what does holding up your thumb and pinky mean

The shaka sign, sometimes known as "hang loose" by outsiders also used to say awesome, is a gesture of friendly intent often associated with Hawaii, and surf culture. It consists of extending the thumb and smallest finger while holding the three middle fingers curled, and gesturing in salutation while presenting the front or back of the hand; the hand may be rotated back and forth for emphasis. The shaka sign was adopted from local Hawaiian culture and customs[citation needed] by visiting surfers in the 1960s, and its use has spread around the world. It is primarily used as a greeting gesture or one to express thanks, acknowledgement, or even praise from one individual to another.

Shaka sign

Hawaiians use the shaka to convey the "Aloha Spirit", a concept of friendship, understanding, compassion, and solidarity among the various ethnic cultures that reside in Hawaii, lacking a direct semantic to literal translation. The shaka can also be used to express "howzit?", "thanks, eh?", and "all right!". Drivers will often use it on the road to communicate distant greetings and gratitude.

In California, the shaka sign may be referred to as "hang loose" or "hang ten", both associated with surfer culture.[1]

The gesture enjoys common use in American hang gliding culture, for both sentiment and word play, in part due to the simultaneous rise of surfing and hang gliding in California in the 1960s and 1970s. It is also widely used among skydivers, base jumpers, wakeboarders, scuba divers, paragliders, skateboarders, & speed-flyers.[citation needed]

Along coastal Brazil, the shaka sign, known as the "hang loose" (also derived from an eponymous clothing brand, which uses the shaka as a logo), is a common gesture; Ronaldinho usually celebrated the goals he scored by giving the crowd a double shaka. It is also associated with the Brazilian jiu jitsu community internationally.[1]

There are several Emoticon representations of the shaka sign - \,,,/, \m/, and \,,,_. The earliest known use of the first two, with three commas or a lower case "m" corresponding to a hand's three middle fingers, is from 2006.[2] The last, similar to the first except that it represents the thumb extended horizontally (as if perpendicular to the wrist) is reported, together with the first form, from Brigham Young University in 2016.[3]

The sign can also be used to indicate the imbibing of a bottled drink, as attested to below, by placing the thumb to the mouth and motioning the little finger upward as if tipping up a bottle's bottom end. A similar meaning can be achieved by pressing the thumb up against the tip of the nose with the little finger raised upwards parallel to the bridge of the nose. Referred to as "schooies" (Australian slang for a schooner)[4][5] the sign is thought to have originated in Perth.[citation needed]

With the thumb held near the ear and the little finger pointed at the mouth, the gesture is commonly understood to mean "call me", as it resembles a hand held telephone. The Unicode 9.0 emoji ðŸ¤™ "Call me hand"[6] can be mistaken for a shaka sign.

With the fingers facing forward, the same gesture is the letter Y in the American manual alphabet.

In China, this gesture means "6".

In Australia and Russia raising the thumb to the mouth while pointing the little finger to the air is seen as invitation for one to smoke marijuana, the posture resembling the use of a pipe.[citation needed] Similarly in New Zealand, this gesture symbolises smoking a "P" (methamphetamine) pipe, as well as variations of the shaka sign being the recognised gang salute for the Mongrel Mob.[7]

Since 2015, fans of the Mormon-sponsored Brigham Young University (also known colloquially as "The Y") have started using the gesture, in deference to newly hired Kalani Sitake, BYU's Polynesian head football coach, and because of its similarity with the letter Y in the American manual alphabet that is used with American Sign Language. Perhaps most importantly there, it is used as a nod of respect to Hamana Kalili, a native Hawaiian Mormon who according to locals is the founder of the popular sign.[3]

According to the Honolulu Star-Bulletin,[8] prevailing local lore credits the gesture to Hamana Kalili of Laie,[9] who lost the three middle fingers of his right hand while working at the Kahuku Sugar Mill. Kalili was then shifted to guarding the sugar train, and his all-clear wave of thumb and pinkie is said to have evolved into the shaka as children imitated the gesture.[10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17]

Another theory relates the origin of the shaka to the Spanish immigrants, who folded their middle fingers and took their thumbs to their lips as a friendly gesture to represent sharing a drink with the natives they met in Hawaii.[18][19][20][21][22][23]

Yet another theory relates the origin to visiting whalers who signaled a catch with a "tails up" shaka.

Shaka and its very positive associations may simply derive from the popular World War II "V for Victory" hand sign, in Hawaii often held up and rotated rapidly back and forth, "shaken", hence shaka.

The late Lippy Espinda, a used car salesman and Oahu-based entertainer, has also been named as a possible creator of the shaka.[24][25] Espinda, who frequently appeared as an extra in Hawaii Five-O as well as The Brady Bunch episodes shot in Hawaii, used the term and the sign during his television ads in the '60s. Though the claim that he is the originator of the shaka sign is debatable, he is credited with increasing its popularity and of Hawaiian Pidgin as well.[8] The shaka has achieved great popularity in Australia, primarily among teenagers on social media sites such as Instagram and Facebook.

The Oxford English Dictionary[26] gives this etymology of'shaka': Origin uncertain; perhaps < Japanese shaka, a byname of the historical Buddha (ultimately < Sanskrit śākyamuni, a byname of the Buddha, probably via Chinese), although if so the relationship with the hand gesture is unclear. U.S. colloq. (orig. and chiefly regional (Hawaii)). The definition is given as: Used to express affirmation, approval, solidarity, etc., often when greeting or parting from someone. Frequently in'shaka brah'. The significant quote from the Oxford Dictionary[27][not in citation given] is from an article in the May 1986 issue of the now defunct "Surfing" Magazine.[28][not in citation given][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]


name of birds which has eyes in front of its head

Most birds cannot move their eyes, although there are exceptions, such as the great cormorant.[3] Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field, useful for detecting predators, while those with eyes on the front of their heads, such as owls, have binocular vision and can estimate distances when hunting.[4] The American woodcock probably has the largest visual field of any bird, 360° in the horizontal plane, and 180° in the vertical plane.[5]

Bird vision

Vision is the most important sense for birds, since good eyesight is essential for safe flight, and this group has a number of adaptations which give visual acuity superior to that of other vertebrate groups; a pigeon has been described as "two eyes with wings".[1] The avian eye resembles that of a reptile, with ciliary muscles that can change the shape of the lens rapidly and to a greater extent than in the mammals. Birds have the largest eyes relative to their size in the animal kingdom, and movement is consequently limited within the eye's bony socket.[1] In addition to the two eyelids usually found in vertebrates, it is protected by a third transparent movable membrane. The eye's internal anatomy is similar to that of other vertebrates, but has a structure, the pecten oculi, unique to birds.

Some bird groups have specific modifications to their visual system linked to their way of life. Birds of prey have a very high density of receptors and other adaptations that maximise visual acuity. The placement of their eyes gives them good binocular vision enabling accurate judgement of distances. Nocturnal species have tubular eyes, low numbers of colour detectors, but a high density of rod cells which function well in poor light. Terns, gulls and albatrosses are amongst the seabirds which have red or yellow oil droplets in the colour receptors to improve distance vision especially in hazy conditions.

The eye of a bird most closely resembles that of the reptiles. Unlike the mammalian eye, it is not spherical, and the flatter shape enables more of its visual field to be in focus. A circle of bony plates, the sclerotic ring, surrounds the eye and holds it rigid, but an improvement over the reptilian eye, also found in mammals, is that the lens is pushed further forward, increasing the size of the image on the retina.[2]

The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking. Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane, a third concealed eyelid that sweeps horizontally across the eye like a windscreen wiper.[6] The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds when they are under water.[7] When sleeping, the lower eyelid rises to cover the eye in most birds, with the exception of the horned owls where the upper eyelid is mobile.[8]

The eye is also cleaned by tear secretions from the lachrymal gland and protected by an oily substance from the Harderian glands which coats the cornea and prevents dryness. The eye of a bird is larger compared to the size of the animal than for any other group of animals, although much of it is concealed in its skull. The ostrich has the largest eye of any land vertebrate, with an axial length of 50 mm (2 in), twice that of the human eye.[1]

Bird eye size is broadly related to body mass. A study of five orders (parrots, pigeons, petrels, raptors and owls) showed that eye mass is proportional to body mass, but as expected from their habits and visual ecology, raptors and owls have relatively large eyes for their body mass.[9]

Behavioural studies show that many avian species focus on distant objects preferentially with their lateral and monocular field of vision, and birds will orientate themselves sideways to maximise visual resolution. For a pigeon, resolution is twice as good with sideways monocular vision than forward binocular vision, whereas for humans the converse is true.[1]

The performance of the eye in low light levels depends on the distance between the lens and the retina, and small birds are effectively forced to be diurnal because their eyes are not large enough to give adequate night vision. Although many species migrate at night, they often collide with even brightly lit objects like lighthouses or oil platforms. Birds of prey are diurnal because, although their eyes are large, they are optimised to give maximum spatial resolution rather than light gathering, so they also do not function well in poor light.[10] Many birds have an asymmetry in the eye's structure which enables them to keep the horizon and a significant part of the ground in focus simultaneously. The cost of this adaptation is that they have myopia in the lower part of their visual field.[1]

Birds with relatively large eyes compared to their body mass, such as common redstarts and European robins sing earlier at dawn than birds of the same size and smaller body mass. However, if birds have the same eye size but different body masses, the larger species sings later than the smaller. This may be because the smaller bird has to start the day earlier because of weight loss overnight.[11] Overnight weight loss for small birds is typically 5-10% and may be over 15% on cold winter nights.[11] In one study, robins put on more mass in their dusk feeding when nights were cold.[12]

Nocturnal birds have eyes optimised for visual sensitivity, with large corneas relative to the eyeâ€™s length, whereas diurnal birds have longer eyes relative to the corneal diameter to give greater visual acuity. Information about the activities of extinct species can be deduced from measurements of the sclerotic ring and orbit depth. For the latter measurement to be made, the fossil must have retained its three-dimensional shape, so activity pattern cannot be determined with confidence from flattened specimens like Archaeopteryx, which has a complete sclerotic ring but no orbit depth measurement.[13]

The main structures of the bird eye are similar to those of other vertebrates. The outer layer of the eye consists of the transparent cornea at the front, and two layers of sclera — a tough white collagen fibre layer which surrounds the rest of the eye and supports and protects the eye as a whole. The eye is divided internally by the lens into two main segments: the anterior segment and the posterior segment. The anterior chamber is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humour, and the posterior chamber contains the vitreous humour, a clear jelly-like substance.

The lens is a transparent convex or 'lens' shaped body with a harder outer layer and a softer inner layer. It focuses the light on the retina. The shape of the lens can be altered by ciliary muscles which are directly attached to lens capsule by means of the zonular fibres. In addition to these muscles, some birds also have a second set, Cramptonâ€™s muscles, that can change the shape of the cornea, thus giving birds a greater range of accommodation than is possible for mammals. This accommodation can be rapid in some diving water birds such as in the mergansers. The iris is a coloured muscularly operated diaphragm in front of the lens which controls the amount of light entering the eye. At the centre of the iris is the pupil, the variable circular area through which the light passes into the eye.[2][14]

The retina is a relatively smooth curved multi-layered structure containing the photosensitive rod and cone cells with the associated neurons and blood vessels. The density of the photoreceptors is critical in determining the maximum attainable visual acuity. Humans have about 200,000 receptors per mm2, but the house sparrow has 400,000 and the common buzzard 1,000,000. The photoreceptors are not all individually connected to the optic nerve, and the ratio of nerve ganglia to receptors is important in determining resolution. This is very high for birds; the white wagtail has 100,000 ganglion cells to 120,000 photoreceptors.[2]

Rods are more sensitive to light, but give no colour information, whereas the less sensitive cones enable colour vision. In diurnal birds, 80% of the receptors may be cones (90% in some swifts) whereas nocturnal owls have almost all rods. As with other vertebrates except placental mammals, some of the cones may be double cones. These can amount to 50% of all cones in some species.[15]

Towards the centre of the retina is the fovea (or the less specialised, area centralis) which has a greater density of receptors and is the area of greatest forward visual acuity, i.e. sharpest, clearest detection of objects. In 54% of birds, including birds of prey, kingfishers, hummingbirds and swallows, there is second fovea for enhanced sideways viewing. The optic nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres which carry messages from the eye to the relevant parts of the brain and vice versa. Like mammals, birds have a small blind spot without photoreceptors at the optic disc, under which the optic nerve and blood vessels join the eye.[2]

The pecten is a poorly understood body consisting of folded tissue which projects from the retina. It is well supplied with blood vessels and appears to keep the retina supplied with nutrients,[1] and may also shade the retina from dazzling light or aid in detecting moving objects.[2] Pecten oculi is abundantly filled with melanin granules which have been proposed to absorb stray light entering the bird eye to reduce background glare. Slight warming of pecten oculi due to absorption of light by melanin granules has been proposed enhance metabolic rate of pecten that is suggested to help increase secretion of nutrients into vitreous, eventually to be absorbed by avascular retina of birds for improved nutrition.[16] Exra-high enzymic activity of alkaline phosphatase in pecten oculi has been proposed to support high secretory activity of pecten to supplement nutrition of retina.[17]

The choroid is a layer situated behind the retina which contains many small arteries and veins. These provide arterial blood to the retina and drain venous blood. The choroid contains melanin, a pigment which gives the inner eye its dark colour, helping to prevent disruptive reflections.

There are two sorts of light receptors in a birdâ€™s eye, rods and cones. Rods, which contain the visual pigment rhodopsin are better for night vision because they are sensitive to small quantities of light. Cones detect specific colours (or wavelengths) of light, so they are more important to colour-orientated animals such as birds.[20] Most birds are tetrachromatic, possessing four types of cone cells each with a distinctive maximal absorption peak. In some birds, the maximal absorption peak of the cone cell responsible for the shortest wavelength extends to the ultraviolet (UV) range, making them UV-sensitive.[21] In addition to that, the cones at bird's retina are arranged in a characteristic form of spatial distribution, known as hyperuniform distribution, which maximizes its light and color absorption. This form of spatial distributions are only observed as a result of some optimization process, which in this case can be described in terms of bird's evolutionary history.[22]

The four spectrally distinct cone pigments are derived from the protein opsin, linked to a small molecule called retinal, which is closely related to vitamin A. When the pigment absorbs light the retinal changes shape and alters the membrane potential of the cone cell affecting neurons in the ganglia layer of the retina. Each neuron in the ganglion layer may process information from a number of photoreceptor cells, and may in turn trigger a nerve impulse to relay information along the optic nerve for further processing in specialised visual centres in the brain. The more intense a light, the more photons are absorbed by the visual pigments; the greater the excitation of each cone, and the brighter the light appears.[20]

By far the most abundant cone pigment in every bird species examined is the long-wavelength form of iodopsin, which absorbs at wavelengths near 570 nm. This is roughly the spectral region occupied by the red- and green-sensitive pigments in the primate retina, and this visual pigment dominates the colour sensitivity of birds.[23] In penguins, this pigment appears to have shifted its absorption peak to 543 nm, presumably an adaptation to a blue aquatic environment.[24]

The information conveyed by a single cone is limited: by itself, the cell cannot tell the brain which wavelength of light caused its excitation. A visual pigment may absorb two wavelengths equally, but even though their photons are of different energies, the cone cannot tell them apart, because they both cause the retinal to change shape and thus trigger the same impulse. For the brain to see colour, it must compare the responses of two or more classes of cones containing different visual pigments, so the four pigments in birds give increased discrimination.[20]

Each cone of a bird or reptile contains a coloured oil droplet; these no longer exist in mammals. The droplets, which contain high concentrations of carotenoids, are placed so that light passes through them before reaching the visual pigment. They act as filters, removing some wavelengths and narrowing the absorption spectra of the pigments. This reduces the response overlap between pigments and increases the number of colours that a bird can discern.[20] Six types of cone oil droplets have been identified; five of these have carotenoid mixtures that absorb at different wavelengths and intensities, and the sixth type has no pigments.[25] The cone pigments with the lowest maximal absorption peak, including those that are UV-sensitive, possess the 'clear' or 'transparent' type of oil droplets with little spectral tuning effect.[26]

The colours and distributions of retinal oil droplets vary considerably among species, and is more dependent on the ecological niche utilised (hunter, fisher, herbivore) than genetic relationships. As examples, diurnal hunters like the barn swallow and birds of prey have few coloured droplets, whereas the surface fishing common tern has a large number of red and yellow droplets in the dorsal retina. The evidence suggests that oil droplets respond to natural selection faster than the cone's visual pigments.[23] Even within the range of wavelengths that are visible to humans, passerine birds can detect colour differences that humans do not register. This finer discrimination, together with the ability to see ultraviolet light, means that many species show sexual dichromatism that is visible to birds but not humans.[27]

Migratory songbirds use the Earthâ€™s magnetic field, stars, the Sun, and other unknown cues to determine their migratory direction. An American study suggested that migratory Savannah sparrows used polarised light from an area of sky near the horizon to recalibrate their magnetic navigation system at both sunrise and sunset. This suggested that skylight polarisation patterns are the primary calibration reference for all migratory songbirds.[28] However, it appears that birds may be responding to secondary indicators of the angle of polarisation, and may not be actually capable of directly detecting polarisation direction in the absence of these cues.[29]

Many species of birds are tetrachromatic, with dedicated cone cells for perceiving wavelengths in the ultraviolet and violet regions of the light spectrum. These cells contain a combination of short wave sensitive (SWS1) opsins, SWS1-like opsins (SWS2), and long-wave filtering carotenoid pigments[30] for selectively filtering and receiving light between 300 and 400 nm. There are two types of short wave color vision in birds: violet sensitive (VS) and ultraviolet sensitive (UVS).[31] Single nucleotide substitutions in the SWS1 opsin sequence are responsible blue-shifting the spectral sensitivity of the opsin from violet sensitive (λmax = 400) to ultraviolet sensitive (λmax = 310-360).[32] This is the proposed evolutionary mechanism by which ultraviolet vision originally arose. The major clades of birds that have UVS vision are Palaeognathae (ratites and tinamous), Charadriiformes (shorebirds, gulls, and alcids), Trogoniformes (trogons), Psittaciformes (parrots), and Passeriformes (perching birds, representing more than half of all avian species).[33]

UVS vision can be useful for courtship. Birds that do not exhibit sexual dichromatism in visible wavelengths are sometimes distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers.[34][35] Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers.[36] Male blue grosbeaks with the brightest and most UV-shifted blue in their plumage are larger, hold the most extensive territories with abundant prey, and feed their offspring more frequently than other males.[20]

The billâ€™s appearance is important in the interactions of the blackbird. Although the UV component seems unimportant in interactions between territory-holding males, where the degree of orange is the main factor, the female responds more strongly to males with bills with good UV-reflectiveness.[37]

UVS is also demonstrated to serve functions in foraging,[38] prey identification,[39] and frugivory. Similar advantages afforded to trichromatic primates over dichromatic primates in frugivory[40] are generally considered to exist in birds. The waxy surfaces of many fruits and berries reflect UV light that advertise their presence to UVS birds.[20] Common kestrels be able to locate the trails of voles with vision; these small rodents lay scent trails of urine and feces that reflect UV light, making them visible to the kestrels.[39] However, this view has been challenged by the finding of low UV sensitivity in raptors and weak UV reflection of mammal urine.[41]

While tetrachromatic vision is not exclusive to birds (insects, reptiles, and crustaceans are also sensitive to short wavelengths), some predators of UVS birds cannot see ultraviolet light. This raises the possibility that ultraviolet vision gives birds a channel in which they can privately signal, thereby remaining inconspicuous to predators.[42] However, recent evidence does not appear to support this hypothesis.[43]

Contrast (or more precisely Michelson-contrast) is defined as the difference in luminance between two stimulus areas, divided by the sum of luminance of the two. Contrast sensitivity is the inverse of the smallest contrast that can be detected; a contrast sensitivity of 100 means that the smallest contrast that can be detected is 1%. Birds have comparably lower contrast sensitivity than mammals. Humans have been shown to detect contrasts as low as 0.5-1%[44] whereas most birds tested require ca. 10% contrast to show a behavioural response.[45][46][47] A contrast sensitivity function describes an animal's ability to detect the contrast of grating patterns of different spatial frequency (i.e. different detail). For stationary viewing experiments the contrast sensitivity is highest at a medium spatial frequency and lower for higher and lower spatial frequencies.[48]

Birds can resolve rapid movements better than humans, for whom flickering at a rate greater than 50 light pulse cycles per second appears as continuous movement. Humans cannot therefore distinguish individual flashes of a fluorescent light bulb oscillating at 60 light pulse cycles per second, but budgerigars and chickens have flicker or light pulse cycles per second thresholds of more than 100 light pulse cycles per second.[citation needed] A Cooper's hawk can pursue agile prey through woodland and avoid branches and other objects at high speed; to humans such a chase would appear as a blur.[5]

Birds can also detect slow moving objects. The movement of the sun and the constellations across the sky is imperceptible to humans, but detected by birds. The ability to detect these movements allows migrating birds to properly orient themselves.[5]

To obtain steady images while flying or when perched on a swaying branch, birds hold the head as steady as possible with compensating reflexes. Maintaining a steady image is especially relevant for birds of prey.[5] Because the image can be centered on the deep fovea of only one eye at a time, most falcons when diving use a spiral path to approach their prey after they have locked on to a target individual. The alternative of turning the head for a better view slows down the dive by increasing drag while spiralling does not reduce speeds significantly.[49][50]

When an object is partially blocked by another, humans unconsciously tend to make up for it and complete the shapes (See Amodal perception). It has however been demonstrated that pigeons do not complete occluded shapes.[51] A study based on altering the grey level of a perch that was coloured differently from the background showed that budgerigars do not detect edges based on colours.[52]

The perception of magnetic fields by migratory birds has been suggested to be light dependent.[53] Birds move their head to detect the orientation of the magnetic field,[54] and studies on the neural pathways have suggested that birds may be able to "see" the magnetic fields.[55] The right eye of a migratory bird contains photoreceptive proteins called cryptochromes. Light excites these molecules to produce unpaired electrons that interact with the Earth's magnetic field, thus providing directional information.[56][57]

The visual ability of birds of prey is legendary, and the keenness of their eyesight is due to a variety of factors. Raptors have large eyes for their size, 1.4 times greater than the average for birds of the same weight,[9] and the eye is tube-shaped to produce a larger retinal image. The resolving power of an eye depends both on the optics, large eyes with large appertures suffers less from diffraction and can have larger retinal images due to a long focal length, and on the density of receptor spacing. The retina has a large number of receptors per square millimeter, which determines the degree of visual acuity. The more receptors an animal has, the higher its ability to distinguish individual objects at a distance, especially when, as in raptors, each receptor is typically attached to a single ganglion.[1] Many raptors have foveas with far more rods and cones than the human fovea (65,000/mm2 in American kestrel, 38,000 in humans) and this provides these birds with spectacular long distance vision.[citation needed] It is proposed that the shape of the deep central fovea of raptors can create a telephoto optical system,[58] increasing the size of the retinal image in the fovea and thereby increasing the spatial resolution. Behavioural studies show that some large eyed raptors (Wedge-tailed eagle, Old world vultures) and have ca 2 times higher spatial resolution than humans, but many medium and small sized raptors have comparable or lower spatial resolution.[59][60][61][62][63][64]

The forward-facing eyes of a bird of prey give binocular vision, which is assisted by a double fovea.[2] The raptor's adaptations for optimum visual resolution (an American kestrel can see a 2–mm insect from the top of an 18–m tree) has a disadvantage in that its vision is poor in low light level, and it must roost at night.[1] Raptors may have to pursue mobile prey in the lower part of their visual field, and therefore do not have the lower field myopia adaptation demonstrated by many other birds.[1] Scavenging birds like vultures do not need such sharp vision, so a condor has only a single fovea with about 35,000 receptors mm2. Vultures, however have high physiological activity of many important enzymes to suit their distant clarity of vision.[66][citation needed]

Like other birds investigated raptors do also have coloured oil droplets in their cones.[61][62][67] The generally brown, grey and white plumage of this group, and the absence of colour displays in courtship suggests that colour is relatively unimportant to these birds.[2]

In most raptors a prominent eye ridge and its feathers extends above and in front of the eye. This "eyebrow" gives birds of prey their distinctive stare. The ridge physically protects the eye from wind, dust, and debris and shields it from excessive glare. The osprey lacks this ridge, although the arrangement of the feathers above its eyes serves a similar function; it also possesses dark feathers in front of the eye which probably serve to reduce the glare from the water surface when the bird is hunting for its staple diet of fish.[5]

Owls have very large eyes for their size, 2.2 times greater than the average for birds of the same weight,[9] and positioned at the front of the head. The eyes have a field overlap of 50–70%, giving better binocular vision than for diurnal birds of prey (overlap 30–50%).[68] The tawny owl's retina has about 56,000 light-sensitive rods per square millimetre (36 million per square inch); although earlier claims that it could see in the infrared part of the spectrum have been dismissed.[69]

Adaptations to night vision include the large size of the eye, its tubular shape, large numbers of closely packed retinal rods, and an absence of cones, since cone cells are not sensitive enough for a low-photon nighttime environment. There are few coloured oil droplets, which would reduce the light intensity, but the retina contains a reflective layer, the tapetum lucidum. This increases the amount of light each photosensitive cell receives, allowing the bird to see better in low light conditions.[2] Owls normally have only one fovea, and that is poorly developed except in diurnal hunters like the short-eared owl.[68]

Besides owls, bat hawks, frogmouths and nightjars also display good night vision. Some bird species nest deep in cave systems which are too dark for vision, and find their way to the nest with a simple form of echolocation. The oilbird is the only nocturnal bird to echolocate,[70] but several Aerodramus swiftlets also utilise this technique, with one species, Atiu swiftlet, also using echolocation outside its caves.[71][72]

Seabirds such as terns and gulls that feed at the surface or plunge for food have red oil droplets in the cones of their retinas. This improves contrast and sharpens distance vision, especially in hazy conditions.[2] Birds that have to look through an air/water interface have more deeply coloured carotenoid pigments in the oil droplets than other species.[23]

This helps them to locate shoals of fish, although it is uncertain whether they are sighting the phytoplankton on which the fish feed, or other feeding birds.[73]

Birds that fish by stealth from above the water have to correct for refraction particularly when the fish are observed at an angle. Reef herons and little egrets appear to be able to make the corrections needed when capturing fish and are more successful in catching fish when strikes are made at an acute angle and this higher success may be due to the inability of the fish to detect their predators.[74] Other studies indicate that egrets work within a preferred angle of strike and that the probability of misses increase when the angle becomes too far from the vertical leading to an increased difference between the apparent and real depth of prey.[75]

Birds that pursue fish under water like auks and divers have far fewer red oil droplets,[2] but they have special flexible lenses and use the nictitating membrane as an additional lens. This allows greater optical accommodation for good vision in air and water.[7] Cormorants have a greater range of visual accommodation, at 50 dioptres, than any other bird, but the kingfishers are considered to have the best all-round (air and water) vision.[2]

Tubenosed seabirds, which come ashore only to breed and spend most of their life wandering close to the surface of the oceans, have a long narrow area of visual sensitivity on the retina[1] This region, the area giganto cellularis, has been found in the Manx shearwater, Kerguelen petrel, great shearwater, broad-billed prion and common diving-petrel. It is characterised by the presence of ganglion cells which are regularly arrayed and larger than those found in the rest of the retina, and morphologically appear similar to the cells of the retina in cats. The location and cellular morphology of this novel area suggests a function in the detection of items in a small binocular field projecting below and around the bill. It is not concerned primarily with high spatial resolution, but may assist in the detection of prey near the sea surface as a bird flies low over it.[76]

The Manx shearwater, like many other seabirds, visits its breeding colonies at night to reduce the chances of attack by aerial predators. Two aspects of its optical structure suggest that the eye of this species is adapted to vision at night. In the shearwater's eyes the lens does most of the bending of light necessary to produce a focused image on the retina. The cornea, the outer covering of the eye, is relative flat and so of low refractive power. In a diurnal bird like the pigeon, the reverse is true; the cornea is highly curved and is the principal refractive component. The ratio of refraction by the lens to that by the cornea is 1.6 for the shearwater and 0.4 for the pigeon; the figure for the shearwater is consistent with that for a range of nocturnal birds and mammals.[77]

The shorter focal length of shearwater eyes give them a smaller, but brighter, image than is the case for pigeons, so the latter has sharper daytime vision. Although the Manx shearwater has adaptations for night vision, the effect is small, and it is likely that these birds also use smell and hearing to locate their nests.[77]

It used to be thought that penguins were far-sighted on land. Although the cornea is flat and adapted to swimming underwater, the lens is very strong and can compensate for the reduced corneal focusing when out of water.[68] Almost the opposite solution is used by the hooded merganser which can bulge part of the lens through the iris when submerged.[68]


what happened to derek wilton in coronation street

Derek died from a heart attack during a road rage incident on Mavis's birthday in 1997.

Derek Wilton

Derek Bernard Wilton is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street, portrayed by Peter Baldwin. He appeared in the show intermittently between 1976 and 1987, before becoming a regular from 1988 until the character's death in 1997.

Derek was often dominated by women; he remained a bachelor until after his mother's death in 1981 as he always bowed to her wishes. He first met Mavis Riley (Thelma Barlow) 1976 but remained non-committal until 1984 when they agreed to marry. On their wedding day, the indecisive couple jilted each other.

Forever letting Mavis down, Derek was usually too proud to admit he was at fault but still went to her with his problems. His biggest mistake was marrying his boss's daughter, Angela Hawthorne (Diane Fletcher) 1985, even though it was Mavis he really wanted. After divorcing Angela, Derek finally married Mavis in 1988 and in 1990 they moved into 4 Coronation Street.

On the career front, Derek never had much luck; he usually worked as a salesman but his jobs never tended to last long, and in desperation for employment he usually had to turn to people who had caused problems in his and Mavis's lives, including Angela and Mavis's ex-partner Victor Pendlebury (Christopher Coll). Eccentric and pompous, Derek was the perfect match for dithering Mavis as they were very much alike: their old-fashioned mannerisms and tendency to over-dramatize everything sometimes made them the butt of the neighbours' jokes, especially their immediate neighbour, Des Barnes (Philip Middlemiss).

In 1976, Derek was introduced as a love interest for Mavis Riley (Thelma Barlow), but it was more than a decade before the couple finally married in 1988, after simultaneously jilting each other four years earlier.

Richard Dyer perceives the Mavis and Derek characters to be as "shy physically" as one another,[1] whereas Kathryn Hone, writing in The Sunday Times, considers Derek "even more dithering than Mavis". Nevertheless the on-screen relationship between the couple progresses quickly, despite the interference of Derek's mother. Actors Peter Baldwin and Thelma Barlow had worked together before their casting as Derek and Mavis, and the two became close friends.

Derek and Mavis have been described by What's on TV as "an old-fashioned pair who were made for each other",[2] and were typically featured in comic storylines, such as one in 1995 that saw their garden gnome kidnapped and transported around the world; Derek and Mavis received pictures of the gnome in various exotic locations, sent to them with ransom notes. It transpired that the kidnapper was Derek's friend Norris Cole (Malcolm Hebden).[3] The Daily Record labelled this storyline one of "Coronation Street's Classic Comic Moments" in 2008.

Marilyn J. Matelski cites Mavis and Derek Wilton as examples of clever naming,[4] in that the serial had created a fitting image of the characters before viewers even saw them together.[4]

Derek Wilton was axed by producer Brian Park in a high-profile cull in 1997. His axing was said to have caused his co-worker Thelma Barlow (who played his on-screen wife Mavis) to quit her role in the show. While appearing on ITVs This Morning in October 2010, Barlow denied it was the reason she left the show, stating she had decided to quit before Baldwin was axed.


who won noble prize for peace in 2012

The 2012 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to the European Union (EU) "for over six decades [having] contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe" by a unanimous decision of the Norwegian Nobel Committee.

2012 Nobel Peace Prize

The decision highlighted the reconciliation of France and Germany, stating that "over a seventy-year period, Germany and France had fought three wars. Today war between Germany and France is unthinkable. This shows how, through well-aimed efforts and by building up mutual confidence, historical enemies can become close partners." The decision also highlighted the EU's contribution to the "introduction of democracy" in Greece, Spain and Portugal, the advancing of democracy and human rights in Turkey, the strengthening of democracy in Eastern Europe following the Revolutions of 1989 and overcoming of "the division between East and West" and ethnically based national conflicts, and finally the EU's contribution to the "process of reconciliation in the Balkans."[1]

For the 2012 award the Nobel Committee received 231 valid nominations, compared to the record 247 candidates in 2011.[2] 43 of the nominations were organisations, while the remaining 188 were individuals, either alone, together with others or together with organisations.[3]

Members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee were appointed by the Norwegian Parliament to roughly reflect the party makeup of that body. The Committee had the following membership in 2012: Thorbjørn Jagland (chair), Kaci Kullmann Five (deputy chair), Inger-Marie Ytterhorn, Berit Reiss-Andersen, and Gunnar Stålsett (member during Ågot Valle's sick leave).

The award was announced on 12 October 2012. The Nobel citation referred to the strict demands the European Union placed on all would-be members, gave special mention to Greece, Spain and Portugal—all of which joined in the 1980s after dictatorships ended—and referred to the countries in Eastern Europe that embraced it after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of the Soviet Union.

The President of the European Council, Herman Van Rompuy, said that the award recognised the European Union as the "biggest peacemaker in history."[4]

The President of the European Parliament, German social democrat Martin Schulz, said he was "deeply touched. The European Union has reunified the continent through peaceful means and brought arch enemies together. This historic act of reunification has been rightfully recognised."[5] He said that "from the Balkans to the Caucasus, the EU serves as a beacon for democracy and reconciliation."[6]

The President of the European Commission, José Manuel Barroso, called the award "a very important message to Europe that the European Union is something very precious, that we should cherish it for the good of Europeans and for the good of the entire world."[7]

The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, Catherine Ashton, said she was "delighted" at the news, adding that "in the countries of the EU, historic enemies have become close partners and friends. I am proud to be part of continuing this work."[8]

Belgium – The Prime Minister of Belgium, Elio Di Rupo, said that "this choice shows that the European project continues to inspire the world today. The European Union was originally the dream of people and politicians in search of peace and prosperity for all citizens. It has become a strong symbol of cooperation and progress. Europe, a continent that was torn by terrible wars, thanks to the European Union is an example for the world of peaceful dialogue and conflict prevention."[9]

France – The President of France, François Hollande, said the prize was an "immense honour," adding that "through this award, every European can feel pride, that of being a member of a union which has been able to make peace between peoples who for a long time clashed, and to build a community founded on values of democracy, liberty and solidarity."[10] Former President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing said that "it is right that this extraordinary effort that has been accomplished by the Europeans and their leaders to establish a lasting peace on their continent—historically ravaged by war—is rewarded and honored."[8]

Germany – The President of Germany, Joachim Gauck, called the award "a great encouragement in difficult times" and said the EU is "a unique project of peace and freedom."[11] The Chancellor of Germany, Angela Merkel, called the award a wonderful decision that "honours the idea of European integration."[12] The Minister for Foreign Affairs of Germany, Guido Westerwelle, called the award "a fantastic decision which makes me proud and happy. European integration is the most successful project for peace in history."[8] Former Chancellor Helmut Kohl called the award "a wise and far-sighted decision" that "is above all a confirmation for the European peace project. As Europeans we all have reason to be proud today. I am proud, and I wish for God's blessing for us on our further path to a united Europe."[8]

Italy – The Prime Minister of Italy, Mario Monti, hailed the decision and said that the European Union's "formula of (using) integration to stop war and guarantee peace and practised for decades is the subject of study and admiration in other parts of the world."[13]

Luxembourg – The Prime Minister of Luxembourg, Jean-Claude Juncker, called the award a "good decision," stating that the EU from its inception was a peacemaker in Europe. He added that "it is sometimes useful to get such recognition from the outside [...] to remind us why we are considered a model for others."[14]

Netherlands – The Prime Minister of the Netherlands, Mark Rutte, said the award was a "great recognition of the major historical role the European Union has played in peace, security and democracy."[15]

New accession states (by order of accession)

Denmark (1973) – The Minister for Europe of Denmark, Nicolai Wammen, said the prize is "fully deserved, because the EU has been a peace project from the beginning. The European cooperation has been successful in creating lasting peace between countries that for centuries have been at war with each other."[16]

Ireland (1973) – The Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland, Eamon Gilmore, "warmly welcomed" the decision, stating that "the European Union has been the most successful peace process in our lifetime, and indeed in our living memory."[17]

United Kingdom (1973) – The British government issued a statement, saying that "this award recognises the EU’s historic role in promoting peace and reconciliation in Europe, particularly through its enlargement to Central and Eastern Europe. The EU must always strive to preserve and strengthen those achievements for the future."[18]

Â Greece (1981) - The Prime Minister of Greece, Antonis Samaras was representing Greece and in his announcement he stressed the need for advanced social cohesion for facing the problem of unemployment, in order to avoid right-extremists raise in the European Union.[19]

Spain (1986) – The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, said the award was "excellent news," adding that "the EU serves as a stimulus for the further consolidation of Europe's political, economic and monetary union."[20]

Austria (1995) – The President of Austria, Heinz Fischer, said the award was "great and pioneering news for Europe," adding that "we have always considered the united Europe as a peace project, and the grand recognition of this idea by the Nobel Prize committee gives us confidence and courage to continue working on the European peace project."[21][22]

Finland (1995) – The President of Finland, Sauli Niinistö, said the prize was a magnificent recognition that the EU has worked hard for peace and brought virtues of the European tradition to the outside world. The Prime Minister of Finland, Jyrki Katainen, said "there is every reason to be happy that we can take part in integration, building stability and strengthening the project of peace."[23]

Sweden (1995) – The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Sweden, Carl Bildt, warmly congratulated "all of Europe" and said the prize was "highly deserved and highly important."[24]

Czech Republic (2004) – The President of the Czech Republic, Václav Klaus, called the decision a "great mistake," adding that "it would make sense, if the award would have been given to an individual instead of an organisation. To award a bureaucratic institution is an 'empty' prize."[25]

Hungary (2004) – The Prime Minister of Hungary, Viktor Orbán, said the EU deserved the Nobel Peace Prize, and that the EU represented the peaceful coexistence of previously hostile countries.[26]

Poland (2004) – The Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland, Radosław Sikorski, issued a statement, saying "congratulations to the EU, and therefore to all of us," adding that "the Nobel Peace Prize signifies that European integration is a guarantee of peace in the region."[27]

Slovenia (2004) – The President of Slovenia, Danilo Türk, said that the prize was deserved because the EU is "the most successful peace project in the history of humanity." The Prime Minister of Slovenia, Janez Janša, stated that peace was one of the founding causes for the foundation of the European Union and that the award was a reminder that peace is a value.[28]

Candidates and other aspiring members

Albania – The Foreign Minister of Albania, Edmond Panariti, said the award meant a "great responsibility that should encourage the will for enlargement."[29]

Bosnia and Herzegovina – The chairman of the joint Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bakir Izetbegović, said the award "should be a strong boost for EU countries to overcome existing problems and stick to the concept of further enlargement."[29]

Croatia – The Foreign Minister of Croatia, Vesna Pusić, praised the EU for its role in keeping "a lasting peace in a region that had wars almost continuously for centuries."[29]

Kosovo – The Foreign Minister of Kosovo, Enver Hoxhaj, said that "awarding the Nobel Peace Prize to the EU makes us proud and motivates us to continue the reforms in order that Kosovo become a member of the union."[29]

Macedonia – The President of the Republic of Macedonia, Gjorge Ivanov, said the award honoured the project of "unifying peoples in their mutual efforts for freedom, solidarity and prosperity."[29]

Montenegro – The Foreign Minister of Montenegro, Nebojša Kaluđerović, said the "idea to unite European countries with all their differences is the best proof the EU is worthy of this award."[29]

Serbia – The Prime Minister of Serbia, Ivica Dačić, congratulated the EU, expressing hope that it would manage to preserve its unity.[29]

Turkey – The Minister of European Union Affairs of Turkey, Egemen Bağış, said that "his country's membership perspective has contributed to this award."[30]

NATO – The Secretary General of NATO, Anders Fogh Rasmussen, offered the European Union his "warmest congratulations," stating that "the European Union has played a vital role in healing the wounds of history and promoting peace, reconciliation and cooperation across Europe. It has contributed to the advancement of freedom, democracy and human rights across the continent and beyond. From the outset, NATO and the European Union have shared common values and helped shape the new Europe."[31][32]

Norway – The Prime Minister of Norway, Jens Stoltenberg, congratulated the European Union, stating that the EU "has helped to secure peace and build democracy in Europe over many years."[33]

Switzerland – The President of Switzerland, Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf, congratulated the EU. A government statement said the prize recognised "the essential role" which the EU has played in the peaceful development of the continent.[34]

United Nations – The Secretary-General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, lauded the decision in a statement on behalf of the entire United Nations family, and emphasised the European Union's role in helping to build peace, promote human rights and support economic and social development across the world. He called the award "a richly-deserved recognition of its accomplishments and its importance in Europe and around the world."[35][36]

United States – The U.S. Secretary of State, Hillary Clinton, congratulated the European Union, stating that "certainly it's quite remarkable to see how unified and peaceful Europe is in the 21st century and that did not happen by coincidence. It happened because of the very hard work and dedication of leaders and citizens across Europe."[37]

The prize was mostly positively received by European media, except the British media, and the American media. In editorials, Aftenposten,[38] Der Spiegel, Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Le Soir, De Standaard, de Volkskrant, La Stampa, Le Figaro, Die Welt, Die Presse and The Financial Times all described the prize as deserved.[39][40][41] The Wall Street Journal described the award as "an inspired decision" and "a reminder there is more to the EU than the euro and that its achievements over 60 years have been remarkable."[42]

Steven Pinker applauded the decision as part of a lecture about The Better Angels of Our Nature, remarking that the assignment of the prize recognized the value of an international community as well as the fact that what had started as an economic union had really had a pacifying effect.[43]

While European leaders greeted the decision, the award tended to be criticized by Eurosceptics[44] including the far-right (such as National Front leader Marine Le Pen[45]) and far-left.[46][47] Nigel Farage, leader of the right-wing UKIP and co-chairman of the anti-EU EFD group within the European Parliament, claimed the decision brought the Nobel Peace Prize "into total disrepute" due to its "insulting" assumption that the EU has prevented conflicts.[48]

In a poll conducted in Norway by ResponsAnalyse for the newspaper Aftenposten, 26% of respondents agreed with the decision to award the European Union the prize, while 37% opposed it and a further 37% had no opinion. The director of the Norwegian Nobel Institute, Geir Lundestad described the results of the poll as "... more positive than he had expected" on the background of the "... negative attitude to the EU" in Norway. Lundestad stated that the award was not about Norwegian membership in the EU, but a "wider perspective".[49]

On 30 November 2012, Nobel Peace Prize winners Desmond Tutu, Mairead Maguire and Adolfo Pérez Esquivel publicly opposed the awarding of the prize to the European Union. The 1984, 1976 and 1980 laureates stated in an open letter to the Nobel Foundation, based in Sweden, that in their view the EU stood for "... security based on military force and waging wars rather than insisting on the need for an alternative approach" and that "... the Norwegian Nobel Committee has redefined and reshaped the prize in a way that is not in accordance with the law". The International Peace Bureau, which won the prize in 1910, and several peace activists, writers and lawyers also signed the letter. The signatories demanded that the Nobel Foundation stop the payment of the SEK 8 million prize money.[50]

During the announcement, committee chairman Thorbjørn Jagland was asked whether Helmut Kohl or any of the current EU officials would be present to accept the prize on the EU's behalf. Jagland said the EU will have to decide who would accept the prize.[51]

The EU decided that the prize would be accepted by President of the European Council Herman Van Rompuy, President of the European Commission José Manuel Barroso and President of the European Parliament Martin Schulz. Van Rompuy and Barroso held the acceptance speeches.[52]

Most Eu heads of states or governments except six attended the ceremony. French President François Hollande and Chancellor of Germany Angela Merkel attended. David Cameron and five other EU heads of state have not attended, Cameron sending his deputy Nick Clegg in his stead.[53]


what is the primary purpose of ecological restoration

Revegetation is the process of replanting and rebuilding the soil of disturbed land. This may be a natural process produced by plant colonization and succession, manmade rewilding projects, accelerated process designed to repair damage to a landscape due to wildfire, mining, flood, or other cause. Originally the process was simply one of applying seed and fertilizer to disturbed lands, usually grasses or clover. The fibrous root network of grasses is useful for short-term erosion control, particularly on sloping ground. Establishing long-term plant communities requires forethought as to appropriate species for the climate, size of stock required, and impact of replanted vegetation on local fauna.[1] The motivations behind revegetation are diverse, answering needs that are both technical and aesthetic, but it is usually erosion prevention that is the primary reason. Revegetation helps prevent soil erosion, enhances the ability of the soil to absorb more water in significant rain events, and in conjunction reduces turbidity dramatically in adjoining bodies of water. Revegetation also aids protection of engineered grades and other earthworks.[2]

Revegetation

Revegetation is often used to join up patches of natural habitat that have been lost, and can be a very important tool in places where much of the natural vegetation has been cleared. It is therefore particularly important in urban environments, and research in Brisbane has shown that revegetation projects can significantly improve urban bird populations[3] The Brisbane study showed that connecting a revegetation patch with existing habitat improved bird species richness, while simply concentrating on making large patches of habitat was the best way to increase bird abundance. Revegetation plans therefore need to consider how the revegetated sites are connected with existing habitat patches. Revegetation in agricultural areas can support breeding bird populations, but often it supports more common species, rather than those that are in decline.[4]

Mine reclamation may involve soil amendment, replacement, or creation, particularly for areas that have been strip mined or suffered severe erosion or soil compaction. In some cases, the native soil may be removed prior to construction and replaced with fill for the duration of the work. After construction is completed, the fill is again removed and replaced with the reserved native soil for revegetation.[5]

Mycorrhizae, symbiotic fungal-plant communities, are important to the success of revegetation efforts. Most woody plant species need these root-fungi communities to thrive, and nursery or greenhouse transplants may not have sufficient or correct mycorrhizae for good survival. Regional differences in ectomycorrhizal fungi may also affect the success of revegetation.


who is the current ceo of coca cola

In December 2016, Coca Cola announced that Kent would step down as CEO in May 2017, to be replaced by President and COO James Quincey. Kent continues as Chairman of the Board of Directors.[4]

Muhtar Kent

Tarsus American College
University of Hull

Ahmet Muhtar Kent (born 1952) is a Turkish-American business executive. He is the chairman and former CEO of The Coca-Cola Company. He was appointed to the position of chief executive officer of the company in 2008 and became chairman of the board in 2009.[3]

Muhtar Kent was born in 1952 in New York City, where his father, Necdet Kent, was the consul-general of Turkey. After completing high school at Tarsus American College[5] in Mersin, Turkey in 1971, Muhtar Kent went to the United Kingdom to study at the University of Hull. Subsequently, he earned his MBA degree at Cass Business School, London.[6]

Muhtar Kent found a job at The Coca-Cola Company in Turkey through a newspaper ad in 1978. He toured the country in trucks to sell Coca-Cola, and thereby learned its distribution, marketing and logistics systems.[7]

In 1985, he was promoted to the general manager position of Coca-Cola Turkey and Central Asia, and transferred the headquarters of the company from Izmir to Istanbul. Three years later, he was appointed president of the Companyâ€™s East Central Europe Division, responsible for 23 countries in a region from the Alps to the Himalayas. Living in Vienna, Austria, he served at this post until 1995.[7]

Promoted further, Muhtar Kent became in 1995 managing director of Coca-Cola Amatil-Europe. In two years, he increased the turnover of the company about 50%, which covered bottling operations in 12 European countries.[citation needed]

In 1999, Kent left the Coca-Cola Company after 20 years of service. Returning to Turkey, Muhtar Kent became CEO of Efes Beverage Group at Anadolu Group,[8] the largest local shareholder of the Coca-Cola franchise in Turkey and one of Europe's largest international beverage businesses. He extended the company's territory from Serbia to Pakistan.[9]

In May 2005, Kent rejoined Coca-Cola after almost 6 years and was appointed president and chief operating officer of the companyâ€™s North Asia, Eurasia and Middle East Group, a position reporting directly to chairman and chief executive officer Neville Isdell. Muhtar Kent's rise continued and he was promoted in January 2006, to the newly created position of president of International Operations. In this capacity, he was responsible for all operations outside of North America, and all group presidents outside of North America reported to him.[7]

Kent's successful career took him finally to the summit of The Coca-Cola Company, which named him chief executive officer, effective July 1, 2008. He became chairman of the board and chief executive officer, effective April 23, 2009.[10] By 2015 he is paid over US$ 25MM a year by Coca-Cola.[11]

Muhtar Kent is active in the global business community and currently is co-chair of the Consumer Goods Forum, a fellow of the Foreign Policy Association, a member of the Business Roundtable, a past Chairman of the U.S.-China Business Council and current chairman emeritus of the US-ASEAN Business Council. He also was recently appointed as a member of the Eminent Persons Group for ASEAN by President Obama and Secretary of State Clinton. He serves on the boards of Special Olympics International, Ronald McDonald House Charities, Catalyst and Emory University.[12] He received an honorary degree in Doctor of Laws from Oglethorpe University in 2008.[13]

He currently serves on the board of directors of The American Turkish Society[14] and the National Committee on United States-China Relations.[15]

He is also an invitee of the Bilderberg Group and attended the Greece 2009 Bilderberg conference at the Astir Palace resort in Vouliagmeni, Greece.[16]

On May 3, 2014, Muhtar Kent was awarded an honorary degree by the Georgia Institute of Technology during the morning graduation ceremony (at which he gave the commencement address).[17]

In 2016, he was inducted as a Georgia Trustee, an honor given by the Georgia Historical Society in conjunction with the Governor of Georgia to individuals whose accomplishments and community service reflect the ideals of the founding body of Trustees, which governed the Georgia colony from 1732 to 1752.

In 2016, Kent was listed as a possible running mate for Hillary Clinton during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. [18]


where do the profits of the crown estate go

The Crown Estate is a collection of lands and holdings in the United Kingdom belonging to the British monarch as a corporation sole, making it the "Sovereign's public estate", which is neither government property nor part of the monarch's private estate.[1][2][3][4] As a result of this arrangement, the sovereign is not involved with the management or administration of the estate, exercising only very limited control of its affairs.[5] Instead, the estate's extensive portfolio is overseen by a semi-independent, incorporated public body headed by the Crown Estate Commissioners, who exercise "the powers of ownership" of the estate, although they are not "owners in their own right".[1] The revenues from these hereditary possessions have been placed by the monarch at the disposition of Her Majesty's Government in exchange for relief from the responsibility to fund the Civil Government[6] and thus proceed directly to Her Majesty's Treasury, for the benefit of the British nation.[1][7][8] The Crown Estate is formally accountable to the Parliament of the United Kingdom, where it is legally mandated to make an annual report to the sovereign, a copy of which is forwarded to the House of Commons.[5][9]

Crown Estate

The Crown Estate is one of the largest property managers in the United Kingdom, overseeing property worth £12 billion,[10] with urban properties valued at £9.1 billion[11] representing the majority of the estate by value. These include a large number of properties in central London, but the estate also controls 792,000 ha (1,960,000 acres) of agricultural land and forest, more than half of the UK's foreshore, and retains various other traditional holdings and rights, including Ascot Racecourse and Windsor Great Park.[12] Naturally occurring gold and silver in the UK, collectively known as "Mines Royal", are managed by the Crown Estate and leased to mining operators.[13][14]

Historically, Crown Estate properties were administered by the reigning monarch to help fund the business of governing the country. However, in 1760, George III surrendered control over the Estate's revenues to the treasury,[4] thus relieving him of the responsibility of paying for the costs of the civil service, defence costs, the national debt, and his own personal debts. In return, he received an annual grant known as the Civil List. By tradition, each subsequent monarch agreed to this arrangement upon his or her accession. However, from 1 April 2012, under the terms of the Sovereign Grant Act 2011 (SSG), the Civil List was abolished and the monarch was thenceforth provided with a stable source of revenue indexed to a percentage of the Crown Estate's annual net revenue (currently set at 15%). This was intended to provide a long-term solution and remove the politically sensitive issue of Parliament having to debate the Civil List allowance every ten years. Subsequently, the Sovereign Grant Act allows for all future monarchs to simply extend these provisions for their reigns by Order in Council.[2] The act does not imply any legal change on the nature of the estate's ownership but is simply a benchmark by which the sovereign grant is set as a grant by Parliament.

The history of the Crown lands in England and Wales begins with the Norman conquest.[9] When William I died, the land he had acquired by right of conquest was still largely intact.[15] His successors, however, granted large estates to the nobles and barons who supplied them with men and arms.[16]  The monarch's remaining land was divided into royal manors, each managed separately by a seneschal. The period between the reigns of William I and Queen Anne was one of continuous alienation of lands.[17] The Crown lands were augmented as well as depleted over the centuries: Edward I extended his possessions into Wales, and James VI & I had his own Crown lands in Scotland which were ultimately combined with the Crown lands of England and Wales.[18] However, the disposals outweighed the acquisitions: at the time of the Restoration in 1660, the total revenue arising from Crown lands was estimated to be £263,598 (equal to £36,318,804 today).[19] By the end of the reign of William III (1689–1702), however, it was reduced to some £6,000 (equal to £901,648 today).[20]

Before the reign of William III all the revenues of the kingdom were bestowed on the monarch for the general expenses of government. These revenues were of two kinds:[21]

After the Glorious Revolution, Parliament retained under its own control the greater part of the temporary revenues, and relieved the sovereign of the cost of the naval and military services and the burden of the national debt. During the reigns of William III, Anne, George I and George II the sovereign remained responsible for the maintenance of the civil government and for the support of the royal household and dignity, being allowed for these purposes the hereditary revenues and certain taxes.[21]

As the state machinery expanded, the cost of the civil government exceeded the income from the Crown lands and feudal rights; this created a personal debt for the monarch.

On George III's accession he surrendered the income from the Crown lands to Parliament, together with abrogating responsibility for the cost of the civil government and the clearance of associated debts. As a result, and to avoid pecuniary embarrassment, he was granted a fixed civil list payment and the income retained from the Duchy of Lancaster.[22] The King surrendered to parliamentary control the hereditary excise duties, post office revenues, and "the small branches" of hereditary revenue including rents of the Crown lands in England (which amounted to about £11,000, or £1,526,315 today), and was granted a civil list annuity of £800,000 (equal to £111,004,717 today) for the support of his household, subject to the payment of certain annuities to members of the royal family.[22]

Although the King had retained large hereditary revenues, his income proved insufficient for his charged expenses because he used the privilege to reward supporters with bribes and gifts.[23] Debts amounting to over £3 million (equal to £220,071,696 today) over the course of George's reign were paid by Parliament, and the civil list annuity was then increased from time to time.[24]

Every succeeding sovereign down to and including Elizabeth II renewed the arrangement made between George III and Parliament and the practice was, by the nineteenth century, recognised as "an integral part of the Constitution [which] would be difficult to abandon".[21][25] Nevertheless, a review of funding arrangements for the monarchy led to the passage of the Sovereign Grant Act 2011, which according to HM Treasury, is:[26]

A new consolidated grant rounding together the Civil List, Royal Palaces and Royal Travel grants-in-aid. It is intended that future funding will be set as a fraction of The Crown Estate revenue and paid through the annual Treasury Estimates process, and subject to full National Audit Office audit....

The Grant is to enable The Queen to discharge her duties as Head of State. i.e it meets the central staff costs and running expenses of Her Majesty's official Household â€“ such things as official receptions, investitures, garden parties and so on. It will also cover the maintenance of the Royal Palaces in England and the cost of travel to carry out royal engagements such as opening buildings and other royal visits....

While the amount of the Grant will be linked to the profits of the Crown Estate, those profits will continue to be paid in to the Exchequer; they are not to be hypothecated. Setting the Grant at a percentage of profits of the Crown Estate will help to put in place a durable and transparent framework.

In April 2014 it was reported that the Crown Estate is proposing to sell about 200 of its 750 rural homes in the UK & was evicting tenants in preparation.[27][28]

In 1793 George III surrendered the hereditary revenues of Ireland, and was granted a civil list annuity for certain expenses of Irish civil government.[22][29][30] Most of the crown land by then was from forfeitures after the 1641 rebellion or the 1688–91 revolution, with some smaller older parcels remaining from earlier rebellions, the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the Norman period.[31][32] Most confiscated land had been granted away again, as under the Adventurers' Act 1642, Act of Settlement 1662, and Act of Resumption 1700.[31][32] The balance which remained in Crown hands included the "undisposed lands" of the 1662 settlement (worth less than the small quit rent that a grantee would have had to pay) and the balance unsold by the trustees under the 1700 act at its 1703 time limit.[31] The scattered crown lands were farmed out on long leases with little regard to the collection of rent.[31] Responsibility lay with the Quit Rent Office, which was absorbed in 1827 by the Commissioners of Woods, Forests and Land Revenues.[29] The largest Crown estate in the 1820s was Pobble O'Keefe in Sliabh Luachra at 5,000 acres (2,000 ha).[31][32] In 1828 the lease expired, and Richard Griffith was appointed to supervise its improvement, including the foundation of the model village of Kingwilliamstown.[33] In the early 1830s the Crown Estate resumed possession of land in Ballykilcline following the insanity of the head lessee. The occupational sub-lessees were seven years in arrears with their rent and the result was the Ballykilcline "removals" – free emigration to the new world in 1846. There was further state-assisted emigration from overpopulated Crown estates during the Great Famine.[34] There is evidence of Crown Estate public work schemes to employ the more distressed in improving drainage etc.[35] In 1854 a select committee of the House of Lords concluded that the small estates in Ireland should be sold.[36] 7,000 acres (2,800 ha) were subsequently sold for circa. £25,000 (equal to £2,153,459 today) at auction and £10,000 (equal to £861,384 today) by private treaty: a major disinvestment, with reinvestment in Great Britain.[20]

Article 11 of the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State provided that Crown Estate land within the Irish Free State would belong to the state,[37] which took over administrative responsibilities on 1 April 1923. At the time of handover, quit rents totalled £23,418 (equal to £1,225,747 today) and rent from property £1,191 (equal to £62,339 today).[20] The estates handed over mostly comprised foreshore.[38] The Crown estate in Northern Ireland in 1960 comprised "a few quit rents... yielding yearly only £38."[38] By 2016 it had an income of £1.4m, from cables, pipelines and windfarms on the foreshore, and goldmining in Tyrone.[39][40] Development of the seabed below low tide is hampered by a sovereignty dispute with the Republic of Ireland.[41]

It was not until 1830 that King William IV revoked the income from the Crown estates in Scotland.[42] The hereditary land revenues of the Crown in Scotland, formerly under the management of the Barons of the Exchequer, were transferred to the Commissioners of Woods, Forests, Land Revenues, Works and Buildings and their successors under the Crown Lands (Scotland) Acts of 1832, 1833 and 1835.[43] These holdings mainly comprised former ecclesiastical land (following the abolition of the episcopacy in 1689) in Caithness and Orkney, and ancient royal possession in Stirling and Edinburgh, and feudal dues.[38] There was virtually no urban property. Most of the present Scottish estate excepting foreshore and salmon fishing is due to inward investment, including Glenlivet Estate, the largest area of land managed by the Crown Estate in Scotland, purchased in 1937,[44] Applegirth, Fochabers and Whitehill estates, purchased in 1963, 1937 and 1969 respectively.[45]

After winning the 2011 Scottish election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) called for the devolution of the Crown Estate income to Scotland.[46] In response to this demand, the Scotland Office decided against dividing up the Crown Estates. However, plans have been developed to allocate some of the Crown Estate income to the Big Lottery Fund, which would then distribute funds to coastal communities.[46] These plans have also been criticised by the SNP.[46]

The Scottish government has taken control of a portfolio of assets totalling Â£272 million ($339.6 million) after a devolved Scottish Crown Estate was established, including the rights to develop marine energy projects in the country.

A new public body, called Crown Estate Scotland (CES), will oversee seabed areas hosting offshore wind, wave and tidal projects, and some continental shelf activities.[47]

The Crown Estate now is a statutory corporation run on commercial lines by the Crown Estate Commissioners under the provisions of the Crown Estate Act 1961. Under the Crown Estate Act 1961, the Crown Estate Commissioners have a duty "while maintaining the Crown Estate as an estate in land [...] to maintain and enhance its value and the return obtained from it, but with due regard to the requirements of good management".[48] The Act provides among other things that (Section 1(5)) "The validity of transactions entered into by the Commissioners shall not be called in question on any suggestion of their not having acted in accordance with the provisions of this Act regulating the exercise of their powers, or of their having otherwise acted in excess of their authority, nor shall any person dealing with the Commissioners be concerned to inquire as to the extent of their authority or the observance of any restrictions on the exercise of their powers".

The Act includes the following:[49]

In 2010 a UK Parliament Treasury Committee report on the Crown Estate, the first for twenty years, reported that

Crown Estate chief executive Roger Bright said: “We welcome the Committee’s recognition that we run a successful business operation.”[50]

This includes the entirety of Regent Street and around half of St James's in London's West End as well as retail property across the UK in locations including Oxford, Exeter, Nottingham, Newcastle, Harlow and Swansea.[51]

In 2002 the Crown Estate began implementing a £1 billion investment programme to improve Regent Street's commercial, retail and visitor facilities and public realm. In addition, they are investing £500 million in St James's, including a number of major redevelopments.

Holdings consist of around 116,000 hectares (287,000 acres) of agricultural land and forests, together with minerals and residential and commercial property.[52]

The Windsor Estate covers approximately 6,300 hectares and includes Windsor Great Park, the Home Park of Windsor Castle, extensive forests, residential and commercial properties, golf courses, a racecourse and let farms.

The Crown Estate's marine holdings consist of:

The Crown Estate plays a major role in the development of the offshore wind energy industry in the UK. Other commercial activity managed by the Crown Estate on the seabed includes wave and tidal energy, carbon capture and storage, aggregates, submarine cables and pipelines and the mining of potash. In terms of the foreshore, the Crown Estate issue licences or leases for around 850 aquaculture sites and owns marina space for approximately 18,000 moorings.

Other rights and interests include:

Westgate Shopping Centre in Oxford and Princesshay Shopping Centre in Exeter are a 50:50 joint venture partnership with Land Securities. The Crown Estate also has a 4.97% share of Lend Lease Retail Partnership which provides an equity interest in the Bluewater Shopping Centre in Kent and the Touchwood Shopping Centre in Solihull.

Edinburgh's Fort Kinnaird, Cheltenham's Gallagher Retail Park and Warwick's Leamington Shopping Park are owned 50/50 through "The Gibraltar Limited Partnership" with The Hercules Unit Trust, a Jersey-based property unit trust. The estate recently purchased the new Rushden Lakes site in Northamptonshire from its developers.

Hereditary properties of the monarch currently in government use will revert to the Crown Estate in the event of the government use ceasing.[56]

In the 2015/2016 fiscal year, the Crown Estate's property evaluation was £12 billion with a £304.1 million net revenue profit (up 6.7%).[58]

Previous officials responsible for managing what is now the Crown Estate were:[59]

Chairmen (First Commissioner)

Chief executives (Second Commissioner)

The chairman (formally titled "first commissioner") is part-time. The chief executive (the "second commissioner") is the only full-time executive member of the Crown Estate's board.[60]


who drives for kyle busch in the truck series

Kyle Busch Motorsports (KBM) is an American professional stock car racing team that currently competes in the NASCAR Camping World Truck Series, and also fields a Super Late Model team that rotates drivers depending on the time of the season and race. The team is owned and operated by Kyle Busch, a Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series and Xfinity Series champion, and Truck Series driver. The team currently fields the No. 4 Toyota Tundra full-time for Todd Gilliland, the No. 18 Tundra full-time for Noah Gragson, the No. 46 Tundra part-time for Riley Herbst and Brandon Jones, and the No. 51 Tundra full-time for part-time drivers: David Gilliland, Harrison Burton, Spencer Davis, Jones, Busch, and Herbst. The team formerly operated a team in the Nationwide Series (now Xfinity Series) before ending the Nationwide Series program at the end of the 2013 season.

Kyle Busch Motorsports

Total: 2Nationwide Series: 0Camping World Truck Series: 22015, 2017

KBM was founded after Busch purchased the remaining assets of Xpress Motorsports from J.B. Scott (father of driver Brian Scott) in late 2009 as well as purchasing trucks from Roush Fenway Racing, which had closed its Truck team the previous year. Rick Ren, the crew chief on Ron Hornaday Jr.'s 2009 championship team, would be signed as the team's competition director. Busch had competed in the truck series for the 2008 and 2009 seasons in the No. 51 for Billy Ballew Motorsports with Miccosukee Indian Gaming as his primary sponsor, and had split the ride with Brian Ickler the previous year.[1]

Busch brought Ickler to the KBM stable, and signed Tayler Malsam away from Randy Moss Motorsports after he finished second in series Rookie of the Year standings to former Cup and Busch/Nationwide driver Johnny Sauter. The team ambitiously planned to run three trucks in its debut season: Busch and Ickler would split the primary truck (No. 18), Malsam was to drive a second truck for KBM, the No. 56 ActivWater/Talking Rain Tundra, and a third was to be fielded for 2008 series champion Johnny Benson if sponsorship could be found. The Miccosukee sponsorship was to carry over to Busch's primary truck as part of an agreement with Phoenix Racing.[1] On February 7, however, the Miccosukee tribe's new leadership pulled out of NASCAR altogether, leaving Busch's team and Phoenix's Cup and Nationwide series teams without sponsorship.[2] Benson would also be limited to a part-time schedule with KBM and Ballew,[3] and Malsam's team ceased operations after only seven races.[2][4]

After operating out of the former Xpress shop for most of its first season, the team opened its new $10 million facility in Mooresville, North Carolina on October 14, 2010.[5][6]

In 2011, KBM made its first foray into the then-Nationwide Series (now Xfinity Series) in conjunction with NEMCO Motorsports.[7] The team moved to full-time in 2012. On November 16, 2013, Busch announced that the team will not race in the Nationwide Series in 2014 due to lack of funding.[8]

In December 2014, former competition director Rick Ren (released after 2013) filed suit against the team for breach of contract, claiming the team failed to pay him a contractual bonus and 10% commissions for two sponsorship deals Ren claimed to have procured for the team, totaling USD$355,000. The sponsorships in question – Central Kentucky Angus Sales for driver Parker Kligerman and Sabala Whitetail for driver Brian Scott (owned by Scott's father J.B. Scott) – had prior associations with the drivers.[9]

After receiving engines from Triad Racing Technologies early in its history, KBM currently receives engines and technical support from Joe Gibbs Racing.[10]

In May 2011, Kimi Räikkönen made his Nationwide Series (now Xfinity Series) debut at Charlotte Motor Speedway in the No. 87 Perky Jerky Toyota Camry. The car was fielded in an alliance between KBM and NEMCO Motorsports, guaranteeing Räikkönen a spot in the field. Räikkönen started 22nd and finished 27th, four laps down.[7][11]

For the operations of the No. 54 team after the 2012 season, see Joe Gibbs Racing

For 2012, KBM added a full-time Nationwide team, the No. 54 Toyota Camry. The car was split by both Kyle Busch and older brother Kurt, both with sponsorship from Monster Energy.[12] Kyle ran 17 races while Kurt ran 16. The team struggled in its initial year, winning only one race with Kurt at Richmond.[13] This was the first time in his Nationwide Series career that Kyle Busch did not score a victory over the course of a season, leading him to return to Joe Gibbs Racing's Nationwide program for 2013, bringing the No. 54 Toyota Camry and Monster Energy with him.[10]

For 2013 22-year-old Parker Kligerman, a former development driver for Team Penske, was signed to run his first full Nationwide Series schedule in the No. 77 Toyota Camry, with sponsorship from Toyota and Bandit Chippers.[13] Despite finishing 9th in the standings, owner Busch announced after the Ford EcoBoost 300 that he would be shutting down the Nationwide team due to a lack of funding.[8]

The No.4 Truck Began in 2015, Erik Jones began running a third KBM truck full-time after running the No. 51 part-time in 2013 and 2014. In December 2014, it was announced that the truck would be number 4.[14][15] Jones would have his best season with collecting 3 wins, 11 top-five and 20 top-ten finishes to win the championship title. Jones also collected rookie of the year honors. This would be the first driver's championship at KBM and third consecutive owner's title.

Christopher Bell moved into the truck full-time for 2016.[16] Bell was involved in a violent crash near the end of the season opener at Daytona. His truck gripped the track, causing the truck to go on two wheels before it launched into the air and barrel rolled multiple times. He was credited with a 16th-place finish.[17]  Christopher Bell drove the No4 truck full time in 2017 and won the NCWTS Championship at Homestead-Miami Speedway  November 17, 2017.

For 2018, KBM announced that Todd Gilliland would compete for rookie of the year honors driving the 4 truck for 19 races. Gilliland would have to miss 4 races early in the season due to age restrictions. His father David Gilliland would drive at the season opener at Daytona and owner Kyle Busch would drive at Atlanta and Kansas. Spencer Davis was later announced as the driver for Las Vegas.

In the middle of the 2015 NASCAR Camping World Truck Series season, team owner Kyle Busch announced that Christopher Bell would drive a fourth KBM truck, numbered 52, in the UNOH 225 at Kentucky Speedway. The crew chief was announced as Wes Ward.[18] After the release of Justin Boston, however, Bell moved to the No. 54 truck at Kentucky and the No. 52 did not run.[19]

At Phoenix in November, William Byron made his debut in a fourth KBM truck numbered 9, with sponsorship from Liberty University.[20][21] Bryon finished 31st after being involved in the early wreck with Brandon Jones and Cole Custer.

Byron drove the No. 9 truck full-time in 2016.[16] In his thirteenth career start, at Pocono, Byron scored his fifth win of the season, breaking Kurt Busch's old record for wins by a rookie Truck Series driver, with nearly half the season left to go.[22] Byron would countine to win collecting a 6th win at New Hampshire in the first race of the chase for the championship. The team suffered an engine failure with ten laps to go at the last race of the Round of 6 at Phoenix after Byron lead majority of the race costing him his shot at the Drivers Championship. However Byron won the season finale at Homestead and Kyle Busch Motorsports collected the Owner's Championship for Truck No. 9 in 2016. This is Kyle Busch Motorsports' fourth-consecutive and fifth all-time NASCAR Camping World Truck Series owner championship.

In April 2011, KBM signed 2007 Formula One World Champion Kimi Räikkönen to run a limited schedule in the Camping World Truck Series. Räikkönen and Busch planned three to five races beginning at Charlotte Motor Speedway in May.[23] The efforts were sponsored by Perky Jerky,[24] and the team used the owners points of Billy Ballew Motorsports' 15 team. In his debut, Räikkönen started 31st but finished a solid 15th. The deal ended due to lack of sponsorship beyond the Charlotte race.[25] Dirt late model driver Josh Richards signed to run 11 races with KBM and sponsor Joy Mining Machinery, making his debut in the No. 15 at Kentucky Speedway.[26] Richards finished 29th in his debut, then 21st at Atlanta.

The No. 18 truck (Kyle Busch's Sprint Cup Series number), the primary entry of KBM during their debut 2010 season, with Kyle Busch running a partial schedule and Brian Ickler running non-companion races.[1] The team would lose its Miccosukee sponsorship prior to the season,[2] replaced by Toyota, M&M's, Interstate Batteries, Dollar General, and Traxxas. In the first seven races of the season, Busch made five starts and won twice, while Ickler finished in the top ten both of his starts. KBM lost Ickler in May when he was signed by Roush Fenway Racing to drive its No. 6 and No. 16 Nationwide Series cars on a part-time basis as part of an extended tryout with the organization. Busch announced shortly thereafter that he would split the driving duties of the No. 18 with Johnny Benson for the remainder of the year. Kyle Busch won 8 races in 16 starts, and the No. 18 truck won the owners championship in its first full-time season.

Both Ickler and Busch returned for 2011, with Kyle running 16 races and Ickler running 4. Kasey Kahne drove a single race for the No. 18 with sponsorship from Automotive Service Excellence, winning at Darlington. Josh Richards drove two races with Joy Mining Equipment. Kyle Busch scored 6 wins over the course of the season and the 18 truck finished second in the owners championship to the Kevin Harvick Incorporated No. 2 truck. [27]

For 2012, veteran Jason Leffler was signed to be the primary driver of the No. 18 Toyota Tundra. The team secured sponsorship from Dollar General for 14 races.[28] After nine starts and with a lone top-five finish to his credit, Leffler was released.[29] Finishing the season in the truck were Joe Gibbs Racing drivers Brian Scott (five races), Denny Hamlin, Drew Herring, and Kyle Busch (3 races), along with Kurt Busch.[29] Kyle Busch had previously abstained from driving in the Truck Series per a request from JGR co-owner J.D. Gibbs, following an incident the previous season.[30] Hamlin and Scott scored the team's only wins of the season at Martinsville and Phoenix. Kyle Busch didn't win a race for the first time in his Camping World Truck Series career.

For 2013, Busch hired former Richard Childress Racing driver Joey Coulter to drive the No. 18.[13][31] Coulter and Busch had a previous on-track altercation in 2011, leading to a physical encounter between Busch and team owner Richard Childress.[32] Coulter struggled, with only five top tens and a 15th-place points finish. With Coulter moving to GMS Racing, the No. 18 team did not run in 2014 and 2015.[33]

In late 2015, KBM announced that Cody Coughlin would pilot the No. 18 JEGS.com Toyota Tundra part-time for the 2016.[16] Coughlin ran the 18 in the season-opening event at Daytona International Speedway. Harrison Burton made his Truck Series debut in the No. 18 at Martinsville Speedway.[34] Kyle Busch returned to the No. 18 Truck for 4 races at Martinsville, Charlotte, Kentucky and Chicagoland. Busch won the races at Martinsville and Chicagoland. Noah Gragson ran the final 2 races of the year at in the Phoenix and Homestead with sponsorship from SPEEDVEGAS.

It was announced in October 2016 that Noah Gragson was signed to drive the No. 18 full-time in 2017, and that he would compete for Rookie of the Year honors.[35]
Gragson missed the playoffs but scored his first win at the fall Martinsville race. Gragson finished 10th in points, second highest of the non playoff drivers.

In 2017, KBM formed the No. 46 team with sponsorship from Pedigree Petfoods and Banfield Pet Hospital. Todd Gilliland drove the No. 46 with Pedigree sponsorship at Dover and Martinsville, scoring a top 5 at Martinsville, finishing 5th, while Kyle Busch will drive the Banfield-sponsored No. 46 at Kentucky and Bristol.[36]
Busch won the race at Bristol. The team is scheduled to return in 2018 with Brandon Jones at Charlotte and Riley Herbst at the second Las Vegas race.

The No. 51 was previously used by Busch at Billy Ballew Motorsports, a reverse of the team's No. 15 and a tribute to both the late Bobby Hamilton and the film Days of Thunder. In 2011, NASCAR Corona Series champion Germán Quiroga made his first Truck Series start in the No. 51 with Telcel as a sponsor at New Hampshire Motor Speedway in the New England 175. Quiroga finished a solid 16th, but 3 laps down. He would run the truck again in the season finale at Homestead, finishing 26th. Josh Richards ran four races in the No. 51 with Joy Mining Equipment, scoring a best finish of 13th at Talladega.

In July 2012, the team announced that Quiroga would return to the No. 51 truck for four races: Talladega Superspeedway on October 6, Texas Motor Speedway on November 2, Phoenix International Raceway on November 9 and Homestead-Miami Speedway on November 16, with sponship from Net10 Wireless.[37]
Denny Hamlin drove the truck at Martinsville Speedway on October 27, 2012 with sponsorship from Toyota and earned Kyle Busch Motorsports their first NASCAR Camping World Truck Series win of the 2012 season.

In 2013, the No. 51 became a full-time team, with owner Kyle Busch running 11 races. 16-year-old driver Erik Jones ran 5 races, while Scott Bloomquist ran the Mudsummer Classic.[38] On November 8, 2013, Jones won the Lucas Oil 150 at Phoenix International Raceway, the youngest winner of a NASCAR Camping World Truck Series race at 17 years, 5 months, and 9 days. Busch would go on to win the season finale Ford EcoBoost 200 at Homestead-Miami Speedway the next week. The No. 51 would win the 2013 Camping World Truck Series owner's title, barely edging the ThorSport Racing No. 88 team of driver's champion Matt Crafton. It was the second owner's championship for Kyle Busch Motorsports.

In 2014, Kyle Busch and Erik Jones split the No. 51 truck, with Busch driving 10 races and Jones driving 12 races. Eric Phillips served as the crew chief.[39] Dollar General sponsored the truck at Kentucky, Bristol, and Chicagoland with Busch driving and at Phoenix with Jones driving.[40] Busch won the season-opener at Daytona along with his next four starts in the No. 51 truck at Kansas, Charlotte, Dover, and Kentucky. Erik Jones won at Iowa, Las Vegas and Phoenix. The team won its second consecutive owner's championship, with 10 wins among the two drivers.

For 2015, Busch shared the ride with JGR Xfinity Series driver Daniel Suárez, ARCA Racing Series driver Matt Tifft and late model racer Christopher Bell, while Jones will move into a third full-time ride (No. 4).[15][41][42] Busch drove the truck at Pocono, Michigan, and New Hampshire, winning at Pocono and Michigan. Bell scored a top five finish in his debut at Iowa Speedway.[18]

For 2016, Suárez split the ride with Cody Coughlin, with the two drivers slated to contest a minimum of 10 races each.[16] Suárez collected his first truck win in the 51 at Phoenix late in the season.

In 2017, it was announced that multiple drivers would run the full schedule. Owner Kyle Busch will run 5 races with Textron Aviation as the primary sponsor.[43] It was later announced that Harrison Burton will run 6 races, Todd Gilliland will run 4 races.[44][45] Myatt Snider will run 8 races as well with Louisiana Hot Sauce as the primary sponsor.[46]
Busch won at Kansas and Charlotte in the truck, while Gilliland put up impressive numbers in his starts, posting a top 5 at Loudon and two top tens. Burton scored a top 5 in his last race in the truck at Martinsville, and Snider collected three top 10s in his eight starts.
KBM announced that the 51 would return running the full schedule with multiple drivers again in 2018. Burton returned for nine races, and owner Busch returned for 3 races. Spencer Davis was added to the team for four races, and Brandon Jones, a JGR xfinity driver, was also added for four races, and Riley Herbst joined the team for his debut at Gateway Motorsports Park. David Gilliland was also added to the team for Talladega.

In 2013, Joe Gibbs Racing development driver Darrell "Bubba" Wallace, Jr. ran the full season in the No. 54 Toyota with sponsorship from ToyotaCare and Camping World/Good Sam Club. Wallace won his first race at Martinsville Speedway in the Kroger 200, and would finish 8th in points.[47]

In 2014, Wallace ran his second full-time season in the No. 54. In June, Wallace won the Drivin' for Linemen 200 at Gateway Motorsports Park. Three weeks later, he battled Kyle Larson and Ron Hornaday, Jr. for the win at Eldora Speedway. Wallace, Jr. held off a hard charging Larson, who wrecked his car trying to catch him, and beat Hornaday by a 5.489-second margin to win the second annual Mudsummer Classic.[48] Wallace switched to the No. 34 for the Kroger 200 at Martinsville in tribute to Wendell Scott,[49] and led the most laps en route to his second straight victory in the race. Wallace won his final race with KBM, the season finale at Homestead Miami Speedway, beating Larson again to earn his first non-short track victory.[50] Wallace's four wins along with nine top fives and 14 top tens led to a third-place finish in points.[47]

Former ARCA Racing Series rookie of the year and Joe Gibbs Racing development driver Justin Boston signed to run the full 2015 season in the No. 54.[15][51] After nine races and while sitting 12th in the points standings, Boston left the team.[19] Initial reports stated that Boston and KBM parted ways due to lack of performance and requests for internal changes by Boston not being met.[19] A later report, however, stated that KBM released Boston due to sponsor Zloop breaching its agreement with the team. The company had initially signed on to be the primary sponsor, but only appeared in two races.[51][52] KBM would later sue Boston and Zloop (owned by Boston's father) for $4.025 million in defaulted payments.[53][54] Boston was replaced by Toyota development driver Christopher Bell at Kentucky,[19] where he was involved in a crash. In his next start, however, Bell battled with rookie Bobby Pierce at Eldora Speedway and won the race after a Green White Checkered finish. It was the second consecutive Eldora win for the No. 54 team.[55][56] Matt Tifft drove the truck at Pocono, finishing eighth. JGR development driver Cody Coughlin was signed to drive the truck at Michigan, with backing from family sponsor JEGS.[57] Kyle Busch drove the 54 at Bristol. Gray Gaulding drove the No. 54 in three races, with sponsorship from Krispy Kreme.[58]

The 2010 season started out with Tayler Malsam in the No. 56 Toyota Tundra. Early in the season after seven races, it was announced that Malsam was signed by Braun Racing to take over in their No. 10 Toyota in the Nationwide Series. With no driver or sponsorship, the No. 56 team shut down immediately.[2]