where is the fynbos biome found in south africa

Fynbos (/ˈfeɪnbɒs/; Afrikaans pronunciation: [ˈfɛi̯nbos] meaning fine-leaved plants) is a small belt of natural shrubland or heathland vegetation located in the Western Cape and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. This area is predominantly winter rainfall coastal and mountainous areas with a Mediterranean climate. The fynbos ecoregion is within the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. In fields related to biogeography, fynbos is known for its exceptional degree of biodiversity[1] and endemism,[2] consisting about 80% (8,500 fynbos) species of the Cape floral kingdom where nearly 6,000 of them are endemic.[3] This land has faced severe threats and still does, but due to the many economic uses conservation efforts are being made to help restore it.

Fynbos

The word fynbos is often confusingly said to mean "fine bush" in Afrikaans, as "bos"  means  "bush". Typical fynbos foliage is ericoid rather than fine. The term, in its pre-Afrikaans, Dutch form, fynbosch, was recorded by Noble as being in casual use in the late 19th century.[4] In the early 20th century, John Bews referred to: "South-Western or Cape Region of Macchia or Fynbosch". He said: "In this well-known region where the rain occurs in winter and the summers are more or less dry, the dominant vegetation is of a sclerophyllous type and there is little or no natural grassland, though there are many grasses..."[5] He also refers to a high degree of endemism in the grasses in that region. Elsewhere he speaks of the term as "...applied by the inhabitants of the Cape to any sort of small woodland growth that does not include timber trees"; in the current vernacular, this still is the effective sense of the word.[1] However, in the technical, ecological sense, the constraints are more demanding. In the latter half of the 20th century, "fynbos" gained currency as the term for the "distinctive vegetation of the southwestern Cape".[1]

Fynbos – which grows in a 100-to-200-km-wide coastal belt stretching from Clanwilliam on the West coast to Port Elizabeth on the Southeast coast – forms part of the Cape floral kingdom, where it accounts for half of the surface area and 80% of the plant species. The fynbos in the western regions is richer and more varied than in the eastern regions of South Africa.

Of the world's six floral kingdoms, this is the smallest and richest per unit of area. The Holarctic kingdom, in contrast, incorporates the whole of the Northern Hemisphere north of the tropics. The diversity of fynbos plants is extremely high, with over 9000 species of plants occurring in the area, around 6200 of which are endemic, i.e. growing nowhere else in the world. South Africa's Western Cape has a very high species with one estimate finding diversity 8550 species in 89000 km2 which is higher than that estimated for Malayan forests, 7900 species in 132000 km2.[6] It has been claimed that it exceeds even the richest tropical rainforest in South America, including the Amazon.[3][unreliable source?] Of the Ericas, over 600 occur in the fynbos kingdom, while only two or three dozen have been described in the rest of the world. This is in an area of 46,000 km2 – by comparison, the Netherlands, with an area of 33,000 km2, has 1400 species, none of them endemic. Table Mountain in Cape Town supports 2200 species, more than the entire United Kingdom. Thus, although the fynbos covers only 6% of the area of southern Africa, it has half the species on the subcontinent – and in fact has almost 1 in 5 of all African plant species so far described.

Five main river systems traverse the Cape floral kingdom: the Oliphants River of the Western Cape; the Berg River which drains the West Coast Forelands plain stretching from the Cape Flats to the Olifants; the Breede, which is the largest river on the Cape; the Olifants River (Southern Cape); Gourits and the Groot Rivers which drain the Little Karoo basin and the South Coast Forelands; and the Baviaanskloof and Gamtoos Rivers to the east.

The most conspicuous components of the flora are evergreen sclerophyllous plants, many with ericoid leaves and gracile habit, as opposed to timber forest. Several plant families are conspicuous in fynbos; the Proteaceae are prominent, with genera such as Protea, Leucospermum (the "pincushions"), and Leucadendron (the silver tree and "cone bushes"). Proteas are represented by many species and are prominent in the landscape, generally with large striking flowers, many of which are pollinated by birds, and others by small mammals. Most of these do not have anything like ericoid leaves, and nor do most Rhamnaceae, Fabaceae, or Geraniaceae. Fynbos Ericaceae include more species of Erica than all other regions combined. They are popularly called heaths and are generally smaller plants bearing many small, tubular or globular flowers and ericoid leaves. Restionaceae also occur in greater variety in fynbos than anywhere else; their species are superficially grass-like. Many of them grow in wet areas such as seasonal marshes and spongy basins in the sources of mountain streams, but others grow in decidedly arid conditions.

Depending on the locality and the aspects under discussion, several other families have equal claim to being characteristic, including Asteraceae, Rutaceae, and Iridaceae.[1] More than 1400 bulb species occur among the fynbos, of which 96 are Gladiolus and 54 Lachenalia. Areas that are dominated by "renosterbos", Elytropappus rhinocerotis, (Asteraceae) are known as Renosterveld (Afrikaans for "rhinoceros veld").[1]

The fynbos area has been divided into two very similar ecoregions: the lowland fynbos (below 300 m above sea level) on the sandy soil of the west coast, and the montane fynbos of the Cape Fold Belt.

The Lowland Fynbos and Renosterveld experiences regular winter rainfall, especially to the west of Cape Agulhas. The ecoregion has been subdivided into 9 areas: the West Coast Forelands from the Cape Flats to the Olifants River (Western Cape); the Warm Bokkeveld basin around the town of Ceres; the Elgin Valley around the town of Elgin; the sandy Agulhas Plain on the coast; the Breede River valley around the town of Worcester; the South Coast Forelands from Caledon west to Mossel Bay; the south-eastern end of the Little Karoo; Langkloof valley; and the Southeastern Coast Forelands west from Tsitsikamma to Port Elizabeth.

The flora of the lowlands contains a high number of endemic species, and tends to favour larger plants than those growing on the hillier areas. They include the larger Restionaceae such as species of Elegia, Thamnochortus, and Willdenowia and proteas such as king protea (Protea cynaroides) and blushing bride (Serruria florida). Particular types of lowland fynbos include the shrubs and herbs of the coastal sand dunes, the mixture of ericoids and restoids with thickets of shrubs such as Maytenus, and other Celastraceae, sideroxylons and other Sapotaceae, and Rhus and other Anacardiaceae on the coastal sands; the classic fynbos of the sandplains of the West Coast Forelands, and the Agulhas Plain; the grassy fynbos of the hillier and wetter areas of the South and South-Eastern Coast Forelands; areas where fynbos and renosterveld are mixed; coastal renosterveld on the West and South Coast Forelands; and the inland renosterveld of the drier inland Little Karoo and Warm Bokkeveld.[7]

The area is also home to a large number of endemic creatures that have adapted to life in this area, such as the monkey beetles which pollinate Ixia viridiflora. Endemic species of fish in the five river systems occur in the area, too. Endemic reptiles and amphibians include a number of tortoises and the chameleon-like arum frog (Hyperolius horstockii).

The Montane Fynbos and Renosterveld is the area above 300 m, a total of 45,000 km2 of the Cape Fold Mountains. The same level of floral variety, including all three characteristic fynbos families, is found there, but ericas predominate. Because the higher and wetter areas are more protected and contain important water sources, the original flora is more intact than in the lowlands; but agriculture and global warming are still threats. The region includes the mountains in the west from the Cape Peninsula to the Kouebokkeveld Mountains, the south coast hinterland from Elgin to Port Elizabeth, the mountains north of the Little Karoo from Laingsburg to Willowmore, and the inselberg hills within the Little Karoo. About half of these areas are originally fynbos, and about half are renosterveld.

Many different microclimates occur, so the flora changes from west to east, and also varies with altitude up the hillsides away from the coast and according to compass direction. Lower elevations are covered with protea fynbos, with ericas taking over further up. Plant species include pincushions (Leucospermum). The wildlife includes a number of endemic bees, beetles, horseflies, and ants, and birds such as Cape sugarbirds and the orange-breasted sunbird. Many of these birds and insects are important and specific pollinators for the fynbos, such as the mountain pride butterfly (Aeropetes tulbaghia) which only visits red flowers such as Disa uniflora and pollinates 15 different species. Larger animals include antelopes, particularly Cape grysbok (Raphicerus melanotis), common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia), and klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus). The extinct blue antelope and quagga were also fynbos natives.

Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia) are of economic importance, grown and harvested in large quantities in the Cederberg area, and providing important exports. Restios continue to be used for thatching, as they have for hundreds or even thousands of years. Proteas and other floral species are grown in many areas and their flowers harvested for export.

In many areas with Mediterranean climates, fynbos species have become popular garden plants, in particular aloes and geraniums, and in cooler regions are used as window plants.

A very large number of fynbos plant species are used in traditional medicine, and while only a tiny proportion have as yet been subjected to formal testing, many have already been identified as having medicinal properties.[8][9][10]

The fynbos is the region of South Africa most affected by invasive alien species which collectively cover around 10% of the entire country.[11][12] The most common invasive plants are wattles and hakeas, native to Australia, and pines native to Europe and the Californian coast of the United States.[11][13] Pines had been introduced to South Africa by the 19th century and the wattles were imported into the mid-1870s to stabilize sand dunes.[13] In 1997 it was estimated that invasion caused the fynbos region to decline in value by US$750 million per year.[11]

The Working for Water (WfW) program was started in 1995 by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry to control these invasive species which were shown to sequester 9.95% of usable surface water runoff.[11][13] Since then, over 1,000,00 hectares of land have been cleared of invasive species while providing jobs to around 20,000 people per year, most of which are women and unskilled workers.[12] Systematic monitoring of WfW's progress is lacking but there is anecdotal evidence that endemic silver peas have returned to Table Mountain after being thought extinct.[13]

Researchers in a relatively remote stretch of Kogelberg Sandstone Fynbos

Community conservation group for the critically endangered remnant of Lourensford Alluvium Fynbos at Harmony Flats, Cape Town.


characteristics of khp that make it qualify as a primary standard

Potassium hydrogen phthalate, often called simply KHP, is an acidic salt compound.  It forms white powder, colorless crystals, a colorless solution, and an ionic solid that is the monopotassium salt of phthalic acid. KHP is slightly acidic, and it is often used as a primary standard for acid-base titrations because it is solid and air-stable, making it easy to weigh accurately. It is not hygroscopic.[2][3][4] It is also used as a  primary standard for calibrating pH meters because, besides the properties just mentioned, its pH in solution is very stable. It also serves as a thermal standard in thermogravimetric analysis[5].

Potassium hydrogen phthalate

KHP dissociates completely in water, giving the potassium cation (K+) and hydrogen phthalate anion (HP− or Hphthalate−).  As a weak acid hydrogen phthalate reacts reversibly with water to give hydronium (H3O+) and phthalate ions.

KHP can be used as a buffering agent (in combination with hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) depending on which side of pH 4.0 the buffer is to be) but should not be used as a buffer for decarboxylation reactions, as these will degrade the KHP and mop up the conjugation groups.

KHP is also a useful standard for total organic carbon (TOC) testing.  Most TOC analyzers are based on the oxidation of organics to carbon dioxide and water, with subsequent quantitation of the carbon dioxide.  Many TOC analyzers suggest testing their instruments with two standards:  one typically easy for the instrument to oxidize (KHP), and one more difficult to oxidize.  For the latter, benzoquinone is suggested.


where is orange county choppers located in new york

Orange County Choppers (OCC) is a motorcycle manufacturer and lifestyle brand company based in the town of Newburgh, located in Orange County, New York, that was founded in 1999 by Paul Teutul Sr., The company was featured on American Chopper, a reality TV show that debuted in September 2002 on the Discovery Channel. The series moved to Discovery Channel's sister channel TLC in 2007. Following cancellation of the Discovery series, the company was also featured on Orange County Choppers on the CMT network in 2013. ‘’Orange County Choppers ‘’returned to Discovery Channel  on March 1 2018 for a premier viewing of their reboot of American Chopper. The full series is set to start on May 28 2018.

Orange County Choppers

In the late 1990s, Paul Teutul Sr. began manufacturing custom motorcycles as an extension of his steel business (OC Iron Works), and in 1999 he founded Orange County Choppers. The company's first bike, "True Blue," was debuted at the 1999 Daytona Biketoberfest.

OCC is known for building custom theme bikes featured on American Chopper. Additionally, OCC launched a limited edition production line of motorcycles in July 2007, priced beginning at $31,000.

One of OCC's most popular bikes is The Fire Bike, to commemorate the New York firefighters who lost their lives on 9/11. The bike itself has been modeled after a fire truck, and an actual steel rivet from the World Trade Center has been integrated into the bike itself, mounted atop the bike's gas tank. Paul Jr. stated that the bike was named "343", the number of New York firefighters who gave their lives on 9/11.[1]

The popularity of American Chopper led the United States Air Force to commission a $150,000 "Air Force Bike", first put on public display in March 2005. The motorcycle is ten feet long and is modeled after the F-22 Raptor, complete with Air Force symbol rims, riveted gas tank, Raptor exhausts and rear view mirrors in the shape of jets.

Orange County Choppers held a series of free music performances within the retail store. P.O.D., Candlebox, Saliva, Red, 10 Years, Fair to Midland, and Framing Hanley have performed. On April 25, 2009, Smile Empty Soul and Earshot performed to celebrate the decade of the company's work. Additionally, OCC in October in conjunction with RED/Sony released a classic rock compilation CD featuring some of Paul Sr.'s favorite songs titled OCC Rocks. The CD also includes original music from The OCC Band, which features four of the shop's employees. Black Label Society performed a concert in the retail store to promote their album Order of the Black.[2]

The MotoCoaster is a Zamperla built motorbike themed roller coaster installed at Darien Lake theme park in Darien Lake, NY. It was the first motorbike roller coaster to be installed in the United States, though the Pony Express, a similar model of coaster with horse themed trains, was erected Knott's Berry Farm. The MotoCoaster is the same model as the prototype located outside Zamperla's factory in Italy.

The MotoCoaster opened in May 2008 with Orange County Choppers securing the naming rights. The MotoCoaster is located near the Darien Square area of the park, between Boomerang and Twister. Orange County Choppers built a custom motorcycle inspired by the ride and the park. The coaster was originally named the Orange County Choppers Motocoaster when it first opened in 2008. However, the name was changed to the MotoCoaster in 2010 after the naming rights with OCC expired.

A popular internet meme, started in 2011 and based on the show, became widely popular on social media in early 2018.  The meme consists of five panels depicting a dispute between Paul Sr. and his son Paul Jr.  In the original scene, Paul Sr. shouts at Paul Jr. for being late to work and Paul Jr. shouts back, throws a chair, and then eventually storms away.  In the meme, users enter the dialogue of the five panels to create a dispute over any issue.[3][4]


which plate borders the south american plate on the east

The easterly side is a divergent boundary with the African Plate forming the southern part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The southerly side is a complex boundary with the Antarctic Plate and the Scotia Plate. The westerly side is a convergent boundary with the subducting Nazca Plate. The northerly side is a boundary with the Caribbean Plate and the oceanic crust of the North American Plate. At the Chile Triple Junction in Taitato-Tres Montes Peninsula, an oceanic ridge — the Chile Rise — is subducting under the South American plate.

South American Plate

The South American Plate is a tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America and also a sizeable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African Plate creating the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

The South American Plate is in motion. "Parts of the plate boundaries consisting of alternations of relatively short transform fault and spreading ridge segments are represented by a boundary following the general trend."[2] Moving westward away from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The eastward-moving and more dense Nazca Plate is subducting under the western edge of the South American Plate along the Pacific coast of the continent at a rate of 77 mm (3.0 in) per year.[3] This collision of plates is responsible for lifting the massive Andes Mountains and causing the volcanoes which are strewn throughout them.


where did the chile earthquake happen in 2010

According to the USGS the epicenter of the earthquake was about 3 km (1.9 miles) off the coast of Pelluhue commune in the Maule Region. This is about 6 km (3.7 miles) west of the village of Chovellén, 15 km (9.3 miles) southwest of the town of Pelluhue and at a point approximately 100 km (62 miles) away from the following four provincial capitals: Talca (to the north-east), Linares (to the east), Chillán (to the south-east) and Concepción (to the south).[2] Chile's Seismological Service located the quake's epicenter at about 34 km (21 miles) off the coast of Ñuble Province in the Biobío Region. This is 60 km (37 miles) north of Concepción and 170 km (110 miles) south-west of Talca.[1]

2010 Chile earthquake

The 2010 Chile earthquake (Spanish: Terremoto del 27F) occurred off the coast of central Chile on Saturday, 27 February at 03:34 local time (06:34 UTC), having a magnitude of 8.8 on the moment magnitude scale, with intense shaking lasting for about three minutes.[5][1][2][6] It was felt strongly in six Chilean regions (from Valparaíso in the north to Araucanía in the south), that together make up about 80 percent of the country's population. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) the cities experiencing the strongest shaking—VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale (MM)—were Concepción, Arauco and Coronel. According to Chile's Seismological Service Concepción experienced the strongest shaking at MM IX (Violent).[1] The earthquake was felt in the capital Santiago at MM VII (Very strong)[3] or MM VIII.[1] Tremors were felt in many Argentine cities, including Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Mendoza and La Rioja.[7][8] Tremors were felt as far north as the city of Ica in southern Peru (approx. 2,400 km (1,500 mi) away).[9]

The earthquake triggered a tsunami which devastated several coastal towns in south-central Chile and damaged the port at Talcahuano. Tsunami warnings were issued in 53 countries,[10] and the wave caused minor damage in the San Diego area of California[11] and in the Tōhoku region of Japan, where damage to the fisheries business was estimated at ¥6.26 billion (US$66.7 million).[12] The earthquake also generated a blackout that affected 93 percent of the Chilean population and which went on for several days in some locations.[13] President Michelle Bachelet declared a "state of catastrophe" and sent military troops to take control of the most affected areas. According to official sources, 525 people lost their lives, 25 people went missing[4] and about 9% of the population in the affected regions lost their homes.[14]

On 10 March, Swiss Reinsurance Co. estimated that the Chilean quake would cost insurance companies between 4 and 7 billion dollars. The rival German-based Munich Re AG made the same estimate.[15] Earthquake's losses to the economy of Chile are estimated at US$15â€“30 billion.[16]

The earthquake took place along the boundary between the Nazca and South American tectonic plates, at a location where they converge at a rate of eighty millimeters (3 in) a year. This earthquake was characterized by a thrust-faulting focal mechanism, caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American Tectonic Plates.[2] The end-regions of the rupture zone coincided with the Andean oroclines of Maipo (33° S) and Arauco (37° S). This has been interpreted as suggesting a link between upper plate (South American plate) structure and rupture length.[17]

Chile has been at a convergent plate boundary that generates megathrust earthquakes since the Paleozoic era (500 million years ago). In historical times the Chilean coast has suffered many megathrust earthquakes along this plate boundary, including the strongest earthquake ever measured, which is the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. Most recently, the boundary ruptured, causing the 2007 Tocopilla earthquake in northern Chile.

The segment of the fault zone which ruptured in this earthquake was estimated to be over 700 km (430 mi) long with a displacement of almost 10 meters, or 120 years of accumulated plate movement.[18] It lay immediately north of the 1,000 km (620 mi) segment which ruptured in the great earthquake of 1960.[19] Preliminary measurements show that the entire South American Plate moved abruptly westward during the quake.[20] A research collaborative of Ohio State and other institutions have found, using GPS, that the earthquake shifted Santiago 28 cm (11 in) to the west-southwest and moved Concepción at least 3 metres (10 ft) to the west. The earthquake also shifted other parts of South America from the Falkland Islands to Fortaleza, Brazil. For example, it moved Argentina's capital of Buenos Aires about 2.5 cm (1 in) to the west.[21] Several cities south of Cobquecura were also raised, by up to 3 meters.[22] The maximum recorded peak ground acceleration was at Concepcion, with a value of 0.65 g (6.38 m/s2).[23]

This was the strongest earthquake affecting Chile since the magnitude 9.5 1960 Valdivia earthquake (the most energetic earthquake ever measured in the world), and it was the strongest earthquake worldwide since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and until the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.[24] It is tied with the 1906 Ecuador–Colombia and 1833 Sumatra earthquakes as the sixth strongest earthquake ever measured, approximately 500 times more powerful than the 7.0 Mw earthquake in Haiti one month prior in January 2010.[25]

An aftershock of 6.2 was recorded 20Â minutes after the initial quake.[26][27] Two more aftershocks of magnitudes 5.4 and 5.6 followed within an hour of the initial quake.[27] The USGS said that "a large vigorous aftershock sequence can be expected from this earthquake".[2] By 6 March UTC, more than 130 aftershocks had been registered, including thirteen above magnitude 6.0.[28]

Shortly after the mainshock seismologists installed a dense network of seismometers along the whole rupture area. This network captured 20.000 aftershocks in the 6 months after the mainshock and shows a detailed picture of the structure of the Chilean margin.[29] Seismicity is focused in the depth range 25–35 km and in a deeper band of between 45 and 50 km depth. Around 10.000 aftershocks occurred in the region of two large aftershocks in the Pichilemu region.

A 6.9-magnitude offshore earthquake struck approximately 300 kilometers southwest of, and less than 90 minutes after, the initial shock; however, it is not clear if that quake is related to the main shock.[30] A separate earthquake of magnitude 6.3 occurred in Salta, Argentina, at 15:45 UTC on 27 February, at a depth of 38.2 km (23.7 mi);[31] two people were injured and one died in Salta.[32] This earthquake was followed on 1 March, at 06:32 UTC by a magnitude 4.9 aftershock.[33] Four other earthquakes above M5.0, some possible aftershocks, also occurred near the border in Argentina following the Chile earthquake; a magnitude 5.0 earthquake occurred in Mendoza on 28 February, a M5.3 earthquake in Neuquen and a M5.2 in San Juan on 2 March, and a M5.1 quake in Mendoza on 4 March.[34][35][36][37]

Another strong earthquake occurred on 4 March, at 22:39Â UTC in Antofagasta in northern Chile, with a magnitude of 6.3.[38]

Minor quakes generated by the main one could be felt as far away as São Paulo, Brazil,[39] located about 3,000 km (1,900 mi) away from Concepción. Since the major earthquake, and as of 15 March, at least four to forty >M5.0 earthquakes have been recorded daily in the vicinity of the main earthquake,[40] including four above magnitude 6.0 between 3 March and 6 March.[27]

On 5 March, two aftershocks above M6.0 were reported. The first was a 6.3-magnitude off the coast of the Biobío Region. The second was near the epicenter of the original quake at 08:47 local time with a magnitude of 6.6.[41]

On 11 March, the March 2010 Chile earthquake (magnitude 6.9, treated by some as an aftershock of the February 2010 earthquake) was reported, followed quickly by further aftershocks measuring 6.7 and 6.0. The epicenter of the 6.9 quake was in Pichilemu, O'Higgins Region.[42][43]

On 15 March, two aftershocks of the February 2010 earthquake were reported, one at magnitude 6.1 at 08:08:28 local time offshore Maule,[44] and another at magnitude 6.7 with the epicenter located offshore the BiobÃo Region, near Cobquecura, at 23:21:58 local time.[45] This tremor was followed by two minor aftershocks, one occurring 45 minutes later, measuring M5.5. No tsunami was reported and there were no tsunami warnings issued.

On 17 March, at 14:38:37 local time, an earthquake of magnitude 5.2 was recorded in Aisén, in Southern Chile.[46] Another magnitude 5.2 earthquake was recorded in Los Lagos the next day. On 26 March, at 10:52:06 local time, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake hit the Atacama region, in Northern Chile.[47]

The Biobio Region of Chile has had strong aftershocks of this earthquake. The first one was a magnitude 6.7 MW earthquake that struck off the coast of Biobío, Chile, at 23:21 on 15 March 2010 at the epicenter, at a depth of 18 kilometres (11 mi). The second earthquake struck on land in the region at 22:58 (UTC) on 2 April 2010 at 5.9 MW and at a depth of 39 km. The third struck on 10:03 (UTC) on 23 April 2010 at 6.2 MW.[48] The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center said that historical data indicates that this quake will not generate a tsunami but still advised of the possibility.[49] On 3 May, at 19:09 a 6.4 MW earthquake magnitude struck off Biobío, Chile, at the epicenter, at a depth of 20 kilometres (12 mi). The epicenter was 55 kilometres (34 mi) south of Lebu.[50] On 14 July 2010, another 6.5 magnitude earthquake occurred in the area.

On 2 January at 17:20:18 local time, a 7.1 magnitude aftershock occurred 70 kilometers northwest of Temuco, Chile.[51] On Lautaro, Cañete, Nueva Imperial, Traiguén and Carahue the quake was felt at intensity VI (strong) of the Mercalli intensity scale. In Temuco it was perceived at intensity V (moderate). In Talcahuano, Concepción, Chillán, Osorno and Valdivia it shook at intensity IV (light).[52] According to the USGS the earthquake's epicenter was located on the ground, east of the coastal town of Tirúa in the Araucanía Region. However, according to the University of Chile's Seismological Service, the seismic event was located 134 kilometers off the coast of Tirúa, measuring a magnitude 6.9 ML. The University of Chile also reported that the localities who received the strongest shaking (VI) were Curanilahue, Lebu and Tirúa. In Concepción, Talcahuano and Temuco it was felt at intensity V, and in Chillán and Valdivia at intensity IV.[53]

A magnitude 6.2 Mw aftershock struck the coast of Biobío, Chile at a shallow depth of 15.1 km (9.4 mi) on 1 June 2011 at 08:55 local time (12:55  UTC).[54] It was centered just offshore Arauco Province near a moderately populated area, with most structures in its vicinity reported to be resistant to earthquake shaking. Strong shaking registering at VI on the Mercalli intensity scale was felt in Lebu, just 7 km (4 ) south of the epicenter, lasting for approximately one minute.[55][56] Some residents in coastal areas panicked and evacuated their homes.[57] The earthquake was followed by a moderate magnitude 5.1 Mw tremor that occurred about 52 minutes later to the northeast of the main shock epicenter at an estimated depth of 26.9 km (16.7 mi).[58] Initial estimates from the USGS placed its intensity at a magnitude of 6.4 Mw.[59]

Seismologists estimate that the earthquake was so powerful that it may have shortened the length of the day by 1.26 microseconds and moved the Earth's figure axis by 2.7 milliarcseconds (about 8 cm).[60][61] Precise GPS measurement indicated the telluric movement moved the entire city of Concepción 3.04 metres (10.0 ft) to the west. The capital Santiago experienced a displacement of almost 24 centimetres (9.4 in) west, and even Buenos Aires, about 1,350 kilometres (840 mi) from Concepción,[62] shifted 4 centimetres (1.6 in).[63][64] It is estimated that Chile's territory could have expanded 1.2 km² (0.46 mi²) as a result.[65]

The earthquake also caused seiches to occur in Lake Pontchartrain to the north of New Orleans, United States, located nearly 7,500 kilometres (4,700Â mi) from the epicenter of the quake.[66]

People were found dead after the earthquake struck, mostly under buildings and inside cars. Many people were also seriously injured. Most injuries were reported in Santiago and Maule.

According to an Associated Press Television News cameraman, some buildings collapsed in Santiago and there were power outages in parts of the city.[67] A fire was reported in a chemical plant on the outskirts of Santiago and caused the evacuation of the neighborhood.[26] Santiago's International Airport seemed to have been damaged and the airport authority closed off all flight operations for 24 hours from around 12:00 UTC.[5] On Sunday, 28 February, Ricardo Ortega, head of the Chilean Air Force, said commercial airline services had been partially re-established and aircraft were being allowed to land in Santiago.[68]

Santiago's national Fine Arts Museum was badly damaged and did not reopen until 9 March 2010.[69] An apartment building's two-story parking lot collapsed, wrecking 68 cars. According to one health official, three hospitals in Santiago collapsed, and a dozen more south of the capital also suffered significant damage.[70]

House uprooted to the streets of Pelluhue after the tsunami.

A severely damaged building in Maipú, Santiago.

Tsunami in Talcahuano, Biobío Region.

Collapsed Vespucio Norte Express Highway in Santiago.

Fruit Road, O'Higgins Region.

In Valparaíso, a tsunami wave of 1.29 m was reported. The port of Valparaíso was ordered to be closed due to the damage caused by the earthquake. The port started to resume limited operations on 28 February.[71] In Viña del Mar, a touristic city and part of Greater Valparaíso, several buildings were structurally damaged, principally in the district Plan de Viña.[72]

Many cities in Maule region were seriously affected by the earthquake. Curanipe, only 8 km (5 mi) from the epicenter, was hit by a tsunami after the earthquake and still remained isolated from outside as of 28 February.[73] A surfer said the tsunami "...was like the one in Thailand, a sudden rise of water. One could not estimate the dimension of the wave, because it was advancing foam. There were 10 to 15 rises, the last one being at 08:30 in the morning."[74] In Talca, the capital of Maule region, many dead were trapped in the rubble. The administrative building was uninhabitable, and the authorities had to be set up in the parade ground.[75] All but two of the local hospital's thirteen wings were in ruins. Dr. Claudio Martínez was quoted as saying, "We're only keeping the people in danger of dying." Hospital staff attempted to transport some patients to Santiago on Sunday morning, but roads were blocked.[76]

Damaged buildings and fires were reported in Concepción.[77] Rescue teams had difficulty accessing Concepción because of the damaged infrastructure.[26] The fifteen-story residential building "Alto Río" fell backwards, horizontally lay on the ground, and trapped many of the residents. As the building was newly completed, 19 of the apartments were occupied and 36 were unknown if there were residents therein.[78][79][80] A 2.34 m (7.68 ft) tsunami wave hit Talcahuano, a port city and part of the Concepción conurbation. The tsunami caused serious damage to port facilities and lifted boats out of the water.[81] In the fishing town of Dichato, which has 7,000 residents, it was the third tsunami wave that ended up being the most damaging.[82]

Dilapidated buildings could be seen on the streets of Temuco, about 400 km (250 mi) from the epicenter. The adobe of some buildings fell. Façades fell in pieces and crushed cars. Two people were reported dead because of not having been able to escape from a nightclub. On 27 February, it was reported that "to find an open business is almost impossible" ("Encontrar un negocio abierto es casi imposible").[83][84]

In Chile, 370,000 homes were damaged.[85] The final death toll of 525 victims and 25 people missing was announced by authorities in January 2011.[4] This is down from early reports on 3 March of 802 people dead.[86]

The Chilean National Emergency Office (Oficina Nacional de Emergencia) estimated that the intensity of the earthquake was 9 on the Mercalli intensity scale in the Biobío Region and 8 in Santiago.[26][87] USGS put the intensity in Talcahuano at MM VIII, in Santiago and Concepción at MM VII and in Valparaíso at MM VI.[3]

On 10 March, Swiss Reinsurance Co. estimated that the Chilean quake would cost the insurance industry between 4 and 7 billion dollars. The same estimate was echoed by the rival German-based Munich Re AG.[15]

Fire at a plastics plant, Santiago, Chile.

Hernán Henríquez Hospital of Temuco had to be evacuated after the earthquake.

A car crushed by the rubble of a collapsed building in Temuco.

Notes: USGS=United States Geological Survey, SS=Chile's Seismological Service.

The table below shows the percentage of the regional population whose homes were destroyed or were severely damaged by the earthquake and tsunami in the six most affected regions. The data were collected between May and June 2010.

Source: Casen Post-Earthquake Survey, Ministry of Planning.

Despite President Michelle Bachelet's earlier statement that Chile would only ask for international aid once it had assessed the extent of the damage,[97] leaders of many countries and intergovernmental organizations, including the United Nations and European Union, responded to the earthquake and sent messages of condolence to the government and people of Chile over the loss of lives and property. Argentina, Mexico, the United States, United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, Singapore, Haiti, and Pakistan were among the countries that responded earliest following the quake.[98][99] Appeals for humanitarian aid were issued by the UK-based Oxfam, Save the Children and others.

Chilean television host Don Francisco led a telethon called Chile helps Chile with the goal of raising 15 billion pesos (about US$29 million) needed to build 30,000 emergency houses ("mediaguas"). The charity event, which ran for 24 hours in Santiago starting on Friday 5 March at 22:00, was summoned by the government and organized by several Chilean NGOs. At 23:00 on Saturday the goal was doubled, collecting 30.2 billion pesos (about US$58 million).[100]

The Chilean NGO Un Techo para Chile constructed 23,886 transitional houses for families affected by the earthquake.[101]

Nearly half the places in the country were declared "catastrophe zones", and curfews were imposed in some areas of looting and public disorder.[102] On 28 February 2010, a day after the earthquake, some affected cities were chaotic, with extensive looting of supermarkets in Concepción. Items stolen included not only food and other necessities, but also electronic goods and other durable merchandise. To control vandalism, a special force of carabineros (police) was sent to disperse rioters with tear gas and water cannons.[103] However, measures were taken late. The outgoing president didn't want to remind people of the Dictatorship years by militarizing the streets, thus failed to provide assistance on time to the city.[citation needed] When the situation became unsustainable and all sectors of the population were demanding actions, the government authorized the use of the military to control the affected cities. Despite these and other government acts (including the curfews), pillaging continued in both urban and rural areas of the affected zones.[104] Reportedly, military police arrested 160 in Concepción on 1 and 2 March.[105]

In Concepción, despite the militarization of the zone, mobs continued to steal from supermarkets and went as far as to set one store ablaze.[106] The government warned looters they would face the full weight of the law, as penalties for stealing are increased under a state of catastrophe. A week after the quake the police—tipped by neighbors—arrested three people with massive quantities of looted goods stashed in their homes. Other looted goods such as mattresses, furniture, television sets and other electronic appliances were abandoned in the streets of Concepción during the following days.[107]

According to the BBC on 5 March, the city and fishing port of Talcahuano, which lies but a few kilometers down the coast from ConcepciÃ³n, has been left largely to fend for itself. Neighbourhood vigilante groups, including one led by a public works employee with a gun license, and the few police present allow such behavior as residents' siphoning fuel from tanks at a petrol station, but step in if someone starts to attack a cash machine. One man stated, "I've personally saved dozens of people from attack in this apartment block."[108]

Chileans living in regions not affected by the earthquake (including those living abroad) also grieved, as they sought to learn more regarding kinsmen and friends affected by the earthquake. In the hardest-hit zones there was no communication with the exterior because of the failure of electricity and the destruction of telephone lines.[104]

In the prison of El Manzano in ConcepciÃ³n, a prison riot began after a failed escape attempt by the inmates. Different parts of the prison were set afire and the riot was brought under control only after the guards shot into the air and received help from military units.[109]

By 1 March, prison guards in a prison in Chillán had recaptured 36 of 203 prisoners who had escaped following the earthquake. During their escape, prisoners burned seven houses close to the prison. A witness in Chillán asserted that he had been robbed by prisoners with a machine gun who had also forced his girlfriend to kiss them. Another witness alleged sexual molestation by around twenty men who were believed to be escaped prisoners. The leading Chilean newspaper El Mercurio described the situation in Chillán as reminiscent of the "Wild West".[109]

Four hours after the earthquake, when the death count was still low, President Bachelet gave a press conference in which she informed the population of the situation and stated that Chile did not yet need international aid.[97] However, about two million people were affected by the quake with more than 500,000 houses uninhabitable. In many cities, people slept in tents, in parks or simply on the streets for fear of aftershocks. The government began distributing food and other vital aid around the country.[110]

On 28 February, President Bachelet said that her government had reached an agreement with the major supermarkets which would allow them to give away basic foodstuffs in stock to people affected by the earthquake.[111] By 28 February, the Santiago Metro rapid-transit network was already partially up and running and expected to be fully operative on the following day, 1 March.[112]

On 4 March, President-elect Sebastián Piñera, who assumed office on 11 March, was quoted as saying that his goals were "to cope with the emergency needs of citizens, find people who are still missing, provide prompt and timely assistance to the sick and wounded, and restore law and order so that people can return to peace."[113]

Authorities of the central port city of San Antonio speaking on 3 March 2010, stated that the port had returned to eighty percent of capacity. On the same date, Raul Maturana, a spokesman for the Federation of Port Workers' union, stated that the port of ValparaÃso was operating normally. However, ports in southern Chile, which were closer to the epicenter, remained closed.[114]

On 4 March, President Bachelet said that Chile would need international loans and three to four years to rebuild.[115]

On 10 March the National Commission for Agricultural emergencies (CNEA) assured that milk and wheat prices would not rise, despite fears of lack of fuel supply for transport and harvest of these products. In the same CNEA report the mill associations of central and southern Chile are said to have expressed that they had currently no production difficulties.[116] Despite this on 11 March newspaper La Segunda cited the president of the bakeries association complaining on unjustified price rises for flour, who said of cases of price rises of 10 to 20%.[117]

The earthquake affected production at the Compañía de Cervecerías Unidas (CCU) and Cervecería Chile factories that together have a 90% share of the Chilean beer market. With an average annual per capita consumption of 36 liters, scarcity caused prices to rise from 990–1500 to 2000 Chilean pesos per litre. CCU responded by increasing capacity of their plant in Temuco that did not suffer major damage during the earthquake and by importing beer from their factories in Argentina. 50 trucks with beer are reported to have reached Santiago from Argentina. In March 2010, ten CCU executives said that the country will not run out of beer and that within two to three months production levels would be normalized.[118] Liquor store owners expressed complaints regarding a beer rationing scheme implemented by CCU. The scarcity favoured consumption of "premium beers" like Kunstmann and Paceña.[119]

A tsunami warning was first declared for Chile and Peru,[120] and a tsunami watch for Ecuador, Colombia, Antarctica, Panama and Costa Rica.[121][122] The warning was later extended to a Pacific Ocean-wide warning, covering all coastal areas on the Pacific Ocean except the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Alaska.[123] Hawaiian media reported that tsunami warning sirens first sounded at 06:00 local time.[124] The U.S. Tsunami Warning Center issued advisories about potential tsunami of less than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) striking the Pacific Ocean coastline between California and most of Alaska late in the afternoon or through the evening 12 or more hours after the initial earthquake.[125] Although the earthquake killed far fewer people than the Haitian earthquake less than 7 weeks prior, it was still devastating. The tsunami warning was cancelled for all countries except Japan and Russia in PTWC Bulletin 18 of 00:12 UTC on 28 February 2010.[126]

In general, tsunamis tend to come in several waves, of which the first may not be the highest.[127][128]

The U.S. National Weather Service's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning throughout a huge swathe of the Pacific region, including Antarctica.[129] In the Americas, the warning extended to Chile (including Easter Island), Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Panama.[129] A warning was also issued for the Oceania and Pacific Islands nations and territories of American Samoa, Australia, the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia (including the FSM states of Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap), Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Jarvis Island, Johnston Island, the Kermadec Islands, Kiribati, Marcus Island, the Marshall Islands, Midway Island, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna and Wake Island.[129] Tsunami warnings were also in effect as far away as East and Southeast Asia including Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong,[130] the Philippines, Russia and Taiwan.[129]

Coastal areas of Canada's westernmost province British Columbia was under a tsunami advisory, and this was the most alarming advisory as the earthquake occurred during the same time as the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver.[131] No large wave was expected to strike British Columbia, but strong local ocean currents combined with a wave put low-lying coastal regions at risk of flooding.[131] The first wave was expected to reach southern British Columbia at 15:11Â local time.[131] Residents were advised to avoid beaches, harbours and marinas.[132]

A tsunami advisory was also issued for coastal areas of California, Oregon, Washington and southern Alaska in the United States.[133] This tsunami advisory was canceled as of 07:13 UTD on 28 February.[134]

Russian authorities lifted a tsunami alert for the Kamchatka coast, after the arrival of a 0.8 m (2.6 ft) surge that caused no damage.[135] The tsunami was also reported to be small along the Japanese coast, and passed without incident. Many coastal areas in Japan had been evacuated as a precaution.[136]

The projections use DART (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) gauges spread along the sea floor, which is a fairly new technology. Initial deep sea readings showed wave height of 25 centimeters, which is huge for deep water, according to Gerard Fryer of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. He went on to say, "although it was huge, we didn't quite know what it meant because we haven't much experience with those. As we get more under our belts, we'll get better."[137]

Some 30 minutes after the first shock, consecutive tsunamis hit coastal towns, among which Constitución suffered the hardest damage;[138] subsequently, a tsunami amplitude of up to 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) high was recorded in the sea at Valparaíso.[26][139][140] A wave amplitude of 2.34 m (7.68 ft) was recorded at Talcahuano in the Biobío Region.[141] Robinson Crusoe Island, the largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, was struck by a large wave led to the deaths of four people on the island, with eleven people reported as missing, according to Provincial Governor Ivan De La Maza. President Bachelet is reported to have sent an aid mission to the remote island.[142][143]

As a precaution against the coming tsunami, partial evacuation was ordered in Easter Island, about 3,510 km (2,180 mi) away from the coast of Chile. The tsunami wave arrived in Easter Island at 12:05 UTC, measuring 0.35 m (1.15 ft).[144][145]

On 27 February, defense minister Francisco Vidal said that the Chilean Navy had made a mistake by not immediately issuing a tsunami warning after the earthquake, a step that could have helped coastal villagers flee to higher ground sooner. However, an alarm was later sounded by port captains and saved some lives.[146] Mariano Rojas Bustos, then head of Chile's oceanographic service SHOA, which is part of the country's navy, was later fired for the organization's failure to provide clear warnings about the tsunami.[147]

Initially, the New Zealand Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (CDEM) said they did not expect a tsunami to reach New Zealand,[148] but later issued a warning stating that waves of up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high were likely for the eastern[149] and later the entire New Zealand coast.[150] By 19:55 UTC (08:40 local), CDEM reported wave activity of 50 cm (1.6 ft) in the Chatham Islands,[151] and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) surges were reported there later in the morning.[152] A surge 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) high hit the South Island's Banks Peninsula,[150][153] while surges up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high were reported in the northern North Island.[154] By mid afternoon (local time), Civil Defence had downgraded the tsunami warning to an alert, while still advising that sea levels could change quickly for up to 24 hours from the initial surge.[155]

The U.S. Antarctic Program's coastal station along the Antarctic Peninsula, Palmer Station, went on a tsunami alert shortly after the earthquake struck Chile. To prepare for a possible tsunami, station personnel removed all Zodiac boats from the water and moved any materials from low-lying areas that waves could have swept away. Personnel also retreated to the station's highest building, GWR, while the tsunami warning was in effect, Ellis said. Palmer personnel developed a tsunami emergency plan following the 2004 earthquake in the Indian Ocean that created a tsunami that killed more than 230,000 people in 14 countries. While no noticeable tsunami occurred at Palmer, the station tide monitor displayed bumps of several centimeters, signifying that a small wave had indeed reached the shores of Anvers Island.[156]

The Joint Australian Tsunami Warning Center (JATWC) sent out tsunami warnings for New South Wales, Queensland, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Tasmania, and Victoria. The organization warned of the possibility of dangerous waves, strong ocean currents and foreshore flooding to occur on the east coast of Australia for several hours on Sunday.[157] As a result of the warnings, patrolled beaches in New South Wales and Queensland remained closed (red flags) and lifeguards ushered people to leave the water. However beach goers and surfers ignored the warnings. Numerous onlookers also crowded parts of the shore to view potential effects of the tsunami.[158] The beach ban was lifted by the end of the day and there was no reports of damage, flooding or other emergencies. Tsunami waves of between 10 cm and 50 cm were recorded and their surges were believed to have created strong currents. Increases in sea levels include: Norfolk Island 50 cm, Gold Coast (Qld) 20 cm, Port Kembla (NSW) 14 cm, Southport (Tas) 17 cm.[158]

A wave measuring up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) high struck portions of French Polynesia between 15:50 to 17:50 UTC with no reports of injuries as of February 28, 2010[update].[159] A wave 4 meters high is reported to have struck Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands.[160] The first waves were expected to hit the main island of Tahiti at approximately 16:50 UTC (07:50 local).[161] Cars and other automobiles were banned from roads closer than 500 m (1,600 ft) from the Pacific Ocean.[161]

Réseau France Outre-mer in Papeete reported that a wave measuring less than 1 m (3 ft 3 in) passed east of the Gambier Islands with no damage, according to Monique Richeton, the mayor of Rikitea.[159][161] Residents of the Tuamotus, which are low-lying, were told to move to the highest points on the island.[161]

The first wave was expected to reach American Samoa, which is still recovering from the 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami, at 08:51 local time.[161] Lieutenant Governor Ipulasi Aitofele Sunia urged residents not to rush to A'oloau, a high elevation area on Tutuila, as it could cause traffic jams, putting safety at risk.[161] Many coastal towns, including the main city of Pago Pago, had already been heavily damaged in the 2009 tsunami. The first wave arrived on Pago Plaza at 21:58 UTC.

The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Phivolcs) issued an advisory that tsunami wave(s) were expected to hit the eastern coast of the Philippines on Sunday between 05:00 and 06:30 UTC (13:00 and 14:30 local). Residents of 19 eastern provinces "are advised to prepare for possible evacuation."[162] However, at 15:15 on 28 February 2010, all warnings have been cancelled.[163]

United States Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka issued a joint press release announcing the first tsunami evacuation in Hawaii since 1994.[164][165] Warning sirens were sounded throughout the state, as hotels in Waikiki evacuated tourists at 6Â a.m. People in tall buildings were encouraged to move above the third floor. Waves measuring 2.7 metres high were originally predicted to strike Hilo Bay on the Big Island of Hawai'i at 11:05 local time (21:05 GMT),[166] but by 11:18, major receding and waves had not been reported on the shoreline. By 11:40, several waves hit the islands amounting to raising and lowering of the sea near the coast, and a fourth wave hit around 13:12. The tsunami warning for Hawaii was canceled in the early afternoon on Saturday, 27 February.

Gerard Fryer, a geophysicist for the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center was quoted as saying: â€œWe expected the waves to be bigger in Hawaii, maybe about 50 percent bigger than they actually were."[167] Early in the morning, the Center expected waves of 3 metres. In actuality, the highest tsunami waves ended up being about 1.5 to 1.8 metres peak to trough.[137]

At around 23:00 UTC (15:00 local), a tsunami warning was issued for coastal British Columbia. Extra precautions were already in place due to the 2010 Winter Olympics being held in Vancouver at the time.[168]

Small waves were expected in Southern California, and receding was reported at Long Beach. Minor damage was reported on some coastal areas. The tsunami damaged navigation buoys at Ventura.[169] Additionally, a boat was torn loose from its mooring and minor erosion occurred within Ventura Harbor. Damage to docks and pilings in the area was moderate.[170]

In Guerrero, surges of between 30 cm and 1 meter and receding of up to 10 m were reported, and three small vessels were sunk at Tecpán de Galeana. The state tourism authorities announced they would be sending a letter to the CNN news network to protest the "alarming" way in which it had forecast a tsunami for the major tourist destination of Acapulco.[171]

Argentina has sent construction teams to Chiloé Island to help reconstruct some of the washed away coastal buildings. In July 2010, the government of Argentina released a statement that they would lend $300 million to Chile for reconstruction efforts using Argentine goods.[172]

The following data, published by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the National Tsunami Warning Center, lists measured and reported values of the tsunami when it arrived at specific places. Some data is taken from the Chilean Army.


what are the two types of circular motion

In physics, circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass of a body.

Circular motion

Examples of circular motion include: an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth at a constant height, a fan's blades rotating around a hub, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being swung in circles, a car turning through a curve in a race track, an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and a gear turning inside a mechanism.

Since the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation.  Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.

In physics, uniform circular motion describes the motion of a body traversing a circular path at constant speed. Since the body describes circular motion, its distance from the axis of rotation remains constant at all times. Though the body's speed is constant, its velocity is not constant: velocity, a vector quantity, depends on both the body's speed and its direction of travel. This changing velocity indicates the presence of an acceleration; this centripetal acceleration is of constant magnitude and directed at all times towards the axis of rotation. This acceleration is, in turn, produced by a centripetal force which is also constant in magnitude and directed towards the axis of rotation.

In the case of rotation around a fixed axis of a rigid body that is not negligibly small compared to the radius of the path, each particle of the body describes a uniform circular motion with the same angular velocity, but with velocity and acceleration varying with the position with respect to the axis.

For motion in a circle of radius r, the circumference of the circle is C = 2π r. If the period for one rotation is T, the angular rate of rotation, also known as angular velocity, ω is:

The speed of the object travelling the circle is:

The angle Î¸ swept out in a time t is:

The angular acceleration, Î±, of the particle is:

In the case of uniform circular motion, Î± will be zero.

The acceleration due to change in the direction is:

The centripetal and centrifugal force can also be found out using acceleration:

The vector relationships are shown in Figure 1. The axis of rotation is shown as a vector ω perpendicular to the plane of the orbit and with a magnitude ω = dθ / dt. The direction of ω is chosen using the right-hand rule. With this convention for depicting rotation, the velocity is given by a vector cross product as

which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and r(t), tangential to the orbit, and of magnitude ω r. Likewise, the acceleration is given by

which is a vector perpendicular to both ω and v(t) of magnitude ω |v| = ω2 r and directed exactly opposite to r(t).[1]

In the simplest case the speed, mass and radius are constant.

Consider a body of one kilogram, moving in a circle of radius one metre, with an angular velocity of one radian per second.

During circular motion the body moves on a curve that can be described in polar coordinate system as a fixed distance R from the center of the orbit taken as origin, oriented at an angle θ(t) from some reference direction. See Figure 4. The displacement vector

r
→

{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}}

 is the radial vector from the origin to the particle location:

where

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 is the unit vector parallel to the radius vector at time t and pointing away from the origin. It is convenient to introduce the unit vector orthogonal to

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 as well, namely

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

. It is customary to orient

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 to point in the direction of travel along the orbit.

The velocity is the time derivative of the displacement:

Because the radius of the circle is constant, the radial component of the velocity is zero. The unit vector

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 has a time-invariant magnitude of unity, so as time varies its tip always lies on a circle of unit radius, with an angle θ the same as the angle of

r
→

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}(t)}

. If the particle displacement rotates through an angle dθ in time dt, so does

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

, describing an arc on the unit circle of magnitude dθ. See the unit circle at the left of Figure 4. Hence:

where the direction of the change must be perpendicular to

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 (or, in other words, along

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

) because any change

d

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle d{\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 in the direction of

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 would change the size of

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

. The sign is positive, because an increase in dθ implies the object and

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 have moved in the direction of

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

.
Hence the velocity becomes:

The acceleration of the body can also be broken into radial and tangential components. The acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity:

The time derivative of

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 is found the same way as for

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

. Again,

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 is a unit vector and its tip traces a unit circle with an angle that is π/2 + θ. Hence, an increase in angle dθ by

r
→

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\vec {r}}(t)}

 implies

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 traces an arc of magnitude dθ, and as

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 is orthogonal to

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

, we have:

where a negative sign is necessary to keep

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 orthogonal to

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

. (Otherwise, the angle between

u
^

θ

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{\theta }(t)}

 and

u
^

R

(
t
)

{\displaystyle {\hat {u}}_{R}(t)}

 would decrease with increase in dθ.) See the unit circle at the left of Figure 4. Consequently, the acceleration is:

The centripetal acceleration is the radial component, which is directed radially inward:

while the tangential component changes the magnitude of the velocity:

Circular motion can be described using complex numbers. Let the x axis be the real axis and the

y

{\displaystyle y}

 axis be the imaginary axis. The position of the body can then be given as

z

{\displaystyle z}

, a complex "vector":

where i is the imaginary unit, and

θ
(
t
)

{\displaystyle \theta (t)}

 is the argument of the complex number as a function of time, t.

Since the radius is constant:

where a dot indicates differentiation in respect of time.

With this notation the velocity becomes:

and the acceleration becomes:

The first term is opposite in direction to the displacement vector and the second is perpendicular to it, just like the earlier results shown before.

Figure 1 illustrates velocity and acceleration vectors for uniform motion at four different points in the orbit. Because the velocity v is tangent to the circular path, no two velocities point in the same direction. Although the object has a constant speed, its direction is always changing. This change in velocity is caused by an acceleration a, whose magnitude is (like that of the velocity) held constant, but whose direction also is always changing. The acceleration points radially inwards (centripetally) and is perpendicular to the velocity. This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration.

For a path of radius r, when an angle θ is swept out, the distance travelled on the periphery of the orbit is s = rθ. Therefore, the speed of travel around the orbit is

where the  angular rate of rotation is ω. (By rearrangement, ω = v/r.) Thus, v is a constant, and the velocity vector v also rotates with constant magnitude v, at the same angular rate ω.

In this case the three-acceleration vector is perpendicular to the three-velocity vector,

and the square of proper acceleration, expressed as a scalar invariant, the same in all reference frames,

becomes the expression for circular motion,

or, taking the positive square root and using the three-acceleration, we arrive at the proper acceleration for circular motion:

The left-hand circle in Figure 2 is the orbit showing the velocity vectors at two adjacent times. On the right, these two velocities are moved so their tails coincide. Because speed is constant, the velocity vectors on the right sweep out a circle as time advances.  For a swept angle dθ = ω dt the change in v is a vector at right angles to v and of magnitude v dθ, which in turn means that the magnitude of the acceleration is given by

In non-uniform circular motion an object is moving in a circular path with a varying speed.  Since the speed is changing, there is tangential acceleration in addition to normal acceleration.

In non-uniform circular motion the net acceleration (a) is along direction of Î”v which is directed inside circle but does not pass through its center (see figure). The net acceleration may be resolved into two components: tangential acceleration and normal acceleration also known as the centripetal or radial acceleration. Unlike tangential acceleration, centripetal acceleration is present in both uniform and non-uniform circular motion.

In non-uniform circular motion, normal force does not always point in the opposite direction of weight.  Here is an example with an object traveling in a straight path then loops a loop back into a straight path again.

This diagram shows the normal force pointing in other directions rather than opposite to the weight force.  The normal force is actually the sum of the radial and tangential forces. The component of weight force is responsible for the tangential force here (We have neglected frictional force). The radial force (centripetal force) is due the change in direction of velocity as discussed earlier.

In non-uniform circular motion, normal force and weight may point in the same direction.  Both forces can point down, yet the object will remain in a circular path without falling straight down.  First let’s see why normal force can point down in the first place.  In the first diagram, let's say the object is a person sitting inside a plane, the two forces point down only when it reaches the top of the circle.  The reason for this is that the normal force is the sum of the tangential force and centripetal force. The tangential force is zero at the top (as no work is performed when the motion is perpendicular to the direction of force applied. Here weight force is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the object at the top of the circle) and centripetal force points down, thus normal force will point down as well.  From a logical standpoint, a person who is travelling in the plane will be upside down at the top of the circle.  At that moment, the person’s seat is actually pushing down on the person, which is the normal force.

The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one.  Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown.  Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth’s gravity that acts on the object.  That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly.  What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity.  The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object’s inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.

A varying angular speed for an object moving in a circular path can also be achieved if the rotating body does not have an homogeneous mass distribution. For inhomogeneous objects, it is necessary to approach the problem as in.[2]

Solving applications dealing with non-uniform circular motion involves force analysis.  With uniform circular motion, the only force acting upon an object traveling in a circle is the centripetal force.  In non-uniform circular motion, there are additional forces acting on the object due to a non-zero tangential acceleration.  Although there are additional forces acting upon the object, the sum of all the forces acting on the object will have to equal to the centripetal force.

Radial acceleration is used when calculating the total force.  Tangential acceleration is not used in calculating total force because it is not responsible for keeping the object in a circular path.  The only acceleration responsible for keeping an object moving in a circle is the radial acceleration.  Since the sum of all forces is the centripetal force, drawing centripetal force into a free body diagram is not necessary and usually not recommended.

Using

F

n
e
t

=

F

c

{\displaystyle F_{net}=F_{c}\,}

, we can draw free body diagrams to list all the forces acting on an object then set it equal to

F

c

{\displaystyle F_{c}\,}

.  Afterwards, we can solve for what ever is unknown (this can be mass, velocity, radius of curvature, coefficient of friction, normal force, etc.).  For example, the visual above showing an object at the top of a semicircle would be expressed as

F

c

=
n
+
m
g

{\displaystyle F_{c}=n+mg\,}

.

In uniform circular motion, total acceleration of an object in a circular path is equal to the radial acceleration.  Due to the presence of tangential acceleration in non uniform circular motion, that does not hold true any more.  To find the total acceleration of an object in non uniform circular, find the vector sum of the tangential acceleration and the radial acceleration.

Radial acceleration is still equal to

v

2

/

r

{\displaystyle v^{2}/r}

. Tangential acceleration is simply the derivative of the velocity at any given point:

a

t

=
d
v

/

d
t

{\displaystyle a_{t}=dv/dt\,}

. This root sum of squares of separate radial and tangential accelerations is only correct for circular motion; for general motion within a plane with polar coordinates

(
r
,
θ
)

{\displaystyle (r,\theta )}

, the Coriolis term

a

c

=
2
(
d
r

/

d
t
)
(
d
θ

/

d
t
)

{\displaystyle a_{c}=2(dr/dt)(d\theta /dt)}

 should be added to

a

t

{\displaystyle a_{t}}

, whereas radial acceleration then becomes

a

r

=
−

v

2

/

r
+

d

2

r

/

d

t

2

{\displaystyle a_{r}=-v^{2}/r+d^{2}r/dt^{2}}

.


movie that won't be released for 100 years

100 Years is an upcoming film written by and starring John Malkovich and directed by Robert Rodriguez. 100 Years is due to be released on 18 November 2115.[1][2]

100 Years (film)

Malkovich and Rodriguez announced in November 2015 that they had teamed with Louis XIII Cognac, owned by Rémy Martin, to create a film inspired by the hundred years it takes to make a bottle of Louis XIII.[3] Although the film's plot remains a complete secret, on 18 November 2015, Malkovich and Rodriguez released three teaser trailers. None showed footage from the film, but instead imagine three possible futures, from a dystopia wasteland to a technological paradise.

Pending release, the film is being kept in a high-tech safe in bulletproof glass that will open automatically on 18 November 2115, the day of the film's premiere. One thousand guests from around the world, including Malkovich and Rodriguez, have received an invitation to the premiere, which they can hand down to their descendants.[3][4]

The safe in which 100 Years is kept was showcased at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival and various other cities before being returned to Cognac, France and the Louis XIII cellars.[5]


who won michigan in the 2016 presidential election

The 2016 United States presidential election in Michigan was won by Donald Trump on November 8, 2016 with 47.50% of the total votes, over Hillary Clinton's 47.27%. All of Michigan's 16 Electoral Votes were assigned to Trump, contributing to his victory in the 2016 United States presidential election.

United States presidential election in Michigan, 2016

Barack Obama
Democratic

Donald Trump
Republican

Michigan's March 8, 2016 primary was an open primary that included the Democratic, and Republican parties.

On November 24, 2016, Trump was declared the winner by the Detroit Free Press. The votes were certified by each county and submitted to the Michigan Secretary of State.[3]

After a recount, the Michigan Board of Canvassers certified Trump's lead of 10,704 votes over Clinton, a 0.23% margin, on November 28.[4] On this same day, Green Party candidate Jill Stein requested a second recount, by hand. The deadline to request a recount was then set at 2 p.m. on Wednesday, November 30. The second recount was halted on December 8 after a federal judge issued an order to Michigan's Board of Elections, making Trump's win in the state official.

Four candidates appeared on the Democratic presidential primary ballot:[5]

Four candidates participated in the Republican primary.[6]

Detroit, March 3

The eleventh debate was held on March 3, 2016, at the Fox Theatre in downtown Detroit, Michigan.[9] It was the third debate to air on Fox News Channel.[10] Special Report anchor Bret Baier, The Kelly File anchor Megyn Kelly and Fox News Sunday host Chris Wallace served as moderators.[11] It led into the Maine, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Idaho, and Hawaii contests. Fox announced that in order for candidates to qualify, they must have at least 3 percent support in the five most recent national polls by March 1 at 5 pm.[12] Ben Carson said on March 2 he would not be attending the debate.[13][14][15] During the debate, Ted Cruz had a small speck of white material on his lip.[16] The speck became viral with thousands of web searches per minute during the debate on "Ted Cruz nose".[17][18][19][20][21][22] The debate also drew controversy for when opponents claimed that Trump made an allusion to his penis in response to Rubio's comment about the size of his hands.[23]

Thirteen candidates appeared on the Republican presidential primary ballot:[5]

Although won by Democratic candidates in every election since 1992, sometimes by clear margins, in 2016 Michigan was considered a swing state and received much attention from Republican party candidate Donald Trump. Trump was able to win the state for the first time since George H. W. Bush won it in 1988, albeit by a narrow 0.23% margin of victory. On Election Day, in Michigan, Detroit Free Press had prematurely called the state for Clinton at 9:15pm before retracting the call 3 hours later[24], an error which had been common in many networks in the 2000 election, in the states of Florida and New Mexico.

The following were given write-in status[25]

Final official results from the Michigan Secretary of State.[2]


where is wood green on the tube map

Wood Green is a London Underground station on the Piccadilly line. The station is between Turnpike Lane and Bounds Green stations and is in Travelcard Zone 3. It is located at junction of High Road, Wood Green and Lordship Lane. It serves Wood Green Shopping City and the nearby Haringey Council administrative complex as well as a densely populated residential area. It is also the closest tube station to the Alexandra Palace Venue.

Wood Green tube station

The station opened on 19 September 1932 when the first section of the Cockfosters extension from Finsbury Park was opened.

Like all stations on the extension, Wood Green set new aesthetic standards, not previously seen on London's Underground. When the Cockfosters extension was planned, alternative names for this station—"Lordship Lane" and "Wood Green Central"—were considered, but rejected. Architecturally, this station, designed by Charles Holden, is a well-preserved example of the modernist house style Holden developed for London Transport in the 1930s. Located on a corner site, the main frontage is curved and is flanked by two ventilation towers, although these are later additions to the station. On the northern side, the structure also incorporates a shop which forms part of the parade in High Road. The other end of the parade features a large London Underground sub-station.

Since July 2011, the station has been a grade II listed building, which now means every station building between Turnpike Lane and Cockfosters is listed.

The below surface areas of the station are tiled in biscuit-coloured tiles lined with green friezes. The station tunnels—in common with those of Manor House and Turnpike Lane—are 23 ft (7 m) diameter and were designed for the greater volume of traffic expected. In contrast, the platform tunnels at both Bounds Green and Southgate have a diameter of only 21 ft (6.4 m). The construction of "suicide pits" between the rails was a new innovation.

To the north of the station is a reversing siding. This was used for reversing northbound trains so that they could return towards central London and Heathrow Airport or Uxbridge. Until the 1990s trains were regularly turned back here - trains now only reverse at Wood Green in times of service disruption, or to regain time after late running.

On 16 March 1976, the station was the site of a Provisional IRA bombing, when a device exploded on an empty train as it prepared to enter the reversing siding, before heading west to pick up football supporters at Arsenal. There was one passenger standing on the platform and was injured by flying glass.[3]

The National Rail station now called Alexandra Palace was formerly called Wood Green; it was renamed in 1984.

With the Chelsea-Hackney line, otherwise known as Crossrail 2 under discussion, proposals have included Wood Green as a possible station on a spur between Angel and Alexandra Palace stations.[4] Wood Green station is a route option between New Southgate and Seven Sisters in the 2015 consultation.[5]

London Buses route 29, 67, 121, 123, 141, 144, 221, 230, 232, 243, 329 and W4 and night routes N29 and N91 serve the station.