what the back part of the toilet called

A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl (pan) connected on the "up" side to a cistern (tank) that enables rapid filling with water, and on the "down" side to a drain pipe that removes the effluent. When a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a sewage treatment plant. However, in many developing countries, this treatment step does not take place.

Toilet

A toilet[n 1] is a piece of hardware used for the collection or disposal of human urine and feces. In other words: "Toilets are sanitation facilities at the user interface that allow the safe and convenient urination and defecation".[1] Toilets can be with or without flushing water (flush toilet or dry toilet). They can be set up for a sitting posture or for a squatting posture (squat toilet). Flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system in urban areas and to septic tanks in less built-up areas. Dry toilets are connected to a pit, removable container, composting chamber, or other storage and treatment device. Toilets are commonly made of ceramic (porcelain), concrete, plastic, or wood.

In private homes, the toilet, sink, bath, or shower may be in the same room. Another option is to have one room for body washing (bathroom) and a separate room for the toilet and handwashing sink (toilet room). Public toilets consist of one or more toilets (and commonly urinals) which are available for use by the general public. Portable toilets or chemical toilets may be brought in for large and temporary gatherings.

Many poor households in developing countries use very basic, and often unhygienic toilets, for example simple pit latrines and bucket toilets which are usually placed in outhouses. Globally, nearly one billion people even have no access to a toilet at all, and are forced to do open defecation (particularly in India).[2] Diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route or via water, such as cholera and diarrhea, can be spread by open defecation. They can also be spread by unsafe toilets which cause pollution of surface water or groundwater. Historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Sustainable Development Goal Number 6 calls for "adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation by 2030".[2]

The number of different types of toilets used on a worldwide level is large.[1][3] Toilet types can be grouped by:

People use different toilet types based on the country that they are in. In developing countries, access to toilets is also related to people's socio-economic status. Poor people in low-income countries often have no toilets at all and resort to open defecation instead. This is part of the sanitation crisis which international initiatives such as World Toilet Day draw attention to.[4]

The water in the toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line.

The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. The flush handle on these toilets is pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other.[5] Another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defectation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize the water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage.

Another variant is the pour-flush toilet.[1] This type of flush toilet has no cistern, but is flushed manually with a few litres of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as 2–3 litres (0.44–0.66 imp gal; 0.53–0.79 US gal).[1] This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank.

Flush toilets on ships are typically flushed with seawater.

"High-tech" toilets, which can be found in countries like Japan, include features such as automatic-flushing mechanisms; water jets or "bottom washers"; blow dryers; or artificial flush sounds to mask noises.  Others include medical monitoring features such as urine and stool analysis and the checking of blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar. Some toilets have automatic lid operation, heated seats, deodorizing fans, or automated replacement of paper toilet-seat-covers. Interactive urinals have been developed in several countries, allowing users to play video games. The "Toylet", produced by Sega, uses pressure sensors to detect the flow of urine and translates that into on-screen action.[6]

Astronauts on the International Space Station use a space toilet with urine diversion which can recover potable water.[7]

A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that requires very little flushing water and is connected to a vacuum sewer system. For example,  they are used on planes (aircraft lavatories) and on trains (passenger train toilets).

Many types of toilets without a water seal (also called dry toilets or "non-flush toilets") exist. These types of toilets do not use water as an odor seal or to move excreta along. For example, from simple to more complex: a bucket toilet (honey bucket), a tree bog or arborloo (two simple systems for converting excrement to direct fertiliser for trees), a pit latrine (a deep hole in the ground), a vault toilet (which keeps all the waste underground until it is pumped out), a container-based toilet, a composting toilet (which mixes excreta with carbon-rich materials for faster decomposition), a urine-diverting dry toilet (which keeps urine separate from feces), and incinerating and freezing toilets.

Dry toilets use no water for flushing. They also do not produce wastewater. Some of these devices are high-tech but many are quite basic.[3]

A simple pit latrine uses no water seal and collects human excreta in a pit or trench. The excreta drop directly into the pit via a drop hole. This type of toilet can range from a simple slit trench to more elaborate systems with seating or squatting pans and ventilation systems. In developed countries they are associated with camping and wilderness areas. They are common in rural or peri-urban areas in many developing countries. Pit latrines are also used in emergency sanitation situations.

The pit or trench can be dug large enough so that the pit can be used for many years before it fills up. When the pit becomes full, it may be emptied or the hole covered with earth and the pit latrine relocated. Pit latrines have to be located away from drinking water sources (wells, streams, etc.) to minimize the possibility of disease spread via groundwater pollution.

A ventilation improved pit (VIP) latrine adds certain design features to the simple pit latrine which reduces flies from exiting the latrine, thereby reducing the spread of diseases.[1]

A vault toilet is a non-flush toilet with a sealed container (or vault) buried in the ground to receive the excreta, all of which is contained underground until it is removed by pumping. A vault toilet is distinguished from a pit latrine because the waste accumulates in the vault instead of seeping into the underlying soil.

Urine diversion toilets have two compartments, one for urine and one for feces. A urine-diverting dry toilet uses no water for flushing, and keeps urine and feces separate. It can be linked to systems which reuse excreta as a fertilizer.

The portable toilet is used on construction sites, film locations, and large outdoor gatherings where there are no other facilities. They are typically self-contained units that are made to be easily moved. Most portable toilets are unisex single units with privacy ensured by a simple lock on the door. The units are usually light weight and easily transported by a flatbed truck and loaded and unloaded by a small forklift. Many portable toilets are small molded plastic or fiberglass portable rooms with a lockable door and a receptacle to catch waste in a chemically treated container. If used for an extended period of time, they have to be cleaned out and new chemicals put in the waste receptacle. For servicing multiple portable toilets, tanker trucks (vacuum trucks or honeywagons) are equipped with large vacuums to evacuate the waste and replace the chemicals. Portable toilets can also be urine-diverting dry toilets.

A bucket toilet, also known as a honey bucket, is a very simple type of portable toilet.

Chemical toilets collect human excreta in a holding tank and use chemicals to minimize odors. They do not require a connection to a water supply and are used in a variety of situations.

Aircraft lavatories and passenger train toilets were in the past often designed as chemical toilets but are nowadays more likely to be vacuum toilets.[citation needed]

Toilets can be designed to be used either in a sitting or in a squatting posture.

Sitting toilets are often referred to as "western-style toilets".[8] Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and the elderly.

A squat toilet (also called "squatting toilet", "natural position toilet", or by many national names) is a toilet of any technology type (i.e. pit latrine, urine-diverting dry toilet, flush toilet etc.) which is used in a squatting position rather than sitting. This means that the defecation posture used is to place one foot on each side of the toilet drain or hole and to squat over it.

Squatting toilets are the norm in many Asian and African countries, and  are common in most Muslim countries. They are also occasionally be found in some European and South American countries.

In 1976, squatting toilets were said to be used by the majority of the world's population.[9] However, there is a general trend in many countries to move from squatting toilets to sitting toilets (particularly in urban areas) as the latter are often regarded as more modern.[10]

There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia, the squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting position are more common.[11]

In the Western world, the most common method of cleaning the anal area after defecation is by toilet paper or sometimes by using a bidet. In many Muslim countries, the facilities are designed to enable people to follow Islamic toilet etiquette Qaḍāʼ al-Ḥājah.[12] For example, a bidet shower may be plumbed in. The left hand is used for cleansing, for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many Asian countries.[13]

There are toilets on the market where the seats have integrated spray mechanicms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities.

An accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities, such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab barsto ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, including enough room for a caregiver if necessary.

A public toilet is accessible to the general public. It may be municipally owned or managed, entered directly from the street. It may be within a building that, while privately owned, allows public access, such as a department store, or it may be limited to the business's customers, such as a restaurant. If its use requires a fee, it is also called a pay toilet.

Depending on culture, there may be varying degrees of separation between men and women and different levels of privacy. Typically, the entire room, or a stall or cubicle containing a toilet, is lockable. Urinals, if present in a men's toilet, are typically mounted on a wall with or without a divider between them. In the most basic form, a public toilet may be not much more than an open latrine. Another form is a street urinal known as a pissoir, after the French term.

To this day, 1 billion people in developing countries have no toilets in their homes and are resorting to Open defecation instead.[14] The Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation by WHO and UNICEF is the official United Nations mechanism tasked with monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal relating to drinking-water and sanitation (MDG 7, Target 7c). One target of this goal is to: "Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking-water and basic sanitation" and publishes figures on access to sanitation worldwide on a regular basis.[15] Another organisation which focuses on toilet and sanitation is the World Toilet Organisation which has its founding date, November 19, used for the UN's International World Toilet Day.[16]

Toilets are one important element of a sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse.[1] Diseases, including Cholera, which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways, groundwater, and drinking water supplies.

There have been five main cholera outbreaks and pandemics since 1825. In London alone, the second killed 14,137 people in 1849, and the third took 10,738 lives in 1853â€“54. In 1849 the English physician John Snow published a paper On the Mode of Communication of Cholera, in which he suggested that cholera might be waterborne.  During the 1854 epidemic, he collected and analyzed data establishing that people who drank water from contaminated sources such as the Broad Street pump died of cholera at much higher rates than those who got water elsewhere.

A "flying toilet" is a facetious name for a plastic bag that is used as a container for excrement and are then simply discarded. Associated especially with slums, they are called flying toilets "because when you have filled them, you throw them as far away as you can."[17]

A floating toilet is essentially a toilet on a platform built above or floating on the water. Instead of excreta going into the ground they are collected in a tank or barrel. To reduce the amount of excreta that needs to hauled to shore, many use urine diversion. The floating toilet was developed for residents without quick access to land or connection to a sewer systems.[18] It is also used in areas subjected to prolonged flooding.[19] The need for this type of toilet is high in areas like Cambodia.[20]

The pig toilet, which consists of a toilet linked to a pigsty by a chute, is still in use to a limited extent.[21] It was common in rural China, and was known in Japan, Korea, and India. The "fish pond toilet" depends on the same principle, of livestock (often carp) eating human excreta directly.

During the third millennium BC, toilets and sewers were invented throughout the world. Mohenjo-Daro circa 2800 BC is cited as having some of the most advanced, with toilets built into outer walls of homes. These toilets were Western-style, albeit a primitive form, with vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains.[22]

These toilets were only used by the affluent classes; most people would have squatted over old pots set into the ground or used open pits.[23] The people of the Harappan civilization in Pakistan and northwestern India had primitive water-cleaning toilets that used flowing water in each house that were linked with drains covered with burnt clay bricks. The flowing water removed the human waste.[24] The Indus Valley civilisation had a rudimentary network of sewers built under grid pattern streets.[25]

Other very early toilets that used flowing water to remove the waste are found at Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, which was occupied from about 3100 BC until 2500 BC. Some of the houses there have a drain running directly beneath them, and some of these had a cubicle over the drain. Around the 18th century BC, toilets started to appear in Minoan Crete, Pharaonic Egypt, and ancient Persia.

In 2012, archaeologists found what is believed to be Southeast Asia's earliest latrine during the excavation of a neolithic village in the Rạch Núi archaeological site, southern Vietnam. The toilet, dating back 1500 BC, yielded important clues about early Southeast Asian society. More than 30 coprolites, containing fish and shattered animal bones, provided information on the diet of humans and dogs, and on the types of parasites each had to contend with.[26][27][28]

In Roman civilization, toilets using flowing water were sometimes part of public bath houses. Roman toilets, like the ones pictured here, are commonly thought to have been used in the sitting position. The Roman toilets were probably elevated to raise them above open sewers which were periodically "flushed" with flowing water, rather than elevated for sitting. Romans and Greeks also used chamber pots, which they brought to meals and drinking sessions.[29] Johan J. Mattelaer said, "Plinius has described how there were large receptacles in the streets of cities such as Rome and Pompeii into which chamber pots of urine were emptied. The urine was then collected by fullers." (Fulling was a vital step in textile manufacture.)

The Han dynasty in China two thousand years ago used pig toilets.

Garderobes were toilets used in the Post-classical history, most commonly found in upper-class dwellings. Essentially, they were flat pieces of wood or stone spanning from one wall to the other, with one or more holes to sit on. These were above chutes or pipes that discharged outside the castle or Manor house.[30] Garderobes would be placed in areas away from bedrooms to shun the smell[31] and also near kitchens or fireplaces to keep the enclosure warm.[30]

The other main way of handling toilet needs was the chamber pot, a receptacle, usually of ceramic or metal, into which one would excrete waste. This method was used for hundreds of years; shapes, sizes, and decorative variations changed throughout the centuries.[32] Chamber pots were in common use in Europe from ancient times, even being taken to the Middle East by medieval pilgrims.[33]

By the Early Modern era, chamber pots were frequently made of china or copper and could include elaborate decoration. They were emptied into the gutter of the street nearest to the home.

In pre-modern Denmark, people generally defecated on farmland or other places where the human waste could be collected as fertilizer.[34] The Old Norse language had several terms for referring to outhouses, including garðhús (yard house), náð-/náða-hús (house of rest), and annat hús (the other house). In general, toilets were functionally non-existent in rural Denmark until the 18th century.[34]

By the 16th century, cesspits and cesspools were increasingly dug into the ground near houses in Europe as a means of collecting waste, as urban populations grew and street gutters became blocked with the larger volume of human waste. Rain was no longer sufficient to wash away waste from the gutters. A pipe connected the latrine to the cesspool, and sometimes a small amount of water washed waste through. Cesspools were cleaned out by tradesmen, known in English as gong farmers, who pumped out liquid waste, then shovelled out the solid waste and collected it during the night. This solid waste, euphemistically known as nightsoil, was sold as fertilizer for agricultural production (similarly to the closing-the-loop approach of ecological sanitation).

The garderobe was replaced by the privy midden and pail closet in early industrial Europe.[35]

In the early 19th century, public officials and public hygiene experts studied and debated sanitation for several decades. The construction of an underground network of pipes to carry away solid and liquid waste was only begun in the mid 19th-century, gradually replacing the cesspool system, although cesspools were still in use in some parts of Paris into the 20th century.[36] Even London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War.

The water closet, with its origins in Tudor times, started to assume its currently known form, with an overhead cistern, s-bends, soil pipes and valves around 1770. This was the work of Alexander Cumming and Joseph Bramah. Water closets only started to be moved from outside to inside of the home around 1850.[37] The integral water closet started to be built into middle class homes in the 1860s and 1870s, firstly on the principal bedroom floor and in larger houses in the maids' accommodation, and by 1900 a further one in the hallway. A toilet would also be placed outside the back door of the kitchen for use by gardeners and other outside staff such as those working with the horses. The speed of introduction was varied, so that in 1906 the predominantly working class town of Rochdale had 750 water closets for a population of 10,000.[37]

The working class home had transitioned from the rural cottage, to the urban back-to-back terraces with external rows of privies, to the through terraced houses of the 1880 with their sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite, became more prominent in the home.[38]

Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era, British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber pots and carried them to a room known as the housemaids' cupboard.  This room contained a "slop sink", made of wood with a lead lining to prevent chipping china chamber pots, for washing the "bedroom ware" or "chamber utensils". Once running water and flush toilets were plumbed into British houses, servants were sometimes given their own lavatory downstairs, separate from the family lavatory.[39] The practice of emptying one's own chamber pot, known as slopping out, continued in British prisons until as recently as 2014[40] and was still in use in 85 cells in the Republic of Ireland in July 2017.[41]

With rare exceptions, chamber pots are no longer used. Modern related implements are bedpans and commodes, used in hospitals and the homes of invalids.

Before the widespread adoption of the flush toilet, there were inventors, scientists, and public health officials who supported the use of "dry earth closets". One person developing these was the English clergyman Henry Moule, who dedicated his life to improving public sanitation after witnessing the horrors of the cholera epidemics of 1849 and 1854. He invented what he called the dry earth system, somewhat similar to a composting toilet or a bucket toilet. In partnership with James Bannehr, in 1860 he took out a patent for the process (No. 1316).[42] His system was adopted in private houses, in rural districts, in military camps, in many hospitals, and extensively in the British Raj.[42]

Ultimately, however, it failed to gain the same public support in Europe as the water closet, although variations of the design remain today in use (see dry toilet).

Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington,[43] such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century.[44] With the onset of the industrial revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing, was the S-trap, invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with the dramatic growth in the sewage system, especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons.[37]

Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes.

Toilet was originally a French loanword (first attested in 1540) that referred to the toilette ("little cloth") draped over one's shoulders during hairdressing.[46] During the late 17th century,[46] the term came to be used by metonymy in both languages for the whole complex of grooming and body care that centered at a dressing table (also covered by a cloth) and for the equipment composing a toilet service, including a mirror, hairbrushes, and containers for powder and makeup. The time spent at such a table also came to be known as one's "toilet"; it came to be a period during which close friends or tradesmen were received as "toilet-calls".[46][49]

The use of "toilet" to describe a special room for grooming came much later (first attested in 1819), following the French cabinet de toilet. Similar to "powder room", "toilet" then came to be used as a euphemism for rooms dedicated to urination and defecation, particularly in the context of signs for public toilets, as on trains. Finally, it came to be used for the plumbing fixtures in such rooms (apparently first in the United States) as these replaced chamber pots, outhouses, and latrines. These two uses, the fixture and the room, completely supplanted the other senses of the word during the 20th century[46] except in the form "toiletries".[n 2]

The word "toilet" was by etymology a euphemism, but is no longer understood as such. As old euphemisms have become the standard term, they have been progressively replaced by newer ones, an example of the euphemism treadmill at work.[50] The choice of word relies not only on regional variation, but also on social situation and level of formality (register) or social class. American manufacturers show an uneasiness with the word and its class attributes: American Standard, the largest firm, sells them as "toilets", yet the higher priced products of the Kohler Company, often installed in more expensive housing, are sold as commodes or closets, words which also carry other meanings. Confusingly, products imported from Japan such as TOTO are referred to as "toilets", even though they carry the cachet of higher cost and quality. (Toto, an abbreviation of Tōyō Tōki (東洋陶器 Oriental Ceramics), is used in Japanese comics to visually indicate toilets or other things that look like toilets; see Toilets in Japan.)

Different dialects use "bathroom" and "restroom" (American English), "bathroom" and "washroom" (Canadian English), and "WC" (an initialism for "water closet"), "lavatory" and its abbreviation "lav" (British English).

"Crapper" was already in use as a coarse name for a toilet, but it gained currency from the work of Thomas Crapper, who popularized flush toilets in England.

"The Jacks" is Irish slang for toilet.[51] It perhaps derives from "jacques" and "jakes", an old English term.[52]

"Loo" – The etymology of loo is obscure. The Oxford English Dictionary notes the 1922 appearance of "How much cost? Waterloo. Watercloset." in James Joyce's novel Ulysses and defers to Alan S. C. Ross's arguments that it derived in some fashion from the site of Napoleon's 1815 defeat.[53][54] In the 1950s the use of the word "loo" was considered one of the markers of British upper-class speech, featuring in a famous essay, "U and non-U English".[55] "Loo" may have derived from a corruption of French l'eau ("water"), gare à l'eau ("mind the water", used in reference to emptying chamber pots into the street from an upper-story window),  lieu ("place"), lieu d'aisance ("place of ease", used euphemistically for a toilet), or lieu à l'anglaise ("English place", used from around 1770 to refer to English-style toilets installed for travelers).[53][56][57] Other proposed etymologies include a supposed tendency to place toilets in room 100 (hence "loo") in English hotels,[58] a dialectical corruption of the nautical term "lee" in reference to the need to urinate and defecate with the wind prior to the advent of head pumps,[n 3] or the 17th-century preacher Louis Bourdaloue, whose long sermons at Paris's Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis prompted his parishioners to bring along chamber pots.[59]


where does the last name dunne come from

Dunne is an Irish surname, derived from the Irish Ó Duinn and Ó Doinn, meaning "dark" or "brown." The name Dunne in Ireland is derived from the Ó Duinn and the Ó Doinn Gaelic Septs who were based in County Laois and County Wicklow. These septs in turn are descendants of the O'Regan noble family. It is in these Counties that the majority of descendants can still be found. Hundreds of years ago, the Gaelic name used by the Dunn family in Ireland was Ó Duinn or Ó Doinn. Both Gaelic names are derived from the Gaelic word donn, which means brown. Ó Doinn is the genitive case of donn. First found in county Meath, where they held a family seat from very ancient times. Variations: Dunn, Dunne, Dun, Duen, O'Dunne, O'Doyne, Doine, Doin, O'Dunn.[1]

Dunne

The Dunnes formerly owned a number of castles in the midlands of Ireland. Today little remains of most of these castles, many were destroyed during the Cromwellian Invasion of Ireland.

The principal seat of the Dunne family was Tinnahinch Castle. Originally known as “Baun Riaganach”, the castle was built by Tadhg MacLaighnigh Ui Duinn in 1475 and was the residence of the chief of the Dunne's. Tinnahinch Castle was located at the Barrow River, one mile south of Tinnahinch bridge. The name Tinnahinch originally means “house of the island”, a tributary stream of the Barrow river surrounding the castle gives it the appearance of an island. Tinnahinch Castle was destroyed by during the Cromwellian Invasion by forces led by Colonel Hewson in 1653. At the time it was strongly defended by Charles Dunne and it required a full park of artillery from the invading forces to level the castle. After the destruction of Tinnahinch Castle the principal seat of the Dunne family moved to Brittas Castle. Unfortunately there remains nothing of the original castle apart from a wall which may have been part of the original building.

After the destruction of Tinnahinch Castle the Dunne Chief built a new home at Brittas, near Clonaslee, County Laois. Originally there was a thatched lodge located there and the Oâ€™Duinns built a mansion at his location. In 1869, Major-General Francis Plunkett Dunne built a neo-gothic mansion at this location. The house had extensive gardens and also lake which was originally created as a reservoir. In 1942 the building was burned down in a fire.

It was a coursed rubble and limestone building built between the River Clodiagh and River Gorragh by the Dunnes on the location of an earlier castle which was destroyed by Cromwellian invasion forces. It was built by Colonel Terence Oâ€™Dunne in 1680 who was killed at the Battle of Aughrim and is buried at the graveyard in Killeigh.

Teige Oâ€™Doyne built the Dunne castle Coolnamoney Lower near the Glenlahan River. Not much is left of the castle today, but some of the original features can be seen in the ruins.

Castlebrack Castle was built by Tadhg MacLaighnigh Ui Duinn in 1475. It was built to be occupied by the Tanist, which was the name of the position held by the clan’s deputy chief. This castle was second in size and importance to Tinnahinch Castle, which was the principal residence of the Dunnes. Terence O’Dunne completed a major refurbishment of the castle in 1688, however by 1838, all that was left of the castle was ruins.

Clarahill Castle was built by a junior/younger branch of the Dunne family. It was built in 1600, and in 1900 it was destroyed for road material.

The Dunnes also built Ballinahemmy Castle near the town of Corrigeen, in County Laois, and its location is marked on the Ordnance Survey map.

Raskeen Castle was built by Donal Oâ€™Dunne in 1584 and destroyed in 1691.


where is the atlas statue at rockefeller center

Atlas is a bronze statue in front of Rockefeller Center in midtown Manhattan, New York City, across Fifth Avenue from St. Patrick's Cathedral. The sculpture depicts the Ancient Greek Titan Atlas holding the heavens. It was created by sculptor Lee Lawrie with the help of Rene Paul Chambellan, and it was installed in 1937.

Atlas (statue)

Coordinates: 40°45′32.12″N 73°58′37.84″W / 40.7589222°N 73.9771778°W / 40.7589222; -73.9771778

The sculpture is in the Art Deco style, as is the entire Rockefeller Center. Atlas in the sculpture is 15 feet (4.6 m) tall, while the entire statue is 45 feet (14 m) tall,[1][2] as high as a four-story building. It weighs 7 short tons (6,400 kg),[3] and is the largest sculpture at Rockefeller Center.[4] The North-South axis of the armillary sphere on his shoulders points towards the North Star as seen from New York City.[5]

When Atlas was unveiled in 1937, some people protested, claiming that it looked like Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Later, painter James Montgomery Flagg said that Atlas "looks too much as Mussolini thinks he looks".[6]

The piece has since been appropriated as a symbol of the Objectivist movement[7] and has been associated with Ayn Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged (1957).

It has been featured in almost every episode of the television series 30 Rock, appearing in numerous establishing shots depicting the 30 Rockefeller Plaza building, where the series is set.

Most Rainforest Cafe locations have a statue resembling this one in a waterfall with a fountain, with the words "Rescue the Rainforest" in green neon letters across the equator of the globe.[8]


where is forest research institute located in india

FRI and College Area campus is a census town, between Kaulagarh in the north and the Indian Military Academy to the south. The Tons River forms its Western Boundary.

Forest Research Institute (India)

The Forest Research Institute (FRI) वन अनुसन्धान संस्थान देहरादून is an institute of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and is a premier institution in the field of forestry research in India. It is located at Dehradun in Uttarakhand, and is one of the oldest institutions of its kind. In 1991, it was declared a deemed university by the University Grants Commission.[1]

The Forest Research Institute campus hosts the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), the staff college that trains officers selected for the Indian Forest Service (IFS).

It was founded in 1878 as the British Imperial Forest School.[2] by Dietrich Brandis.[3]

In 1906, it was reestablished as the Imperial Forest Research Institute, under the British Imperial Forestry Service.[2]

The Indian Forest College was established in 1938; officers recruited to the Superior Forest Service by the states and provinces were trained there.Great revolutionary Rashbehari Bose worked here

Established as Imperial Forest Research Institute in 1906, the Forest Research Institute (FRI) Dehradun, was first located at Chandhbagh (the present location of the Doon School) on the Mall Road. A much larger campus at the present location was acquired ca 1923. Construction of the present buildings commenced thereafter. Styled in Greeko Roman Architecture by C.G. Blomfield, the main building was inaugurated in 1929 by then Viceroy Freeman Freeman-Thomas, 1st Marquess of Willingdon. It is now a National Heritage site.

FRI Dehradun is one of the oldest institutions of its kind and acclaimed the world over. The institute’s history is virtually synonymous with the evolution and development of scientific forestry, not only in India, but over the entire sub-continent. Built over a lush green estate spread over 450 hectares, with the outer Himalaya forming its back drop, the institute’s main building is an impressive edifice, marrying Greco-Roman and Colonial styles of architecture, with a plinth area of 2.5 hectares. The building was listed for a time, in the Guinness Book of Records, as the largest purely brick structure in the world. The institute has a developed infrastructure of all equipped laboratories, library, herbarium, arboreta, printing press and experimental field areas for conducting forestry research, quite in keeping with the best of its kind anywhere in the world. It is 7 km from Clock Tower, on the Dehradun-Chakrata motorable road and is of the biggest forest based training institute in India. Most of the forest officers are a part of this institute. The FRI's building also houses a Botanical Museum.[4]

Within its campus it hosts Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), which is a separate organisation of the Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). It also hosts the Central Academy for State Forest Services (CASFOS). The Wildlife Institute of India was on campus but now has moved to Chandrabani, and is an independent organisation under MoEF. IIFM is an independent autonomous organisation of MoEF and has good liaisoning with FRI for forestry research and related activities. The deemed university of FRI runs four MSc courses viz. Cellulose & Paper Technology, Environment Management, Forestry Management, Wood Science Technology and two P.G.Diploma courses in Natural Resource Management and Aroma Technology. It also enrolls large number of research scholars every year for PhD.

FRI also contains a museum on forestry. It is open from 9:30am to 5:00pm daily, which an entry fee of Rs 40 per person and a nominal entry fee for vehicles. There are six sections in the museum:

More than half a dozen movies Dulhan Ek Raat Ki, Krishna Cottage, Rehnaa Hai Terre Dil Mein, 404, Paan Singh Tomar, Nanban, Student of the Year, Student of the year 2, Dilli Khabar, Yaara and Dear Daddy were majorly shot in this campus. Television commercial ad of Bournvita was also shot here. Punjabi song Pyaar tere naal he and Sajjan Raji by Satinder Sartaj also shot here.[5]

Rash Behari Bose worked here as a head clerk, before becoming a full-time participant in the Independence movement.


what is the name of heroine in bengal tiger

Shraddha rejects Karan and convinces  Nagappa for the same. She adds that she would prefer to a self-made man like Akash to already financially settled person, as she finds the potential of making it big in Akash. On Shraddha's birthday, Nagappa hosts a big part and announces Akash as Shraddha's potential lover in the presence of many politicians, including the chief minister Ashok Gajapathi (Boman Irani). Akash however rejects Nagappa's presence and says that he loves Meera (Tamannaah), the daughter of Gajapathi, much to everyone's shock.

Bengal Tiger (2015 film)

Bengal Tiger is a 2015 Indian Telugu action comedy film written and directed by Sampath Nandi. It was produced by K. K. Radha Mohan's Sri Satya Sai Arts and features Ravi Teja, Tamannaah and Raashi Khanna in the lead roles. Boman Irani, Nagineedu, Rao Ramesh, and Sayaji Shinde play supporting roles. Bengal Tiger focuses on the conflict between two intelligent peopleâ€”Akash Narayan, an unemployed graduate and Ashok Gajapati, the chief minister of the state. It also focuses on the roles played by agricultural minister Samba, home minister Nagappa, his daughter Shraddha, and Gajapati's daughter Meera in Akash's pursuit for revenge on Gajapati who killed his father.

Nandi was initially supposed to direct Pawan Kalyan in Sardaar Gabbar Singh, the sequel of Gabbar Singh. The film was delayed and Nandi walked out, after which the pre-production of Bengal Tiger began. Nandi's protégé Bheems Cecireleo composed the film's music. The film, whose cinematography was provided by Soundararajan, was edited by Gautham Raju. The film was officially launched on 30 January 2015 at Ramanaidu Studios. Principal photography commenced in March 2015 and lasted for 100 days until September 2015. Filming locations include Hyderabad, Rajahmundry, Pollachi and few locales of Europe, where a couple of songs were filmed.

Produced on a budget of ₹250 million, Bengal Tiger was released globally on 10 December 2015 in 1000 screens. It received mixed reviews from the critics but was a commercial success, grossing nearly ₹405 million globally. The film was also dubbed into Hindi under the same name in 2016.

Akash Narayan (Ravi Teja)is an unemployed simpleton living in Athreyapuram, East Godavari district who spends his time hanging out with friends. He is rejected by a girl (Aksha Pardasany) who aspires to marry a famous person. This hurts Akash and in an attempt to become famous, he hits the agricultural minister Samba (Sayaji Shinde) with a stone. Initially angry, Samba is impressed with Akash's wit and employs him to escort home minister Nagappa's (Rao Ramesh ) daughter Shraddha (Raashi Khanna) safely from the airport as her life is in danger. Upon Shraddha's suggestion, Nagappa appoints Akash as his OSD. Shraddha gets engaged to Karan, the son of politician Subba Rayudu. She, however, falls in love with Akash after a series of incidents.

When Shraddha confronts Akash, he says that their relationship is that of an employer and an employee and lies that he loved Meera who rejected his love. Meera meets him shortly and proposes to him after being impressed with his eccentricity and spontaneity. When Gajapathi and Shraddha object, Meera defends her decision by saying that his logical thinking made her prefer Akash to others. Gajapathi then comes to know that Akash is his rival Jayanarayan's (Nagineedu) son and predicts that he is seeking revenge. Akash and Gajapathi have a formal meet where they have a deal; if Gajapathi fails to kill Akash within 24 hours using any means, he has to give his consent for Akash's marriage with Meera.

Akash manages to survive in those 24 hours and meets Gajapathi again after the completion of the duration. When Gajapathi offers â‚¹5 billion to forego Meera, Akash accepts it happily and shifts the entire money to his house in Athreyapuram. When Meera and Shraddha probe into this, they find out that Akash's father Jayanarayan (Nagineedu) was befriended by Gajapathi, a struggling politician then, and poisoned the priceless medicines supplied by Jayanarayan with the help of a pharmaceutical company. The blame falls on Jayanarayan who was killed by Gajapathi for political gain. Akash came to know this when he met the paternal uncle of the girl who rejected him initially and decides to seek revenge.

Akash plans to use the money he received for development programmes in Athreyapuram on his father's death anniversary. Gajapathi is dethroned from the ministry and his political career comes to an end after Akash provides the proofs for Gajapathi's illegal activities to the political party's executive committee, which he acquired from Gajapathi's secretary after bribing him. Gajapathi tries to kill Akash in Athreyapuram, only to be attacked fatally by the local people who are aware of his betrayal towards Jayanarayan. The film ends with Akash's marriage with Meera and the pandit (Posani Krishna Murali) saying that bride will have only two children but groom would have four this confuses everyone. Then Meera shows Shraddha also dressed as bride. Pandit asks if you both are friends will you share everythingÂ ? Shraddha tells that he played with us before marriage now we will play with him after marriage.

Sampath Nandi was supposed to direct Pawan Kalyan in the sequel of Gabbar Singh (2012). The film was delayed for years and later Sampath chose to direct Ravi Teja after walking out of that project.[3] Ravi Teja confirmed the news and said that he would start working on this film after completing Kick 2 (2015).[4] Previously, Nandi wrote the script keeping Ravi Teja in mind as the lead but had wanted to prove his abilities before working together.[5] He chose to narrate the story of a man from Athreyapuram in Godavari district who comes on a mission to Hyderabad and his conflict with an intelligent chief minister. In an interview with The Hindu, Nandi specified it as a screenplay based film with a notable flashback episode.[6]

For this film, he adapted two fight sequences from the script written for the sequel of Gabbar Singh.[7] The film was titled as Bengal Tiger and K. K. Radha Mohan announced that he would bankroll the film under his banner Sri Satya Sai Arts.[8] At the same time, Sampath Nandi confirmed that the script work is in its final stages.[9] Nandi's protégé Bheems Cecireleo was selected as the music director after Ravi Teja's approval.[10] Soundararajan was selected as the cinematographer who stated that the film is a mass action film.[11] The film was officially launched on 30 January 2015 at Ramanaidu Studios.[12]

Ravi Teja played the role of Akash Narayan, an aimless youth with a master's degree in computers, whose reckless life changes after facing an insult.[14] Tamannaah, the female lead of Nandi's Racha (2012), was signed as one of the two female leads[15] as Ravi Teja was keen on working with her.[5] Impressed with her performance in Jil, Nandi approached Rashi Khanna to play the role of the other female lead.[16] Khanna stated that she and Tamannaah have roles of equal importance in the film.[13] Regarding her role, Khanna said that she would play an "intelligent girl" and shed weight for the same. She added that her subplot in the film, which explores the relationship she shares with her father (played by Rao Ramesh), has its "own importance in the overall scheme of things".[17] Boman Irani was cast for a crucial supporting role.[18]

Posani Krishna Murali and Sayaji Shinde were cast for key supporting roles.[19] Nassar was signed in on for a key supporting role as well.[5] Brahmanandam was chosen to play an important role.[20] Ramaprabha, Tanikella Bharani, Nagineedu and Prabhu joined the film's cast in its first schedule.[21] Harshvardhan Rane made a cameo appearance in the film as Khanna's lover and stated that there is a love triangle between him, Ravi Teja and Khanna.[22] Aksha Pardasany too made a cameo appearance in the film and all her scenes in the film were with Ravi Teja.[23]

Brahmaji's inclusion in the film's cast was confirmed in late June 2015.[24] Prabhakar and Prudhviraj confirmed their inclusion in the film's cast in early August 2015.[25][26] Hamsa Nandini was signed in mid August 2015 to make a special appearance in a song.[27] Nandini said in an interview that she would sport three looks in the song which she called a "high-fashion with a desi twist" and added that the song is a mix of massy dance beats and EDM grooves.[28]

The principal photography began on 4 March 2015 at Ramoji Film City where scenes focusing Irani, Khanna, Shinde and others were shot until 14 March 2015.[29] On its completion, the next schedule began from 10 April 2015 and Ravi Teja joined the film's sets along with Tamannaah and other supporting cast. The schedule was announced to be shot in Ramoji Film City, Chilkur and other areas around Hyderabad until 6 May 2015.[30] Harshvardhan Rane joined the film's sets on 13 April 2015.[22] Filming continued in Shamshabad from 22 April 2015,[31] after which scenes on Ravi Teja, Tamannaah and Khanna were shot in a railway station backdrop at Ramoji Film City.[32] The third schedule began on 13 May 2015 at Ramoji Film City where Brahmanandam and Ravi Teja joined the film's sets.[33] Along with few scenes featuring both of them, a couple of songs were planned to be shot in the schedule.[34]

Filming of a song featuring Ravi Teja, Tamannaah and Khanna commenced on 23 May 2015.[35] On its completion, 40% of the principal photography was wrapped up. The next schedule was planned from 6 June 2015 in Hyderabad to film action sequences before shifting to Pollachi for more filming.[36] From 19 June 2015, few action sequences choreographed by Ram-Lakshman were shot on Ravi Teja and others at Ramoji Film City using Phantom Cam. Irani joined the film's sets on the next day.[37] By then, 60% of the film's shoot was completed.[7] Within a month, 80% of the film's shoot was wrapped up and few action sequences were being shot in and around Hyderabad.[38] The hero introduction song choreographed by A. Harsha was shot on Ravi Teja, Hamsa Nandini and 120 dancers at Hyderabad in mid August 2015.[39] The final schedule commenced at Europe from 8 September 2015 where the film's unit planned to complete the shoot of a few songs.[40]

Two songs—one on Ravi Teja and Tamannaah and another on Ravi Teja and Khanna—were shot in the schedule. Upon their completion, the principal photography was almost wrapped up and post-production works were progressing in tandem.[41] Few scenes were filmed in Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh. Initially planned to be completed in 110 working days, the filming of Bengal Tiger was wrapped up in around 100 days and the runtime stood at around 145 minutes.[42]

The official soundtrack of Bengal Tiger consisting of five songs was composed by Bheems Cecireleo, the lyrics of which were written by Ramajogayya Sastry, Sri Mani, Bhaskarabhatla and Suddala Ashok Teja along with Nandi.[43] P. Nutana, one of the finalists of the 2011 season of Padutha Theeyaga, was selected to provide vocals for the song "Aasia" whose lyrics were penned by Nandi.[44] Junglee Music acquired the soundtrack's marketing rights.[45] The soundtrack was released on 18 October 2015 at Shilpakala Vedika, Hyderabad with the film's cast and crew in attendance.[46] The soundtrack cover features a still of Ravi Teja from the song Bengal Tiger.

The soundtrack opened to positive reception.[43] The Times of India rated the soundtrack 3.5 out of 5 stars and called it a "winner considering it keeps in line with Ravi Teja's vibrant on screen persona".[47] Behindwoods rated the soundtrack 2.5 out of 5 stars and called it a "powerful masala album which stays true to the Ravi Teja's formulaic entertainers!". The reviewer chose Chupulatho and Banchan as the picks of the soundtrack.[48]

Initially planned for a global release on 18 September 2015 (coinciding with Ganesh Chaturthi),[50] the film's release date was announced as 5 November 2015 by Ravi Teja, making it one of the Diwali releases of the year,[51] after plans to release during the Navratri festive season were called off to avoid clash with Bruce Lee - The Fighter and Akhil.[52] The film's release was postponed twiceâ€”once on mutual consent with the makers of Akhil from 5 to 27 November 2015,[53][54][55] and again to 10 December 2015 to avoid clash with Size Zero and Shankaraabharanam after holding discussions with Prasad V Potluri and Kona Venkat.[56]

Global Cinemas acquired the film's theatrical distribution rights for the Nizam region.[57] Tata DoCoMo entered into a co-branding partnership with this film in late October 2015 and announced itself as the "exclusive telecom partner" of the film.[58] In India, Bengal Tiger was released in 750 screens, out of which 600 screens were from Andhra Pradesh and Nizam region.[1] The global screen count stood at approximately 1000 screens.[59]

The Hindi dubbing rights were sold for ₹26 million to a Mumbai-based distributor which is the highest ever amount for a Ravi Teja's film. A limited release was planned in Maharashtra and the distributors made an agreement with a leading Hindi film channel to screen it on the national network after 60 days of the release of the original Telugu version.[60] The global satellite rights of the film were sold for ₹78 million.[61]

Bengal Tiger received mixed reviews from the critics.[62] Y. Sunita Chowdary of The Hindu stated that Nandi "shines as a dialogue writer" and called the film "almost an epic" compared to Kick 2. Chowdary added, "Those seeking variety can stay away but those who go expecting their share of fun will not be disappointed".[63] Sify gave 3 out of 5 stars and called Bengal Tiger a "regular mass entertainer with severe stress on comedy and glamour", adding, "Compared to recent Ravi Teja's movie, Bengal Tiger is more entertaining. The first half of the movie, Ravi Teja's antics, and Prudhvi are its strength" and pointed out that the second half "should have been better".[64] The Hans India too gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and stated that Nandi "has come out with a full treat to mass audience", adding that the twist in the interval scene "takes the film to a new level".[65] Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle too gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and called the film a "regular paisa vasool film with the right dose of masala and glamour", adding that it is "far more entertaining" compared to Kick 2 and a "good comeback" for Ravi Teja.[66] Pravallika Anjuri of Oneindia gave the film 3 out of 5 stars as well and stated, "Though Bengal Tiger is a formulaic film, it is surely a complete 'Paisa Vasool' for masses, which makes it a perfect Mass Maharaj Ravi Teja's trademark film", adding that the cinematography and production values make Bengal Tiger a "technically good film too".[67] IndiaGlitz also gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and called Bengal Tiger a "Ravi Teja-style power-packed performance, complete with comedy doses from Prithvi Raj and Posani, not to speak of punch lines of a different shade".[68]

Pranita Jonnalagedda of The Times of India gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and stated, "Sampath Nandi fails on many counts — he failed to shape the characters on screen, underused performers with amazing potential — Ravi Teja especially; and there is absolutely nothing to take home".[69] S. S. Kamal of Bangalore Mirror too gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and stated, "Ravi Teja's charisma eventually prevents the film from being a complete disaster, making the first half in particular quite entertaining. If only Sampath Nandi had maintained the momentum right till the end, the result could have been so much better".[70] Behindwoods gave 2.25 out of 5 stars and called the film a "worn-out no-brainer", adding that it is another "erratically fun outing" from Ravi Teja for whom there is "hardly a replacement" for "such weird, carefree yet lovable action hero roles".[71] Karthik Keramalu of CNN-IBN gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and stated, "I found a giggling amount of comedy in ‘Bengal Tiger. Focus on the funny bits. It won’t matter if you doze off for the rest of the film though", adding that the film is a "mixture of good comedy and dull narration".[72] Suhas Yellapantula of The New Indian Express gave the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and stated, "The film irritates you with its banality and angers you with its loudness. It seems as if every dialogue in the film is amplified ten-fold. The humour is colourless and makes you cringe".[73]

Bengal Tiger which is regarded as a "hattrick hit" for director Sampath Nandi in the industry debuted with an average occupancy of 85% across Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and grossed around ₹70 million with a distributor share of ₹53.6 million. The global gross figure stood at approximately ₹100 million. It became the second best opening figures for a Ravi Teja's film after Kick 2.[59] It collected US33,850 from 74 locations at the United States box office from the premiere shows.[74] By the end of its four-day first weekend, Bengal Tiger grossed ₹196 million at the AP/Nizam box office with a distributor share of ₹136.5 million, breaking the records set by Ravi Teja's previous films Kick 2 and Power (2014). It grossed ₹255.5 million in four days at the global box office with a distributor share of ₹166 million.[75] The four-day United States box office total stood at US$290,000 (₹194 million).[76] The film grossed nearly ₹40.5 million globally and also became the 8th highest grossing Telugu film of the year.[2]


who is responsible for contracting for subcontractor service on a project

A subcontractor is a person who is hired by a general contractor (or prime contractor, or main contractor) to perform a specific task as part of the overall project and is normally paid for services provided to the project by the originating general contractor. While the most common concept of a subcontractor is in building works and civil engineering, the range of opportunities for subcontractor is much wider and it is possible that the greatest number now operate in the information technology and information sectors of business.

Subcontractor

A subcontractor is an individual or in many cases a business that signs a contract to perform part or all of the obligations of another's contract.

The incentive to hire subcontractors is either to reduce costs or to mitigate project risks. In this way, the general contractor receives the same or better service than the general contractor could have provided by itself, at lower overall risk. Many subcontractors do work for the same companies rather than different ones. This allows subcontractors to further specialize their skills.

In United Kingdom building industry contract law, particularly when using JCT standard form contracts, three subcontractor types are identified:

Under UK tax law, certain activities that might appear to be subcontracting are actually treated differently. This is a subtlety of corporate taxation that may easily be missed or misunderstood, and may be relevant to research and development tax relief. Examples of activities that involve outsourced work that do not count as subcontracting for tax purposes include:


is there a toll for the humber bridge

By 2006, the bridge carried an average of 120,000 vehicles per week.[3] The toll was £3.00 each way for cars (higher for commercial vehicles), which made it the most expensive toll crossing in the United Kingdom.[4] In April 2012, the toll was halved to £1.50 each way after the UK government deferred £150 million from the bridge's outstanding debt.[5][6]

Humber Bridge

The Humber Bridge, near Kingston upon Hull, England, is a 2,220-metre (7,280 ft) single-span suspension bridge, which opened to traffic on 24 June 1981. When it was opened, it was the longest of its type in the world; it was not surpassed until 1998, with the completion of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge, and it is now the eighth-longest. It spans the Humber, (the estuary formed by the rivers Trent and Ouse), between Barton-upon-Humber on the south bank and Hessle on the north bank, thereby connecting the East Riding of Yorkshire and North Lincolnshire. When it opened in 1981, both sides of the bridge were in the non-metropolitan county of Humberside, until its dissolution in 1996. The bridge can be seen for miles around and from as far as Patrington in the East Riding of Yorkshire. It is a Grade I listed building.

Before the bridge opening, commuters would go from one bank to the other either by using the Humber Ferry that ran between Corporation Pier at Hull and New Holland Pier at New Holland, Lincolnshire or by driving via the M62 (from 1976), M18 (from 1979) and M180 motorways, crossing the River Ouse near Goole (connected to the Humber) in the process. Until the mid-1970s, the route south was via the single-carriageway A63 and the A614 (via grid-locked Thorne where it met the busy A18 and crossed the Stainforth and Keadby Canal at a swing bridge bottleneck, and then on through Finningley and Bawtry, meeting the east-west A631).

The journey was a series of straight single-carriageway roads across foggy moors interrupted by predictable bottlenecks for most of the journey to Blyth, Nottinghamshire, where it met the A1. The accident rate was consequently high, and the journey of most of Hull's traffic was similar to that faced by much of Lincolnshire's drivers today. Debates in Parliament were held on the low standard of the windy route across the wind-swept plains around Goole. It was not unexpected that under these conditions, a Humber Bridge, with connecting dual-carriageway approach roads, and grade-separated junctions, would seem worthwhile. By the time the bridge opened, much of this well-below-standard route had been transformed by dualling of the A63 and its bypasses, the extension of the M62, and the much-needed connecting of the M18 from Thorne to Wadworth. The obvious need for a Humber Bridge had largely been tempered by the late 1970s with the much-improved motorway infrastructure of the region. Although welcome, the timing of these improvements would detract any significant levels of traffic needing to cross a bridge from Hessle to Barton. The Humber Bridge would be a victim of the M62's success, before opening.

There was also a short-lived hovercraft service; Minerva and Mercury linked Hull Pier and Grimsby Docks from February to October 1969, but suffered frequent mechanical failures.[citation needed]

Plans for a bridge were originally drawn up in the 1930s, and were revised in 1955, but work did not begin until 27 July 1972. The Humber Bridge Act, promoted by Kingston Upon Hull Corporation, was passed in 1959. This established the Humber Bridge Board to manage and raise funds to build the bridge and buy the land required for the approach roads.[citation needed]

However, raising the necessary funding proved impossible until the 1966 Hull North by-election. To save his government, Labour Prime Minister Harold Wilson prevailed upon his Minister of Transport Barbara Castle to sanction the building of the bridge.[citation needed] This type of action is known as pork barrel, or an election sweetener. Dismay at the long wait for a crossing led to the writing by Christopher Rowe of a protest song entitled "The Humber Bridge".[7]

The consulting engineers for the project were Freeman Fox & Partners – now Hyder Consulting. Sir Ralph Freeman had produced the first ideas in 1927, and in the early 1930s the cost of the project was thought to be around £1.725 million, and that the bridge would be unlikely to recoup the construction or maintenance costs. In 1935 he had an idea for a 4,500-foot (1,400 m) suspension bridge for the Humber Tunnel Executive Committee. Sir Gilbert Roberts produced more ideas in 1955 for a bridge with a 4,500-foot (1,400 m) central span, costing £15 million, to be paid for by East Riding County Council and Lindsey County Council. Once it was looking likely that a bridge would be constructed, Imperial College-educated Bernard Wex OBE (24 April 1922 – 31 July 1990) produced the design in 1964 that was actually built.[8] In 1985 he was awarded the Telford Medal by the Institution of Civil Engineers. In the 1950s he had helped to design High Marnham Power Station. He was a former UK chairman of the International Association of Bridge and Structural Engineers, and helped to found the Steel Construction Institute in 1976.

The architect was R.E. Slater ARIBA.[9] The administration building (for the tolls) was designed by Parker & Rosner. The landscaping was designed by Prof Arnold Weddle. Wind tunnel testing took place at the National Maritime Institute (now part of BMT Limited) at Teddington in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, and the road deck is designed for wind speeds up to 105Â mph.

The main contractor for the steel superstructure was British Bridge Builders (the same grouping as for the Forth and Severn Road Bridges comprising Sir William Arrol & Co then a unit of N.E.I Cranes Ltd, the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering and Redpath Dorman Long Ltd). The contractor for the concrete towers, anchorages and sub-structure was John Howard & Co Ltd[10] of Chatham, Kent, who were later bought by Amec.

Work began on the southern approach road in July 1972 by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe. The 2.5 km approach road to the A1077 junction, by Costain Civil Engineering began in September 1976. It included a 320m span from the southern anchorage of seven pre-stressed concrete box sections, and the A1077 junction, costing £4.25 million. Work on the bridge substructure (foundations) began in March 1973. To reduce heat of hydration in the concrete, which produces calcium silicate hydrate from belite, as much as 60% of the Portland cement was replaced with ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS). It took longer to build the southern anchorage due to a diaphragm wall design due to not enough shallow bedrock. The main southern approach roads from Barton to the M180 motorway junction at Barnetby were built in the late 1970s by Clugston Construction of Scunthorpe,[11] opening in 1978.

The towers were constructed by slipforming, and the north tower was completed by May 1974. The southern foundations were completed in September 1975, with the pier completed in March 1976, and the southern tower was completed by September 1976. The bridge itself had been planned to open in 1976. The northern tower and anchorage was built on solid chalk, but the southern tower and anchorage were built on fissured Kimmeridge Clay, and 500 metres from the southern shore, and built with a difficult caisson design. The subcontractor for the concrete was Tileman &. Co. Ltd of Shipston-on-Stour, south Warwickshire.

Cable spinning took place between September 1977 and July 1979. Each cable weighs 5,500 tonnes, with 37 strands of 404 lengths of cable. The cable on the northern span has four extra strands. Each cable can take a load of 19,400 tonnes. The box sections weighed around 140 tonnes each. The first box sections were assembled in June 1975, and put into the main span on 9 November 1979. The toll buildings and north approach road were built by A.F. Budge of Retford, Nottinghamshire, costing £2.9 million. Work began on the administration building in November 1976. The toll system was manufactured by Plessey Controls of Poole, Dorset. Corrosion resistance on the steelwork was provided by Camrex Corrosion of Bellshill, North Lanarkshire.

The road was laid by Tarmac Roadstone of Wolverhampton with mastic asphalt.[12]

In 2017, the bridge was designated a Grade I listed building.[13]

The bridge opened to traffic on 24 June 1981.[14] It was opened officially by Elizabeth II on 17 July 1981.[14]

With a centre span of 1,410 metres (4,626 ft) and a total length of 2,220 metres (7,283 ft), the Humber Bridge was the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world for 17 years, until Japan's Akashi Kaikyō Bridge opened on 5 April 1998. The road-distance between Hull and Grimsby was reduced by nearly 50 miles (80 km) as a consequence of the bridge.[15]

The bridge's surface takes the form of a dual carriageway with a lower-level foot and cyclepath on both sides. There is a permanent 50 mph (80 km/h) speed limit on the full length of the bridge.

Each tower consists of a pair of hollow vertical concrete columns, each 155.5 m (510 ft) tall and tapering from 6 m (20 ft) square at the base to 4.5 m × 4.75 m (14.8 ft × 15.6 ft) at the top. The bridge is designed to tolerate constant motion and bends more than 3 m (10 ft) in winds of 80 mph (129 km/h). The towers, although both vertical, are 36 mm (1.4 inches) farther apart at the top than the bottom due to the curvature of the earth.[16] The total length of the suspension cable is 71,000 km (44,000 miles). The north tower is on the bank, and has foundations down to 8 m (26 ft). The south tower is in the water, and descends to 36 m (118 ft) as a consequence of the shifting sandbanks that make up the estuary.

The bridge held the record for the world's longest single-span suspension bridge for 16 years from its opening in July 1981, until the opening of the Great Belt Bridge in June 1997, and was relegated to third place with the opening of the Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in April 1998. It is now the eighth longest single-span suspension bridge. The central span, at 1410 m (4640 ft), is the UK's longest. It remains the longest single-span suspension bridge in the world that one can cross on foot or by bicycle.[17] The bridge is crossed twice during the annual Humber Bridge half marathon.[18]

In July 2013, work began on introducing a new electronic tolling system.[19] The existing Humber Bridge toll system is largely the same as it was when the bridge opened in 1981, and uses a computer system that is over 15 years old. This obsolete technology requires an increasing amount of maintenance and needs replacing.[citation needed]

Phase one of the project focused on updating the infrastructure and saw all the toll booths replaced as well as the toll plaza canopy. Phase two concentrates on writing, testing, and setting up the new toll system. The project is scheduled for completion by spring 2015.[citation needed]

Once completed, bridge users will be able to set up an account with the bridge and pay into it. Account holders will get a device called the Humber Tag, a small electronic tag that will enable the system to recognise the bridge user and the toll will be then automatically deducted from the user's account. This will mean that account holders will spend less time queuing at the toll booths.[citation needed]

The two central lanes through the plaza will be free-flow lanes: they will not have any booths and account holders will be able to cross the Humber Bridge without stopping.[citation needed]

The project to update the tolls and the resulting decrease in waiting times has been welcomed by business and transport leaders.[19]

During construction of the bridge, the road deck sections were floated up on barges then hoisted into place by cables. During one of these lifting operations some of the cables on one of the road deck sections failed, leaving the section hanging at an angle. The section was, however, subsequently rescued and used.[20]

More than 200 incidents of people jumping or falling from the bridge have taken place since it was opened in 1981; only five have survived.[21] Between 1990 and February 2001 the Humber Rescue Team launched its boat 64 times to deal with people falling or jumping off the bridge.[22] Notable incidents include the cases of a West Yorkshire woman and her two-year-old daughter who fell off the bridge in 2005,[23] a mother who killed herself and her 12-year-old son with Fragile X Syndrome in April 2006,[24][25] and that of a man jumping from the bridge to his death on the A63 road below in September 2006.

As a result, plans were announced on 26 December 2009 to construct a suicide barrier along the walkways of the bridge; design constraints were cited as the reason for non-implementation before this time.[26]

In May 2017, a YouTuber with the username 'Night Scape', along with a small group, illegally scaled the bridge without safety equipment. The group of young men climbed up the structure to the top of the bridge whilst using the suspension wires as handholds. Humberside Police and the Humber Bridge Board are currently reviewing the security measures.[27]

The bridge has a toll charge of £1.50 for cars. Until 1 April 2012 the Humber Bridge was the only major toll bridge in the United Kingdom to charge tolls to motorcycles (£1.20); others such as the Severn crossings and the Dartford Crossing are free. In 2004, a large number of motorcyclists held a slow-pay protest, taking off gloves and helmets and paying the toll in large denomination bank notes. Police reported a tailback of 4 miles (6 km) as a consequence of the protest.[citation needed]

In 1996, the British Parliament passed the Humber Bridge (Debts) Act 1996 to reorganise the Humber Bridge Board's debts to ensure the bridge could be safely maintained. Although a significant proportion of the debt was suspended in that refinancing arrangement there was no "write off" of debt and the suspended portion is being gradually re-activated as the Bridge Board pays off the remainder of the active debt.[citation needed]

In 2006 a Private Member's Bill – sponsored by Cleethorpes Labour MP Shona McIsaac – relating to the Humber Bridge, was introduced into Parliament.[28] The Humber Bridge Bill would have made amendments to the Humber Bridge Act 1959 "requiring the secretary of state to give directions to members of the Humber Bridge Board regarding healthcare and to review the possibility of facilitating journeys across the Humber Bridge in relation to healthcare". The aim was to allow people who travel from the southbank to the northbank for medical treatment to cross the bridge without paying the toll, and to allow the Secretary of State for Transport to appoint two members of the Humber Bridge board to represent the interests of the NHS. Even though the Bill received cross-party support (it was co-sponsored by Shadow Home Secretary David Davis, and supported by all other MPs representing North Lincolnshire and the East Riding of Yorkshire) it ran out of time later that year.[29]

A protest at the bridge on 1 September 2007 was supported by the local Cancer Patients Involvement Group, the Road Haulage Association, Yorkshire and Humberside MEP Diana Wallis and local business and council representatives.[30] The government responded to the petition on 14 January 2008, stating that "Concessions or exemptions from tolls on the Humber Bridge are a matter for the Humber Bridge Board."[31]

In October 2008, a joint campaign was launched by the Scunthorpe Telegraph, Hull Daily Mail and Grimsby Telegraph to abolish the fee for crossing the Humber. The papers' A Toll Too Far campaign garnered much support from councillors and MPs serving Lincolnshire and Humberside and was launched in response to a mooted increase in the cost of bridge crossings. The campaign's aim was not only to stave off any potential increase in crossing charges, but to ultimately see the costs abolished. A reduction to a Â£1 charge for bridge crossings was a sought-after alternative. Thousands of readers backed the campaign with a paper and an online petition.[citation needed]

A public inquiry into the tolls was held in March 2009 by independent inspector Neil Taylor. In July 2009, the Department for Transport announced that it had decided not to allow the proposed increase. Transport Minister Sadiq Khan said he did not believe it was right for the tolls to be raised in the current economic climate.[32] In October 2009, the government approved a £6 million grant for maintenance costs, which meant that there would be no toll increase before 2011 at the earliest, by which time tolls would have been frozen for five years.[33]

The Humber Bridge Board applied again to the Department of Transport in September 2010, to raise the tolls from April 2011, but the Government ordered a public inquiry to be held into the application.[34] A three-day public inquiry was held in Hull in early March 2011.[35] Following the recommendation by the planning inspector the Government gave approval, on 14 June 2011, for the increase to go ahead.[36] The toll was raised on 1 October 2011, at which point it became the most expensive toll crossing in the United Kingdom.[4] The Severn Bridge and Second Severn Crossing charge a toll of Â£5.70,[37] but this is only collected in one direction.[citation needed]

In the 2011 Autumn Statement on 29 November, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, George Osborne, announced that the Government had agreed to reduce the debt on the bridge by £150 million, which would allow the toll for cars to be halved to £1.50.[38] Following the government accepting the agreement, between the four local councils, to underwrite the remaining debt Transport Secretary Justine Greening confirmed the reduction in tolls on 29 February 2012. This was implemented in April.[39]

View from the south bank showing the curvature of the bridge

View from the eastern walkway

Close up of a bridge tower

View from below the Humber Bridge towers taken from north bank

View from north bank west side

View from the north bank under the road

Humber Bridge Tower

Humber Bridge Walkway


who sang if i had my life to live over

The song is now a recognized standard, recorded by many artists.

If I Had My Life to Live Over

"If I Had My Life to Live Over" is a popular song.

It was written by Moe Jaffe, Larry Vincent and Henry Tobias and published in 1939.


who played emmett on the andy griffith show

In 1957, Hartman returned one last time to Broadway, but then past fifty, he tired of the hectic stage life. He continued to play bit parts in movies and television throughout the rest of his life, most famously as handyman Emmett Clark on CBS's The Andy Griffith Show[2] and Mayberry R.F.D. In a nod to his earlier life, he is seen doing a dance routine at Howard Sprague's party in the Andy Griffith episode "The Wedding", and in the Mayberry, RFD, episode "All for Charity", he can be seen doing a soft shoe routine with costar Ken Berry. In addition, he had small parts on Petticoat Junction, Love, American Style, The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet, Hazel, Ben Casey, The Twilight Zone, The Alfred Hitchcock Hour, Our Man Higgins, and Family Affair. He was cast in the 1960 film, Inherit the Wind.[3] In 1967, he appeared with Robert Morse in the film version of How To Succeed In Business Without Really Trying.

Paul Hartman

Paul Hartman (March 1, 1904 - October 2, 1973) was an American dancer, stage performer and television actor.

Born in San Francisco, California, Hartman, like Fred Astaire, began performing as a dancer with his sister. In 1922, he teamed up with Grace Barrett for a long and successful dancing comedy vaudeville act that consisted of them both paying homage to and gently mocking the popular dances of the day, from ballet to swing. The two married in 1927.

Along with Grace, Paul made his Broadway debut in Ballyhoo of 1932 alongside Bob Hope, but the show was not a success. The two found success with Cole Porter's Red Hot and Blue a few years later, and continued to flourish on the Great White Way. The main premise of their act involved the crisp and witty Grace overwhelming the gangly, slack-jawed Paul, intermittently cut with dance numbers and musical comedy routines.

The Hartmans' success led them to Hollywood, but Paul only saw limited success there, most prominently appearing alongside Frank Sinatra and Victor Borge in 1943's Higher and Higher. Upon the Hartmans' return to Broadway, they resolved to take charge and write their own revue. Their 1948 play, Angel in the Wings, was a smash success, and both Hartmans were named best lead performer at the first ever Tony Awards held that same year.

The two were then offered a sitcom on NBC, and The Hartmans (at Home) showed promise, but audiences rejected the show, which often featured canned scripts and little opportunity for the couple to show off their physical and musical abilities. Paul and Grace returned to Broadway, where they spent three years in a number of variety shows and revues. In 1951 his was elected a member to the famed theater club, The Lambs.

Hartman's wife Grace was diagnosed with cancer in 1952. She died in 1955. Television and Hollywood had once again risen to the top of the entertainment world, and the convenience of television shooting and a quick paycheck lured Paul out to Los Angeles once more. Hartman began appearing in the 1953-1954 ABC situation comedy, The Pride of the Family, as Albie Morrison, the father and head of the household. Fay Wray, best known for King Kong, played his wife, Catherine, and Natalie Wood and Robert Hyatt played his children, Ann and Junior Morrison, respectively.[1]

Hartman died from a heart attack in Los Angeles at the age of sixty-nine.


when does the sears christmas catalogue come out

The Sears Wish Book is a popular Christmas-gift catalog released by Sears Holdings Corporation, annually in August or September. The catalog contains toys and other holiday-related merchandise. The first Sears Wish Book was printed in 1933, and published in 1934.[1] and was a separate catalog from the annual Sears Christmas catalog.

Sears Wish Book

The Sears catalog offered customers around the US a chance to wear "city clothes" throughout its 97-year-history.[2]

In 1993, Sears discontinued publishing their big-book catalogs in the United States and the Wish Book noticeably started to diminish in size.[3] By 2005, Sears had completely abandoned anything resembling the original Wish Book and was producing the 2.5-by-2.5-inch Little Big Wish Book The mini-catalog was given to customers at Sears Auto Centers, placed inside packages that were purchased on Sears.com and Landsend.com, and was included inside the packaging of in-home deliveries.

In 2007, Sears once again created a holiday gift Wish Book'called more reminiscent of its predecessor, however, it was still considerably smaller than the original Wish Book at only about 100 pages. This was a stark contrast to the 300-plus page catalog previously produced.[4] According to the Associated Press at that time, the Sears Wish Book was considered as a holiday treat in itself by generations of children who were hoping for the best [5] on Christmas morning.

In the 2007 edition of the catalog, half of the total number of pages was devoted to Christmas toys and the remainder focused on other store items including appliances, tools, clothes and jewelry.[6]

In the 2010 edition, Sears Christmas Wish Book went mobile [7] so customers would be able to access their catalog via smartphone devices.

In Canada, Sears continues to distribute their big-book catalogues, including the Wish Book.[8] In 2012, Sears Canada chief Calvin McDonald hand-delivered Christmas catalogs [9] to mark the 60th Anniversary of the Sears Wish Book.[10]

Sears Canada launched an iPad app for the 2013 Christmas Wish Book which is currently ranked as the number one free iPad app in Canada in the Catalogue category.[11]


what is the name of the ancient egyptian kings

Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records: Ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, such as Manetho's Aegyptiaca, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and Historians alike call for caution about the credibility, exactitude and completeness of these sources, many of which were written long after the reigns they report.[2] An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another and/or selective.

List of pharaohs

This article contains a list of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, from the Early Dynastic Period before 3100 BC through to the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, when Egypt became a province of Rome under Augustus Caesar in 30 BC.

Note that the dates given are approximate. The list of pharaohs presented below is based on the conventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately.

The following ancient king lists are known (along with the dynasty under which they were created)):[3]

Lower Egypt geographically consisted of the northern Nile and the Nile delta. The following list may not be complete:

Regrouped here are predynastic rulers of Upper Egypt belonging to the late Naqada III period, sometimes informally described as Dynasty 00.

The following list of predynastic rulers may be incomplete. Since these kings precede the First Dynasty, they have been informally grouped as "Dynasty 0".

The Fifth Dynasty ruled from 2498 to 2345 BC.

The Sixth Dynasty ruled from 2345 to 2181 BC.

The First Intermediate Period (2181â€“2060 BC) is a period of disarray and chaos between the end of the Old Kingdom and the advent of the Middle Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II. He had reigned for more than 64 and likely up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. The union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resulting famine.

The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After 20 to 45 years, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Herakleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their nomial Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. Around 2055 BC, Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of pharaoh Intef III defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.

The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled for approximately 20–45 years. They comprise numerous ephemeral kings reigning from Memphis over a possibly divided Egypt and, in any case, holding only limited power owing to the effectively feudal system into which the administration had evolved. The list below is based on the Abydos King List dating to the reign of Seti I and taken from Jürgen von Beckerath's Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen[40] as well as from Kim Ryholt's latest reconstruction of the Turin canon, another king list dating to the Ramesside Era.[41]

The Ninth Dynasty[45] ruled from 2160 to 2130 BC. The Turin King List has 18 kings reigning in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial.[45]

The Tenth Dynasty was a local group that held sway over Lower Egypt that ruled from 2130 to 2040 BC.

The Eleventh Dynasty was a local group with roots in Upper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to 1991 BC. The 11th dynasty originated from a dynasty of Theban nomarchs serving kings of the 8th, 9th or 10th dynasty.

The successors of Intef the Elder, starting with Mentuhotep I, became independent from their northern overlords and eventually conquered Egypt under Mentuhotep II.

The Middle Kingdom (2060â€“1802 BC) is the period from the end of the First Intermediate Period to the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. In addition to the Twelfth Dynasty, some scholars include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties in the Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the kingdom that occurred during this time. This opening of trade eventually led to the downfall of the Middle Kingdom, induced by an invasion from the Hyksos.

The second part of the Eleventh Dynasty is considered to be part of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt.

The Twelfth Dynasty ruled from 1991 to 1802 BC.

The Second Intermediate Period (1802â€“1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as when the Hyksos, whose reign comprised the Fifteenth, made their appearance in Egypt.

The Thirteenth Dynasty was much weaker than the Twelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold onto the two lands of Egypt. Either at the start of the dynasty, c. 1805 BC or toward the middle of it in c. 1710 BC, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the marshes of the eastern Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the Canaanite Fourteenth Dynasty.

The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign of Sobekhotep IV, and around 1720 BC took control of the town of Avaris (the modern Tell el-Dab'a/Khata'na), conquering the kingdom of the 14th dynasty. Then, some time around 1650 BC the Hyksos, perhaps led by Salitis the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, conquered Memphis, thereby terminating the 13th dynasty. The power vacuum in Upper Egypt resulting from the collapse of the 13th dynasty allowed the 16th dynasty to declare its independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos kings shortly thereafter.

Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia under Seqenenre Tao, Kamose and finally Ahmose, first pharaoh of the New Kingdom.

The Thirteenth Dynasty (following the Turin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC and lasted 153 or 154 years according to Manetho. This table should be contrasted with Known kings of the 13th Dynasty.

The position of the following kings is uncertain:

The Fourteenth Dynasty was a local group from the eastern Delta, based at Avaris,[63] that ruled from either from 1805 BC or c. 1710 BC until around 1650 BC. The dynasty comprised many rulers with West Semitic names and is thus believed to have been Canaanite in origin. It is here given as per Ryholt, however this reconstruction of the dynasty is heavily debated with the position of the five kings preceding Nehesy highly disputed.

The position and identity of the following pharaohs is uncertain:

The Turin King List provides additional names, none of which are attested beyond the list.

The Fifteenth Dynasty arose from among the Hyksos people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from 1674 to 1535 BC.

The Second Intermediate Period may include an independent dynasty reigning over Abydos from c. 1650 BC until 1600 BC.[65][66][67] Four attested kings may be tentatively attributed to the Abydos Dynasty, and they are given here without regard for their (unknown) chronological order:

The Sixteenth Dynasty was a native Theban dynasty emerging from the collapse of the Memphis-based 13th dynasty c. 1650 BC and finally conquered by the Hyksos 15th dynasty c. 1580 BC. The 16th dynasty held sway over Upper Egypt only.

The 16th Dynasty may also have comprised the reigns of pharaohs Sneferankhre Pepi III[72] and Nebmaatre. Their chronological position is uncertain.[69][70]

The Seventeenth Dynasty was based in Upper Egypt and ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC:

The early 17th Dynasty may also have comprised the reign of a pharaoh Nebmaatre, whose chronological position is uncertain.[60]

The New Kingdom (1550â€“1077 BC) is the period covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th to the 11th century BC, between the Second Intermediate Period, and the Third Intermediate Period.

Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. It expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought with Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.

Three of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom are Akhenaten, also known as Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II who attempted to recover the territories in modern Israel/Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of the Hittite king Muwatalli II.

The Eighteenth Dynasty ruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC:

The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest pharaohs: Rameses II the Great:

The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from 1190 to 1077 BC:

The Third Intermediate Period (1077â€“664 BC) marked the end of the New Kingdom after the collapse of the Egyptian empire. A number of dynasties of Libyan origin ruled, giving this period its alternative name of the Libyan Period.

The Twenty-First Dynasty was based at Tanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically, they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They ruled from 1069 to 943 BC

Though not officially Pharaohs, the High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the de facto rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first and Twenty-second Dynasties, writing their names in cartouches and being buried in royal tombs.

The pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty were Libyans, ruling from around 943 to 728 BC:

The Twenty-Third Dynasty was a local group, again of Libyan origin, based at Herakleopolis and Thebes that ruled from 837 to c. 735 BC:

Rudamun was succeeded in Thebes by a local ruler:

The Twenty-fourth Dynasty was a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta (Sais), with only two pharaohs ruling from 732 to 720 BC.

Nubians invaded Lower Egypt and took the throne of Egypt under Piye although they already controlled Thebes and Upper Egypt in the early years of Piye's reign. Piye's conquest of Lower Egypt established the Twenty-fifth Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC.

They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom at Napata (656–590), and, later, at Meroë (590 BC – 4th century AD).

The Late Period runs from around 664 to 332 BC, and includes periods of rule by native Egyptians and Persians.

The Twenty-sixth Dynasty ruled from around 664 to 525 BC.[82]

The son and successor of Necho I, Psamtik I, managed to reunify Egypt and is generally regarded as the founder of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty.

Egypt was conquered by the Persian Empire in 525 BC and constituted a satrapy as part of this empire until 404 BC. The Achaemenid Shahanshahs were acknowledged as Pharaohs in this era, forming the 27th Dynasty:

The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one Pharaoh:

The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 398 to 380 BC:

The Thirtieth Dynasty ruled from 380 until Egypt once more came under Persian rule in 343 BC:

Egypt again came under the control of the Achaemenid Persians. After the practice of Manetho, the Persian rulers from 343 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as the Thirty-first Dynasty:

The Macedonians under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt. The Argeads ruled from 332 to 309 BC:

The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemies, ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency). The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, in modern times known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the consort of Julius Caesar and, after Caesar's death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them.[citation needed]

Cleopatra strove to create a dynastic and political union between Egypt and Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Mark Antony doomed her plans.[citation needed]

Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar) was the last king of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, and he reigned jointly with his mother Cleopatra VII of Egypt, from September 2, 47 BC. He was the eldest son of Cleopatra VII, and possibly the only son of Julius Caesar, after whom he was named. Between the alleged death of Cleopatra, on August 12, 30 BC, up to his own alleged death on August 23, 30 BC, he was nominally the sole pharaoh. It is tradition that he was hunted down and killed on the orders of Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus, but the historical evidence does not exist.[citation needed]

Cleopatra VII had affairs with Roman Dictator Julius Caesar and Roman General Mark Antony, but it was not until after her suicide (after Marc Antony was defeated by Octavian, who would later be Emperor Augustus) that Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman Emperors were accorded the title of Pharaoh, although exclusively while in Egypt. One Egyptian king-list lists the Roman Emperors as Pharaohs up to and including Decius. See the list of Roman Emperors.