one of the primary crops grown by the early inhabitants of the americas was

Richard S. MacNeish completed an extensive archaeological survey of Mesoamerica, during which he found the maize cobs in caves in Tehuacan, Puebla. It was originally suspected that these cobs date back to circa 5000 BC, however after radiocarbon dating it was determined that these finds date to 3500 BC.[1] The earliest dated maize cob was discovered in GuilÃ¡ Naquitz cave in Oaxaca and dates back to 4300 BC.[1] Maize arrived at this point through the catastrophic sexual transmutation of Teosinte,[2] the ancestor of maize. It became the single most important crop in all of Mesoamerica. Maize is storable for long periods of time, it can be ground into flour, and it easily turns into surplus for future use. Maize became vital to the survival of the people of Mesoamerica; this is reflected in their origin myths, artwork, and rituals. The Maize God is depicted throughout Mesoamerica in stone figurines, carvings on altars, and even on temples, further signifying the importance of maize to the Mesoamerican peoples.

Agriculture in Mesoamerica

Agriculture in Mesoamerica dates to the Archaic period of Mesoamerican chronology (8000–2000 BC).[1] At the beginning of the Aztec period, the Early Hunters of the late Pleistocene era (50,000–10,000 BC) led nomadic lifestyles, relying on hunting and gathering for sustenance. However, the nomadic lifestyle that dominated the late Pleistocene and the early Archaic slowly transitioned into a more sedentary lifestyle as the hunter gatherer micro-bands in the region began to cultivate wild plants. The cultivation of these plants provided security to the Mesoamericans, allowing them to increase surplus of "starvation foods" near seasonal camps; this surplus could be utilized when hunting was bad, during times of drought, and when resources were low. The cultivation of plants could have been started purposefully, or by accident. The former could have been done by bringing a wild plant closer to a camp site, or to a frequented area, so it was easier access and collect. The latter could have happened as certain plant seeds were eaten and not fully digested, causing these plants to grow wherever human habitation would take them.

As the Archaic period progressed, cultivation of plant foods became increasingly important to the people of Mesoamerica. The reliability of cultivated plants allowed hunting and gathering micro-bands to establish permanent settlements and to increase in size. These larger settlements required a greater quantity of food, consequently leading to an even greater reliance on domesticated crops. Eventually, the Mesoamerican people established a sedentary lifestyle based on plant domestication and cultivation, supplemented with small game hunting. This sedentary lifestyle reliant on agriculture allowed permanent settlements to grow into villages and provided the opportunity for division of labor and social stratification.

The most important plant in ancient Mesoamerica, is, unarguably, maize. Squash and beans are also important staples of the ancient Mesoamerican agricultural diet and along with maize, are often referred to as the "Three Sisters."

Another important crop in Mesoamerican agriculture is squash. Bruce D. Smith discovered evidence of domesticated squash (Cucurbita pepo), in GuilÃ¡ Naquitz cave in Oaxaca.[1] These finds date back to 8000 BC, the beginning of the Archaic period, and are related to today's pumpkin. Another important squash that was domesticated in the early Archaic period was the bottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria).[1] The bottle gourd provided storage space for collecting seeds for grinding or planting as well as a means of carrying water. Squashes provided an excellent source of protein to the ancient Mesoamericans, as well as to people today.

Another major food source in Mesoamerica are beans. Maize, beans, and squash form a triad of products, commonly referred to as the "Three Sisters." Growing these three crops together helps to retain nutrients in the soil.

Rubber trees and cotton plants were useful for making culturally significant products such as rubber balls for Mesoamerican ball games and textiles, respectively. Evidence of these ball games is found throughout Mesoamerica, and the performance of these games is related to many origin myths of the Mesoamerican people. The game had a ritualistic significance and was often accompanied with human sacrifice. The domestication of cotton allowed for textiles of vibrant colors to be created. These textiles are evidence of the Mesoamerican peoples' fascination with adornment and the cultural value they placed on appearance.

Another culturally important plant was cacao (ancient Mesoamerican chocolate). Cacao was used in rituals (as a drink) and was also used as currency in trade.

The crops above are only a few of the domesticated plants important to the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica. Please see the section below for a more comprehensive list of ancient Mesoamerican domesticated plants.

Main source: Pre-Columbian Foodways A list of Mesoamerican cultivars and staples:

* Asterisk indicates a common English or Spanish word derived from an indigenous word

One of the greatest challenges in Mesoamerica for farmers is the lack of usable land, and the poor condition of the soil. The two main ways to combat poor soil quality, or lack of nutrients in the soil, are to leave fields fallow for a period of time in a milpa cycle, and to use slash-and-burn techniques.[3] In slash and burn agriculture, trees are cut down and left to dry for a period of time. The dry wood and grasses are then set on fire, and the resulting ash adds nutrients to the soil. These two techniques are often combined to retain as many nutrients as possible. However, in the jungle environment, no matter how careful a farmer is, nutrients are often hard to retain. To combat the lack of large tracts of usable land, farmers in Mesoamerica have found ways to create more land.

The first way to create land is to form terraces along the slopes of mountain valleys. Terraces allow farmers to use more land on the mountain slopes, and to move further up the mountain than they normally would be able to. Some terraces were made out of walls of stones, and others were created by cutting down large trees, and mounding soil around them. There is evidence that the Maya and the Aztecs used raised fields in some of the swampy areas, and onto the flood plains. However, the Aztecs also created floating plots of land called chinampas. These were plots of mud and soil, placed on top of layers of thick water vegetation. This farming style was imperative to the growth and survival of the city of Tenochtitlan, due to its location.[1]

Much of the Maya food supply was grown in orchard-gardens, known as pet kot.[4] The system takes its name from the low wall of stones (pet meaning circular and kot wall of loose stones) that characteristically surrounds the forest garden plot.[5] The earliest dated maize cobs was discovered in GuilÃ¡ Naquitz cave in Oaxaca and dates back to 4300 BC. Maize arose through domestication of teosinte, which is considered to be the ancestor of maize. Maize can be stored for lengthy periods of time, it can be ground into flour, and it easily provides surplus for future use. Maize was vital to the survival of the Mesoamerican people. Its cultural significance is reflected in Mesoamerican origin myths, artwork, and rituals.

The Mesoamerican natives also used irrigation techniques not unlike other early agricultural societies in early Mesopotamia. However, unlike the arid plains of the Fertile Crescent, the Mesoamerican area has a rougher terrain, therefore making irrigation less effective than terraced farming and slash-and-burn techniques.[3]

Slash-and-burn techniques are a type of extensive farming, where the amount of labor is minimal in taking care of farmland. Extensive farming uses less labor but had a larger mark on the area around them. In opposition, intensive agriculture refers to agriculture that requires large amounts of labor however yields continuous results from the same land, thus making it better suited for a sedentary lifestyle.


when did the ground rule double go into effect

In the early years of baseball, all batted balls that cleared the fence after a bounce in fair territory or on a fly were counted as home runs. The rule was changed by the American League prior to the 1930 season and subsequently by the National League on December 12, 1930. Notably, the pre-1930 rule includes most of Babe Ruth's career. Early baseball statistics do not differentiate between home runs that cleared the fence on a bounce compared to those that did not. However, most baseball historians believe that Ruth likely missed out on more  home runs that did not count due to other differences in the rules in place during his career compared to the number of home runs he likely hit off bounces.[citation needed]

Ground rule double

A ground rule double is a baseball rule that awards of two bases from the time of pitch to all baserunners including the batter-runner, as a result of the ball leaving play after being hit fairly and leaving the field under a condition of the ground rules in effect at the field where the game is being played. An automatic double is the term used to refer to a fairly hit ball leaving the field in circumstances that do not merit a home run, as described in Major League Baseball (MLB) rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9).[1] The automatic double (or rule-book double) is quite often mistakenly called a ground rule double.[2]

While Major League Baseball has a set of universal ground rules that apply at all ballparks, none of these rules provide for an award of two bases to a runner.  A true ground rule double thus is granted only when the ground rules of a specific park come into playâ€”rules created to provide for unique playing conditions of that park.  For example, ground rules govern the situation when a batted ball is lodged in the ivy at Wrigley Field or the walkways at Tropicana Field.[3]

The far more commonly occurring automatic double results from the generally applicable MLB rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9).  These rules govern how to treat the batter (and any runners on base) when a batted ball is hit fair but passes out of the field of play or becomes artificially obstructed while in the field of play.  For example, these rules cover balls that hit the ground in fair territory and land out of play, typically by bouncing over a fence or wall in the outfield. MLB rules also provide generically for the award of a double when a batted ball goes through or under a fence; and when it goes through or sticks in shrubbery or vines on the fence.

One of these MLB Rules (5.05(a)(9)) governs when fair fly balls are deflected into the stands by a fielder: for example, a fair fly ball deflected out of play by a fielder from a point within 250 feet of home plate is considered a double. This applied in an unusual play August 3, 2007 when Melky Cabrera of the New York Yankees hit a ball that ricocheted off Kansas City Royals pitcher Ryan Braun's foot and bounced into the stands in foul territory.[4]

When two bases are awarded by either ground rules or the automatic rule, any baserunners ahead of the batter are entitled to advance two bases from their positions at the time of pitch.  Only in the case of interference is the umpire vested with discretion to award more bases.  The ground rule or automatic double frequently results in a runner at first base who appears to have been able to score on the batted ball nevertheless being returned to third base when the ball goes out of play.


when should a casualty be placed into the recovery (lateral) position

The recovery position refers to one of a series of variations on a lateral recumbent or three-quarters prone position of the body, in to which an unconscious but breathing casualty can be placed as part of first aid treatment.

Recovery position

An unconscious person, a person who is assessed on the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) at eight or below, in a supine position (on the back) may not be able to maintain an open airway as a conscious person would.[1]  This can lead to an obstruction of the airway, restricting the flow of air and preventing gaseous exchange, which then causes hypoxia, which is life-threatening.  Thousands of fatalities occur every year in casualties where the cause of unconsciousness was not fatal, but where airway obstruction caused the patient to suffocate.[2][3][4]  The cause of unconsciousness can be any reason from trauma to intoxication from alcohol.

It is not necessarily used by health care professionals, as they may have access to more advanced airway management techniques, such as intubation.

The recovery position is designed to prevent suffocation through obstruction of the airway, which can occur in unconscious supine patients.  The supine patient is at risk of airway obstruction from two routes:

Placing a patient in the recovery position gives gravity assistance to the clearance of physical obstruction of the airway by the tongue, and also gives a clear route by which fluid can drain from the airway.

The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation   does not recommend one specific recovery position, but advises on six key principles to be followed:[5]

The earliest recognition that placing unconscious patients on their side would prevent obstruction of the airway was by Robert Bowles, a doctor at the Victoria Hospital in Folkestone, England.[5] In 1891 he presented a paper with the title 'On Stertor, Apoplexy, and the Management of the Apoplectic State' in relation to stroke patients with noisy breathing from airway obstruction (also known as stertor).

This paper was taken up by anaesthetist Frederick Hewitt from the London Hospital who advised a sideways position for postoperative patients.  This thinking was, however, not widely adopted, with surgical textbooks 50 years later still recommending leaving anaesthetised patients in a supine position.[5]

First aid organisations were similarly slow in adopting the idea of the recovery position, with 1930s and 1940s first aid manuals from the British Red Cross and St John Ambulance both recommending lying a patient on their back.  The 1938 British Red Cross First Aid Manual goes so far as to instruct "place the head in a such as position that the windpipe is kept straight, keeping the head up if the face is flushed, and in line with the body if it is pale".[6] By contrast, the St. John manual advocated turning the head to the side, but it was not until the 1950 40th edition of the St. John Manual that it was added "if breathing is noisy (bubbling through secretions), turn the patient into the three-quarters prone position",[5] which is very similar to a modern recovery position.

A large number of positions were experimented with, mostly in Europe, as the United States did not widely take up the recovery position until its adoption by the American Heart Association in 1992.[5]  Positions included the "Coma Position", "Rautek's Position" and the "HAINES (High Arm IN Endangered Spine) position".

In 1992, the European Resuscitation Council adopted a new position where the arm nearest the floor was brought out in front of the patient, whereas it had previously been placed behind the patient.  This change was made due to several reported cases of nerve and blood vessel damage in the arms of patients.

ILCOR made its recommendations on the basic principles for recovery positions in 1996, but does not prescribe a specific position, and consequently, there are several in use around the world.


when was the stone of destiny returned to scotland

In 1996,[22] in a symbolic response to growing dissatisfaction among Scots at the prevailing constitutional settlement, the British Government decided that the stone should be kept in Scotland when not in use at coronations. On 3 July 1996, it was announced in the House of Commons that the stone would be returned to Scotland, and on 15 November 1996, after a handover ceremony at the border between representatives of the Home Office and of the Scottish Office, it was transported to Edinburgh Castle. The stone arrived in the Castle on 30 November 1996, St Andrew's Day, where the official handover ceremony occurred.[23] Prince Andrew, Duke of York, representing Queen Elizabeth II, formally handed over the Royal Warrant transferring the stone into the safekeeping of the Commissioners for the Regalia.[24][25] It currently remains alongside the crown jewels of Scotland, the Honours of Scotland, in the Crown Room.[26]

Stone of Scone

The Stone of Scone (/ˈskuːn/; Scottish Gaelic: An Lia Fàil, Scots: Stane o Scuin)—also known as the Stone of Destiny, and often referred to in England as The Coronation Stone—is an oblong block of red sandstone that was used for centuries in the coronation of the monarchs of Scotland, and later the monarchs of England and those of the United Kingdom. Historically, the artefact  was kept at the now-ruined Scone Abbey in Scone, near Perth, Scotland. It is also known as Jacob's Pillow Stone and the Tanist Stone, and in Scottish Gaelic, clach-na-cinneamhain. Its size is approximately 660 mm (26 in) by 425 mm (16.7 in) by 267 mm (10.5 in) and its weight is approximately 152 kg (335 lb). A roughly incised cross is on one surface, and an iron ring at each end aids with transport.[1] The Stone of Scone was last used in 1953 for the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

In the 14th century, the English cleric and historian Walter Hemingford described the previous location of the Scottish coronation stone as the monastery of Scone, 3km north of Perth:

Apud Monasterium de Scone positus est lapis pergrandis in ecclesia Dei, juxta magnum altare, concavus quidem ad modum rotundae cathedrae confectus, in quo futuri reges loco quasi coronationis ponebantur ex more.[2]

At the monastery of Scone, in the church of God, near to the high altar, was placed a large stone, hollowed out as a round chair, on which future kings were placed for their coronation, according to custom.

Various theories and legends exist about the stone's history prior to its placement in Scone:

Geologists proved that the stone taken by Edward I of England to Westminster[7] is a "lower Old Red Sandstone", which was quarried in the vicinity of Scone.[8] Doubts over the authenticity of the stone have existed for a long time: a blog post by retired Scottish academic and writer of historical fiction Marie MacPherson shows that they date back at least two hundred years.[9]

A letter to the editor of the Morning Chronicle, dated 2 January 1819, states:

On the 19th of November, as the servants belonging to the West Mains of Dunsinane-house, were employed in carrying away stones from the excavation made among the ruins that point out the site of Macbeth's castle here, part of the ground they stood on suddenly gave way, and sank down about six feet, discovering a regularly built vault, about six feet long and four wide. None of the men being injured, curiosity induced them to clear out the subterranean recess, when they discovered among the ruins a large stone, weighing about 500lb [230 kg], which is pronounced to be of the meteoric or semi-metallic kind. This stone must have lain here during the long series of ages since Macbeth's reign. Beside it were also found two round tablets, of a composition resembling bronze. On one of these two lines are engraved, which a gentleman has thus deciphered.— 'The sconce (or shadow) of kingdom come, until Sylphs in air carry me again to Bethel.' These plates exhibit the figures of targets for the arms. From time immemorial it has been believed among us here, that unseen hands brought Jacob's pillow from Bethel and dropped it on the site where the palace of Scoon now stands. A strong belief is also entertained by many in this part of the country that it was only a representation of this Jacob's pillow that Edward sent to Westminster, the sacred stone not having been found by him. The curious here, aware of such traditions, and who have viewed these venerable remains of antiquity, agree that Macbeth may, or rather must, have deposited the stone in question at the bottom of his Castle, on the hill of Dunsinane (from the trouble of the times), where it has been found by the workmen. This curious stone has been shipped for London for the inspection of the scientific amateur, in order to discover its real quality.[1]

In 1296, the stone was captured by Edward I as spoils of war and taken to Westminster Abbey, where it was fitted into a wooden chair—known as King Edward's Chair—on which most subsequent English and then British sovereigns have been crowned. Edward I sought to claim his status as the "Lord Paramount" of Scotland, with the right to oversee its King.[10]

Some doubt exists over the stone captured by Edward I. The Westminster Stone theory posits that the monks at Scone Palace hid the real stone in the River Tay, or buried it on Dunsinane Hill, and that the English troops were tricked into taking a substitute. Some proponents of the theory claim that historic descriptions of the stone do not match the present stone.[11]

In The Treaty of Northampton 1328, between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, England agreed to return the captured stone to Scotland; riotous crowds prevented it from being removed from Westminster Abbey.[12] The stone remained in England for another six centuries, even after James VI of Scotland assumed the English throne as James I of England. For the next century, the Stuart kings and queens of Scotland once again sat on the stone but at their coronation as kings and queens of England.

On Christmas Day 1950, a group of four Scottish students (Ian Hamilton, Gavin Vernon, Kay Matheson, and Alan Stuart) removed the stone from Westminster Abbey for return to Scotland.[13] During the removal process, the stone broke into two pieces.[14][15] After burying the greater part of the Stone in a Kent field, where they camped for a few days,[16] they uncovered the buried stone and returned to Scotland, along with a new accomplice, John Josselyn. According to one US diplomat who was posted in Edinburgh at the time, the stone was hidden for a short time in a trunk in the basement of the Consulate's Public Affairs Officer, unknown to him, before it was removed.[17] Although English, Josselyn, who was then a student at the University of Glasgow, was a Scottish Nationalist. Edward I was Josselyn's 21st great-grandfather.[18] The smaller piece was similarly brought north at a later time. The entire stone was passed to a senior Glasgow politician, who arranged for it to be professionally repaired by Glasgow stonemason Robert Gray.[19][20]

A major search for the stone was ordered by the British Government, but proved unsuccessful. The custodians left the stone on the altar of Arbroath Abbey on 11 April 1951, in the safekeeping of the Church of Scotland. Once the London police were informed of its whereabouts, the stone was returned to Westminster four months after it was removed. Afterwards, rumours circulated that copies had been made of the stone,[how?] and that the returned stone was not the original.[21][22]


who plays judge dredd in the 2012 movie

Dredd is a 2012 science-fiction action film directed by Pete Travis and written and produced by Alex Garland. It is based on the 2000 AD comic strip Judge Dredd and its eponymous character created by John Wagner and Carlos Ezquerra. Karl Urban stars as Judge Dredd, a law enforcer given the power of judge, jury and executioner in a vast, dystopic metropolis called Mega-City One that lies in a post-apocalyptic wasteland. Dredd and his apprentice partner, Judge Anderson (Olivia Thirlby), are forced to bring order to a 200-storey high-rise block of flats and deal with its resident drug lord, Ma-Ma (Lena Headey).

Dredd

Garland began writing the script in 2006, although the development of a new Judge Dredd film adaptation, unrelated to the 1995 film Judge Dredd, was not announced until December 2008. Produced by British studio DNA Films, Dredd began principal photography, using 3D cameras throughout, in November 2010. Filming took place on practical sets and locations in Cape Town and Johannesburg.

Dredd was released on 7 September 2012 in the United Kingdom and on 21 September worldwide. Critics were generally positive about the film's visual effects, casting and action, while criticism focused on excessive violence as well as a perceived lack of the satirical elements that are found in the source comic. Despite the positive critical response, the film earned just over $41 million at the box office on an estimated budget of $30â€“45 million. Dredd saw greater success following its home release, and has since been recognised as a cult film. The theatrical gross made a sequel unlikely, but home media sales and fan efforts endorsed by 2000 AD's publisher Rebellion Developments have maintained the possibility of a second film.

The future United States is a dystopic irradiated wasteland known as the Cursed Earth. On the east coast lies Mega-City One, a violent metropolis with 800 million residents and 17,000 crimes reported daily. The only force for order are the Judges, who act as judge, jury and executioner. Judge Dredd is tasked by the Chief Judge with evaluating new recruit Cassandra Anderson, a powerful psychic who failed the aptitude tests to become a Judge.

In Peach Trees, a 200-storey slum tower block, drug lord Madeline Madrigal, also known as "Ma-Ma", executes three rogue drug dealers by having them skinned alive, infused with Slo-Mo (an addictive new drug which reduces the user's perception of time to 1% of normal) and thrown down the atrium from the top floor. Dredd and Anderson are sent in to investigate and learn of a drug den, which they raid. They arrest a thug named Kay, whom Anderson's mind probe reveals to be the one who carried out the drug dealers' executions. Dredd decides to take him in for questioning. In response, Ma-Ma's forces seize the tower's security control room and seal the building, using its blast shields under the pretence of a security test, preventing the Judges from leaving or summoning help.

Ma-Ma orders Dredd and Anderson killed, forcing the Judges to fight their way through dozens of armed thugs. Arriving at the 76th floor, the Judges are assaulted by Ma-Ma and her men with Vulcan cannons that rip through the walls, killing numerous residents. The Judges breach an outer wall and call for backup. Meanwhile, Ma-Ma sends her henchman Caleb to search for the Judges. When they meet, Dredd throws Caleb off the tower in full view of Ma-Ma.

Dredd suspects Ma-Ma is desperate to keep Kay quiet and beats him for information. Anderson reads Kay's mind and learns that Peach Trees is the centre of Slo-Mo production and distribution. Anderson suggests they hide while awaiting assistance, but Dredd insists they move up the tower and pursue Ma-Ma. Judges Volt and Guthrie respond to Dredd's call, but Ma-Ma's computer expert denies them entry by persuading them the security system is malfunctioning. A pair of armed teens confront Dredd and Anderson, allowing Kay to disarm and overpower Anderson. Kay then escapes with her as hostage, and takes her to Ma-Ma's base on the top floor.

While Dredd works his way towards Ma-Ma, she calls in the corrupt Judges Lex, Kaplan, Chan and Alvarez. The four relieve Volt and Guthrie from duty and are allowed into the building. Dredd encounters Chan and is suspicious that he does not ask about Anderson's status. Seeing his cover blown, Chan attacks Dredd, but is killed. Meanwhile, Kay tries to execute Anderson with her own weapon, but the pistol's DNA scanner does not recognise him and explodes, taking his arm off. She escapes and later encounters Kaplan, whom she promptly kills after reading Kaplan's mind. Elsewhere, Dredd kills Alvarez but runs out of ammunition, and is shot by Lex in the abdomen. Lex moves in to execute Dredd, but Dredd stalls him long enough for Anderson to arrive and kill Lex.

Anderson and Dredd obtain the code to Ma-Ma's apartment from her computer expert and confront her. Ma-Ma tells Dredd that, in the case of her death, a device on her wrist will detonate explosives on the top floors, destroying the building. Dredd reasons that the detonator's signal will not reach the explosives from the ground floor, so he forces Ma-Ma to inhale Slo-Mo and throws her down the atrium to her death.

In the aftermath, Anderson accepts that she has failed her evaluation by getting disarmed, and leaves. The Chief Judge asks Dredd about Anderson's performance; he responds that she has passed.

The cast also includes: Domhnall Gleeson as the gang's unnamed computer expert;[19] Warrick Grier as Ma-Ma's right-hand man Caleb; Deobia Oparei as TJ, Peach Trees' medic; Francis Chouler as Judge Guthrie,[20] Daniel Hadebe as Judge Volt, and Rakie Ayola as the Chief Judge.[21] Langley Kirkwood, Edwin Perry, Karl Thaning, and Michele Levin portray, respectively, the corrupt Judges Lex, Alvarez, Chan, and Kaplan. Dredd also features Junior Singo as Amos and Luke Tyler as Freel, young boys who confront Dredd; Jason Cope as Zwirner, the thug executed by Dredd during the opening scene; Joe Vaz as Big Joe, the thug that leads the confrontation outside of the med station; Scott Sparrow as Japhet, Anderson's first execution; and Nicole Bailey as Cathy, Japhet's wife, in whose apartment the Judges take refuge.[22]

Development of the film was announced on 20 December 2008, although writer Alex Garland had begun working on the script in 2006.[23] British studio DNA Films produced the film, and partnered with sales agency IM Global to sell the worldwide distribution rights.[24][25] By May 2010, this partnership saw IM Global and its owner Reliance Big Pictures agree to co-finance the 3-D project with a $45 million production budget, and a schedule to begin filming in Johannesburg, South Africa in late 2010.[26][27] Pete Travis was named as the film's director and Garland, Andrew Macdonald and Allon Reich would produce it.[27][28] Duncan Jones had previously been offered the role of director.[29] In a 2010 interview, Jones said that his vision for the film was unconventional—describing it as weird, dark, and funny—and it did not mesh well with Garland's script.[30] In September 2010, it was reported that the film would be titled Dredd.[31]

Pre-production commenced on 23 August 2010 at Cape Town Film Studios in Cape Town, South Africa.[32] During the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International in July, Urban confirmed that he had been offered the role of Judge Dredd, and on 18 August 2010, it was reported that Urban officially had the role.[33] In September 2010, it was announced that Thirlby would play Dredd's telepathic rookie Cassandra Anderson.[4] In the same month during the Toronto International Film Festival, the film attracted $30 million in worldwide pre-sales to distributors in 90% of theatrical markets.[34][35] The sales included a $7 million deal with British distributor Entertainment Film Distributors.

On 2 November 2010, Lions Gate Entertainment secured the North American distribution rights to Dredd.[36] Headey joined the cast as drug-dealer Ma-Ma in January 2011.[15] Judge Dredd creator John Wagner acted as a consultant on the film.[37] In 2012, he confirmed that it was a new adaptation of the comic material and was not a remake of the 1995 adaptation Judge Dredd, which starred Sylvester Stallone.[23]

Garland began writing Dredd during post-production of his other writing credit Sunshine, and completed his first draft while serving as an executive producer during filming of 28 Weeks Later. Garland's draft revolved around one of Dredd's main enemies, the undead Judge Death. He described the story as a "riff on the whole Judge system", but that it did not work because the Judge system had not yet been established and required too much knowledge about the Judge Dredd comic from the audience. He also considered the end result too surreal and extreme. From this script, Garland decided that the story needed to be more focused and grounded. He instead considered adapting some of the notable Judge Dredd storylines, including "Democracy" (1986) and "Origins" (2006). He decided to avoid these lengthy tales in favour of a shorter, day-in-the-life story about Dredd and his function as a cop in the dystopian environment of Mega-City One. When developing the Judge Dredd character, Garland tried to closely follow that of the comic-book character, who undergoes only small personality changes over a lengthy period of time. He said: "I didn't think Dredd could have a great epiphany, but there is definitely a change in him over the course of the movie. He makes a very clear statement at the beginning of the film which he then contradicts at the end. That's about as far as the shift goes."[23] Garland intentionally gave the traditional character development to Anderson to compensate for Dredd's character stability.[25]

Discussing the film's setting within the Peach Tree Block tower, Garland said the buildings were "like micro city states ... you could live and die in those buildings". He also considered that the setting met Wagner's suggestion that the future portrayed in Dredd should relate to modern ways of living. Garland named the tower after a restaurant called "The Peach Tree" in Shrewsbury, England, where he first met with Wagner. The budget limited his ability to represent some of the comic aspects of Mega-City One, such as robots and aliens.[23] Throughout the production, Garland would send his script to Wagner, who would revise some of the dialogue. Urban would then further revise the script during his performance.[23]

The filmmakers decided that Dredd should appear lean and fast like a boxer rather than bulky like "someone who spends hours sort of steroiding himself up." His Judge uniform was altered from the comic version; an extruded eagle statuette was removed from his shoulder pad to emphasise the outfit's functionality and give it a sense of realism.[23] Garland said: "If you did a very faithful adaptation of the uniform you'd have someone who if he got stabbed in the stomach he’d be in big trouble. Dredd is out there on the frontline so he needed protection."[25] Remaining faithful to the comic,[37] Dredd's face, except for his mouth, is never shown and his helmet is not removed throughout the film.[40] Urban said: "He is supposed to be the faceless representative of the law and I think that is part of his enigma ... You wouldn't get to the end of a Sergio Leone Western and go, 'God, I didn't even know the character's name!' It's irrelevant."[41]

Dredd's signature weapon, the "Lawgiver" was developed as a fully operational weapon based on a 9mm firing system, capable of firing ammunition and being changed from automatic to semi-auto fire.[42] His motorcycle "Lawmaster" was a modified 500cc motorcycle. A large fairing was added over the motorcycle with machine guns, an extended wheel base and the largest functional tyres possible. The vehicle was also operational and Urban insisted on riding it himself rather than relying on Chroma key visual effects. Wagner described the necessity of adaptation from the source material and said that the 1995 film's attempt to directly replicate the comic's motorcycle was unable to steer because the tyres were too large.[42]

Garland and VFX supervisor Jon Thum began developing the Slo-Mo concept sequences in 2009 during filming for Never Let Me Go. They experimented with an effect to replicate the visual effects of hallucinogenic drugs to see how long it could be used before it distracted the viewer from the story or action sequence. They continued to develop and modify the effect until the end of post-production, tweaking colours, colour saturation, image framing and camera motion.[25] Slo-Mo scenes also feature a rainbow colour scheme and sparkle highlights to create an unreal and otherworldly effect. The filmmakers experimented with blood bags, prosthetics, shooting real bullets, and compressed air to see the effect of direct body hits in slow motion. In the finished film, compressed air was used to create impact ripples on flesh.[39] Garland said the concept was inspired by nature documentaries that used high-speed photography to capture animals in slow motion. He said, "You see a whale or a shark breach the water ... then you'd stop thinking about the animal and you get transfixed by ... how water droplets connect and touch against each other. Somehow like a real [drug] trip, sort of stepping outside it but staying attached at the same time." He questioned whether the technique could be used with violence to make it purely aesthetic. He said: "Can it be so abstract that it becomes genuinely beautiful?...really aesthetically beautiful even if someone is having their cheek blown out or their head crushing into concrete."[38] Comic artist Jock provided concept art for the film design.[43][44]

With a $45 million production budget, filming began on 12 November 2010 in Cape Town and took approximately 13 weeks, with second unit photography occurring over seven weeks.[4][36][45] Filming locations included Johannesburg and Cape Town Film Studios (Dredd was the first project filmed at the studio).[2][46] The project involved a majority of Cape Town crew members and about 40 imported crew. The producers chose to film in South Africa because of the lowered cost of employing cast and crew compared to locations in Europe and North America, and government incentives that offered to rebate up to 25% of the production costs.[46] The film was shot digitally and primarily in 3D using RED MX, SI2K and Phantom Flex high-speed cameras. Multiple camera rigs were used.[45][47] Some 2D elements were converted to 3D in post-production.[48]

DNA Films' co-founder Andrew Macdonald engaged cinematographer Anthony Dod Mantle to manage the shoot; it was the first time Mantle had worked with 3D.[45][49] The filmmakers wanted Dredd to have a realistic, visceral look, and drew inspiration from crime and gangster films. For scenes conveying the time and space altering effects of Slo-Mo, Mantle aimed to create images that would be beautiful but disorienting.[50]

Mega-City One and its high rise towers were created in Cape Town Film Studios. Finding a suitable set for the expansive Peach Trees atrium proved difficult, and the producers did not want to build an expensive set. While observing scouting photos of Cape Town, the filmmakers noticed a large three-walled external space that looked like an interior when filmed at night. A key sequence involving Ma-Ma and her gang firing rotary cannons across the atrium in their attempt to kill Judge Dredd required ten days of filming and eight different sets inside and outside the studio which were blended together with visual effects.[50] Visual effects supervisor Jon Thum was unable to accompany a helicopter flight to obtain planned aerial shots of Johannesburg due to last-minute flight permissions; the resulting shots were non-specific and Thum had to pick out ones that could tell the story.[39] Mantle had to develop new rigs to obtain close-up shots. Describing the aesthetic he aimed to achieve, he said: "I hope it will be more painterly. If we get it right, it will be a cross between Blade Runner and Clockwork Orange."[45] Garland was a constant presence on the shoot; Urban turned to Garland for direction instead of Travis.[51]

The filmmakers experimented with the visuals of Mega-City One, including the design and positioning of the city's tower blocks, to create the impression that the city had risen out of the remains of another. They found that replicating the comic visuals of blocks close together made the blocks appear small. Instead they allowed more space between the buildings to emphasise the larger buildings and allow for the presence of roads and cars to allow for extrapolation outside of the picture. Outcrops and appendages were added to break up the buildings' straight lines.[25][39] On 7 October 2011, the Los Angeles Times reported that Travis was prohibited from participating in the editing process following creative disagreements between producers and executives. Garland took over the editing process; his contribution was considered significant enough for him to seek a co-director creditâ€”a situation considered unusual as Garland had never directed a film before and had not been in charge of any filming. The disagreement concerned a disapproval over the footage that Travis was providing. Although Travis was removed from the editing process, he was monitoring the progress of the film. On 10 October, Travis and Garland released a joint statement claiming that they had agreed on an "unorthodox collaboration" before production began, that Travis was still involved in the film and that Garland was not seeking a co-director credit.[52]

Paul Leonard-Morgan wrote the film's industrial music score.[53][54] Leonard-Morgan created music to suit the film's futuristic setting. He experimented with band-based music, but decided it sounded over-produced and too safe. He turned to electronic music and used 1980s-style synthesisers and modern sound modules to create various combinations and applied distortion and other effects to the result. Leonard-Morgan said, "I was looking to create a timeless score which couldn't be placed in any particular era. So it's ended up being a cross between a modern dance track and evocative soundscapes." For scenes conveying the effect of the Slo-Mo narcotic, he composed new music with real instruments and then slowed the songs down by thousands of percent to match the visuals, such that one second of his composed score could last ten minutes. He then added additional real-time score to the slowed track.[55]

An unofficially altered Justin Bieber song served as inspiration for the Slo-Mo theme. Garland said that Portishead instrumentalist Geoff Barrow "sent me a link to a Justin Bieber song slowed down 800 times and it became this stunning trippy choral music." Morgan then recreated the effect based on the modified track, which was used in the finished film. The film used Bieber's music as a temporary placeholder during editing before the score was finalised.[56]

The film also features songs by artists including: "Poison Lips" by Vitalic; "Dubstride" by Yann McCullough and Gemma Kicks; "Snuffbox" by Matt Berry; "Pontiac Moon" by Robert J. Walsh; and "Jubilee (Don't Let Nobody Turn You Around)" by Bobby Womack.[2]

All tracks written by Paul Leonard-Morgan.

In August 2012, the viral advertising site "Dredd Report" was launched, satirising the Drudge Report. The site featured a video condemning the use of Slo-Mo, and links to news about the film.[57] A tie-in comic book was published; its plot serves as a prequel to the film's narrative and follows Ma-Ma's life as a prostitute, controlled by her pimp Lester Grimes. Ma-Ma forms a relationship with Ericâ€”the creator of Slo-Mo. Lester kills Eric for interfering with his business, Ma-Ma castrates Lester with her teeth in retaliation and Ma-Ma takes over the Slo-Mo operation.[16][58] The comic was written by Judge Dredd Megazine editor Matt Smith, drawn by 2000 AD artist Henry Flint and was released on 5 September 2012. An exclusive film poster featuring artwork by Jock was released by Mondo to promote the film's appearance at the 2012 Fantastic Fest in September 2012.[59] Dredd's marketing campaign won a Golden Trailer Award for Best Thriller TV Spot for the trailer "Big Addicted", and received nominations for: Best Action TV Spot, Most Original TV Spot, Best Graphics in a TV Spot, Best Music TV Spot, and Best Action Poster and Most Original Poster for the Dredd motion poster.[60] Reports indicate that Lionsgate contributed $25 million to advertising and print costs.[61] Urban has criticised the film's marketing campaign, saying that the film had "zero audience awareness. Nobody knew the movie was being released. Dredd represents a failure in marketing, not filmmaking."[3]

Dredd premiered at the San Diego Comic-Con International on 11 July 2012.[62] It was also screened at the Toronto International Film Festival on 6 September,[63] and at the Fantastic Fest in late September.[64] The film was first theatrically released on 7 September in the UK and on 21 September worldwide.[65] A South African release followed on 28 September.[66]

Dredd earned $27.6 million from markets outside of North America[67] and $13.4 million from North America, for a total of $41 million.[68] In the UK, Dredd grossed £1.05 million ($1.7 million) from 415 cinemas during its opening weekend. This made it the weekend's number-one film, the first film restricted to audiences over 18 years of age to do so since Saw 3D in 2010.[69][70] In its second weekend, the film placed number five, earning £769,381.[71] Dredd was primarily shown in 3D in the UK, and 2D screenings were notoriously limited as the distributor denied cinemas' requests for 2D prints; the decision was considered to have limited the film's audience where 2D was their preferred format.[72][73] Dredd earned a total of $6.9 million in the UK.[67]

In North America, pre-release tracking estimated that the film would gross between $8 and $10 million during its opening weekend based on its adult rating and the poor reputation of the 1995 adaptation.[74] The film earned $2.2 million on its opening day[75] and finished the weekend in sixth place, grossing $6.3 million from 2,506 cinemasâ€”an average of $2,514 per cinema. The largest demographic of the opening weekend audience was over the age of 25 (69%) and male (75%).[68][76] The film's North American run ended on 1 November 2012, after 42 days.[68] Outside of the UK and North America, Dredd had its most successful total gross takings in China ($4.5 million), Russia ($4 million), and Australia ($2 million).[67]

The film received positive reviews from critics.[77][78][79] On Rotten Tomatoes the film has a rating of 78%, based on 149 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Fueled by bombastic violence and impressive special effects, rooted in self-satire and deadpan humor, Dredd 3D does a remarkable job of capturing its source material's gritty spirit."[80] On Metacritic, the film has a score of 59 out of 100, based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".[81] CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a "B" on a scale of A+ to F.[75]

At its premiere screening at the 2012 San Diego Comic-Con International, Dredd received positive reviews.[82] IGN awarded the film eight out of ten and said, "Dredd is a character study, primarily, one fuelled by violence and action, and we can't think of a better way to re-introduce this character to cinema audiences."[83] Indiewire said, "As Dredd, Urban either has a better character to play than [Sylvester Stallone] did, or simply has a better grasp on what makes him tick, but the actor continues to distinguish himself as a versatile performer who turns mimicry into emotional meaning."[84] Empire's Chris Hewitt scored the film three out of five stars, and said it gets the lead character "absolutely, incontrovertibly right" and that Urban's Dredd is "a deadpan delight—he doesn't grow as a person and he doesn't crack wise ... the movie generates its few laughs from his sheer intractability". Hewitt also called Thirlby's Anderson engaging and wrote that the film is "a solid, occasionally excellent take on [Judge Dredd], with Urban's chin particularly impressive."[85] Variety's Geoff Berkshire said the film is "Grim, gritty and ultra-violent", called Dredd a "badass of few words", and wrote that Urban "does a fine job embodying the more mythic qualities of Dredd as an upright law enforcer no lowlife would want to confront." He also praised Thirlby for carrying the film's emotional story and said, "one of the film's true thrills comes in watching Thirlby effortlessly balance the conflict between a Judge's merciless duties and a psychic's compassionate understanding."[86]

Entertainment Weekly's Darren Franich said that the film is a "darkly funny blood-soaked romp" and singled out Urban for his "credibly wry performance using little more than his gravelly, imitation-Eastwood voice—and his chin."[87] The Guardian's Phelim O'Neill scored the film 4 stars out of 5 and praised Urban's performance, saying, "The essence of Dredd is that he is almost an anti-character—he doesn't change or learn—and Urban nails it in an ego-free performance". He also wrote, "In a world of compromised adaptations, Dredd is something of a triumph."[88] The New Statesman's Laura Sneddon noted that Dredd passed the Bechdel test, lacking in sexism or misogyny and positively portraying female characters who are no weaker, more sexualised or shown less than their male counterparts. Sneddon described Anderson as repeatedly shown to have power over men who underestimate her, while Ma-Ma displays more intelligence and sadism than any of her male gang members, and neither woman interacts with the other on the basis of their gender.[89] The Hollywood Reporter's Stephen Dalton wrote that the "dark, ironic, very British humour of the original strip" was largely absent from the film and that "[t]he limited location, computer game-style plot and muted humour" of the film might disappoint some fans of the comic. Dalton also said that Urban's performance, while close to the comic, lacked something. Overall, however, Dalton said, "[p]itched at the right level to please original fans, but still slick and accessible enough to attract new ones, [Dredd] feels like a smart and muscular addition to the sci-fi action genre."[90]

Many US newspaper critics were less taken with the film. Mark Olsen of the Los Angeles Times called it "a clunk-headed action picture" that "simply becomes a monotonous series of bad-guy confrontations."[91] Frank Lovece of Newsday described it as a "soullessly gritty" film, which apart from one believable scene involving Thirlby, is "all tough-guy talk and humorless cynicism".[92] Kyle Smith of the New York Post, who found the police tactics distasteful, wrote, "Justice is supposed to be blind, but in this case I think what the Law really wants is unaccountability" and called Dredd a "thudding, repetitive movie". He also wrote, "Itâ€™s not that the movie is in bad taste or cheesy (though it is) but that all of its hyper-violence adds up to nothing".[93] Stephen Whitty of The Star-Ledger called it a "gray and ugly film", said that there was little to draw viewers in, and wrote that apart from the drug-induced slow-motion sequences, the film offers nothing new.[94]

The visual effects and slow-motion sequences induced by Slo-Mo received broad praise. Berkshire said that they are notable and eye-catching with "impressively utilised 3d."[86] Hewitt said the visuals were "genuinely surreal splashes of heightened colour that ... don't outstay their welcome. The film's use of 3D is often excellent (including the credits) and it really comes to life in the Slo-mo scenes".[85] Dalton said the film "constantly impresses on a visual level, with a gritty style more akin to cult hits like District 9 or 28 Days Later than to standard Hollywood comic-book blockbusters." Dalton said, "[Mantle's] first venture into 3D is a blaze of saturated colours, gorgeous high-resolution close-ups and dazzling slow-motion sequences."[90] Dredd won The Art of 3D award at the 2013 Empire Awards, and was nominated for Best British Film and Best Science-fiction/Fantasy.[95]

Judge Dredd creator John Wagner, who had been critical of the 1995 adaptation, gave a positive review of Dredd. He said: "I liked the movie. It was, unlike the first film, a true representation of Judge Dredd ... Karl Urban was a fine Dredd and I'd be more than happy to see him in the follow-up. Olivia Thirlby excelled as Anderson ... The character and storyline are pure Dredd."[23][96] Dredd has been recognised as a cult film since its release.[97][98][99][100] Some reviewers drew comparisons between Dredd and The Raid: Redemption, another action film released a few months earlier, noting that similar elements in setting, story, and characters made Dredd appear derivative.[23][83][85][101][102]

Dredd was released on DVD, Blu-ray and Digital Download on 8 January 2013 in North America, and 14 January in the UK.[103] The Blu-ray edition contains the 2D and 3D versions of the film and a digital copy. The DVD and Blu-ray editions contain seven featurettes: "Mega-City Masters: 35 Years of Judge Dredd", "Day of Chaos: The Visual Effects of Dredd 3D", "Dredd", "Dredd's Gear", "The 3rd Dimension", "Welcome to Peachtrees", and a "Dredd Motion Comic Prequel" narrated by Urban.[104][105] During its first week on sale in the UK, Dredd was the number 1 selling DVD and Blu-ray.[106] During the week of its release in North America, it was the number 1 selling DVD and Blu-ray with approximately 650,000 units sold, and Blu-ray units accounting for nearly 50% of that figure. It was also the best-selling digital download for that period.[107] Sales spiked in the United Kingdom in June 2013, following a reported rumour that it could influence DNA Films' decision to pursue a sequel.[77] By September 2013, Dredd was estimated to have earned approximately $10 million in home media sales in North America, while in the UK it marked over 270 days in online-retailer Amazon's top 100 selling home media.[108] By July 2017, this sales figure was estimated to have increased to $20 million.[109]

At the London Film and Comic Con in July 2012, Garland said that a North American gross of over $50 million for Dredd would make sequels possible and that he had plans for a trilogy of films. A second film would focus on the origins of Dredd and Mega-City One, and a third would introduce Dredd's nemeses, the undead Judge Death and his Dark Judges.[23][110] In August 2012, Garland said that a Judge Dredd television series would be a positive future step for the series.[111] In September 2012, Garland said that he would explore the "Origins" and "Democracy" storylines, would introduce characters Judge Cal and Chopper, and would pursue the concept that Judge Dredd is a fascist.[25] That same month, Macdonald said that further films would be made in partnership with IM Global and would likely be shot in South Africa.[112]

In March 2013, executive producer Adi Shankar said that a sequel was unlikely.[113] In May 2013, Urban said that a sequel was still possible, noting that the film had found an audience, and the response of fans could resurrect the project.[100] Dredd fans on Facebook launched a petition calling for a sequel. In July 2013, 2000 AD endorsed the fan petition, supporting the campaign by printing advertisements in their publications, and by September 2013 it had attracted over 80,000 signatures.[99][108][114][115][116] In April 2013, 2000 AD released an image teasing a continuation of the film in comic book form with a release date scheduled for September 2013.[117] The comic, titled Dredd: Underbelly, was made available in Judge Dredd Megazine #340 which was released on 18 September 2013.[118][119] In October 2014, Shankar announced the production of an unofficial spinoff online series based on the Dark Judges that would be released later that month.[120] The animated miniseries was titled Judge Dredd: Superfiend and all its six episodes were released on 27 October 2014 on YouTube.[121] In March 2015, Garland said that a direct sequel would likely not happen in the near future, at least not with the crew involved in the original film.[122]

In 2016, Urban said that "conversations are happening" regarding a Dredd continuation on streaming services Netflix or Amazon Prime.[123] In an interview in May 2016, Urban said that while the film's "mishandled" marketing strategy and "unfortunate" box office performance meant that it was "problematic" to try to make a sequel, "the success it has achieved in all post-theatrical mediums has definitely strengthened the argument in favour of a sequel."[3] In May 2017, a television series named Judge Dredd: Mega-City One was announced to be in development by IM Global Television and Rebellion.[124] In August 2017, Urban stated he was in discussion to star in the series.[125]


where is the summer palace in st petersburg

The Catherine Palace (Russian: Екатерининский дворец, Yekaterininskiy dvorets) is a Rococo palace located in the town of Tsarskoye Selo (Pushkin), 30 km south of St. Petersburg, Russia. It was the summer residence of the Russian tsars.

Catherine Palace

The residence originated in 1717, when CatherineÂ I of Russia hired German architect Johann-Friedrich Braunstein to construct a summer palace for her pleasure. In 1733, Empress Elizabeth commissioned Mikhail Zemtsov and Andrei Kvasov to expand the Catherine Palace. Empress Elizabeth, however, found her mother's residence outdated and incommodious and in May 1752 asked her court architect Bartolomeo Rastrelli to demolish the old structure and replace it with a much grander edifice in a flamboyant Rococo style. Construction lasted for four years, and on 30 July 1756 the architect presented the brand-new 325-meter-long palace to the Empress, her dazed courtiers, and stupefied foreign ambassadors.[citation needed]

More than 100 kilograms of gold were used to gild the sophisticated stucco faÃ§ade and numerous statues erected on the roof.[citation needed] In front of the palace a great formal garden was laid out. It centres on the azure-and-white Hermitage Pavilion near the lake, designed by Mikhail Zemtsov in 1744, remodelled by Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli in 1749 and formerly crowned by a grand-gilded sculpture representing The Rape of Persephone. The interior of the pavilion featured dining tables with dumbwaiter mechanisms. The grand entrance to the palace is flanked by two massive "circumferences", also in the Rococo style. A delicate cast-iron grille separates the complex from the town of Tsarskoe Selo. Although the palace is popularly associated with Catherine the Great, she actually regarded its "whipped cream" architecture as old-fashioned. When she ascended to the throne, a number of statues in the park were being covered with gold, in accordance with the last wish of Empress Elizabeth, yet the new monarch had all the works suspended upon being informed about the expense. In her memoirs she censured her predecessor's reckless extravagance:

To gratify her passion for antique and Neoclassical art, Catherine employed the Scottish architect Charles Cameron, who not only refurbished the interior of one wing in the Neo-Palladian style then in vogue, but also constructed the personal apartments of the Empress, a rather modest Greek Revival structure known as the Agate Rooms and situated to the left of the grand palace. Noted for their elaborate jasper decor, the rooms were designed so as to be connected to the Hanging Gardens, the Cold Baths, and the Cameron Gallery (still housing a collection of bronze statuary)â€”three Neoclassical edifices constructed to Cameron's designs. According to Catherine's wishes, many remarkable structures were erected for her amusement in the Catherine Park. These include the Dutch Admiralty, Creaking Pagoda, Chesme Column, Rumyantsev Obelisk, and Marble Bridge.

Upon Catherine's death in 1796, the palace was abandoned in favour of Pavlovsk Palace. Subsequent monarchs preferred to reside in the nearby Alexander Palace and, with only two exceptions, refrained from making new additions to the Catherine Palace, regarding it as a splendid monument to Elizabeth's wealth and Catherine II's glory. After the Great Fire of 1820, Alexander I engaged Vasily Stasov to refurbish some interiors of his grandmother's residence in the Empire style. Twenty years later, the magnificent Stasov Staircase was constructed to replace the old circular staircase leading to the Palace house church (ru:Церковь Екатерининского дворца). Unfortunately, most of Stasov's interiors—specifically those dating from the reign of Nicholas I—have not been restored after the destruction caused by the Germans during World War II.[citation needed]

When the German forces retreated after the siege of Leningrad, they intentionally destroyed the residence.[1] leaving only the hollow shell of the palace behind. Prior to World WarÂ II, Soviet archivists managed to document a fair amount of the interior, which proved of great importance in reconstructing the palace.

Although the largest part of the reconstruction was completed in time for the Tercentenary of St.Â Petersburg in 2003, much work is still required to restore the palace to its former glory.

Although Stasov's and Cameron's Neoclassical interiors are superb manifestations of late 18th-century and early 19th-century taste, the palace is best known for Rastrelli's grand suit of formal rooms known as the Golden Enfilade. It starts at the spacious airy ballroom, the "Grand Hall" or the "Hall of Lights", with a spectacular painted ceiling, and comprises numerous distinctively decorated smaller rooms, including the reproduced Amber Room.

The Great Hall, or Light Gallery, as it was called in the 18th century, is a formal apartment in the Russian baroque style designed by Bartolomeo Rastrelli between 1752 and 1756.[2] The Great Hall was intended for more important receptions such as balls, formal dinners, and masquerades. The hall was painted in two colors and covers an area of approximately 1,000 square meters. Occupying the entire width of the palace, the windows on the eastern side look out onto the park while the windows of the western side look out to the palace plaza. In the evening, 696 lamps are lit on 12-15 chandeliers located near the mirrors. The hall's sculptural and gilded carvings and ornamentation were created according to sketches by Rastrelli and models by Johann Franz Dunker.

Beyond the Great Hall is the dining room for the courtiers in attendance (the Courtiers-in-Attendance Dining Room). The room was designed by Rastrelli in the mid-18th century. The small room is lit by four windows which look out into the formal courtyard. The architect placed false windows with mirrors and mirrored glass on the opposite wall, making the hall more spacious and bright. Decorated in the typical baroque interior style, the hall is filled with gilded wall-carvings, complex gilded pieces on the doors, and ornamental patterns of stylized flowers. The ceiling mural was painted by a well-known student of the Russian School from the mid-18th century. It is based on the Greek myth of the sun god Helios and the goddess of the dawn, Eos.

Across from the Courtiers-in-Attendance Dining Room, on the other side of the Main Staircase, is the White Formal Dining Room. The hall was used for the empresses' formal dinners or "evening meals". The walls of the dining hall were decorated with the utmost extravagance with gilded carvings. The furnishings consist of gilded carvings on the consoles. Some of the furniture which can be seen in the room today is original whilst other pieces are reproductions.[3] The painted mural, The Triumph of Apollo is a copy of a painting completed in the 16th century by Italian artist, Guido Reni.

The Portrait Hall is a formal apartment covering 100 square meters. The room's walls boast large formal portraits of Empress Catherine I and Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, as well as paintings of Natalya Alexeyevna, sister of Peter the Great, and Empress Catherine II.[4] The inlaid floors of the hall contain precious woods. The Drawing Room of Alexander I was designed between 1752 and 1756 and belonged to the Emperor's private suite. The drawing room stood out from the rest of the formal rooms in the palace due to the fact that the walls were covered in Chinese silk. Other decor in the room was typical for the palace's formal roomsâˆ’a ceiling mural and gilded carvings. The elegant card tables and inlaid wood commode display Japanese, Chinese, and Berlin porcelain.

The Green Dining Room, which replaced Rastrelli's "Hanging Garden" in 1773, is the first of the rooms in the northern wing of the Catherine Palace, designed by Cameron for the future Emperor Paul and his wife. The room's pistachio-coloured walls are lined with stucco figures by Ivan Martos. During the great fire of 1820 the room was seriously damaged, thus sharing the fate of other Cameron interiors. It was subsequently restored under Stasov's direction.[5]

Other interiors by Cameron include the Waiters' Room, with an inlaid floor of rosewood, amaranth and mahogany and stylish Chippendale card tables; the Blue Formal Dining-Room, with white-and-blue silk wallpaper and Carrara marble chimneys; the Chinese Blue Drawing Room, a curious combination of Adam style with Chinoiserie; the Choir Anteroom, with walls lined in apricot-colored silk; and the columned boudoir of Alexander I, executed in the Pompeian style.