be brought to the bank. When Sonny's wife, Leon Shermer (Chris Sarandon), a pre-operative transgender woman, arrives, she reveals to the crowd and officials one of Sonny's reasons for robbing the bank is to pay for Leon's sex reassignment surgery, and that Sonny also has an estranged divorced wife, Angie (Susan Peretz), and children.

Dog Day Afternoon

Dog Day Afternoon is a 1975 American crime drama film directed by Sidney Lumet, written by Frank Pierson, and produced by Martin Bregman and Martin Elfand. The film stars Al Pacino, John Cazale, Charles Durning, Chris Sarandon, Penelope Allen, James Broderick, Lance Henriksen, and Carol Kane. The title refers to the sultry "dog days" of summer.

The film was inspired by P. F. Kluge's LIFE article "The Boys in the Bank",[2] which tells a story of a similar robbery of a Brooklyn bank by John Wojtowicz and Salvatore Naturale on August 22, 1972.[3]

The film received critical acclaim upon its September 1975 release by Warner Bros., some of which referred to its anti-establishment tone. Dog Day Afternoon was nominated for several Academy Awards and Golden Globe awards, and won the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. In 2009, the film was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the National Film Registry.[4]

On August 22, 1972, first-time crook Sonny Wortzik (Al Pacino), his friend Salvatore "Sal" Naturale (John Cazale), and Stevie (Gary Springer) attempt to rob the First Brooklyn Savings Bank. The plan immediately goes awry when Stevie loses his nerve shortly after Sal pulls out his gun, and Sonny is forced to let him flee the scene. In the vault, Sonny discovers that he and Sal have arrived after the daily cash pickup, and only $1,100 in cash remains in the bank.

To compensate, Sonny takes a number of traveler's cheques. He attempts to prevent the cheques from being traced by burning the bank's register in a trash can, but this causes smoke to billow out the side of the building, alerting the business across the street to suspicious activities. Within minutes, the building is surrounded by the police. Unsure of what to do, the two robbers camp out in the bank, holding all the workers hostage.

Police Detective Sergeant Eugene Moretti (Charles Durning) calls the bank to tell Sonny the police have arrived. Sonny warns that he and Sal have hostages and will kill them if anyone tries coming into the bank. Sal tells Sonny that he is ready to kill the hostages if necessary. Detective Moretti acts as hostage negotiator, while FBI Agent Sheldon (James Broderick) monitors his actions.

Howard Calvin (John Marriott), the security guard, has an asthma attack, so Sonny releases him when Moretti asks for a hostage as a sign of good faith. Moretti convinces Sonny to step outside the bank to see how aggressive the police forces are. Using head teller Sylvia "The Mouth" (Penelope Allen) as a shield, Sonny exits the bank and begins a dialogue with Moretti that culminates in his shouting "Attica! Attica!" (invoking the recent Attica Prison riot), and the civilian crowd starts cheering for Sonny.

As night sets in, the lights in the bank all shut off. Sonny goes outside again and discovers that Agent Sheldon has taken command of the scene. He refuses to give Sonny any more favors, but when the bank manager, Mulvaney (Sully Boyar), goes into a diabetic shock, Agent Sheldon lets a doctor (Philip Charles MacKenzie) through. While the doctor is inside the bank, Sheldon convinces Leon to talk to Sonny on the phone.

The two have a lengthy conversation that reveals Leon had attempted suicide to "get away from" Sonny. She had been hospitalized at the psychiatric ward of Bellevue Hospital until the police brought her to the scene. Leon turns down Sonny's offer to join him and Sal wherever they take the plane. Sonny tells police listening to the phone call that Leon had nothing to do with the robbery attempt.

After the phone call, the doctor asks Sonny to let Mulvaney leave, and Sonny agrees. However, Mulvaney refuses to leave, insisting upon remaining with his employees.

The FBI calls Sonny out of the bank again. They have brought his mother to the scene. She unsuccessfully tries persuading him to give himself up, and Agent Sheldon signals that a limousine will arrive in 10 minutes to take them to a waiting jet. Once back inside the bank, Sonny writes out his will, leaving money from his life insurance to Leon for her sex change and to Angie.

When the limousine arrives, Sonny checks it for any hidden weapons or booby traps. When he decides the car is satisfactory, he settles on Agent Murphy (Lance Henriksen) to drive Sonny, Sal, and the remaining hostages to Kennedy Airport. Per Sonny's earlier agreement, an additional hostage, Edna (Estelle Omens) is released, and the remaining hostages get into the limousine with Sonny and Sal. Sonny sits in the front next to Murphy while Sal sits behind them. Murphy repeatedly asks Sal to point his gun at the roof so Sal won't accidentally shoot him.

As they wait on the airport tarmac for the plane to taxi into position, Maria is released and gives Sal her rosary beads to help him through his first plane journey. Murphy again reminds Sal to aim his gun up so he does not fire by accident. Sal does so, and Agent Sheldon forces Sonny's weapon onto the dashboard, creating a distraction which allows Murphy to pull a revolver hidden in his armrest and shoot Sal in the head. Sonny is immediately arrested, and the hostages are all escorted to the terminal. The film ends with Sonny watching Sal's body being taken from the car on a stretcher. Subtitles reveal that Sonny was sentenced to 20 years in prison, Angie and her children subsisted on welfare, and Leon had her sex reassignment surgery.

The LIFE article described Wojtowicz as "a dark, thin fellow with the broken-faced good looks of an Al Pacino or Dustin Hoffman".[3] Hoffman was later offered the role when Pacino briefly quit the production. An 18-year-old actor was originally to be cast in the role of Sal to match the age of the actual Salvatore.[5] The table below summarizes the main cast of Dog Day Afternoon.[3]

The film is based on the story of John Wojtowicz and adheres to the basic facts of what happened, according to the LIFE article "The Boys in the Bank". Wojtowicz, along with Sal Naturale, held up a Chase Manhattan Bank branch in Gravesend, Brooklyn, on August 22, 1972.[3]

After being apprehended, Wojtowicz was convicted in court and sentenced to 20 years in prison, of which he served six.[6]

Wojtowicz wrote a letter to The New York Times in 1975 out of concern that people would believe the version of the events portrayed in the film, which he said was "only 30% true". Some of Wojtowicz's objections included the portrayal of his wife Carmen Bifulco, the conversation with his mother that Wojtowicz claimed never happened, and the refusal of police to let him speak to his wife Carmen (unlike what was portrayed in the film). He did, however, praise Al Pacino and Chris Sarandon's portrayals of him and his wife Elizabeth Eden as accurate.[7] Also, although Sal was 18 years old, he is portrayed in the film by then 39-year-old John Cazale.

The film shows Sonny making out a will to give Leon his life insurance so that if Sonny should be killed, Leon might still be able to pay for the operation. The real-life Wojtowicz was paid $7,500 ($36,400 today), plus 1% of the film's net profits, for the rights to his story, from which he gave to Eden enough to pay for her sexual reassignment surgery.[8] Aron became Elizabeth Debbie Eden.[9] She died of complications from AIDS in Genesee Hospital, in Rochester, New York, in 1987.[10] Wojtowicz died of cancer in January 2006.

The robbery took place at the Chase Manhattan Bank branch at 450 Avenue P in Brooklyn, on the cross street of East 3rd Street, in Gravesend.[11]

The original inspiration for the film was an article written by P. F. Kluge and Thomas Moore for LIFE in September 1972. The article included many of the details later used in the film and noted the relationship which Wojtowicz and Naturale developed with hostages and the police. Bank manager Robert Barrett said, "I'm supposed to hate you guys [Wojtowicz/Naturale], but I've had more laughs tonight than I've had in weeks. We had a kind of camaraderie." Teller Shirley Bell said, "[I]f they had been my houseguests on a Saturday night, it would have been hilarious."[3] The novelization of the film was penned by organized crime writer Leslie Waller.

The film has no musical score other than three songs, which are diegetic—"Amoreena" by Elton John (which first appeared on his 1970 album Tumbleweed Connection), which Sonny, Sal, and Stevie are listening to in their car in the opening credits—, the Faces song "Stay with Me", and "Easy Livin" by Uriah Heep, which both briefly play on the radio during scenes inside the bank.[12] Although many scenes within the bank establish the temperature was quite hot during the robbery, some outdoor sequences were shot in weather cool enough that actors had to put ice in their mouths to stop their breath from showing on camera.[13] Exterior shots were filmed on location on Prospect Park West between 17th and 18th Street in Windsor Terrace, Brooklyn. The interior shots of the bank were filmed in a set created in a warehouse.[14][15]

Though the actors kept to the basic text of the script as written by Frank Pierson, director Lumet encouraged them to improvise and workshop scenes to create more natural dialogue. Changes made through this process included Cazale's memorable reply when asked what country he'd like to go to ("Wyoming"), and Durning and Pacino's aggressive dialogue after shots are fired within the bank.[16]

Although Dog Day Afternoon was released nationally in 1975, it is based on events that took place in Brooklyn three years earlier, in 1972. During this era of strong opposition to the Vietnam war, "anti-establishment" Sonny repeats the counter-cultural war cry, "Attica!", in reference to the 1971 Attica Prison riots.[17]

Upon its release, Dog Day Afternoon received largely positive reviews. The film holds a 95% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes.[18] Vincent Canby called it "Sidney Lumet's most accurate, most flamboyant New York movie" and praised the "brilliant characterizations" by the entire cast.[19] Roger Ebert called Sonny "one of the most interesting modern movie characters" and gave the movie three-and-a-half stars out of four.[20]

As time has passed, the film has continued to generate a positive critical reception. For example, Christopher Null wrote in 2006 that the film "captures perfectly the zeitgeist of the early 1970s, a time when optimism was scraping rock bottom and John Wojtowicz was as good a hero as we could come up with".[21]

P.F. Kluge, coauthor of the article that inspired the film, believed the filmmakers "stayed with the surface of a lively journalistic story" and that the film had a "strong, fast-paced story" without "reflection" or "a contemplative view of life".[2]

Dog Day Afternoon ranks 443rd on Empire's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.[22] Vrij Nederland named the bank robbery scene the third best bank robbery in film history, behind bank robbery scenes from Raising Arizona (1987) and Heat (1995).[23]

Dog Day Afternoon won the Academy Award for Writing â€“ Original Screenplay (Frank Pierson) and was nominated for five other Oscars:[24]

The film was also nominated for the following seven Golden Globes, winning none:[24]

The film won other awards, including an NBR Award for Best Supporting Actor (Charles Durning) and a Writers Guild Award for Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen (Frank Pierson) as well as the British Academy Award for Best Actor (Al Pacino). The film is also #70 on AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills list.[25] Also Al Pacino's quote, "Attica! Attica!" placed at #86 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes. It was nominated for AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies in 1998[26] and 2007.[27] In 2006, Premiere magazine issued its "100 Greatest Performances of All Time", citing Pacino's performance as Sonny as the 4th greatest ever.[28] In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the 20th best edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.[29]


what is the name of the small red macroalgae that develop a hard crust

Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales. They are characterized by a thallus that is hard because of calcareous deposits contained within the cell walls. The colors of these algae are most typically pink, or some other shade of red, but other species can be purple, yellow, blue, white or gray-green. Coralline algae play an important role in the ecology of coral reefs. Sea urchins, parrot fish, and limpets and chitons (both mollusks) feed on coralline algae. In the temperate Mediterranean sea, coralline algae are the main builders of a typical algal reef, the CoralligÃ¨ne ("coralligenous").[5] Many are typically encrusting and rock-like, found in marine waters all over the world. Only one species lives in freshwater.[6] Unattached specimens (maerl, rhodoliths) may form relatively smooth compact balls to warty or fruticose thalli.

Coralline algae

A close look at almost any intertidal rocky shore or coral reef will reveal an abundance of pink to pinkish-grey patches, splashed as though by a mad painter over rock surfaces. These patches of pink "paint" are actually living algae: crustose coralline red algae. The red algae belong to the division Rhodophyta, within which the coralline algae form the order Corallinales. There are over 1600 described species of nongeniculate coralline algae.[7]

The corallines are presently grouped into two families on the basis of their reproductive structures.[8]

Coralline algae are widespread in all of the world's oceans, where they often cover close to 100% of rocky substrata. Only one species, Pneophyllum cetinaensis, is found in freshwater.[6][9] Many are epiphytic (grow on other algae or marine angiosperms), or epizoic (grow on animals), and some are even parasitic on other corallines. Despite their ubiquity, the coralline algae are poorly known by ecologists, and even by specialist phycologists (people who study algae). For example, a recent book on the seaweeds of Hawaii does not include any crustose coralline algae, even though corallines are quite well studied there and dominate many marine areas.

Corallines have been divided into two groups, although this division does not constitute a taxonomic grouping:

Geniculate corallines are branching, tree-like organisms which are attached to the substratum by crustose or calcified, root-like holdfasts. The organisms are made flexible by having noncalcified sections (genicula) separating longer calcified sections (intergenicula). Nongeniculate corallines range from a few micrometres to several centimetres thick crusts. They are often very slow growing, and may occur on rock, coral skeletons, shells, other algae or seagrasses. Crusts may be thin and leafy to thick and strongly adherent. Some are parasitic or partly endophytic on other corallines. Many coralline crusts produce knobby protuberances ranging from a millimetre to several centimetres high. Some are free-living as rhodoliths (rounded, free-living specimens). The morphological complexity of rhodoliths enhances species diversity, and can be used as a non-taxonomic descriptor for monitoring.[10]

Thalli can be divided into three layers: the hypothallus, perithallus and epithallus.[11] The epithallus is periodically shed, either in sheets or piecemeal.[12]

Lithothamnion sp.

Mesophyllum sp.

Unidentified encrusting species

Corallines live in varying depths of water, ranging from periodically exposed intertidal settings to 270Â m water depth (around the maximum penetration of light).[13] Some species can tolerate brackish[13] or hypersaline[14] waters, and only one strictly freshwater coralline species exists.[6] (Some species of the morphologically similar, but non-calcifying, Hildenbrandia, however, can survive in freshwater.) A wide range of turbidities and nutrient concentrations can be tolerated.[13]

Corallines, especially encrusting forms, are slow growers, and expand by 0.1 to 80Â mm annually.[13] All corallines begin with a crustose stage; some later become "frondose".[15]

As sessile encrusting organisms, the corallines are prone to overgrowth by other "fouling" algae. The group have many defences to such immuration, most of which depend on waves disturbing their thalli. However, the most relied-upon method involves waiting for herbivores to devour the potential encrusters.[16] This places them in the unusual position of requiring herbivory, rather than benefiting from its avoidance.[17] Many species periodically slough their surface epithallus â€“ and anything attached to it.[16]

Some corallines slough off a surface layer of epithallial cells, which in a few cases may be an antifouling mechanism which serves the same function as enhancing herbivore recruitment. This also affects the community, as many algae recruit on the surface of a sloughing coralline, and are then lost with the surface layer of cells. This can also generate patchiness within the community. The common Indo-Pacific corallines, Neogoniolithon fosliei and Sporolithon ptychoides, slough epithallial cells in continuous sheets which often lie on the surface of the plants.

Not all sloughing serves an antifouling function. Epithallial shedding in most corallines is probably simply a means of getting rid of damaged cells whose metabolic function has become impaired. Morton and his students studied sloughing in the South African intertidal coralline alga, Spongites yendoi, a species which sloughs up to 50% of its thickness twice a year. This deep-layer sloughing, which is energetically costly, does not affect seaweed recruitment when herbivores are removed. The surface of these plants is usually kept clean by herbivores, particularly the pear limpet, Patella cochlear. Sloughing in this case is probably a means of eliminating old reproductive structures and grazer-damaged surface cells, and reducing the likelihood of surface penetration by burrowing organisms.

The corallines have an excellent fossil record from the Early Cretaceous onwards, consistent with molecular clocks that show the divergence of the modern taxa beginning in this period.[1] The fossil record of nonarticulated forms is better; the nonmineralized genuiculae of articulated forms break down quickly, scattering the mineralized portions, which decay more quickly.[1]

The earliest "corallines" known date from the Ordovician,[2][3] although modern forms radiated in the Cretaceous.[18] True corallines are found in rocks of Jurassic age onwards.[19] Stem group corallines are reported from the Ediacaran Doushantuo formation;[18] later stem-group forms include Arenigiphyllum, Petrophyton, Graticula, and Archaeolithophyllum. The corallines were thought to have evolved from within the Solenoporaceae,[20] a view that has been disputed.[3] Their fossil record matches their molecular history, and is complete and continuous.[1]

The Sporolithaceae tend to be more diverse in periods of high ocean temperatures; the opposite is true for the Corallinaceae.[13] The group's diversity has closely tracked the efficiency of grazing herbivores; for instance, the Eocene appearance of parrotfish marked a spike in coralline diversity, and the extinction of many delicately branched (and thus predation-prone) forms.[16]

The group's internal taxonomy is in a state of flux; molecular studies are proving more reliable than morphological methods in approximating relationships within the group.[21]

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Fresh surfaces are generally colonized by thin crusts, which are replaced by thicker or branched forms during succession over the course of one (in the tropics) to ten (in the Arctic) years.[16]

The corallines deposit calcite in their cell walls; the c-axis is perpendicular to the cell wall. The calcite sometimes contains magnesium; the Mg content varies from individual to individual.[22] High-magnesium content makes more soluble, making coralline algae depositing more vulnerable to ocean acidification, particularly in colder waters.[23]

The first coralline alga recognized as a living organism was probably Corallina in the 1st century AD.[24] In 1837 Rodolfo Amando Philippi recognized coralline algae were not animals, and he proposed the two generic names Lithophyllum and Lithothamnion as Lithothamnium.[24] For many years, they were included in the order Cryptonemiales as the family Corallinaceae until, in 1986, they were raised to the order Corallinales.

Many corallines produce chemicals which promote the settlement of the larvae of certain herbivorous invertebrates, particularly abalone. Larval settlement is adaptive for the corallines because the herbivores remove epiphytes which might otherwise smother the crusts and preempt available light. Settlement is also important for abalone aquaculture; corallines appear to enhance larval metamorphosis and the survival of larvae through the critical settlement period. It also has significance at the community level; the presence of herbivores associated with corallines can generate patchiness in the survival of young stages of dominant seaweeds. This has been seen this in eastern Canada, and it is suspected the same phenomenon occurs on Indo-Pacific coral reefs, yet nothing is known about the herbivore enhancement role of Indo-Pacific corallines, or whether this phenomenon is important in coral reef communities.[citation needed]

Some coralline algae develop into thick crusts which provide microhabitat for many invertebrates. For example, off eastern Canada, Morton found juvenile sea urchins, chitons, and limpets suffer nearly 100% mortality due to fish predation unless they are protected by knobby and undercut coralline algae. This is probably an important factor affecting the distribution and grazing effects of herbivores within marine communities. Nothing is known about the microhabitat role of Indo-Pacific corallines. However, the most common species in the region, Hydrolithon onkodes, often forms an intimate relationship with the chiton Cryptoplax larvaeformis. The chiton lives in burrows it makes in H. onkodes plants, and comes out at night to graze on the surface of the coralline. This combination of grazing and burrowing results in a peculiar growth form (called "castles") in H. onkodes, in which the coralline produces nearly vertical, irregularly curved lamellae. Coralline algae are part of the diet of shingle urchins (Colobocentrotus atratus).

Nongeniculate corallines are of particular significance in the ecology of coral reefs, where they provide calcareous material to the structure of the reef, help cement the reef together, and are important sources of primary production. Coralline algae are especially important in reef construction, as they lay down calcium carbonate as calcite. Although they contribute considerable bulk to the calcium carbonate structure of coral reefs, their more important role in most areas of the reef, is in acting as the cement which binds the reef materials into a sturdy structure.[25]

Corallines are particularly important in constructing the algal ridge's reef framework for surf-pounded reefs in both the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific regions. Algal ridges are carbonate frameworks constructed mainly by nongeniculate coralline algae (after Adey 1978). They require high and persistent wave action to form, so develop best on windward reefs with little or no seasonal change in wind direction. Algal ridges are one of the main reef structures that prevent oceanic waves from striking adjacent coastlines, helping to prevent coastal erosion.[citation needed]

Because of their calcified structure, coralline algae have a number of economic uses. The collection of unattached corallines (maërl) for use as soil conditioners dates to the 18th century. This is particularly significant in Britain and France, where more than 300,000 tonnes of Phymatolithon calcareum (Pallas) Adey & McKinnin and Lithothamnion corallioides are dredged annually. Some harvesting of maërl beds that span several thousand kilometres off the coast of Brazil takes place. These beds contain as-yet undetermined species belonging to the genera Lithothamnion and Lithophyllum. Maërl is also used as a food additive for cattle and pigs, as well as in the filtration of acidic drinking water.

The earliest use of corallines in medicine involved the preparation of a vermifuge from ground geniculate corallines of the genera Corallina and Jania. This use stopped towards the end of the 18th century. Medical science now uses corallines in the preparation of dental bone implants. The cell fusions provide the matrix for the regeneration of bone tissue.

Since coralline algae contain calcium carbonate, they fossilize fairly well. They are particularly significant as stratigraphic markers in petroleum geology. Coralline rock also functions as building stones, with the best examples being in Vienna, Austria.[26]

As a colorful component of live rock sold in the marine aquarium trade, and an important part of reef health, coralline algae are desired in home aquariums for their aesthetic qualities, and ostensible benefit to the tank ecosystem.[citation needed]


how many cardinals are in the baseball hall of fame

The St. Louis Cardinals, a Major League baseball (MLB) franchise based in St. Louis, Missouri, have competed in the National League (NL) since 1892, and in the American Association (AA) from 1882 to 1891.[a]  They have won 11 World Series titles, one additional interleague championship and were co-champions (tied) in another prior to the modern World Series.  Known as the Cardinals from 1900 to the present, the St. Louis franchise were also known as the Brown Stockings (1882), Browns (1883â€“98), and Perfectos (1899).[2]  A total of 37 players and other personnel associated with the Cardinals have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in Cooperstown, New York.

List of St. Louis Cardinals in the Baseball Hall of Fame

The first former Cardinals players to be inducted into Baseball Hall of Fame were John McGraw and Cy Young in 1937, the second year of the Museum's annual balloting.  Rogers Hornsby was the first to be inducted as Cardinal, which occurred in 1942.  Of the 37 former Cardinals elected to the Hall of Fame, 17 have been inducted as Cardinals and nine with the Cardinals logo on their cap.  The latest former Cardinals personnel to be inducted were Tony La Russa and Joe Torre, which occurred in 2014.

In addition, two separate awards – the Ford Frick Award and J. G. Taylor Spink Award – while not conferring the status of enshrining their recipients as members of the Hall of Fame, honor the works of a total of six sportswriters and broadcasters in connection with their coverage of the Cardinals.[3][4]  The Cardinals also have a franchise hall of fame known as the St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum located within Ballpark Village adjacent to Busch Stadium, the Cardinals' home stadium.[5]

The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum has collected artifacts related to notable achievements of Cardinals players, including:


who is the manager for the seattle mariners

Scott Daniel Servais (born June 4, 1967) is the manager of the Seattle Mariners of Major League Baseball.

Scott Servais

A major league catcher for eleven seasons, Servais was previously the assistant general manager for the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and director of player development for the Texas Rangers. He played in the National League for the Houston Astros, Chicago Cubs, San Francisco Giants, and Colorado Rockies.[1]

A native of Coon Valley, Wisconsin, Servais played high school baseball for the Westby Norsemen, and was selected in the second round of the 1985 amateur draft by the New York Mets,[2] but did not sign. He opted to attend Creighton University in Omaha, Nebraska, and played college baseball for the Creighton Bluejays. After his junior season, Servais was taken in the third round of the 1988 amateur draft by the Houston Astros.

Servais was a member of the United States national baseball team while the team competed in the last Amateur World Series before it was renamed the Baseball World Cup in 1986. Following the Amateur World Series, he played in the 1987 Pan American Games, where they won the silver medal and the 1987 Intercontinental Cup. Servais was also the back-up catcher for Doug Robbins at the 1988 Olympics in Seoul, where the U.S. won the gold medal, although baseball was only a demonstration event.

Servais began his major league career in 1991 with the Houston Astros, staying with them until the middle of the 1995 season when he was traded along with Luis Gonzalez to the Chicago Cubs for Rick Wilkins. It was with the Cubs, during the 1998 season, that he played in his only post-season. After the Cubs lost to the Braves in the National League Division Series as a wildcard team, he signed as a free agent with the San Francisco Giants.

Towards the end of the 2000 season, Servais was selected off waivers by the Colorado Rockies. Prior to the 2001 season, he was picked up as a free agent by the Detroit Tigers, but was released before the season began. Shortly before the 2001 season, Servais was picked up as a free agent by the Houston Astros. Servais was initially signed as a free agent prior to the 2002 season, but he did not make the opening day roster, making the 2001 season his final season.[3]

Servais served in the Texas Rangers' front office before being hired by the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim as an assistant general manager in 2011.[4][5] When Jerry Dipoto, the Angels' general manager, resigned during the 2015 season, the Angels hired Billy Eppler.[6]

Dipoto was hired as the general manager of the Seattle Mariners on September 28, 2015,[7] and second-year manager Lloyd McClendon was fired on October 9, less than a week after the season's conclusion.[8] Two weeks later, Servais was hired as the manager of the M's for the 2016 season.[9]

On June 26, 2016, Servais received his first ejection as a manager, asking home plate umpire Carlos Torres why he didn't ask the first or third base umpire to see if Shawn O'Malley went around on his swing or not. [10] He finished his first season with a record of 86 wins and 76 losses.[11]

Servais received his second ejection as a manager on April 16, 2017 after first base umpire C. B. Bucknor originally called Leonys Martín's grounder a foul ball and changed the ruling after Rangers first baseman Mike Napoli pleaded with Bucknor that it was a fair ball and Rangers manager Jeff Banister was on his way out to plead his case.[12] On May 25, 2017, Servais received his third ejection of his managerial career on a questionable strike three call on Guillermo Heredia in the top of the sixth inning against the Nationals. [13]

Servais is the nephew of Creighton head baseball coach Ed Servais.[14] Scott is married to Jill (Hanson), his high school sweetheart.


where is the gran chaco located in south america

The Gran Chaco or Dry Chaco is a sparsely populated, hot and semi-arid lowland natural region of the Río de la Plata basin, divided among eastern Bolivia, western Paraguay, northern Argentina and a portion of the Brazilian states of Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do Sul, where it is connected with the Pantanal region. This land is sometimes called the Chaco Plain.

Gran Chaco

The name Chaco comes from a word in Quechua, an indigenous language from the Andes and highlands of South America. The quechua word chaqu meaning "hunting land" comes probably from the rich variety of animal life present throughout the entire region.

The Gran Chaco is about 647,500 km² (250,000 sq mi) in size, though estimates differ. It is located west of the Paraguay River and east of the Andes, and is mostly an alluvial sedimentary plain shared among Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina. It stretches from about 17° to 33° South latitude and between 65° and 60° West longitude, though estimates differ.

Historically the Chaco has been divided in three main parts: the Chaco Austral or Southern Chaco, south of the Bermejo River and inside Argentinian territory, blending into the Pampa region in its southernmost end; the Chaco Central or Central Chaco between the Bermejo and the Pilcomayo River to the north, also now in Argentinian territory; and the Chaco Boreal or Northern Chaco, north of the Pilcomayo up to the Brazilian Pantanal, inside Paraguayan territory and sharing some area with Bolivia.

Locals sometimes divide it today by the political borders, giving rise to the terms Argentinian Chaco, Paraguayan Chaco and Bolivian Chaco. (Inside Paraguay, people sometimes use the expression Central Chaco for the area roughly in the middle of the Chaco Boreal, where Mennonite colonies are established.)

The Chaco Boreal may be divided in two: closer to the mountains in the west, the Alto Chaco (Upper Chaco), sometimes known as Chaco Seco (or Dry Chaco), is very dry and sparsely vegetated. To the east, less arid conditions combined with favorable soil characteristics permit a seasonally dry higher-growth thorn tree forest, and further east still higher rainfall combined with improperly drained lowland soils result in a somewhat swampy plain called the Bajo Chaco (Lower Chaco), sometimes known as Chaco HÃºmedo (Humid Chaco). It has a more open savanna vegetation consisting of palm trees, quebracho trees and tropical high-grass areas, with a wealth of insects. The landscape is mostly flat and slopes at a 0.004 degree gradient to the east. This area is also one of the distinct physiographic provinces of the Parana-Paraguay Plain division.

The areas more hospitable to development are along the Paraguay, Bermejo and Pilcomayo Rivers. It is a great source of timber and tannin, which is derived from the native quebracho tree. Special tannin factories have been constructed there. The wood of the palo santo from the Central Chaco is the source of oil of guaiac (a fragrance for soap). Paraguay also cultivates mate in the lower part of the Chaco.

Large tracts of the central and northern Chaco have high soil fertility, sandy alluvial soils with elevated levels of phosphorus[1] and a topography that is favorable for agricultural development. Other aspects are challenging for farming: a semi-arid to semi-humid climate (600–1300 mm annual rainfall) with a six-month dry season and sufficient fresh groundwater restricted to roughly one third of the region, two thirds being without groundwater or with groundwater of high salinity. Soils are generally erosion prone once the forest has been cleared. In the central and northern Paraguay Chaco, occasional dust storms have caused major top soil loss.

The Chaco was occupied by nomadic peoples, notably the various groups making up the Guaycuru who resisted Spanish control, often with success, of the Chaco from the 16th until the early 20th century.

Prior to national independence of the nations that compose the Chaco, the entire area was a separate colonial region named by the Spaniards as Chiquitos.

The Gran Chaco had been a disputed territory since 1810. Officially, it was supposed to be part of Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay, although a bigger land portion west of the Paraguay River had belonged to Paraguay since its independence. Argentina claimed territories south of the Bermejo River until Paraguay's defeat in the War of the Triple Alliance in 1870 established its current border with Argentina.

Over the next few decades, Bolivia began to push the natives out and settle in the Gran Chaco, while Paraguay ignored it. Bolivia sought the Paraguay River for shipping oil out into the sea (it had become a land-locked country after the loss of its Pacific coast in the War of the Pacific), and Paraguay claimed ownership of the land. This became the backdrop to The Gran Chaco War (1932â€“1935) between Paraguay and Bolivia over supposed oil in the Chaco Boreal (the aforementioned region north of the Pilcomayo River and to the west of the Paraguay River). Eventually, Argentine Foreign Minister Carlos Saavedra Lamas mediated a cease fire and subsequent treaty signed in 1938, which gave Paraguay three quarters of the Chaco Boreal and gave Bolivia a corridor to the Paraguay River with the ability to use the Puerto Casado and the right to construct their own port. In the end, no oil was found in the region.

Mennonites immigrated into the Paraguayan part of the region from Canada in the 1920s; more came from the USSR in the 1930s and immediately following World War II. These immigrants created some of the largest and most prosperous municipalities in the deep Gran Chaco.

The region is home to over nine million people, divided about evenly among Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, and including around 100,000 in Paraguay. The area remains relatively underdeveloped, In the 1960s, the Paraguayan authorities constructed the Trans-Chaco Highway and the Argentine National Highway Directorate, National Routes 16 and 81, in an effort to encourage access and development. All three highways extend about 700 km (430 mi) from east to west and are now completely paved, as are a network of nine Brazilian highways in Mato Grosso do Sul State.

The Gran Chaco has some of the highest temperatures on the continent.

It has high biodiversity, containing around 3,400 plant species, 500 birds, 150 mammals and 220 reptiles and amphibians.[2]

The floral characteristics of the Gran Chaco are varied given the large geographical span of the region. The dominant vegetative structure is xerophytic deciduous forests with multiple layers including a canopy (trees), sub-canopy, shrub layer and herbaceous layer. There are ecosystems such as riverine forests, wetlands, savannas, and cactus stands as well.[3]

At higher elevations of the eastern zone of the Humid/Sub-humid Chaco there are transitional mature forests from the wet forests of Southern Brazil. These woodlands are dominated by canopy trees such as Handroanthus impetiginosus and characterized by frequent lianas and epiphytes. This declines to seasonally flooded forests, at lower elevations, that are dominated by Schinopsis spp., a common plains tree genus often harvested for its tannin content and dense wood. The understory comprises bromeliad and cactus species as well as hardy shrubs like Schinus fasciculatus. These lower areas lack lianas but have abundant epiphytic species like Tillandsia. The river systems that flow through the area, such as the Rio Paraguay and Rio Parana allow for seasonally flooded semi evergreen gallery forests that hold riparian species such as Tessaria integrifolia and Salix humboltiana. Other seasonally flooded ecosystems of this area include palm dominated (Copernicia alba) savannas with a bunch grass dominated herbaceous layer.

To the west, in the Semi-Arid/Arid Chaco, there are medium-sized forests consisting of Aspidospermum quebracho-blanco and Schinopsis quebracho with a slightly shorter subcanopy made up of several species from the Fabaceae family as well as several arboreal cacti species that distinguish this area of the Chaco. There is a scrub-like shrub and herbaceous layer. On sandy soils, the thick woodlands turn into savannas where the aforementioned species prevail as well as species like Jacaranda mimosifolia. The giant Stetsonia coryne, found throughout the western Semi-Arid/Arid region becomes very conspicuous in these sandy savannas. There are various upland systems of plant associations that occur throughout the Gran Chaco. The Highlands of the Argentinian Chaco are made up of, on the dry, sunny side (up to 1800m), Schinopsis haenkeana woodlands. The cooler side of the uplands hosts Zanthoxylum coco (locally referred to as Fagara coco) and Schinus molleoides (locally referred to as Lithrea molleoides) as the predominant species. Other notable species include Bougainvillea stipitata, and several spp. from Fabaceae. The Paraguyan uplands have other woodland slope ecosystems, notably, those dominated by Anadenanthera colubrina on moist slopes.[3] Both of these upland systems, as well as numerous other Gran Chaco areas, are rich with endemism.

Faunal diversity in the Gran Chaco is high as well.The Gran Chaco has high levels of biodiversity, containing around 3,400 plant species, 500 birds, 150 mammals and 220 reptiles and amphibians. Animals typically associated with tropical and subtropical forests are often found throughout the eastern humid Chaco, including jaguars, howler monkeys, peccaries, deer, and tapirs. Edentate species, including anteaters and armadillos, are readily seen here as well.[4] Being home to at least ten species, the Argentinian Chaco is the location of the peak diversity for the armadillo, including species such as the nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) whose range extends north to the southern US, and the southern three-banded armadillo (Tolypeutes matacus).[5] The pink fairy armadillo (Chlamyphrous truncates), is found nowhere else in the world.[6] The giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus), while not found in the eastern humid Chaco, can be seen in the drier arid Chaco of the west. Some other notable endemics of the region include the San Luis tuco-tuco (Ctenomys pontifex).[4] This small rodent is only found in the Argentinian Chaco. All of 60 species of Ctenomys are endemic to the continent of South America. The Chacoan peccary (Catagonus wagneri), locally known as tauga, is the largest of the three peccary species found in the area. This species was thought to be extinct by scientists until 1975, when it was recorded by Dr. Ralph Wetzel.[7]

Due to the climatic regime of the Gran Chaco, herpetofauna are restricted to moist refugia in various places throughout the chaco. Rotting logs, debris piles, old housing settlement, wells, and seasonal farm ponds are examples of such refugia.[8] The black-legged seriema (Chunga burmeisteri), blue-crowned parakeet (Aratinga acuticadauta), Picui ground dove (Columbina picui), guira cuckoo (Guira guira), little thornbird (Phacellodomus sibilatrix) and many-colored Chaco finch (Saltaitricula multicolor) are notable of the 409 bird species that are resident or breed in the Gran Chaco. 252 of these Chaco species are endemic to South America.[9]

In September 1995, the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area was established in an area of the Chaco in Bolivia. It is administered and was established solely by the indigenous peoples, including the Izoceño Guaraní, the Ayoreode, and the Chiquitano.

The Chaco is one of South America's last agricultural frontiers. Very sparsely populated and lacking sufficient all-weather roads and basic infrastructure (the Argentinian part is more developed than the Paraguayan or Bolivian part), it has long been too remote for crop planting. The central Chaco's Mennonite colonies are a notable exception.

Two factors may substantially change the Chaco in the near future: low land valuations[10][11] and the region's suitability to grow fuel crops. Suitability for the cultivation of Jatropha has been proven.[12][13] Sweet sorghum as an ethanol plant may prove viable, too, since sorghum is a traditional local crop for domestic and feedstock use. The feasibility of switchgrass is currently being studied by Argentina's INTA,[14] as is the Karanda’y palm tree in the Paraguayan Chaco.[15]

While advancements in agriculture can bring some improvements in infrastructure and employment for the region, loss of habitat / virgin forest is substantial and will likely increase poverty. Paraguay, after having lost more than 90% of its Atlantic Rainforest between 1975 and 2005, is now losing its xenopheric forest (dry forests) in the Chaco at an annual rate of 220,000 hectares (540,000 acres) (2008)[16] In mid-2009 a projected law, initiated by the Liberal Party, that would have outlawed deforestation in the Paraguayan Chaco altogether, "Deforestacion Zero en el Chaco" did not get a majority in the parliament.

Deforestation in the Argentinian part of the Chaco amounted to an average of 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year between 2001 and 2007 [17] According to Fundación Avina, a local NGO, on average, 1130 hectares are cut down per day – this equals 2300 football fields. The soy plantations not only eliminate the forest, but also other types of agriculture as well. Indigenous communities are losing their land to agrobusinesses and suffer under the intense use of fertilisers and pesticides, that poisons the water they depend on. Since 2007, there is a law which is supposed to regulate and control the cutting of timber in the Gran Chaco, but illegal logging continues.[18]

Among the profiteers of the newly created agricultural areas in the Paraguay parts of the Gran Chaco are U.S.-based agribusinesses Cargill Inc., Bunge Ltd. and Archer Daniels Midland Co..[19]

The following Argentine provinces, Bolivian and Paraguayan departments and Brazilian states lie in the Gran Chaco area, either entirely or in part.


where did the name big brother come from

Since the publication of Nineteen Eighty-Four the phrase "Big Brother" has come into common use to describe any prying or overly-controlling authority figure, and attempts by government to increase surveillance.

Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)

Big Brother is a fictional character and symbol in George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. He is ostensibly the leader (most likely a symbolic figurehead) of Oceania, a totalitarian state wherein the ruling Party wields total power "for its own sake" over the inhabitants.

In the society that Orwell describes, every citizen is under constant surveillance by the authorities, mainly by telescreens (with the exception of the Proles). The people are constantly reminded of this by the slogan "Big Brother is watching you": a maxim which is ubiquitously on display. In modern culture the term "Big Brother" has entered the lexicon as a synonym for abuse of government power, particularly in respect to civil liberties, often specifically related to mass surveillance.

In the essay section of his novel 1985, Anthony Burgess states that Orwell got the idea for the name of Big Brother from advertising billboards for educational correspondence courses from a company called Bennett's, current during World War II. The original posters showed J. M. Bennett himself: a kindly-looking old man offering guidance and support to would-be students with the phrase "Let me be your father" attached. According to Burgess, after Bennett's death, his son took over the company, and the posters were replaced with pictures of the son (who looked imposing and stern in contrast to his father's kindly demeanor) with the text "Let me be your big brother."

Additional speculation from Douglas Kellner of UCLA argued that Big Brother represents Joseph Stalin.[1][2] Another theory is that the inspiration for Big Brother was Brendan Bracken, the Minister of Information until 1945. Orwell worked under Bracken on the BBC's Indian Service. Bracken was customarily referred to by MOI employees by his initials, B.B., the same initials as the character Big Brother. Orwell also resented the wartime censorship and need to manipulate information which he felt came from the highest levels of the MOI and from Bracken's office in particular.

In the novel, it is never made clear whether Big Brother is or had been a real person, or is a fictional personification of the Party, similar to Britannia and Uncle Sam. Big Brother is described as appearing on posters and telescreens as a handsome man in his mid-40s.

In Party propaganda, Big Brother is presented as one of the founders of the Party, along with Goldstein. At one point, Winston Smith, the protagonist of Orwell's novel, tries "to remember in what year he had first heard mention of Big Brother. He thought it must have been at some time in the sixties, but it was impossible to be certain. In the Party histories, of course, Big Brother figured as the leader and guardian of the Revolution since its very earliest days. His exploits had been gradually pushed backwards in time until already they extended into the fabulous world of the forties and the thirties, when the capitalists in their strange cylindrical hats still rode through the streets of London..."

In the book The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, read by Winston Smith and purportedly written by Goldstein, Big Brother is referred to as infallible and all-powerful. No-one has ever seen him and there is a reasonable certainty that he will never die. He is simply "the guise in which the Party chooses to exhibit itself to the world", since the emotions of love, fear and reverence are more easily focused on an individual (if only a face on the hoardings and a voice on the telescreens), than an organisation. When Winston Smith is later arrested, O'Brien repeats that Big Brother will never die. When Smith asks if Big Brother exists, O'Brien describes him as "the embodiment of the Party" and says that he will exist as long as the Party exists. When Winston asks "Does Big Brother exist the same way I do?" (meaning is Big Brother an actual human being), O'Brien replies "You do not exist" (meaning that Smith is now an unperson; an example of doublethink).

A spontaneous ritual of devotion to Big Brother ("BB") is illustrated at the end of the "Two Minutes Hate":

At this moment the entire group of people broke into a deep, slow, rhythmic chant of 'B-B!... B-B!... B-B!'—over and over again, very slowly, with a long pause between the first 'B' and the second—a heavy murmurous sound, somehow curiously savage, in the background of which one seemed to hear the stamps of naked feet and the throbbing of tom-toms. For perhaps as much as thirty seconds they kept it up. It was a refrain that was often heard in moments of overwhelming emotion. Partly it was a sort of hymn to the wisdom and majesty of Big Brother, but still more it was an act of self-hypnosis, a deliberate drowning of consciousness by means of rhythmic noise.[3]

Though Oceania's Ministry of Truth, Ministry of Plenty, and Ministry of Peace each have names with meanings deliberately opposite to their real purpose, the Ministry of Love is perhaps the most straightforward: "rehabilitated thought criminals" leave the Ministry as loyal subjects who have been brainwashed into adoring (loving) Big Brother, hence its name.

Big Brother and other Orwellian imagery are often referenced in the type of joke known as the Russian reversal.

The magazine Book ranked Big Brother No. 59 on its 100 Best Characters in Fiction Since 1900[4] list. Wizard magazine rated him the 75th greatest villain of all time.[5]

The worldwide reality television show Big Brother is based on the novel's concept of people being under constant surveillance. In 2000, after the U.S. version of the CBS program "Big Brother" premiered, the Estate of George Orwell sued CBS and its production company "Orwell Productions, Inc." in federal court in Chicago for copyright and trademark infringement. The case was Estate of Orwell v. CBS, 00-c-5034 (ND Ill). On the eve of trial, the case settled worldwide to the parties' "mutual satisfaction"; the amount that CBS paid to the Orwell Estate was not disclosed. CBS had not asked the Estate for permission. Under current laws the novel will remain under copyright protection until 2020 in the European Union and until 2044 in the United States.

The iconic image of Big Brother (played by David Graham) played a key role in Apple's 1984 television commercial introducing the Macintosh.[6][7] The Orwell Estate viewed the Apple commercial as a copyright infringement, and sent a cease-and-desist letter to Apple and its advertising agency. The commercial was never televised again,[8] though the date mentioned in the ad (January 24) was but two days later, making it unlikely that it would have been re-aired. Subsequent (now posthumous) ads featuring Steve Jobs (for a variety of products including audio books) have mimicked the format and appearance of that original ad campaign, with the appearance of Steve Jobs nearly identical to that of Big Brother.[9][10] In 2008, the Simpsons animated television series spoofed the Apple Big Brother commercial in an episode entitled "Mypods and Boomsticks."[11]

The December 2002 issue of Gear magazine featured a story about technologies and trends that could violate personal privacy moving society closer to a "Big Brother" state and utilised a recreation of the movie poster[12] from the film version of 1984 created by Dallmeierart.com.[13]

Computer company Microsoft patented in 2011 a product distribution system with a camera or capture device that monitors the viewers that consume the product, allowing the provider to take "remedial action" if the actual viewers do not match the distribution license.[14] The system has been compared with 1984's telescreen surveillance system.[15]

A series of laws intended to implement the EU Data Retention Directive in Romania were nicknamed "the Big Brother laws" by Romanian media and civil society, as they would have led to blanket storage of citizens' telecommunications data for 6 months.[16] All of these laws were struck down as unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of Romania, and the Directive itself was ultimately invalidated by the Court of Justice of the European Union.


what happens to a resource when competition for it increases

The competitive process in a market economy exerts a sort of pressure that tends to move resources to where they are most needed, and to where they can be used most efficiently for the economy as a whole. For the competitive process to work however, it is "important that prices accurately signal costs and benefits." Where externalities occur, or monopolistic or oligopolistic conditions persist, or for the provision of certain goods such as public goods, the pressure of the competitive process is reduced.[2]

Competition (economics)

In economics, competition is a condition where different economic firms[Note 1] seek to obtain a share of a limited good by varying the elements of the marketing mix: price, product, promotion and place. In classical economic thought, competition causes commercial firms to develop new products, services and technologies, which would give consumers greater selection and better products. The greater selection typically causes lower prices for the products, compared to what the price would be if there was no competition (monopoly) or little competition (oligopoly).

Early economic research focused on the difference between price- and non-price-based competition, while later economic theory has focused on the many-seller limit of general equilibrium.

Competition is generally accepted as an essential component of markets, and results from scarcity—there is never enough to satisfy all conceivable human wants—and occurs "when people strive to meet the criteria that are being used to determine who gets what." In offering goods for exchange, buyers competitively bid to purchase specific quantities of specific goods which are available, or might be available if sellers were to choose to offer such goods. Similarly, sellers bid against other sellers in offering goods on the market, competing for the attention and exchange resources of buyers.[1]:105

In any given market, the power structure will either be in favor of sellers or in favor of buyers. The former case is known as a seller's market; the latter is known as a buyer's market or consumer sovereignty.[3] In either case, the disadvantaged group is known as price-takers and the advantaged group known as price-setters.[citation needed]

In his 1776 The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith described it as the exercise of allocating productive resources to their most highly valued uses and encouraging efficiency, an explanation that quickly found support among liberal economists opposing the monopolistic practices of mercantilism, the dominant economic philosophy of the time.[4][5] Smith and other classical economists before Cournot were referring to price and non-price rivalry among producers to sell their goods on best terms by bidding of buyers, not necessarily to a large number of sellers nor to a market in final equilibrium.[6]

Later microeconomic theory distinguished between perfect competition and imperfect competition, concluding that perfect competition is Pareto efficient while imperfect competition is not. Conversely, by Edgeworth's limit theorem, the addition of more firms to an imperfect market will cause the market to tend towards Pareto efficiency.[citation needed]

Real markets are never perfect. Economists who believe that in perfect competition as a useful approximation to real markets classify markets as ranging from close-to-perfect to very imperfect. Examples of close-to-perfect markets typically include share and foreign exchange markets; an example of an imperfect market typically includes the real estate market is an example of a very imperfect market. In such markets, the theory of the second best proves that, even if one optimality condition in an economic model cannot be satisfied, the next-best solution can be achieved by changing other variables away from otherwise-optimal values.[7]:217

Within competitive markets, markets are often defined by their sub-sectors, such as the "short term" / "long term", "seasonal" / "summer", or "broad" / "remainder" market. For example, in otherwise competitive market economies, a large majority of the commercial exchanges may be competitively determined by long-term contracts and therefore long-term clearing prices. In such a scenario, a “remainder market” is one where prices are determined by the small part of the market that deals with the availability of goods not cleared via long term transactions. For example, in the sugar industry, about 94-95% of the market clearing price is determined by long-term supply and purchase contracts. The balance of the market (and world sugar prices) are determined by the ad hoc demand for the remainder; quoted prices in the "remainder market" can be significantly higher or lower than the long-term market clearing price.[citation needed] Similarly, in the US real estate housing market, appraisal prices can be determined by both short-term or long-term characteristics, depending on short-term supply and demand factors. This can result in large price variations for a property at one location.[citation needed]

Competition requires the existing of multiple firms, so it duplicates fixed costs. In a small number of goods and services, the resulting cost structure means that producing enough firms to effect competition may itself be inefficient. These situations are known as natural monopolies and are usually publicly provided or tightly regulated.[8]

International competition also differentially affects sectors of national economies. In order to protect political supporters, governments may introduce protectionist measures such as tariffs to reduce competition.[9]

A practice is anti-competitive if it unfairly distorts free and effective competition in the marketplace. Examples include cartelization and evergreening.[10]


where did the settlers of delaware come from

Delaware Colony in the North American Middle Colonies consisted of land on the west bank of the Delaware River Bay. In the early 17th century the area was inhabited by Lenape and possibly the Assateague tribes of Native Americans. The first European settlers were the Swedes and the Dutch, but the land fell under English control in 1664. William Penn was given the deed to what was then called "the Lower Counties on the Delaware" by the Duke of York, in a deed separate from that which he held for the larger Province of Pennsylvania. Delaware was then governed as part of Pennsylvania from 1682 until 1701, when the Lower Counties petitioned for and were granted an independent colonial legislature, though the two colonies shared the same governor until 1776, when Delaware's assembly voted to break all ties with both Great Britain and Pennsylvania.

Delaware Colony

From the early Dutch settlement in 1631 to the colony's rule by Pennsylvania in 1682, the land that later became the U.S. state of Delaware changed hands many times. Because of this, Delaware became a very heterogeneous society made up of individuals who were both religiously and culturally diverse.[citation needed]

The first European exploration of what would become known as the Delaware Valley was made by the Dutch ship Halve Maen under the command of Henry Hudson in 1609, during a voyage to locate the Northwest Passage to Asia. Hudson sailed into what now is the Delaware Bay. He would name it the South River, but this would later change after Samuel Argall discovered the river in 1610 after being blown off course. Argall would later rename the river Delaware, after Thomas West, Lord De La Warr, the second governor of Virginia.[1] Follow-up expeditions by Cornelius May in 1613 and Cornelius Hendrickson in 1614 mapped the shoreline of what would become Delaware for inclusion in the New Netherland colony. Initial Dutch settlement was centered up river at Fort Nassau at Big Timber Creek south of what is now Gloucester City, New Jersey.

Neither the Dutch nor the English showed any early interest in establishing any kind of settlement on this land. The first true attempt to settle Europeans in the territories that would become the State of Delaware was not made until 1629 when agents of the Dutch West India Company Gillis Hossitt and Jacob Jansz arrived to negotiate with the Native Americans to "purchase" land for a colony. (It was a rule among the Dutch that Native American land must always be purchased and never seized by force, but as the concept of land ownership was alien to the Americans, there was a great deal of cultural confusion attached to the transactions with the Dutch "payments" taken for gifts in keeping with Native custom.) Hossitt and Jansz secured a treaty granting the Dutch a parcel of land running along the shore eight Dutch miles long and half a Dutch mile deep (roughly 29 by just under 2 US miles), nearly coincidental with the coast of modern Sussex and Kent counties in Delaware.

In 1631 the Dutch sent a group of twenty-eight men to build a fort inside Cape Henlopen on Lewes Creek to establish the Zwaanendael Colony.[2] This first colony was established to take advantage of the large whale population and produce whale oil. A cultural misunderstanding with the Native Americans led to the massacre of the initial 28 colonists before a year was out.[2] Patroon David Pietersz. de Vries arrived shortly thereafter with an additional 50 settlers. Although he concluded a treaty with the Indians, deVries, his partners in Holland, and the Dutch West India Company decided the location was too dangerous for an immediate reattempt and the additional settlers were landed in New Amsterdam (New York) instead.

In March 1638, the Swedish colony of New Sweden became the first permanent European settlement in Delaware. The Kalmar Nyckel anchored at a rocky point on the Minquas Kill that is known today as Swedes' Landing (in Wilmington, Delaware.)[2] The New Sweden Company was organized and overseen by Clas Larsson Fleming, a Swedish admiral and administrator. Samuel Blommaert, a Flemish director of the Dutch West India Company who had grown frustrated with the company's policies assisted the fitting-out[3] The expedition was led, and had been instigated by Peter Minuit, the founding governor of New Netherland who had been dismissed by the Dutch West India Company which operated the colony as a concession. Minuit resented the company and was well aware of the spareness of Dutch occupation along the Zuyd (Delaware) river valley. Like the Dutch colony it aimed to squat, New Sweden was a multicultural affair, with Finns, Dutch, Walloons (Belgians) and Germans as well as Swedes among the settlers.

The first outpost of the Swedish settlement was named Fort Christina (now Wilmington) after Queen Christina of Sweden. Governor Johan Björnsson Printz administered the colony from 1643 to 1653. He was succeeded by Johan Classon Risingh, the last governor of New Sweden.[1] The Dutch had never accepted the Swedish colony as legitimate and the struggle between the forces of the Dutch West India Company and the officials and backers of New Sweden was on going. In 1651, New Netherland Governor Peter Stuyvesant had removed Fort Nassau and had it reassembled down river of Fort Christina as Fort Casimir, effectively encircling the Swedish colony. Fort Beversreede, a short-lived attempt to establish a foothold at the end of the Great Minquas Path (in modern Philadelphia) was abandoned. Three years later, the New Sweden colony attacked and seized the outpost, renaming it Fort Trinity. The struggle finally came to an end in September 1655. With the Second Great Northern War raging in Europe, Stuyvesant assembled a sufficient army and naval squadron to capture the Swedish forts, thus re-establishing control of the colony. Fort Casimir/Trinity was again renamed as New Amstel (later translated to New Castle) was made the center for fur trading and the colony's administration headquarters[1] and the area's European population began to boom.

In 1664, after Colonel Richard Nicolls captured New Amsterdam, Robert Carr was sent to the Delaware River. He took over New Amstel, pillaging it and brutally maltreating its settlers, some of whom he sold into slavery in Virginia. Carr translated the name from Dutch into English and it has been known since as New Castle.[2] Carr and his troops continued down the shore, ravaging and burning settlements, including the famous Mennonite utopian community of Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy near present-day Lewes, Delaware, which was utterly destroyed. This effectively ended the Dutch rule of the colony and, for that matter, ended their claims to any land in colonial North America. Delaware was thenceforth claimed by New York under a Deputy of the Duke of York from 1664 to 1682, but not actually held in the Duke's possession nor his colonists, a situation taken advantage of by the proprietors of Maryland.[2]

Between 1669 and 1672, Delaware was an incorporated county under the Province of Maryland. When the Duke of York made use of his charter on behalf of courtier William Penn, through conveyances made by the governor of New York, there was a brief conflict of interest between the Catholic, Tory and whose son was likewise a sometime Jacobite sympathizer Lord Baltimore with their friend the aforesaid Duke, but this was a hard fought court battle subsequently relegated to a proprietary dispute between the Calvert and Penn families, since both were held in favor by both the King and Prince James. The Mason-Dixon line is said to have legally resolved vague outlines in the overlap between Maryland and Pennsylvania, which pretty much awarded Delaware to Pennsylvania, although Delaware would eventually prove too independent for legislation north of New Castle (as well as that from the southerly Chesapeake Bay), leading to the separation from Pennsylvania and unique pioneer status as America's first state, tied to neither province's destiny.

The area now known as Delaware became owned by William Penn, the Quaker owner of Pennsylvania. In contemporary documents from the early Revolutionary period, the area is generally referred to as "The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware River" (Lower Counties on Delaware) or by the names of the three counties, all of which retained linguistic and cultural connections to those of Maryland; New Castle, which related well to North East England's Newcastle as the defunct Durham County, Maryland (both Newcastle and Durham were relatively close to the Calvert regional identity as that of Northern Englandâ€”and as landlords in County Longford, of the Irish Midlands, their barony shared some characteristics with the earlier English Catholic plantation by Mary I of England and Philip II of Spain in Queen's and King's counties), while Kent was contiguous with neighboring Kent County, Maryland and Sussex generally held a similar origin to Sussex County, Virginia, being the furthest removed from Penn's colony. The term "Lower Counties" refers to the fact that they were below the fall line, or farther downstream, on the Delaware River than the counties constituting and integrally within Pennsylvania proper, such as Philadelphia, Chester and Bucks counties.

After William Penn was granted the province of Pennsylvania by King Charles II in 1681, he asked for and later received the lands of Delaware from the Duke of York.[1] Penn had a very hard time governing Delaware because the economy and geology were largely the same as those of the Chesapeake. He attempted to merge the governments of Pennsylvania and the lower counties of Delaware. Representatives from both areas clashed heavily and in 1701 Penn agreed to having two separate assemblies. Delawareans would meet in New Castle and Pennsylvanians would gather in Philadelphia.[2] Delaware, like Philadelphia and unlike Maryland, continued to be a melting pot of sorts and was home to Swedes, Finns, Dutch, and French, in addition to the English, who constituted the dominant culture.


hebrew word for gossip in the old testament

By contrast, hotzaat shem ra ("spreading a bad name"), also called hotzaat diba, or motzi shem ra (lit. "putting out a bad name") consists of untrue remarks, and is best translated as "slander" or "defamation" (calumny). Hotzaat shem ra is worse, and consequentially an even graver sin, than lashon hara.[4] And the act of gossiping is called rechilut, and is also forbidden by halakha.[4]

Lashon hara

The Hebrew term lashon hara (or loshon horo) (Hebrew לשון הרע; "evil tongue") is the halakhic term for derogatory speech about another person.[4] Lashon hara differs from defamation in that its focus is on the use of true speech for a wrongful purpose, rather than falsehood and harm arising.

Speech is considered to be lashon hara (detraction) if it says something negative about a person or party, is not seriously intended to correct or improve a negative situation, and is true. Statements that fit this description are considered to be lashon hara, regardless of the method of communication that is used, whether it is through face-to-face conversation, a letter, telephone, or email, or even body language.

Lashon hara (lit. "evil tongue") is considered to be a very serious sin in the Jewish tradition. The communicator of Lashon Hara (and rechilut) violates the prohibition of "Lo telech rachil b'ameicha (Leviticus 19:16)."[5]

The noun lashon, "tongue", followed by the definite article ha and the adjective ra, "evil". The Hebrew noun lashon means "tongue", and as in many languages, "speech" or "language". The phrase is generally translated as "evil speech". The term corresponds to the idea of an evil tongue in other cultures, such as the Latin mala lingua,[6] the French mauvaise langue,[7][8] and the Spanish mala lengua.[9][10][11]

The term lashon hara is not mentioned in the Tanakh, but "keep thy tongue from evil" (נְצֹר לְשֹׁונְךָ מֵרָע) occurs in Psalm 34:14.[12] The Torah contains a general injunction against rekhilut (gossip): "Thou shalt not go up and down as a talebearer among thy people; neither shalt thou stand idly by the blood of thy neighbour: I am the LORD" (Leviticus 19:16).[13] In addition, the words "ye shall not wrong one another" (Leviticus 25:17) according to tradition refer to wronging a person with one's speech.[14]

The Talmud (Arakhin 15b) lists lashon hara as one of the causes of the Biblical malady of tzaraath. In Sotah 42a, the Talmud declares that habitual speakers of lashon hara are not tolerated in God's presence. Similar strong denouncements can be found in various places in Jewish literature.[15]

In Numbers chapter 12, Miriam gossips with her brother Aaron, questioning why Moses is more qualified to lead the Jewish people than anyone else. God hears and strikes her down with tzaraath. Miriam had to stay outside of the camp for a week due to the tzaraath. During this time, all of Israel waited for her.

Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan wrote two major halakhic works on the evil tongue: Chafetz Chaim ("Desirer of Life", Psalms 34:13-14) and Shmirat HaLashon ("Guarding the tongue"), both 1873. The Chafetz Chaim lists 31 speech-related commandments mentioned in the Torah. An English adaptation, Guard Your Tongue, (2002) anthologizes the teachings of these two books.[16]

The expression Baalei Lashon Hara literally means "masters of evil tongue", and it refers to habitual speakers of Lashon Hara. The serious prohibition of communicating lashon harah relates foremost to somebody who incidentally did so. Someone who makes it his habit to talk lashon harah about others ("did you hear...", "do you already know...", etc.) is called a ba'al lashon hara. By repeatedly communicating so, lashon hara became an integral part of this person, and his/her sins are far more severe, because this person regularly creates a Chillul Hashem, meaning a "desecration of the name of HaShem" (Leviticus 22:32). Lashon Hara and also Rechilut and Motzi Shem Ra are not accepted social tools in Judaism because such behavior cuts the person who does in this manner off from many good things in the world around them. It is often phrased that one should stay away from people who communicate Lashon Hara because any day, one will almost certainly become an object of derogatory communication by the same people.[5]

There are times when a person is permitted or even required to disclose information whether or not the information is disparaging. For instance, if a person’s intent in sharing negative information is for a to’elet, a positive, constructive, and beneficial purpose that may serve as a warning to prevent harm or injustice, the prohibition against lashon hara does not apply. Hotzaat shem ra, spouting lies and spreading disinformation, is always prohibited. It is important to note that even with positive intentions, there are many important limitations regarding when it is permitted to speak lashon hara.


when was the song i'll fly away written

"I'll Fly Away", is a hymn written in 1929 by Albert E. Brumley and published in 1932 by the Hartford Music company in a collection titled Wonderful Message.[1][2] Brumley's writing was influenced in part by an older secular ballad.

I'll Fly Away

"I'll Fly Away" has been called the most recorded gospel song,[1][2] and it is frequently used in worship services by Baptists, Pentecostals, Nazarenes, the Churches of Christ and many Methodists.[3] It appears in many hymnals where it is listed under the topics of eternal life, heaven and acceptance. It is a standard song at bluegrass jam sessions and is often performed at funerals.

Albert E. Brumley has been described as the "pre-eminent gospel songwriter" of the 20th century with over 600 published songs.[3] Other titles of his include "Jesus, Hold My Hand", "Turn Your Radio On", "I'll Meet You in the Morning", and "This World Is Not My Home". According to interviews, Brumley came up with the idea for the song while picking cotton on his father's farm in Rock Island, Oklahoma.[1][3] Brumley says that as he worked he was "humming the old ballad that went like this: 'If I had the wings of an angel, over these prison walls I would fly,' and suddenly it dawned on me that I could use this plot for a gospel-type song."[1] The song Brumley described appears to be "The Prisoner's Song".[4] It was an additional three years later until Brumley worked out the rest of the song, paraphrasing one line from the secular ballad to read, "Like a bird from prison bars has flown" using prison as an analogy for earthly life.[1] Brumley has stated, "When I wrote it, I had no idea that it would become so universally popular."[1]

One of the earliest recordings of "I'll Fly Away" was made by the Selah Jubilee Singers in February 1941 for Decca Records. The group was founded around 1927 by Thermon Ruth, a disc jockey at radio station WOR in Brooklyn New York.[5]

James and Martha Carson, also known as the "Barn Dance Sweethearts" released their first recordings on White Church in 1947 and later signed with Capitol in 1949. They recorded 22 numbers for Capitol and "I'll Fly Away" is one of a half-dozen that "did well" for them.[8]

The Chuck Wagon Gang's 1948 recording of "I'll Fly Away" for Columbia sold over one million copies and ranks among the top selling gospel records of all-time,[12] and is listed among the top selling songs of the 1940s in general.[13] In 1950, Billboard reported that American disc jockeys voted the Chuck Wagon Gang "18th most popular of all singing groups in the nation," considering all music genres, and the third most popular recording artist for Columbia.[11]

In a history given by the current Chuck Wagon Gang, their recording of "I'll Fly Away" is described as the "first commercially licensed" release."[11] Their recording appears to have had two releases on Columbia, first as a B-side in 1949, then as an A-side in 1950.

In 2017, the Chuck Wagon Gang's recording of "I'll Fly Away" was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or artistically significant."[14]

In 1956, the Kossoy Sisters included "I'll Fly Away" on the album, Bowling Green, which featured instrumental backing by Erik Darling. The Kossoys, actually twin sisters Irene Saletan and Ellen Christenson, are known for their close harmony singing, which is exemplified on this track. Their recording was introduced to a wider audience when it was included in the 2000 Coen Brothers film, O Brother, Where Art Thou?.[15][16]

George Jones recorded an energetic version on his classic 1965 gospel LP Old Brush Arbors.

There have been numerous recordings of "I'll Fly Away" since its inclusion in the 2000 film O Brother Where Art Thou?, although a vintage recording was used in the film itself, (see Kossoy Sisters above), a contemporary recording by Alison Krauss and Gillian Welch was chosen for the O Brother, Where Art Thou? soundtrack. The spare recording, produced by T-Bone Burnett, features Welch on lead vocals with Krauss singing harmony. Their voices are accompanied by Mike Compton on mandolin and Chris Sharp on guitar. The soundtrack sold over eight million copies, reached the top position on at least four of Billboard's album charts, and was named Album of the Year and Best Soundtrack album at the 44th Grammy Awards in February 2002.[17][18]

Alison Krauss and Gillian Welch performed the song again for a May 24, 2000 concert at the Ryman Auditorium that featured many of the artists from the O Brother soundtrack. Film from the concert was used to create the 2000 documentary, Down from the Mountain. Krauss and Welch's live performance is included as the final track on the Down from the Mountain soundtrack album, which sold over 500,000 copies, won the Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album, and appeared on several of Billboard's charts.[19][20]

Both the studio and live performances by Krauss and Welch were popular among folk music disk jockeys. The two recordings were ranked at No. 7 and No. 47 respectively on the Top Songs of 2001 Folk Radio airplay chart.[21]

The Christian rock band Jars of Clay have recorded "I'll Fly Away" twice, first, for the 2004 various artists compilation album, WOW Worship: Red and again for their own 2005 album, Redemption Songs. The latter features guest vocals by Sarah Kelly. Redemption Songs reached No. 1 on Billboard's Top Christian Albums chart and No. 71 on the Billboard 200.[22] Their recording of the song was popular enough on Christian radio to be placed at No. 1 on a list of the Top Songs of 2005 by at least one station.[23]

Alan Jackson included "I'll Fly Away" on his first ever gospel album, Precious Memories (2006). He offers an up-tempo performance with guitar and piano solos. Jackson's album sold over 1 million copies and reached the top position on Billboard's charts for Top Country Albums and Top Christian Albums, as well as No. 4 on the Billboard 200.[24][25]

This will likely always be an incomplete list. The listings at Allmusic are in excess of 1000 entries.[26]

"I'll Fly Away" was sampled without permission for the Grammy-winning song "I'll Be Missing You" recorded in 1997 by Puff Daddy and Faith Evans. In 2000, the songwriter's heirs, Albert E. Brumley & Sons, Inc. settled a copyright infringement suit filed against Arista Records, Faith Evans, Illegal Songs Inc., Chyna Baby Music, Janice Combs Publishing Inc., Magnetic Publishing Ltd. and Bad Boy Entertainment. In the settlement, the defendants acknowledged that Albert E. Brumley & Sons were the rightful copyright owners of "I'll Fly Away" and compensated them for an undisclosed amount.[34]