where did alabama get the nickname crimson tide

Early newspaper accounts of the university's football squad simply referred to them as the "varsity" or the "Crimson White". The first nickname popular with the media was the "Thin Red Line", which was used until 1906. Hugh Roberts, former sports editor of the Birmingham Age-Herald, is credited with coining the phrase "Crimson Tide" in an article describing the 1907 Iron Bowl played in Birmingham with Auburn a heavy favorite to win. The game was played in a sea of red mud which stained the Alabama white jerseys crimson. The headline for the article was "Crimson Tied", referring to the 6-6 tie Alabama had with Auburn, who had been heavily favored before the game.

University of Alabama traditions

The University of Alabama is a school with many traditions. This article describes several of these traditions.

According to a November 25, 1926 article in The Crimson White, football was first introduced at the University of Alabama in 1892 by W.G. Little of Livingston, Alabama, who had been a student at Andover, Massachusetts and "went to the University for the game."

Alabama's first football game was played in Birmingham on Friday afternoon, November 11, 1892, at the old Lakeview Park. Alabama defeated a team composed mostly of high schoolers 56-0. That Saturday, November 12, Alabama played the Birmingham Athletic Club, losing 5-4 when Ross, of B.A.C., kicked a 65-yard field goal. This field goal was a collegiate record at the time.

In 1896 the university's board of trustees passed a rule forbidding athletic teams from traveling off-campus. The following season only one game was played and in 1898 football was abandoned at Alabama. Student opposition to the ruling forced trustees to lift the travel ban and football was resumed in 1899. The 1918 season was cancelled on account of World War I but the game was resumed the following year.

Alabama first gained national recognition for football in 1922 when it defeated the University of Pennsylvania 9-7 in Philadelphia. The following season Wallace Wade became head coach and in 1925 led the Crimson Tide to its first undefeated and untied season and its first trip to Pasadena, California, with a Rose Bowl invitation. On January 1, 1926, in the Rose Bowl, Alabama came from behind to upset the University of Washington 20-19.

There are two stories, perhaps both true, about how Alabama's football squad became associated with the elephant, both dating to the coaching tenure of Wallace Wade (1923â€“1930).

The earliest account attributes the Rosenberger's Birmingham Trunk Company for the elephant association. Owner J. D. Rosenberger, whose son was a student at the university, outfitted the undefeated 1926 team with "good luck" luggage tags for the trip to the 1927 Rose Bowl. The company's trademark, displayed on the tags, was a red elephant standing on a trunk. When the football team arrived in Pasadena, the reporters greeting them, including syndicated columnist Grantland Rice, associated their large size with the elephants on their luggage.[1] When the 1930 team returned to the Rose Bowl, the company furnished leather suitcases, paid for by the Alumni Association, to each team member.[2]

Another story dates to 1930. Following the October 4 game against Ole Miss, Atlanta Journal sports writer and Hall of Fame former Georgia Tech back Everett Strupper wrote:[3]

"At the end of the quarter, the earth started to tremble, there was a distant rumble that continued to grow. Some excited fan in the stands bellowed, 'Hold your horses, the elephants are coming,' and out stamped this Alabama varsity. It was the first time that I had seen it and the size of the entire eleven nearly knocked me cold, men that I had seen play last year looking like they had nearly doubled in size."

Yet, despite the unofficial status as the Crimson Tide's mascot, the elephant was very much part of the school's football traditions by the 1940s. It was in that decade that a live elephant mascot named "Alamite" was a regular sight on game days in Tuscaloosa. For several years it was traditional for the pachyderm to lead the homecoming parade and Alamite would also bear that year's queen onto the field prior to the game.[4]

Sports writers continued to refer to Alabama as the "Red Elephants" afterward, referring to their crimson jerseys. The 1930 team shut out eight of ten opponents, allowing a total of only 13 points all season. The "Red Elephants" rolled up 217 points that season, including a 24-0 victory over Washington State in the Rose Bowl.

Despite these early associations of the elephant to the University of Alabama, the university did not officially accept the elephant as university mascot until 1979.[5]

Alabama's elephant mascot is known as "Big Al".

The Million Dollar Band, the University of Alabama's marching band, was founded in 1912 with 14 members under the direction of Dr. Gustav Wittig. In 1917, the band became a military band and was led by students until 1927.

The Million Dollar Band is the largest performing organization on campus, with around 400 members. The September 1992 issue of Southern Living selected the Million Dollar Band as one of the top ten most outstanding bands in the South. In 2003 it became the twenty-second band to be honored with the Sudler Trophy, given by the Sousa Foundation to recognize "collegiate marching bands of particular excellence that have made outstanding contributions to the American way of life." Additionally, the Million Dollar Band has been nationally televised more than any other college marching band in the country.[citation needed]

There are two stories to the naming of the Million Dollar Band. The main one is from a time when Alabama's football wasn't doing so well. They were playing Georgia Tech and the coach of Georgia Tech stated, "Your football team isn't worth a nickel, but you have a million dollar band." And so the name stuck.

In the second story, W. C. "Champ" Pickens bestowed the name "Million Dollar Band" after the 1922 football game against Georgia Tech. Though accounts vary, it is reported that in order for the band to attend the game they had to solicit funds from local businesses. They were able to collect enough funds to ride in a tourist sleeper to the game. After the game, which Alabama lost 33-7, an Atlanta sportswriter commented to Pickens, "You don't have much of a team; what do you have at Alabama?" Pickens replied, "A Million Dollar Band."

Like many college alma mater songs written around the turn of the 20th century, the Alabama Alma Mater is set to the tune of "Annie Lisle", a ballad written in the 1850s. The words are usually credited as, "Helen Vickers, 1908", although it is not clear whether that was when it was written or if that was her graduating class. The first stanza of the Alma Mater is as follows:

Alabama, listen, Mother,
To our vows of love,
To thyself and to each other,
Faithful friends we'll prove.

Faithful, loyal, firm and true,
Heart bound to heart will beat.
Year by year, the ages through
Until in Heav'n we meet.

Following Alabama's 1926 Rose Bowl victory over Washington, a contest was held by The Rammer-Jammer, a student newspaper, for the composition of a fight song. Several entries were submitted to a panel overseen by the Music Department, and the winning entry, "Yea Alabama",[6] was adopted. The composer, Ethelred Lundy (Epp) Sykes, a student in the School of Engineering, was the editor of The Rammer-Jammer,[7] and played piano in a jazz ensemble, The Capstone Five. He won the university's Pan-Hellenic Cup in 1926 for overall achievement, both academically, athletically, and in student affairs. The song achieved considerable popularity during the 20s and 30s. Sykes went on to become a brigadier general in the U.S. Air Force, and donated the copyright and future royalties to the university in 1947. The Million Dollar Band plays only the chorus at football games such as after touchdowns and field goals.

A Dixieland jazz version of the song appeared on the 1950 Percy Faith album Football Songs (later re-released as Touchdown!) and was played extensively across the state in the 1960s and 1970s as the music bed of radio commercials for sporting goods stores. It was also used as the theme music for The Bear Bryant Show.

The last words of the song, "Roll Tide!", have become the standard cheer, greeting, and farewell among Alabama fans.[8]

The fight song, as played today, has been shortened to begin with the words "Yea Alabama";[6] however, the original version had a verse that went at the beginning. The original version did not have "Roll Tide, Roll Tide!" at the end, but was added as a chant immediately following the last line of the song.

Amusingly, the song refers to several "traditional" opponents, but two of them are no longer part of Alabama's opponent roster. Georgia Tech ("Yellow Jackets") left the SEC in the early 1960s, and has only infrequently filled one of the non-conference game slots, and The University of the South Tigers (also called Sewanee) withdrew from the SEC in 1940, de-emphasized athletics, and no longer competes at the Division I level. Georgia ("Bulldogs"), like Alabama, is a member of the SEC, but the Crimson Tide and Bulldogs are in different divisions and play each other only once every six years, unless the schools meet in the SEC Championship Game. This most recently occurred at the 2018 NCAA College Football National Championship, which the University of Alabama won 26-23 in overtime.

The "Rammer Jammer Cheer"[9] is a traditional cheer. The lyrics originate from The Rammer-Jammer, a student magazine in the 1920s,[10] and the yellowhammer, Alabama's state bird. The term "yellowhammer" was originally used to describe Confederate soldiers from Alabama who wore bright yellow cloth on their uniforms; when the soldiers marched into the city of Hopkinsville, Kentucky, supporters of the Confederacy cheered them with the chant "yellowhammer, yellowhammer." During and after the American Civil War, the term continued to be used and Alabama became known as the "Yellowhammer State."[11]

The cadence of the cheer was adapted from the Ole Miss cheer "Hotty Toddy" after then Ole Miss marching band director Dr. James Ferguson was appointed director of the Million Dollar Band. The cheer was long referred to as "Ole Miss", and today the drum major's signal is still the motioning of one arm in a full circle (an 'O').[12]

The cheer was a pregame ritual until the early 2000s, chanting "We're gonna' beat the hell out of you!", but this was considered unsportsmanlike and banned. The university also briefly forbade the Million Dollar Band from playing it after games, because of its taunting nature.[13] The move was met with a significant amount of criticism. In a vote at Homecoming 2005, the question was posed to students of whether the cheer should be banned. 98% of students voted in favor of keeping the cheer.[14]
Before the university's attempt to remove the cheer, it was played before kickoff and at the end of the game. The cheer is now only played in the closing minutes when victory is certain, and is traditionally chanted twice. On at least one occasion (during Alabama's victory over Auburn in the 2008 Iron Bowl, Alabama's first in the series since 2001), it was repeated an additional four times to signify the breaking of the 6-game losing streak to Auburn. After Alabama's victory over the Florida Gators in the 2009 SEC Championship Game, as well as after Alabama's victory over the Texas Longhorns in the 2010 Citi BCS National Championship Game, the cheer was played nine times.
Depending on what team Alabama is playing, the Million Dollar Band and fans will call out to the opposing team by chanting the team's mascot with the exception being Auburn University; they do not refer to them as the Tigers, just as Auburn.

In other instances, the nickname of the opposing team is substituted; for instance, a victory over the University of Tennessee would change the opening lyrics to "Hey Vols!"[9] (short for Volunteers, the nickname/mascot for the University of Tennessee)  Also, when the cheer was played before kickoff, fans would replace the lyrics "We just" with "We're gonna." The cheer is no longer played before kickoff; however, there are a few special occasions where the cheer is played before a football game.  One such instance occurs when Alabama plays Tennessee in Knoxville.  The night before the football game, the Alabama Alumni Association hosts a riverboat cruise in which Alabama alumni from all around reunite for a night.  During the two trips the riverboat cruise takes over the course of the night, the Million Dollar Band members that are a part of the cruises' pep band will play the Rammer Jammer cheer [9]in the direction of other boats on the river flying a Volunteers' flag. Within the Million Dollar Band, there is taboo around singing the words outside of an actual Crimson Tide victory. When the cheer is played in these situations, members of the band simple play the notes and mime the motions of the cheer without saying any of the words.

Author Warren St. John titled his 2004 bestseller about obsessive sports fans Rammer Jammer Yellow Hammer[15] after the cheer. The cheer was most noted during the years of Coach Paul "Bear" Bryant and his head cheerleader Mickey Grigsby.


when did the first film camera come out

The use of photographic film was pioneered by George Eastman, who started manufacturing paper film in 1885 before switching to celluloid in 1888-1889. His first camera, which he called the "Kodak," was first offered for sale in 1888. It was a very simple box camera with a fixed-focus lens and single shutter speed, which along with its relatively low price appealed to the average consumer. The Kodak came pre-loaded with enough film for 100 exposures and needed to be sent back to the factory for processing and reloading when the roll was finished. By the end of the 19th century Eastman had expanded his lineup to several models including both box and folding cameras.

History of the camera

The history of the camera can be traced much further back than the introduction of photography. Cameras evolved from the camera obscura, and continued to change through many generations of photographic technology, including daguerreotypes, calotypes, dry plates, film, and to the modern day with digital cameras.

The forerunner to the photographic camera was the camera obscura. Camera obscura (Latin for "dark room") is the natural optical phenomenon that occurs when an image of a scene at the other side of a screen (or for instance a wall) is projected through a small hole in that screen and forms an inverted image (left to right and upside down) on a surface opposite to the opening. The oldest known record of this principle is a description by Han Chinese philosopher Mozi (ca. 470 to ca. 391 BC). Mozi correctly asserted that the camera obscura image is inverted because light travels in straight lines from its source. In the 11th century Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)'s wrote very influential books about optics, including experiments with light through a small opening in a darkened room.

The use of a lens in the opening of a wall or closed window shutter of a darkened room to project images used as a drawing aid has been traced back to circa 1550. Since the late 17th century portable camera obscura devices in tents and boxes were used as a drawing aid.

Before the invention of photographic processes there was no way to preserve the images produced by these cameras apart from manually tracing them. The earliest cameras were room-sized, with space for one or more people inside; these gradually evolved into more and more compact models. By NiÃ©pce's time portable box camerae obscurae suitable for photography were readily available. The first camera that was small and portable enough to be practical for photography was envisioned by Johann Zahn in 1685, though it would be almost 150 years before such an application was possible.

The first partially successful photograph of a camera image was made in approximately 1816 by Nicéphore Niépce,[1][2] using a very small camera of his own making and a piece of paper coated with silver chloride, which darkened where it was exposed to light. No means of removing the remaining unaffected silver chloride was known to Niépce, so the photograph was not permanent, eventually becoming entirely darkened by the overall exposure to light necessary for viewing it. In the mid-1820s, Niépce used a sliding wooden box camera made by Parisian opticians Charles and Vincent Chevalier to experiment with photography on surfaces thinly coated with Bitumen of Judea.[3] The bitumen slowly hardened in the brightest areas of the image. The unhardened bitumen was then dissolved away. One of those photographs has survived.

After NiÃ©pce's death in 1833, his partner Louis Daguerre continued to experiment and by 1837 had created the first practical photographic process, which he named the daguerreotype and publicly unveiled in 1839.[4] Daguerre treated a silver-plated sheet of copper with iodine vapor to give it a coating of light-sensitive silver iodide. After exposure in the camera, the image was developed by mercury vapor and fixed with a strong solution of ordinary salt (sodium chloride). Henry Fox Talbot perfected a different process, the calotype, in 1840. As commercialized, both processes used very simple cameras consisting of two nested boxes. The rear box had a removable ground glass screen and could slide in and out to adjust the focus. After focusing, the ground glass was replaced with a light-tight holder containing the sensitized plate or paper and the lens was capped. Then the photographer opened the front cover of the holder, uncapped the lens, and counted off as many minutes as the lighting conditions seemed to require before replacing the cap and closing the holder. Despite this mechanical simplicity, high-quality achromatic lenses were standard.[5]

Collodion dry plates had been available since 1857, thanks to the work of Désiré van Monckhoven, but it was not until the invention of the gelatin dry plate in 1871 by Richard Leach Maddox that the wet plate process could be rivaled in quality and speed. The 1878 discovery that heat-ripening a gelatin emulsion greatly increased its sensitivity finally made so-called "instantaneous" snapshot exposures practical. For the first time, a tripod or other support was no longer an absolute necessity. With daylight and a fast plate or film, a small camera could be hand-held while taking the picture. The ranks of amateur photographers swelled and informal "candid" portraits became popular. There was a proliferation of camera designs, from single- and twin-lens reflexes to large and bulky field cameras, simple box cameras, and even "detective cameras" disguised as pocket watches, hats, or other objects.

The short exposure times that made candid photography possible also necessitated another innovation, the mechanical shutter. The very first shutters were separate accessories, though built-in shutters were common by the end of the 19th century.[5]

In 1900, Eastman took mass-market photography one step further with the Brownie, a simple and very inexpensive box camera that introduced the concept of the snapshot. The Brownie was extremely popular and various models remained on sale until the 1960s.

Film also allowed the movie camera to develop from an expensive toy to a practical commercial tool.

Despite the advances in low-cost photography made possible by Eastman, plate cameras still offered higher-quality prints and remained popular well into the 20th century. To compete with rollfilm cameras, which offered a larger number of exposures per loading, many inexpensive plate cameras from this era were equipped with magazines to hold several plates at once. Special backs for plate cameras allowing them to use film packs or rollfilm were also available, as were backs that enabled rollfilm cameras to use plates.

Except for a few special types such as Schmidt cameras, most professional astrographs continued to use plates until the end of the 20th century when electronic photography replaced them.

A number of manufacturers started to use 35mm film for still photography between 1905 and 1913. The first 35mm cameras available to the public, and reaching significant numbers in sales were the Tourist Multiple, in 1913, and the Simplex, in 1914.[citation needed]

Oskar Barnack, who was in charge of research and development at Leitz, decided to investigate using 35 mm cine film for still cameras while attempting to build a compact camera capable of making high-quality enlargements. He built his prototype 35 mm camera (Ur-Leica) around 1913, though further development was delayed for several years by World War I. It wasn't until after World War I that Leica commercialized their first 35mm Cameras. Leitz test-marketed the design between 1923 and 1924, receiving enough positive feedback that the camera was put into production as the Leica I (for Leitz camera) in 1925. The Leica's immediate popularity spawned a number of competitors, most notably the Contax (introduced in 1932), and cemented the position of 35 mm as the format of choice for high-end compact cameras.

Kodak got into the market with the Retina I in 1934, which introduced the 135 cartridge used in all modern 35 mm cameras. Although the Retina was comparatively inexpensive, 35 mm cameras were still out of reach for most people and rollfilm remained the format of choice for mass-market cameras. This changed in 1936 with the introduction of the inexpensive Argus A and to an even greater extent in 1939 with the arrival of the immensely popular Argus C3. Although the cheapest cameras still used rollfilm, 35 mm film had come to dominate the market by the time the C3 was discontinued in 1966.

The fledgling Japanese camera industry began to take off in 1936 with the Canon 35Â mm rangefinder, an improved version of the 1933 Kwanon prototype. Japanese cameras would begin to become popular in the West after Korean War veterans and soldiers stationed in Japan brought them back to the United States and elsewhere.

The first practical reflex camera was the Franke & Heidecke Rolleiflex medium format TLR of 1928. Though both single- and twin-lens reflex cameras had been available for decades, they were too bulky to achieve much popularity. The Rolleiflex, however, was sufficiently compact to achieve widespread popularity and the medium-format TLR design became popular for both high- and low-end cameras.

A similar revolution in SLR design began in 1933 with the introduction of the Ihagee Exakta, a compact SLR which used 127 rollfilm. This was followed three years later by the first Western SLR to use 135 film, the Kine Exakta (World's first true 35mm SLR was Soviet "Sport" camera, marketed several months before Kine Exakta, though "Sport" used its own film cartridge). The 35mm SLR design gained immediate popularity and there was an explosion of new models and innovative features after World War II. There were also a few 35mm TLRs, the best-known of which was the Contaflex of 1935, but for the most part these met with little success.

The first major post-war SLR innovation was the eye-level viewfinder, which first appeared on the Hungarian Duflex in 1947 and was refined in 1948 with the Contax S, the first camera to use a pentaprism. Prior to this, all SLRs were equipped with waist-level focusing screens. The Duflex was also the first SLR with an instant-return mirror, which prevented the viewfinder from being blacked out after each exposure. This same time period also saw the introduction of the Hasselblad 1600F, which set the standard for medium format SLRs for decades.

In 1952 the Asahi Optical Company (which later became well known for its Pentax cameras) introduced the first Japanese SLR using 135 film, the Asahiflex. Several other Japanese camera makers also entered the SLR market in the 1950s, including Canon, Yashica, and Nikon. Nikon's entry, the Nikon F, had a full line of interchangeable components and accessories and is generally regarded as the first Japanese system camera. It was the F, along with the earlier S series of rangefinder cameras, that helped establish Nikon's reputation as a maker of professional-quality equipment.

While conventional cameras were becoming more refined and sophisticated, an entirely new type of camera appeared on the market in 1948. This was the Polaroid Model 95, the world's first viable instant-picture camera. Known as a Land Camera after its inventor, Edwin Land, the Model 95 used a patented chemical process to produce finished positive prints from the exposed negatives in under a minute. The Land Camera caught on despite its relatively high price and the Polaroid lineup had expanded to dozens of models by the 1960s. The first Polaroid camera aimed at the popular market, the Model 20 Swinger of 1965, was a huge success and remains one of the top-selling cameras of all time.

The first camera to feature automatic exposure was the selenium light meter-equipped, fully automatic Super Kodak Six-20 pack of 1938, but its extremely high price (for the time) of $225 ($3828 in present terms[6]) kept it from achieving any degree of success. By the 1960s, however, low-cost electronic components were commonplace and cameras equipped with light meters and automatic exposure systems became increasingly widespread.

The next technological advance came in 1960, when the German Mec 16 SB subminiature became the first camera to place the light meter behind the lens for more accurate metering. However, through-the-lens metering ultimately became a feature more commonly found on SLRs than other types of camera; the first SLR equipped with a TTL system was the Topcon RE Super of 1962.

Digital cameras differ from their analog predecessors primarily in that they do not use film, but capture and save photographs on digital memory cards or internal storage instead. Their low operating costs have relegated chemical cameras to niche markets. Digital cameras now include wireless communication capabilities (for example Wi-Fi or Bluetooth) to transfer, print or share photos, and are commonly found on mobile phones.

The concept of digitizing images on scanners, and the concept of digitizing video signals, predate the concept of making still pictures by digitizing signals from an array of discrete sensor elements. Early spy satellites used the extremely complex and expensive method of de-orbit and airborne retrieval of film canisters. Technology was pushed to skip these steps through the use of in-satellite developing and electronic scanning of the film for direct transmission to the ground. The amount of film was still a major limitation, and this was overcome and greatly simplified by the push to develop an electronic image capturing array that could be used instead of film. The first electronic imaging satellite was the KH-11 launched by the NRO in late 1976. It had a charge-coupled device (CCD) array with a resolution of 800 x 800 pixels (0.64 megapixels).[7] At Philips Labs in New York, Edward Stupp, Pieter Cath and Zsolt Szilagyi filed for a patent on "All Solid State Radiation Imagers" on 6 September 1968 and constructed a flat-screen target for receiving and storing an optical image on a matrix composed of an array of photodiodes connected to a capacitor to form an array of two terminal devices connected in rows and columns. Their US patent was granted on 10 November 1970.[8] Texas Instruments engineer Willis Adcock designed a filmless camera that was not digital and applied for a patent in 1972, but it is not known whether it was ever built.[9] The Cromemco CYCLOPS introduced as a hobbyist construction project in 1975[10] was the first digital camera to be interfaced to a microcomputer.

The first recorded attempt at building a self-contained digital camera was in 1975 by Steven Sasson, an engineer at Eastman Kodak.[11][12] It used the then-new solid-state CCD image sensor chips developed by Fairchild Semiconductor in 1973.[13] The camera weighed 8 pounds (3.6 kg), recorded black and white images to a compact cassette tape, had a resolution of 0.01 megapixels (10,000 pixels), and took 23 seconds to capture its first image in December 1975. The prototype camera was a technical exercise, not intended for production.

Handheld electronic cameras, in the sense of a device meant to be carried and used like a handheld film camera, appeared in 1981 with the demonstration of the Sony Mavica (Magnetic Video Camera). This is not to be confused with the later cameras by Sony that also bore the Mavica name. This was an analog camera, in that it recorded pixel signals continuously, as videotape machines did, without converting them to discrete levels; it recorded television-like signals to a 2 × 2 inch "video floppy".[14] In essence it was a video movie camera that recorded single frames, 50 per disk in field mode and 25 per disk in frame mode. The image quality was considered equal to that of then-current televisions.

Analog electronic cameras do not appear to have reached the market until 1986 with the Canon RC-701. Canon demonstrated a prototype of this model at the 1984 Summer Olympics, printing the images in the Yomiuri Shinbun, a Japanese newspaper. In the United States, the first publication to use these cameras for real reportage was USA Today, in its coverage of World Series baseball. Several factors held back the widespread adoption of analog cameras; the cost (upwards of $20,000), poor image quality compared to film, and the lack of quality affordable printers. Capturing and printing an image originally required access to equipment such as a frame grabber, which was beyond the reach of the average consumer. The "video floppy" disks later had several reader devices available for viewing on a screen, but were never standardized as a computer drive.

The early adopters tended to be in the news media, where the cost was negated by the utility and the ability to transmit images by telephone lines. The poor image quality was offset by the low resolution of newspaper graphics. This capability to transmit images without a satellite link was useful during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 and the first Gulf War in 1991.

US government agencies also took a strong interest in the still video concept, notably the US Navy for use as a real time air-to-sea surveillance system.

The first analog electronic camera marketed to consumers may have been the Casio VS-101 in 1987. A notable analog camera produced the same year was the Nikon QV-1000C, designed as a press camera and not offered for sale to general users, which sold only a few hundred units. It recorded images in greyscale, and the quality in newspaper print was equal to film cameras. In appearance it closely resembled a modern digital single-lens reflex camera. Images were stored on video floppy disks.

Silicon Film, a proposed digital sensor cartridge for film cameras that would allow 35 mm cameras to take digital photographs without modification was announced in late 1998. Silicon Film was to work like a roll of 35 mm film, with a 1.3 megapixel sensor behind the lens and a battery and storage unit fitting in the film holder in the camera. The product, which was never released, became increasingly obsolete due to improvements in digital camera technology and affordability. Silicon Films' parent company filed for bankruptcy in 2001.[15]

By the late 1980s, the technology required to produce truly commercial digital cameras existed. The first true portable digital camera that recorded images as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 2Â MB SRAM memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed to the public.

The first digital camera of any kind ever sold commercially was possibly the MegaVision Tessera in 1987 [16] though there is not extensive documentation of its sale known. The first portable digital camera that was actually marketed commercially was sold in December 1989 in Japan, the DS-X by Fuji[17] The first commercially available portable digital camera in the United States was the Dycam ModelÂ 1, first shipped in November 1990.[18] It was originally a commercial failure because it was black and white, low in resolution, and cost nearly $1,000 (about $2000 in 2014).[19] It later saw modest success when it was re-sold as the Logitech Fotoman in 1992. It used a CCD image sensor, stored pictures digitally, and connected directly to a computer for download.[20][21][22]

In 1991, Kodak brought to market the Kodak DCS (Kodak Digital Camera System), the beginning of a long line of professional Kodak DCS SLR cameras that were based in part on film bodies, often Nikons. It used a 1.3Â megapixel sensor, had a bulky external digital storage system and was priced at $13,000. At the arrival of the Kodak DCS-200, the Kodak DCS was dubbed Kodak DCS-100.

The move to digital formats was helped by the formation of the first JPEG and MPEG standards in 1988, which allowed image and video files to be compressed for storage. The first consumer camera with a liquid crystal display on the back was the Casio QV-10 developed by a team led by Hiroyuki Suetaka in 1995. The first camera to use CompactFlash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996.[citation needed]. The first camera that offered the ability to record video clips may have been the Ricoh RDC-1 in 1995.

In 1995 Minolta introduced the RD-175, which was based on the Minolta 500si SLR with a splitter and three independent CCDs. This combination delivered 1.75M pixels. The benefit of using an SLR base was the ability to use any existing Minolta AF mount lens. 1999 saw the introduction of the Nikon D1, a 2.74Â megapixel camera that was the first digital SLR developed entirely from the ground up by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high-end consumers. This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned.

Digital camera sales continued to flourish, driven by technology advances. The digital market segmented into different categories, Compact Digital Still Cameras, Bridge Cameras, Mirrorless Compacts and Digital SLRs. One of the major technology advances was the development of CMOS sensors, which helped drive sensor costs low enough to enable the widespread adoption of camera phones.

Since 2003, digital cameras have outsold film cameras[23] and Kodak announced in January 2004 that they would no longer sell Kodak-branded film cameras in the developed world[24] - and 2012 filed for bankruptcy after struggling to adapt to the changing industry.[25] Smartphones now routinely include high resolution digital cameras.


last episode of one foot in the grave

"Things Aren't Simple Any More" is the final episode of the British television sitcom One Foot in the Grave. It was written by David Renwick and stars Richard Wilson as Victor Meldrew, Annette Crosbie as his wife Margaret, and features guest appearances by Hannah Gordon and Paul Merton. The episode depicts the death of the series' protagonist, Victor Meldrew, in a hit-and-run road accident, and his wife's efforts to deal with the driver who killed him. Renwick had been struggling to conceive and write new stories for the series and decided to kill off the character. The episode was filmed at Shawford, Hampshire, and at BBC Television Centre in London.[3]

Things Aren't Simple Any More

Hannah Gordon (Glynis)
Paul Merton (Barman)

Renwick resisted the BBC's attempt to broadcast the episode at Christmas, feeling that such scheduling would contrast unfavourably with the grimness of the show, and would be viewed as an overt attempt to garner high ratings. The controller of BBC1 relented and the episode was first transmitted on BBC One on 20 November 2000.[3][2] The broadcast coincided with the transmission of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'s first UK jackpot win. Some people within the BBC alleged that Celador, the production company in charge of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? had rigged Judith Keppel's victory to spoil the BBC's expected high ratings for the sitcom's finale. The Independent Television Commission (ITC) cleared Celador and ITV of any wrongdoing.[4][5][6]

The critical reception for the episode was mostly positive. Many reviewers commented that the dark tone of the final episode was characteristic of the series, and that killing off the protagonist was an appropriate way to conclude. The characters of Victor and Margaret returned in a short sketch for Comic Relief's Red Nose Day telethon on 16 March 2001.[2][7]

Margaret (Annette Crosbie) is having a heated telephone conversation with a solicitor about an incident in which Victor is accused of having thrown a syringe into someone's buttock. She reveals that a conviction might be difficult as her husband has been dead for five months. While coming to terms with her husband's death as a hit and run victim, Margaret joins a church group clearing litter from roadsides. There she meets Glynis Holloway (Hannah Gordon), whose husband has also recently died. The two become good friends. Confiding to a priest, Father Blakey (William Osborne), Margaret pledges vengeance for Victor's death, vowing "If they ever find the bastard who was at the wheel of that car I swear I'll kill him, with my bare hands if I have to, and they can do what they like with me". Father Blakey tells Margaret of his hope that one day she finds the strength to forgive the person responsible.

The episode continually switches to flashbacks which show that the circumstances leading to Victor's death stemmed from a simple misunderstanding. A group of pilgrims descend upon the Meldrews' home after misunderstanding Margaret's classified advertisement in her local newspaper of a picture of the Virgin Mary with "two small tears under her eyes". Readers apparently took it to mean 'tears' (as in crying) rather than 'tears' (as in rips). As a result of their exposure in the local paper, Victor is contacted by an old acquaintance and invited to a works reunion. Victor, who is persuaded to go by Margaret, is informed by the barman (Paul Merton) that all but one of the other guests have cancelled for various reasons. Sitting alone while waiting for Limpy, the one remaining potential attendee, Victor is entertained by two cabaret performers (Ed Welch— who wrote the incidental music for all series —and Jean Challis). Victor eventually leaves the pub, with Limpy arriving seconds after he leaves. At the railway station Victor telephones Margaret for a lift. As he stands at the side of the road waiting for his wife, a car appears and mounts the kerb; Victor is knocked down and killed.

The episode returns to the present day. Margaret prepares some orange juice and paracetamol for Glynis's migraine. She finds a scrap book of press cuttings surrounding Victor's death in Glynis's kitchen drawer and realises that her new friend is responsible for his demise. As ominous music plays, Margaret thoughtfully looks at the box of paracetamol. She drops some tablets into the glass and hands it to Glynis, who realises that her secret has been uncovered. Glynis explains that the night she was driving she had been told that her husband was close to death and wasn't concentrating on the road properly. As a result, she didn't realise she was about to hit Victor until it was too late and had stopped, but left when she saw Margaret arrive. She also tells Margaret how sorry she is and how she never meant to hurt anyone, seeking Margaret out in order to try and help her get over Victor's death. Margaret watches her drink some of the orange juice before leaving the house and driving away, with it never being revealed if she'd followed through with her promise to kill the person responsible for Victor's demise.[8]

The episode ends with a montage of some of the events referred to during the episode, accompanied by the song "End of the Line" by The Traveling Wilburys. Several lines from the song mirror incidents than have occurred in the episode. Scenes include Victor and his car being covered in artificial snow at a supermarket during the filming of a Christmas television advertisement (in the middle of June); Victor scaring a young couple after grass cuttings are stuck in the sunscreen on his face; and the incident with the syringe. The final shots are of Victor and Margaret driving through the countryside.

David Renwick found writing the fifth series and the 1997 Christmas special "Endgame" difficult,[9] and he was becoming increasingly busy with his detective series Jonathan Creek. In early 1998, his concerns appeared in the national press. The Evening Standard quoted him: "I have no new ideas for Victor Meldrew... I know that if I tried to write another series it would be even harder than the Christmas one. I don't want the standard to drop [and] there would be no point in doing something I didn't believe in."[9] A year later, Renwick agreed to write a final series of One Foot, having found the four-year break after writing the fifth series fruitful.[10] Renwick decided that Victor should die in the final episode because he did not want to be persuaded to write another series. He cites the final episode of the Only Fools and Horses 1996 Christmas specials "where the fantastic closing scenes of the Trilogy saw the Trotters walking up the Yellow Brick Road, only for them to return a couple of years later".[10] He did not want to be constantly asked by journalists and fans when Victor was coming back to their screens.[10]

In June 1999, while Richard Wilson was performing in Waiting for Godot at the Royal Exchange in Manchester, Renwick informed him of his decision to kill off Victor.[10][11] The actor reacted positively, and said in 2006 that he did not want Victor to "take me over."[8] Wilson had noticed that "the scripts weren't as original as they had been" and that he was "getting a bit tired of the character, trying to maintain a freshness".[10] Annette Crosbie was saddened that the show was coming to an end because she enjoyed working on it, but she understood Renwick's feelings of being pressured to "top the last one".[10]

In an interview for the documentary Comedy Connections, Renwick says that killing off the protagonist "seemed to be the most natural and logical and appropriate end for the character in a show where we had tried to reflect the truthfulness of real life."[8] Victor's demise had been announced in the press in the summer preceding the broadcast. In an interview with The Sun, Wilson said "I feel sad, of course, but it's the right time. To keep doing it would have got dull".[12][13]

Renwick decided to use the flashback structure for several reasons. He felt that the episode should be about "life After Victor, which I think will be more interesting and not the route people are expecting you to take."[14] He realised that most viewers would have been aware of Victor's death because of the press coverage; there would be little point in having the death be the climax of the episode because everyone already knew the outcome. However, the focus would be upon Victor's death rather than the details of the accident.[15] Renwick's decision to kill Victor in a road accident was fuelled by the writer's concerns about reckless driving.[14] Also, the suddenness of an accident, as opposed to death by illness, would not negate the comic tone of the rest of the episode.[14] The twist that the person responsible for Victor's death is Margaret's new best friend was designed to add some complexity to the show.[14]

Actress Hannah Gordon, who played the culprit of Victor's demise, admired the tone of the script. Her character was returning from visiting her terminally ill husband in hospital, which distracted her concentration from the road, "but her guilt and conscience is something from which she can't escape."[16] Commenting upon the ambiguity of whether or not Margaret kills Glynis by overdosing her orange juice with tablets, Renwick believes it to be more stimulating to allow audiences to reach their own conclusions.[17]

The five previous series of One Foot in the Grave were produced and directed by Susan Belbin. She had retired because of ill health.[18] Renwick persuaded her to return to work on the final series to provide continuity, but her health quickly forced her to resign from the show again.[3] The final series was produced by Jonathon P. Llewellyn and directed by Christine Gernon. Wilson and Renwick felt that Gernon's experience working with Belbin on the earlier series of One Foot as a production secretary and assistant, as well as on other shows, meant that her style was similar to Belbin's, which would aid the transition between directors.[18]

The cast and crew assembled in the Bridge Lounge at the BBC Television Centre for the read-through of all six episodes from the final series on 30 June 2000.[3] Nine days later they moved to Bournemouth to film some exterior sequences.[3] One Foot had used Bournemouth since the show's beginning because of its favourable climate, easy access to London, and lower costs compared to filming in the capital.[19] The exterior scenes of the Meldrews' home were filmed, as they had been since series two, at Tresillian Way in Walkford (a village near New Milton in Hampshire).[20]

Victor's death scene was filmed outside The Bridge Hotel and pub at Shawford railway bridge, next to the River Itchen, Hampshire, on 21 July 2000.[21][22] The cold temperature on the night of the shoot and the various technical considerations meant that the scene did not have a big emotional impact upon the cast and crew during filming. However, Renwick briefly felt emotional as he watched Victor's arm falling into the shot and his cap drift away in the gutter.[1] After the exterior sequences had been filmed, the remainder of the episode was recorded at BBC Television Centre in West London on 17 September 2000.[1] Unlike the location shoot, Renwick was too concerned with the complexities of filming to be emotionally affected by the filming of the final episode.[1]

The BBC originally wanted to transmit the episode at Christmas, a time of year when audience figures are particularly important for broadcasters.[3] Renwick was unhappy with the plan, writing in his journal in May 2000:

It's almost as if, as broadcasters, we are glorying his death. The context a show is presented in will have a huge impact on how it is received, and it's always been our policy to swim against the tide and resist the policy to conform. It seems ironic—and depressing—to me that after deliberately avoiding the "obvious" approach in my script we are now facing a very "obvious" approach to the scheduling. If Victor dies at Christmas it's going to look like a naked push for ratings. The opposite is true: I want Victor's departure to be significant, but stripped of sensationalism.[3]

Renwick outlined his concerns in a letter dated 19 May 2000 to Peter Salmon, the controller of BBC1:

[The show] draws its rhythms and inspiration from reality, and occasionally has the power to disarm the viewer with material that is darker or more reflective than they are used to... Death may be tragic but it is commonplace, the eternal Truth. Let's not trumpet it, but place it simply before the public and let them make up their own minds. I would so like the feeling that we generate on the air to reflect the reality of death in life: most of the time it is a very quiet, private affair, generates little public attention: we grieve, and then somehow or other we just have to get on with things. I suppose at the risk of sounding squirmingly precious, I would like Victor to die with dignity.[3]

Salmon agreed not to broadcast the episode at Christmas.[3] It was first transmitted on BBC One on 20 November 2000,[2] forty minutes in length, rather than usual thirty. The episode's transmission was immediately preceded by I Don't Believe It! The One Foot In The Grave Story, a documentary presented by Angus Deayton which looked back at the hit sitcom.[23] The documentary was included as a bonus feature on the DVD release.

The Meldrews returned several months later in a sketch for the Comic Relief telethon held on 16 March 2001. The seven-and-a-half minute sketch, titled "Visiting Uncle Dick", was written by Renwick and directed by Christine Gernon.[22] It centred on Victor and Margaret's visit to an elderly relative in hospital. Although it initially appears to be set before the final episode, the scene concludes with Victor picking up a video of the 1999 thriller film The Sixth Sense and, while commenting that he saw the ending coming, notices that Margaret is totally ignoring him, making him realize he is actually dead. Spike Milligan, who had asked for a guest part in the series, was originally cast to play the patient, but he was too ill, and the role was played by Eric Sykes. Renwick and Gernon were dissatisfied with the sketch because of the limited time they were allowed to write and film the piece.[22]

The transmission of the game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? on rival channel ITV at the same time as the final series of One Foot led to the ratings that year being lower than for previous series.[24] The broadcast of "Things Aren't Simple Any More" coincided with the broadcast of the first UK jackpot win on Millionaire.[24] The news of Judith Keppel's win, recorded the preceding Sunday, was leaked to the press; ITV announced Keppel's success at a press conference on the day of broadcast. Renwick was annoyed that this would take "audience interest" away from One Foot. He said that the early announcement of the outcome of Millionaire was "naked opportunism", and it "would have been more honorable to let the show go out in the normal way". He pointed out that they also "killed off any element off tension or surprise in their own programme", but "television is all about ratings".[24] On the night of its broadcast ITV's Who Wants to be a Millionaire? attracted 13.9 million viewers (48 percent); One Foot, which began transmission fifteen minutes later at 21:15, attracted 10.7 million (36 percent).[25] The episode peaked at 11.6 million viewers when it ran concurrently with its ITV rival.[26]

It was alleged that Celador, the production company in charge of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, had rigged the show to spoil the BBC's expected high ratings for the sitcom's finale. Wilson in particular was quoted as saying that ITV had "planned" the win, adding "it seems a bit unfair to take the audience away from Victor's last moments on earth."[25] Richard Webber's account, in his 2006 book, cites "unnamed BBC sources" as those who "questioned the authenticity of Keppel's victory".[24] ITV claimed that the allegation "undermined viewers' faith in the programme", and Leslie Hill, ITV's chairman, wrote a letter of complaint to Sir Christopher Bland, the chairman of the BBC Board of Governors. The corporation apologised, saying that any suggestion of rigging "did not represent the official view of the BBC."[26] Eleven viewers complained about the quiz show to the Independent Television Commission (ITC), but Millionaire was cleared of any wrongdoing.[4]

Many reviewers commented that the dark tone of the final episode was typical of the series. A reviewer for BBC Comedy said that it "was a characteristically dark end to a show which was never afraid to explore the flip side of the comedy coin."[7] UKTV Gold's website says "it was a suitably downbeat end to an equally downbeat man."[27] Commenting that killing off the protagonist "might seem an odd way for a sitcom to end," the British Film Institute's ScreenOnline says that in a series "where comedy and tragedy are so intertwined, it seems entirely appropriate."[28]

The Daily Telegraph described the episode as displaying "an exhilarating flair for rapid change of comic gear" and commented positively on the scene in which pilgrims descend on the Meldrews' home.[29] Rupert Smith in The Guardian called the episode "a satisfying ending to a series that never went out of its way to be cheerful", referring in particular to the open-ended scene of Margaret dropping the paracetamol into the glass.[30] However, The Independent's Robert Hanks criticised the transitions into the flashbacks for being "clumsily signalled", and said that the direction and score of the paracetamol scene was not equal to the quality of the writing and acting.[31]

Victor Meldrew had become such a cultural icon that many fans left messages and flowers at the location of his death.[8][32] Fans repeated this on the first anniversary of his screen death, although Renwick suspects that the event was orchestrated by the tabloid press.[33]


what does it mean if second derivative is negative

The second derivative of a function f measures the concavity of the graph of f. A function whose second derivative is positive will be concave up (also referred to as convex), meaning that the tangent line will lie below the graph of the function. Similarly, a function whose second derivative is negative will be concave down (also simply called concave), and its tangent lines will lie above the graph of the function.

Second derivative

In calculus, the second derivative, or the second order derivative, of a function f is the derivative of the derivative of f. Roughly speaking, the second derivative measures how the rate of change of a quantity is itself changing; for example, the second derivative of the position of a vehicle with respect to time is the instantaneous acceleration of the vehicle, or the rate at which the velocity of the vehicle is changing with respect to time. In Leibniz notation:

where the last term is the second derivative expression.

On the graph of a function, the second derivative corresponds to the curvature or concavity of the graph. The graph of a function with a positive second derivative is upwardly concave, while the graph of a function with a negative second derivative curves in the opposite way.

The power rule for the first derivative, if applied twice, will produce the second derivative power rule as follows:

d

2

d

x

2

[

x

n

]
=

d

d
x

d

d
x

[

x

n

]
=

d

d
x

[
n

x

n
−
1

]
=
n

d

d
x

[

x

n
−
1

]
=
n
(
n
−
1
)

x

n
−
2

.

{\displaystyle {\frac {d^{2}}{dx^{2}}}[x^{n}]={\frac {d}{dx}}{\frac {d}{dx}}[x^{n}]={\frac {d}{dx}}[nx^{n-1}]=n{\frac {d}{dx}}[x^{n-1}]=n(n-1)x^{n-2}.}

The second derivative of a function

f
(
x
)

{\displaystyle f(x)}

 is usually denoted

f
â€³

(
x
)

{\displaystyle f''(x)}

. That is:

When using Leibniz's notation for derivatives, the second derivative of a dependent variable y with respect to an independent variable x is written

This notation is derived from the following formula:

Given the function

the derivative of f is the function

The second derivative of f is the derivative of fâ€², namely

If the second derivative of a function changes sign, the graph of the function will switch from concave down to concave up, or vice versa. A point where this occurs is called an inflection point. Assuming the second derivative is continuous, it must take a value of zero at any inflection point, although not every point where the second derivative is zero is necessarily a point of inflection.

The relation between the second derivative and the graph can be used to test whether a stationary point for a function (i.e. a point where

f
â€²

(
x
)
=
0

{\displaystyle f'(x)=0}

 ) is a local maximum or a local minimum. Specifically,

The reason the second derivative produces these results can be seen by way of a real-world analogy. Consider a vehicle that at first is moving forward at a great velocity, but with a negative acceleration. Clearly the position of the vehicle at the point where the velocity reaches zero will be the maximum distance from the starting position â€“ after this time, the velocity will become negative and the vehicle will reverse. The same is true for the minimum, with a vehicle that at first has a very negative velocity but positive acceleration.

It is possible to write a single limit for the second derivative:

The limit is called the second symmetric derivative.[1][2] Note that the second symmetric derivative may exist even when the (usual) second derivative does not.

The expression on the right can be written as a difference quotient of difference quotients:

This limit can be viewed as a continuous version of the second difference for sequences.

Please note that the existence of the above limit does not mean that the function

f

{\displaystyle f}

 has a second derivative. The limit above just gives a possibility for calculating the second derivative but does not provide a definition. As a counterexample look on the sign function

sgn

(
x
)

{\displaystyle \operatorname {sgn}(x)}

 which is defined through

The sign function is not continuous at zero and therefore the second derivative for

x
=
0

{\displaystyle x=0}

 does not exist. But the above limit exists for

x
=
0

{\displaystyle x=0}

:

Just as the first derivative is related to linear approximations, the second derivative is related to the best quadratic approximation for a function f. This is the quadratic function whose first and second derivatives are the same as those of f at a given point. The formula for the best quadratic approximation to a function f around the point x = a is

This quadratic approximation is the second-order Taylor polynomial for the function centered at x = a.

For many combinations of boundary conditions explicit formulas for eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the second derivative can be obtained. For example, assuming

x
∈
[
0
,
L
]

{\displaystyle x\in [0,L]}

 and homogeneous Dirichlet boundary conditions, i.e.,

v
(
0
)
=
v
(
L
)
=
0

{\displaystyle v(0)=v(L)=0}

, the eigenvalues are

λ

j

=
−

j

2

π

2

L

2

{\displaystyle \lambda _{j}=-{\frac {j^{2}\pi ^{2}}{L^{2}}}}

 and the corresponding eigenvectors (also called eigenfunctions) are

v

j

(
x
)
=

2
L

sin

(

j
π
x

L

)

{\displaystyle v_{j}(x)={\sqrt {\frac {2}{L}}}\sin \left({\frac {j\pi x}{L}}\right)}

. Here,

v

j

″

(
x
)
=

λ

j

v

j

(
x
)
,

j
=
1
,
…
,
∞
.

{\displaystyle v''_{j}(x)=\lambda _{j}v_{j}(x),\,j=1,\ldots,\infty.}

For other well-known cases, see the main article eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the second derivative.

The second derivative generalizes to higher dimensions through the notion of second partial derivatives. For a function f:R3 → R, these include the three second-order partials

and the mixed partials

If the function's image and domain both have a potential, then these fit together into a symmetric matrix known as the Hessian. The eigenvalues of this matrix can be used to implement a multivariable analogue of the second derivative test. (See also the second partial derivative test.)

Another common generalization of the second derivative is the Laplacian. This is the differential operator

∇

2

{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}}

 defined by

The Laplacian of a function is equal to the divergence of the gradient and the trace of the Hessian matrix.


give a possible reason for the location of merweville

The town is an isolated community that maintains an old-world charm, about 150Â km from Beaufort West. The surrounding region has been likened to that of Nevada or Arizona. It was one of the few towns or villages in the province not to be serviced by a sealed highway until the 40 km stretch of gravel road from the N1 was tarred in 2015.

Merweville

Merweville is a town located in Beaufort West Municipality, Western Cape.

Village 45 km north-west of Prince Albert Road and 130 km south-east of Beaufort West. It was established on the farm Vanderbylskraal in 1904 and administered by a village management board from 1921. Named after the Reverend P van der Merwe (1860-1940), minister at Beaufort West of the Dutch Reformed Church, and chairman of the church council which established the town.[2]


the founder of chand dyanasty in kumaun was

The Chand kingdom was established by Som Chand, who came here from Kannauj near Allahabad, sometime in the 10th century,[1] and displaced the Katyuri Kings (कत्यूरी नरेश), originally from Katyur valley near Joshimath, who had been ruling the area from the 7th century AD. He continued to call his state Kurmanchal, and established its capital in Champawat in Kali Kumaon, called so, due to its vicinity to river Kali. Many temples built in this former capital city, during the 11th and 12th century exist today, this include the Baleshwar and Nagnath temples.

Chand kings

The Chand Kings were a medieval Rajput ruling clan of the Kumaon region of the Uttarakhand state of India, which ruled the region after the decline of Katyuri Kings in 11th century AD. It claimed Raghuvanshi ancestry.

In 1563, the Chand kings took control of the region, by overpowering small local chiefs and the descendants of Katyuri Kings.

They had brief stints with the Rajput clans in Gangoli and Bankot; then predominant there the Mankotis of Mankot, the Pathanis of Athigaon-Kamsyar, Kalakotis and few Khas Rajput Clans of the region. However they were able to establish their domain there.

Later their capital was shifted to Almora by Raja Kalyan Chand in 1563, when he laid the foundation of a town name 'Alam Nagar', which was also called, 'Rajapur',[2][3] a name that still used and has been found inscribed on a number of copper plates of the time.[4]

Mughal historians mention that Chand ruler, Gyan Chand, visited Delhi Sultanate and received the regions of Bhabhar- Terai up to the Ganges as a grant from then Sultan. The lower hills remained under local chieftains; it was Kirti Chand (1488â€“1503), who first ruled the entire of Nainital district, along with the rest of Kumaon.

In 1581, the Chand King, Rudra Chand (1565â€“1597), son of Raja Kalyan Chand seized Sira defeating Raika king Hari Malla and attacked the Garhwal Kingdom for the first time, though this attack was repulsed by then king, Dularam Sah,[5] and so were his subsequent attacks. Rudra Chandra was a contemporary of Akbar, and even paid him a visit in Lahore in 1587, as a mark of his obeisance. Akbarnama mentions him as "one of the great landlords of India", and further talks about his initial hestitation in approaching the court of Akbar, it was only Raja Todar Mal himself, sent his son Kalyan Das to assure him, did his proceed to meet Akbar. Subsequently, the two met and agreed on a concord,[6] and thus Ain-e-Akbari, written during period of Akbar, also mentions the Sarkar of Kumaon, containing 21 Mahals (a geographical unit of the times) and the revenue collected.[7]

After death of Rudra Chand in 1597, his son, Lakshmi Chand, also continued attacks of Garhwal for many years, though he too was repulsed. He also constructed the ‘Bagnath temple’ at Bageshwar in 1602.[citation needed]

One of most powerful rulers of the Chand dynasty was Baz Bahadur (1638â€“78), who met Shahjahan in Delhi, and in 1655 joined forces with him to attack Garhwal, which was under its king, Pirthi Sah, and subsequently captured the Terai region including Dehradun, which was hence separated from the Garhwal kingdom. Baz Bahadur extended his territory east to Karnali river.

In 1672, Baz Bahadur started a poll tax, and its revenue was sent to Delhi as a tribute. Baz Bahadur also built the Golu Devata Temple, at Ghorakhal, near Bhimtal,[1] after Lord Golu, a general in his army, who died valiantly at war.[8] He also built the Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal.[9]

Towards the end of 17th century, Chand Rajas again attacked the Garhwal kingdom, and in 1688 Udyot Chand erected several temples at Almora, including Tripur Sundari, Udyot Chandeshwer and Parbateshwer, to mark his victory over Garhwal and Doti. The Pabateshwar temple was renamed twice, to become the present Nanda Devi temple.[10] Later, Jagat Chand (1708–20), defeated the Raja of Garhwal and pushed him away from Srinagar, and his kingdom was given to a Brahmin.[11] However, a subsequent king of Garhwal, Pradip Shah (1717–72), regained control over Garhwal and retained Doon till 1757, when Rohilla leader Najib-ul-Daula established himself there, though he was ousted soon by Pradip Shah.

The Chand kings also defeated the Rajwars of Askot, though the latter were allowed to hold their land on the payment of a tribute.[12]

The hill station of Binsar, 30Â km from Almora was a summer retreat of the Chand kings.[13]

In the coming years, Jagat Chandâ€™s successor, Debi Chand (1720-6) took part in the wars of Rohillas of Rohilkhand, and was defeated by the British troops.[1]

In 1744, Ali Mohammed Khan, the Rohilla leader, sent a force into the Chand territory and penetrated through Bhimtal in the Nainital district to Almora; the resistance of Chand army, under its ruler, Kalyan Chand, was weak and ineffective, and Almora fell to the Rohillas, who stayed here for seven short months, though they were ultimately driven out, an exit made possible by paying them a sum of three lakh rupees, and hastened by the harsh terrain of the region.

This peace didnâ€™t last long as after just three months, unhappy over his lieutenants, Ali Mohammed Khan attacked again, though this time, he was stopped right at the entrance to the hills, at Barakheri, and defeated; and he made no further attempts to conquer the Kumaon kingdom, nor did the Muslim rulers of Delhi, and this remained the first and the last attack by Muslim rulers on the region. Reconciliation subsequently came into effected; troops from the hills, under Dip Chand, fought side by side with the Rohillas at Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.[1]

In 1760, he renamed the old Parbateshwer temple as Dipchandeshwar temple [10]

During British rule, then divisional commissioner of Kumaon, George William Trail, got the statue of the Nanda Devi, which had been relocated to the Udyot Chandeshwar temple, from the 'Malla Mahal' (Upper Court) of Chand kings, where the present collectorate exists, and in time, the temple started being called the ‘Nanda Devi temple’. The 'Talla Mahal' (Lower Court) of Chand rulers now houses the District Hospital.[14]

Due to internal strife, in the coming thirty years the kings lost most of the land they had previously ruled in the plains, and retained only the Bhabhar region.

In 1779, a subsequent Garhwal king, Lalit Shah, captured the Kumaon region from a usurper. Lalit Shah made his son Parduman Shah the king of the Kumaon territory, and after a few years, on the death of his brother in Srinagar, Parduman Shah even held the seat of a combined kingdom of Kumaon and Garhwal for a year, before choosing to go back to Srinagar, in the familiar grounds of Garhwal.

In early 1790, the Gurkhas invaded the Kumaon hills and Almora, under their powerful chief ‘Prithvi Narayan’; they advanced by crossing River Kali, through Gangoli; and the Chands, under the titular Chand Raja, were driven to the Bhabhar and finally expelled.

The Terai and Kashipur were ceded to the British by the Nawab of Awadh in 1801, along with the rest of Rohilkhand.

Nepalese rule lasted for[15] twenty-four years. The end came because of their repeated intrusion into British territories in the Terai from 1800 onwards. Lord Moira, the Governor-General of India, decided to attack Almora in December 1814, marking the beginning of the Anglo-Nepalese War.[3] After the war, the old Lal Mandi fort, near Almora (present cantonment), was renamed ‘Fort Moira’.[16]

Harak Deo Joshi, the minister of the last Chand Raja,[17] took the side of the British, a force of 4500 men marched from Kashipur in February, 1815. Champawat was first taken in March from Pilibhit, through the Kali River. Within two months, a strong British army under Colonel Nichols attacked and captured Almora, on 26 April 1815.[18] A truce was called the same day, and with the ratification of Treaty of Sugauli on 4 March 1816, Kumaon and Garhwal became a part of the British Raj.

Badri Datt Pandey, in his book Kumaun Ka Itihaas lists the Chand kings as following:[19]

The first capital of Chand rulers, Champawat, in the stronghold popularly known as Kali Kumaon, is now a district headquarters town, and hold many remnants of once powerful Chand reign, including a medieval fort, Baleshwar temple, Nagnath Temple, etc. Other temples of their reign are Golu Devata Temple, at Ghorakhal, near Bhimtal, and Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal.


where did the term holy roller come from

Merriam-Webster traces the word to 1841.[3] The Oxford English Dictionary cites an 1893 memoir by Charles Godfrey Leland,  in which he says "When the Holy Spirit seized them... the Holy Rollers... rolled over and over on the floor."[6]

Holy Roller

"Holy Roller" is a term for some Protestant Christian churchgoers of the Holiness and Pentecostal traditions.[1] The term describes dancing, shaking or other boisterous movements by church attendees who perceive themselves as being under the influence of the Holy Spirit.[2]

Holy Rolling is sometimes used derisively by those outside these denominations, as if to describe people literally rolling on the floor in an uncontrolled manner.[3] However, those within these Wesleyan traditions have reclaimed it as a badge of honor; for example William Branham wrote: "And what the world calls today holy-roller, that's the way I worship Jesus Christ."[4] Gospel singer Andrae Crouch stated, "They call us holy rollers, and what they say is true.  But if they knew what we were rollin' about, they'd be rollin' too." Decades earlier, in the notes for his 1960 album Blues & Roots, jazz musician Charles Mingus used the term, seemingly neutrally and as a simple description, to indicate his own religious upbringing.[5]

Similar disparaging terms directed at outspoken Christians but later embraced by them include Jesus freaks or, from former centuries, Quakers, and Shakers.

The song “ Holy Roller “ also appeared on Nazareth’s 1975 Greatest Hits Album, but has not appeared on any previous studio album by the group prior to that albums release. It had been performed Live on stage by the group, however numerous times and remained a crowd favourite throughout the 70’s and 80’s.