who is the head of the government in russia

After the fall of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin, as the President of the Russian Federation, was automatically appointed as the Head of Government of the Russian Federation in the first two years of his mandate. The latter body took the previous name "Council of Ministers", the chairman of which became Viktor Chernomyrdin from the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, replacing acting chairman Yegor Gaidar. According to the new constitution ratified on 25 December 1993, those two entities were separated. Since then, the head of that office takes the formal title "Chairmen of the Government" or colloquially "Prime Minister" (the only actual prime minister was Valentin Pavlov). Chernomyrdin resumed chairing the government, followed up by non-partisans and acting office holders. On 8 May 2008, Vladimir Putin took the office for a second term, now as a member of United Russia. Dmitry Medvedev has been the Chairman of the Government since 8 May 2012.[4]

List of heads of government of Russia

Approximately 98 people have been head of the Russian government since its establishment in 1726. The chairman of government was a member of the Supreme Privy Council, which was created on 8 (19) February 1726 by Empress Catherine, and from 8 (20) September 1802 ministerial duties were allocated by the Committee of Ministers, which was established on  in accordance with the proclamation of Emperor Alexander II. Beginning with Count Aleksandr Romanovich Vorontsov, the eldest of the officers was de facto chairman of the committee. Eight years after the inauguration of the manifest, the first de jure office holder was Count Nikolay Rumyantsev.[1] The Council of Ministers was unofficially formed in October 1857, as a result of Emperor Alexander II's reforms; its first session began on 19 (31) December 1857. Before the actual formation of that body on 12 (24) November 1861, the Emperor himself was in charge. The Council of Ministers consisted of chairmen of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, as well as high-ranking officers appointed by the Emperor. The first session ended on 11 (23) December 1882, after the number of files to the Council greatly decreased.[2][3]

The Committee of Ministers functioned simultaneously with the second session of the Council of Ministers for six more months; Count Sergei Witte participated on both entities until the abolition of the committee on 23 April (5 May) 1906. Following that event, the duties of the committee were left to the Council of Ministers, until the formation of the Small Council in 1909, which also included deputy ministers. By the order of Emperor Nicholas II, the second session of the Council of Ministers began on 19 October (1 November) 1905, following the formation of the State Duma. Shortly after the February Revolution and the inception of the Russian Provisional Government on 2 (15) March 1917, Georgy Lvov from the Constitutional Democratic Party and Alexander Kerensky from the Socialist Revolutionary Party became joint Minister-Chairmen. The provisional Russian Republic was eventually replaced by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) and the governmental body by the Council of People's Commissars, which was chaired from 1917â€“24 by Vladimir Lenin. That body was renamed Council of Ministers following a decree of the Supreme Council on 23 March 1946.

The youngest head of government by his accession to office was Count Karl-Fridrikh Golshteyn-Gottorpsky, at age 26, and the oldest Count Pyotr Andreyevich Tolstoy, at age 81.

Since the 18th century, a modern system of public administration was going to be created in Russia, including the formation of bodies whose powers are similar to the powers of the modern Russian Government. In the period from 1726 to 1905 there was no official title for the leader of the government. The chief ministers (principal ministres) of certain Emperor of Russia nonetheless led the government de facto, but de jure the head of government was a monarch.[5]

The modern government type in Russia came after the establishment of the Council of Ministers on 1 November 1905, created for the "management and union action principal chiefs of departments on subjects like law and senior public administration", and modelled on the relevant institutions within the constitutional states, when all the ministries and directorates have been declared part of the unified state management.[clarification needed] The first Prime Minister was Count Sergei Witte, who was appointed on 6 November 1905.[23]

After the alleged abdication of Nicholas II from the throne in favor of his brother Michael, Michael also abdicated, before the convening of the Constituent Assembly. On 1 September 1917, Russia was proclaimed a republic. At this period a provisional government was formed, the Prime Minister was the head of state.

The heads of Government of the White Movement during the Civil War were de facto Prime Ministers in exile.

Prime Ministers of the Russian SFSR.

The Heads of Government of Russia after the collapse of the Soviet Union. The first Head of Government of post-Soviet Russia was Viktor Chernomyrdin.

As of August 2018, there are seven living former Prime Ministers. The most recent death of a former Prime Minister was that of Yevgeny Primakov (1998â€“1999) on 26 June 2015, aged 85.


who plays brian cassidy on law and order svu

Detective Brian Cassidy is a fictional character played by Dean Winters in the American crime drama television series Law & Order: Special Victims Unit on NBC. A recurring cast member during the first season, Cassidy is a young and inexperienced detective with the New York Police Department's Special Victims Unit, and the original partner of John Munch (Richard Belzer). The stress of the Special Victims Unit is too much for Cassidy, and he transfers to the Narcotics unit in the middle of the season. Cassidy later returns in the thirteenth season finale working undercover for a pimp the SVU detectives are investigating.

Brian Cassidy

Winters had previously worked with creator Dick Wolf, but he was offered a role on SVU through Belzer, though the role proved to be temporary due to Winters's commitment to Oz. As Winters only remained with the series for thirteen episodes, his character never had much of a chance to develop. Winters wanted to return to the show for a long time, though, and felt the time was right during the thirteenth season finale. Critics were generally negative about Cassidy during the character's initial tenure on the show, but some were glad to see his return in "Rhodium Nights".

Though Cassidy is a dedicated member of the Special Victims Unit, he lacks the emotional maturity to deal with sex crimes and the language to describe them.[1] He views his partner, John Munch (Richard Belzer), as a mentor. Cassidy had a drunken one-night stand with fellow SVU Detective Olivia Benson (Mariska Hargitay), and expressed a desire to pursue a relationship. Benson turns him down, however, citing a policy of not having relationships with coworkers.[1][2] Years later, Benson expresses regret at the way she handled the situation.[3] This and the stress of the unit wear Cassidy down and, after an outburst in the squad room directed at Benson, Captain Donald Cragen (Dann Florek) sends Cassidy to check up on a teenage rape victim Cragen encountered when he worked in Homicide. After she tells him in detail how she had been systematically violated by her abuser and then gang-raped, Cassidy decides he lacks the stomach to deal with sex crimes, and transfers to the NYPD's Narcotics Division.[1][4] Munch later laments that he felt abandoned when Cassidy became the latest in a long line of partners who left him.[5]

Cassidy returns in the season 13 episode "Rhodium Nights". He has been working undercover for the past three years as a bodyguard for a pimp, Bart Ganzel (Peter Jacobson), his former colleagues at the SVU are investigating, and provides the detectives with information about Ganzel's prostitution ring.[6] When a prostitute named Carissa Gibson (Pippa Black), who had been dating both Cassidy and Ganzel, is found dead in bed with Cragen, Detective Nick Amaro (Danny Pino) believes Cassidy played a role in framing Cragen despite protests from the other SVU detectives. Amaro confronts Cassidy at gunpoint and tries to force information out of him.[7] Cassidy is later shot by a corrupt NYPD police officer after Ganzel discovers Cassidy is working undercover to expose him, and Amaro helps uncover the conspiracy that led to the attack on Cassidy. Cassidy survives, and awakens in the hospital, where Benson tells him she is not the same person she was thirteen years ago and kisses him.[3] In the episode, "Undercover Blue", Cassidy is accused of rape by a prostitute while he was undercover almost four years prior. It is revealed that Cassidy was being set up by the woman and her boss to make money off a lawsuit against the NYPD and the charges are dropped. Also in this episode, Munch says that Cassidy paid the price for having a relationship with a prostitute while undercover with Ganzel, as he was demoted from detective to an officer who works nights at a Bronx courthouse. Benson and Cassidy also are forced to reveal their romantic relationship in this episode when Amaro and Munch go to Cassidy's apartment and find Benson there.

In Season 15, Cassidy and Benson are still romantically involved and move in together. In the episode "Internal Affairs", Cassidy is put undercover by Internal Affairs Bureau Lt. Ed Tucker (Robert John Burke) to investigate a dirty precinct, an assignment that very nearly leads to his death at the hands of two of its officers. Tucker promises that if the operation is successful, he will earn his detective shield back. In the episode, "Rapist Anonymous", it is revealed that he has been given back the title of detective, and will be working in Internal Affairs. Cassidy and Benson amicably break up around the time of the episode "Downloaded Child", after realizing that Cassidy prefers to live in the moment, while Benson still plans for the future.

At the end of "Gone Fishin'", he returns as a DA Investigator and tells Benson that he is investigating her for child abuse. In "Mood", it was revealed that he told another DA investigator about Benson and her ordeal with serial rapist William Lewis (Pablo Schreiber), which indirectly led to the child abuse claim. Benson is furious, and says she never wants to speak to him again.

In "Chasing Demons", Cassidy testifies against a child molester who he had physically assaulted while placing him under arrest; Cassidy loses his temper during cross-examination and threatens to kill him, causing a mistrial. The suspect is murdered the following day after Cassidy is seen at his house, and ADA Peter Stone (Philip Winchester) has him arrested for murder. However, it is eventually revealed that the killer is one of the suspect's victims, and Cassidy is exonerated. He tells Stone that one of the reasons he joined SVU was that he had been molested as a child by his Little League coach, and that one of the reasons he left was that he couldn't handle the memories coming back.

"It's amazing. I've wanted to come back for a long time but scheduling difficulties never really permitted it, so, with this storyline, with the [season 13] finale and now what we're doing with the two-hour [season 14] opening movie, it feels like this was the right time to come, so I'm glad I waited."

Although Winters previously worked with Dick Wolf on New York Undercover,[9] he credited fellow cast member Richard Belzer with getting him the job on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit. Belzer and Winters had first worked together when Winters guest starred on Homicide: Life on the Street, where Belzer was a regular. Wolf invited Belzer to join the cast of his new Law & Order spin-off after Homicide was cancelled, and Belzer told Wolf he would only join the cast if Winters was his partner on the show.[8][9] Winters had a role at the same time on the HBO drama Oz and, while the SVU role was initially only supposed to last a few episodes, he was contractually obligated to Oz, and eventually departed SVU completely to focus on Oz.[9]

Winters believed that Cassidy was not unintelligent, but simply naive. He voiced early on a desire to executive producer Ted Kotcheff that Cassidy not be made into the "dumb blonde" of the unit because he did not believe there would be any in the Special Victims Unit.[1] Cassidy's character did not see much development, but Winters attributed this to the lack of time the character was on the show. His character appeared during the first half of the first season, when the writers were trying to flesh out all of the characters on the show. Had he remained on the show longer, Winters believed that the writers would have found much more for Cassidy to do.[10]

Winters was not bitter that the SVU role did not work out, and he wanted to return to the series for many years. During the thirteenth season, SVU was filming scenes in front of the building where Winters lived, so he chatted with the cast and crew, especially his former costar Mariska Hargitay. Hargitay helped Winters return to the show for the season finale that year. Winters saw potential in the storyline involving Donald Cragen (Dann Florek) being framed for the murder of a prostitute and believed the time was right, so he agreed to stay on as a recurring character in the fourteenth season. Winters was excited about the changes in Cassidy's character; while Cassidy was young and immature in the first season, he had become more grizzled in the years since, and Winters believed the audience was left with suspense in the fourteenth season premiere not knowing whether Cassidy was corrupt or not.[8]

The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Detective Cassidy, as seen in "Internal Affairs".

After the premiere of SVU, Variety's Phil Gallo felt that Cassidy was not given much to do, and what he comes up with is an "irksome single note".[11] Entertainment Weekly's Bruce Fretts agreed that the audience did not get to see enough of Cassidy.[12] Regarding Cassidy's return to the show, Brittany Frederick of Star Pulse said, "It was a pleasant surprise to see Dean Winters reprise his role as Detective Brian Cassidy last season; his character was with the show so briefly that we didn't really get to know him...Cassidy is an entirely different person now - as he should be after so many years absent - but there's an odd comfort in getting to see him again when the show could've easily come up with a random undercover cop to fill his role."[13]


who invented the first radio and what year

Marconi was awarded a patent for radio with British patent No. 12,039, Improvements in Transmitting Electrical Impulses and Signals and in Apparatus There-for. The complete specification was filed March 2, 1897. This was Marconi's initial patent for the radio, though it used various earlier techniques of various other experimenters and resembled the instrument demonstrated by others (including Popov). During this time spark-gap wireless telegraphy was widely researched. In July, 1896, Marconi got his invention and new method of telegraphy to the attention of Preece, then engineer-in-chief to the British Government Telegraph Service, who had for the previous twelve years interested himself in the development of wireless telegraphy by the inductive-conductive method. On June 4, 1897, he delivered "Signalling through Space without Wires".[96] Preece devoted considerable time to exhibiting and explaining the Marconi apparatus at the Royal Institution in London, stating that Marconi invented a new relay which had high sensitiveness and delicacy.[97]

Invention of radio

Many people were involved in the invention of radio as we know it today. Experimental work on the connection between electricity and magnetism began around 1820 with the work of Hans Christian Ørsted, and continued with the work of André-Marie Ampère, Joseph Henry, and Michael Faraday. These investigations culminated in a theory of electromagnetism developed by James Clerk Maxwell, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves.

Maxwell published A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873, stimulating many people to experiment with wireless communication. Others experimented without the benefit of his theories. Several inventors/experimenters came across the phenomenon of electromagnetic waves before they were proven to exist but it was written off as electromagnetic induction at the time. The first systematic and unequivocal transmission of electromagnetic waves was performed by Heinrich Rudolf Hertz in his experimental proof of their existence, described in papers published in 1887 and 1890. Hertz famously considered these results as being of little practical value.

After Hertz's work many people were involved in further development of the electronic components and methods to improve the transmission and detection of electromagnetic waves. Around the turn of the 20th century, Guglielmo Marconi developed the first apparatus for long distance radio communication.[1] On 23 December 1900, the Canadian inventor Reginald A. Fessenden became the first person to send audio (wireless telephony) by means of electromagnetic waves, successfully transmitting over a distance of about 1.6 kilometers, and six years later on Christmas Eve 1906 he became the first person to make a public radio broadcast.[2][3]

By 1910 these various wireless systems had come to be referred to by the common name "radio".

Before the discovery of electromagnetic waves and the development of radio communication there were many wireless telegraph systems proposed or tried out.[4] Early researchers may not have understood or disclosed which physical effects were responsible for transmitting signals. These experimenters used the existing theories of the day or novel theories of their own on how wireless signals could be transmitted.

In April 1872 William Henry Ward received U.S. Patent 126,356 for a wireless telegraphy system where he theorized that convection currents in the atmosphere could carry signals like a telegraph wire.[5] A few months after Ward received his patent, Mahlon Loomis of West Virginia received U.S. Patent 129,971 for a "wireless telegraph" in July 1872. The patented system claimed to utilize atmospheric electricity to eliminate the overhead wire used by the existing telegraph systems. It did not contain diagrams or specific methods and it did not refer to or incorporate any known scientific theory. It was similar to William Henry Ward's patent.[6][7]

In the United States, Thomas Edison, in the mid-1880s, patented an electromagnetic induction system he called "grasshopper telegraphy", which allowed telegraphic signals to jump the short distance between a running train and telegraph wires running parallel to the tracks.[8] In the United Kingdom, William Preece was able to develop an electromagnetic induction telegraph system that, with antenna wires many kilometers long, could transmit across gaps of about 5 kilometres (3.1 miles). Inventor Nathan Stubblefield, between 1885 and 1892,[9] also worked on an induction transmission system.

Forms of Wireless telephony is recorded in four patents for the photophone, invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter in 1880. The photophone allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light, and on June 3, 1880 Bell and Tainter transmitted the world's first wireless telephone message on their newly invented form of light telecommunication.[10][11]

In the early 1890s Nikola Tesla began his research into high frequency electricity. Tesla was aware of Hertz's experiments with electromagnetic waves from 1889 on[12][13] but, (like many scientists of that time) thought, even if radio waves existed, they would probably only travel in straight lines making them useless for long range transmission.[14]

Tesla's primary interest in wireless phenomenon was as a power distribution system[14] although he proposed by 1893 that it could also incorporate communication. His laboratory work and later large scale experiments at Colorado Springs led him to the conclusion that he could build a conduction based worldwide wireless system that would use the Earth itself (via injecting very large amounts of electric current into the ground) as the means to conduct the signal to overcome this limitation.[15] He went on to try to implement his ideas of power transmission and wireless telecommunication in his very large but unsuccessful Wardenclyffe Tower project.[16]

Experiments and Theory

Hans Christian Ã˜rsted

Various scientists proposed that electricity and magnetism were linked. Around 1800 Alessandro Volta developed the first means of producing an electric current. In 1802 Gian Domenico Romagnosi may have suggested a relationship between electricity and magnetism but his reports went unnoticed.[17][18] In 1820 Hans Christian Ørsted performed a simple and today widely known experiment on electric current and magnetism. He demonstrated that a wire carrying a current could deflect a magnetized compass needle.[19] Ørsted's work influenced André-Marie Ampère to produce a theory of electromagnetism. Several scientists speculated that light might be connected with electricity or magnetism.

In 1831, Michael Faraday began a series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction. The relation was mathematically modelled by Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations. Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not complete his work involving that proposal. In 1846 Michael Faraday speculated that light was a wave disturbance in a force field".[20]

Expanding upon a series of experiments by Felix Savary,[21][22][23][24] between 1842 and 1850 Joseph Henry performed experiments detecting inductive magnetic effects over a distance of 200 feet (61 m).[25][26][27] He was the first (1838–42) to produce high frequency AC electrical oscillations, and to point out and experimentally demonstrate that the discharge of a capacitor under certain conditions is oscillatory, or, as he puts it, consists "of a principal discharge in one direction and then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble than the preceding until equilibrium is attained"[citation needed]. This view was also later adopted by Helmholtz,[28] the mathematical demonstration of this fact was first given by Lord Kelvin in his paper on "Transient Electric Currents".[29][30]

Maxwell and electromagnetic waves

James Clerk Maxwell

Between 1861 and 1865, based on the earlier experimental work of Faraday and other scientists and on his own modification to Ampere's law, James Clerk Maxwell developed his theory of electromagnetism, which predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves. In 1873 Maxwell described the theoretical basis of the propagation of electromagnetic waves in his paper to the Royal Society, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field." This theory united all previously unrelated observations, experiments and equations of electricity, magnetism, and optics into a consistent theory.[31] His set of equations—Maxwell's equations—demonstrated that electricity, magnetism, and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon, the electromagnetic field. Subsequently, all other classic laws or equations of these disciplines were special cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's work in electromagnetism has been called the "second great unification in physics".[32]

Oliver Heaviside, later reformulated Maxwell's original equations into the set of four vector equations that are generally known today as Maxwell's equations.[33] Neither Maxwell nor Heaviside transmitted or received radio waves; however, their equations for electromagnetic fields established principles for radio design, and remain the standard expression of classical electromagnetism.

Of Maxwell's work, Albert Einstein wrote:[34]

"Imagine [Maxwell's] feelings when the differential equations he had formulated proved to him that electromagnetic fields spread in the form of polarised waves, and at the speed of light! To few men in the world has such an experience been vouchsafed... it took physicists some decades to grasp the full significance of Maxwell's discovery, so bold was the leap that his genius forced upon the conceptions of his fellow-workers."

Other physicists were equally impressed with Maxwell's work, such as Richard Feynman who commented:[35]

"From a long view of the history of the world—seen from, say, ten thousand years from now—there can be little doubt that the most significant event of the 19th century will be judged as Maxwell's discovery of the laws of electromagnetism. The American Civil War will pale into provincial insignificance in comparison with this important scientific event of the same decade."

Berend Wilhelm Feddersen,[36] a German physicist, in 1859, as a private scholar in Leipzig, succeeded in experiments with the Leyden jar to prove that electric sparks were composed of damped oscillations.

In 1870 the German physicist Wilhelm von Bezold discovered and demonstrated the fact that the advancing and reflected oscillations produced in conductors by a capacitor discharge gave rise to interference phenomena.[37][38] Professors Elihu Thomson and E. J. Houston in 1876 made a number of experiments and observations on high frequency oscillatory discharges.[39] In 1883 George FitzGerald suggested[40] at a British Association meeting that electromagnetic waves could be generated by the discharge of a capacitor, but the suggestion was not followed up, possibly because no means was known for detecting the waves.[30]

It had been proposed in 1879 to German physicist Heinrich Rudolf Hertz that he try to prove Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism but he could not see any way to build an apparatus to experimentally test the theory.[41] His observation, in the autumn of 1886, of discharging a Leyden jar into a large coil producing a spark in an adjacent coil gave him the idea of how to build a test apparatus.[42][43] Between 1886 and 1888 Hertz conducted scientific experiments that validated Maxwell's theory.[44] He designed a method of detecting spark-gap radio waves by observing that another unpowered spark-gap, acting as an antenna, would absorb the radio energy and convert it back into an electric spark. Hertz published his results in a series of papers between 1887 and 1890,[45] and again in complete book form in 1893.[46]

The first of the papers published, "On Very Rapid Electric Oscillations", gives an account of the chronological course of his investigation, as far as it was carried out up to the end of the year 1886 and the beginning of 1887.[47]

For the first time, electromagnetic radio waves ("Hertzian waves")[48] were intentionally and unequivocally proven to have been transmitted through free space by a spark-gap device, and detected over a short distance.[49]

Hertz was able to have some control over the frequencies of his radiated waves by altering the inductance and capacitance of his transmitting and receiving antennas. He focused the electromagnetic waves using a corner reflector and a parabolic reflector, to demonstrate that radio behaved the same as light, as Maxwell's electromagnetic theory had predicted more than 20 years earlier.[30]

Hertz did not devise a system for practical utilization of electromagnetic waves, nor did he describe any potential applications of the technology. Hertz was asked by his students at the University of Bonn what use there might be for these waves. He replied, â€œIt's of no use whatsoever. This is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was right, we just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there."[50]

Hertz died in 1894, and the art of radio wave communication was left to others to implement into a practical form. After Hertz's experiments, Sir William Crookes published an article in February 1892 in The Fortnightly Review on 'Some possibilities of electricity' with his thoughts on possibility of wireless communication based on the research of Lodge and Hertz,[51] and the American physicist Amos Emerson Dolbear brought similar attention to the idea.[52]

Towards the end of 1875, while experimenting with the telegraph, Thomas Edison noted a phenomenon that he termed "etheric force", announcing it to the press on November 28. He abandoned this research when Elihu Thomson, among others, ridiculed the idea, claiming it was electromagnetic induction.

In 1879 the experimenter and inventor David Edward Hughes working in London discovered that a bad contact in a Bell telephone he was using in his experiments seemed to be sparking when he worked on a nearby induction balance (an early form of metal detector).[53][54] He developed an improved detector to pick up this unknown "extra current" based on his new microphone design (similar to later detectors known as coherers or crystal detectors)[53][55] and developed a way to interrupt his induction balance to produce a series of sparks. By trial and error experiments he eventually found he could pick up these "aerial waves" as he carried his telephone device down the street out to a range of 500 yards (460Â m).

On February 20, 1880, he demonstrated his experiment to representatives of the Royal Society including Thomas Henry Huxley, Sir George Gabriel Stokes, and William Spottiswoode, then president of the Society. Stokes was convinced the phenomenon Hughes was demonstrating was merely electromagnetic induction, not a type of conduction through the air.[56][57][58] Hughes was not a physicist and seems to have accepted Stokes observations and did not pursue the experiments any further.[57] His work may have been mentioned in William Crookes' 1892 Fortnightly Review review of 'Some possibilities of electricity' article as an unnamed individual whose experiment Crookes participate in.[51]

Oliver Joseph Lodge

Jagadish Chandra Bose

In 1890, Édouard Branly[59][60][61] demonstrated what he later called the "radio-conductor,"[62] which Lodge in 1893 named the coherer, the first sensitive device for detecting radio waves.[63] Shortly after the experiments of Hertz, Branly discovered that loose metal filings, which in a normal state have a high electrical resistance, lose this resistance in the presence of electric oscillations and become practically conductors of electricity. This Branly showed by placing metal filings in a glass box or tube, and making them part of an ordinary electric circuit. According to the common explanation, when electric waves are set up in the neighborhood of this circuit, electromotive forces are generated in it which appear to bring the filings more closely together, that is, to cohere, and thus their electrical resistance decreases, from which cause this piece of apparatus was termed by Sir Oliver Lodge a coherer.[64] Hence the receiving instrument, which may be a telegraph relay, that normally would not indicate any sign of current from the small battery, can be operated when electric oscillations are set up.[65] Branly further found that when the filings had once cohered they retained their low resistance until shaken apart, for instance, by tapping on the tube.[66] The coherer, however, was not sensitive enough to be used reliably as radio developed.[67]

One of the first investigators to notice and measure stationary waves on wires produced by direct coupling (resonance) with the coatings of a Leyden jar was Sir Oliver Lodge, entitled "Experiments On The Discharge Of Leyden Jars" (1891).[68] On June 1, 1894, Oliver Lodge at the Royal Institution lectures, delivered "The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors".[69] Lodge performed a transmission on August 14, 1894[70] at a meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Oxford University.[71][72] Also in 1894, Lodge would state that Alexander Muirhead clearly foresaw the telegraphic importance of the transmission of transverse Hertzian waves.[25] A convenient method of establishing stationary electric waves on wires is one which generally attribute to Ernst Lecher,[73] and call the Lecher arrangement.[25] In fact, it originated with Lodge and Hertz, whilst Edouard Sarasin and Lucien de la Rive gave it an improved form.[25][74]

On that day in August 1894, Lodge demonstrated the reception of Morse code signalling via radio waves using a "coherer". He later improved Branly's coherer by adding a "trembler" which dislodged clumped filings,[75] thus restoring the device's sensitivity.[76] In August 1898 he got U.S. Patent 609,154, "Electric Telegraphy", that made wireless signals using a Ruhmkorff coil for the transmitter and a Branly coherer for the detector. This patent utilized the concept of "syntonic" tuning. In 1912 Lodge sold the patent to Marconi.

In 1894 Lodge showed that the Branly coherer could be employed to transmit telegraphic signals, and in order that the filings should not remain "cohered" after the cessation of the electric oscillations, he devised an electro-mechanical "tapper" on the principle of the ordinary "buzzer," or electric door-bell, the hammer of which was caused to tap the glass tube as long as the electric oscillations continued. The filings thus virtually take the place of a key in the ordinary telegraph circuit. In the normal state the key is open; in the presence of electrical oscillations the key is closed. Thus, by opening and closing the key for a longer or shorter period, signals corresponding to dots and dashes may be produced. In other words, by setting up electric oscillations for periods of time corresponding to dots and dashes, messages may be transmitted from the sending station, and if, at the receiving station, a recording instrument (controlled by the coherer), such as the ordinary Morse register, be provided, a record of the message in dots and dashes may be obtained. Dr. Lodge in fact used a tapper operated continuously by clockwork.[65]

In 1894, with the help of the Branly filings tube, Lodge gave a couple of demonstrations, one in June at the Royal Institution at Oxford and one in August at Oxford, to the British Association, using Hertz oscillators for transmitting signals, using a Morse key in connection with the sending coil, and a Thomson marine galvanometer for receiving themâ€”sending the signals from one room to another through walls, and so on. Lodge sent them also across the quadrangle of Liverpool College, but he applied very small power and did not try for big distances. At that time Dr. Alexander Muirhead was struck with its applicability to practical telegraphy, and when in 1896 Sir William Preece told the British Association meeting (as it happened in his laboratory) at Liverpool that an Italian gentleman (at that time unknown) was interesting the Post Office in a secret box, Lodge knew practically what the box must contain, and immediately afterwards (the same day) he showed to a few friends a Morse tape instrument, very roughly working on that plan. Mr. Marconi and Sir William Preece together interested the whole world in the subject; great power was applied to the sender, and the matter became of financial importance. However, the American Patent Office gave Lodge a telegraphic patent based on his work, as published in 1894, after proof that this book had reached America in or before 1895.[77]

In November 1894, the Indian physicist, Jagadish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in Calcutta, but he was not interested in patenting his work.[78] Bose ignited gunpowder and rang a bell at a distance using electromagnetic waves,[79] confirming that communication signals can be sent without using wires. He sent and received radio waves over distance but did not commercially exploit this achievement.

Bose demonstrated the ability of the signal to travel from the lecture room, and through an intervening room and passage, to a third room 75 feet (23 m) distant from the radiator, thus passing through three solid walls on the way, as well as the body of the chairman (who happened to be the Lieutenant-Governor). The receiver at this distance still had energy enough to make a contact which set a bell ringing, discharged a pistol, and exploded a miniature mine. To get this result from his small radiator, Bose set up an apparatus which curiously anticipated the lofty 'antennae' of modern wireless telegraphy— a circular metal plate at the top of a pole, 20 feet (6.1 m) high, being put in connection with the radiator and a similar one with the receiving apparatus.[80]

The form of 'Coherer' devised by Professor Bose, and described by him at the end of his paper 'On a new Electro Polariscope' allowed for the sensibility and range to appear to leave little to be desired at the time.[80] In 1896, the British, Daily Chronicle reported on his UHF experiments: "The inventor (J. C. Bose) has transmitted signals to a distance of nearly a mile and herein lies the first and obvious and exceedingly valuable application of this new theoretical marvel."

After Bose's Friday Evening Discourses at the Royal Institution, The Electric Engineer expressed'surprise that no secret was at any time made as to its construction, so that it has been open to all the world to adopt it for practical and possibly money-making purposes.' Bose was sometimes criticised as unpractical for making no profit from his inventions.[80]

In 1899, Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[81] Later he received U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver. Bose would continue with his research and made other contributions to the development of radio.[82]

In 1894-95 the Russian physicist Alexander Stepanovich Popov conducted experiments developing a radio receiver, an improved version of coherer-based design by Oliver Lodge. His design with coherer auto-tapping mechanism was designed as a lightning detector to help the forest service track lightning strikes that could start fires. His receiver proved to be able to sense lightning strikes at distances of up to 30 km. Popov built a version of the receiver that was capable of automatically recording lightning strikes on paper rolls. Popov presented his radio receiver to the Russian Physical and Chemical Society on May 7, 1895 — the day has been celebrated in the Russian Federation as "Radio Day" promoted in eastern European countries as the inventor of radio.[83][84][85] The paper on his findings was published the same year (December 15, 1895). Popov had recorded, at the end of 1895, that he was hoping for distant signaling with radio waves.[86] He did not apply for a patent for this invention.

In 1898 Nicola Tesla developed a radio/coherer based remote-controlled boat, with a form of secure communication[87][88] between transmitter and receiver,[89] which he demonstrated in 1898. Tesla called his invention a "teleautomaton" and he hoped to sell it as a guided naval torpedo.[90]

Guglielmo Marconi studied at the Leghorn Technical School, and acquainted himself with the published writings of Professor Augusto Righi of the University of Bologna.[91] In 1894, Sir William Preece delivered a paper to the Royal Institution in London on electric signalling without wires.[92][93] In 1894 at the Royal Institution lectures, Lodge delivered "The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors".[69] Marconi is said to have read, while on vacation in 1894, about the experiments that Hertz did in the 1880s. Marconi also read about Tesla's work.[94] It was at this time that Marconi began to understand that radio waves could be used for wireless communications. Marconi's early apparatus was a development of Hertz’s laboratory apparatus into a system designed for communications purposes. At first Marconi used a transmitter to ring a bell in a receiver in his attic laboratory. He then moved his experiments out-of-doors on the family estate near Bologna, Italy, to communicate further. He replaced Hertz’s vertical dipole with a vertical wire topped by a metal sheet, with an opposing terminal connected to the ground. On the receiver side, Marconi replaced the spark gap with a metal powder coherer, a detector developed by Edouard Branly and other experimenters. Marconi transmitted radio signals for about 1.5 miles (2.4 km) at the end of 1895.[95]

The Marconi Company Ltd. was founded by Marconi in 1897, known as the Wireless Telegraph Trading Signal Company. Also in 1897, Marconi established the radio station at Niton, Isle of Wight, England. Marconi's wireless telegraphy was inspected by the Post Office Telegraph authorities; they made a series of experiments with Marconi's system of telegraphy without connecting wires, in the Bristol Channel. The October wireless signals of 1897 were sent from Salisbury Plain to Bath, a distance of 34 miles (55Â km).[100] Around 1900 Marconi developed an empirical law that, for simple vertical sending and receiving antennas of equal height, the maximum working telegraphic distance varied as the square of the height of the antenna.[101] This became known as Marconi's law.

Other experimental stations were established at Lavernock Point, near Penarth; on the Flat Holmes, an island in mid-channel, and at Brean Down, a promontory on the Somerset side. Signals were obtained between the first and last-named points, a distance of, approximately, 8 miles (13Â km). The receiving instrument used was a Morse inkwriter[102] of the Post Office pattern.[103][104] In 1898, Marconi opened a radio factory in Hall Street, Chelmsford, England, employing around 50 people. In 1899, Marconi announced his invention of the "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at Royal Society, London.

In May, 1898, communication was established for the Corporation of Lloyds between Ballycastle and the Lighthouse on Rathlin Island in the North of Ireland. In July, 1898, the Marconi telegraphy was employed to report the results of yacht races at the Kingstown Regatta for the Dublin Express newspaper. A set of instruments were fitted up in a room at Kingstown, and another on board a steamer, the Flying Huntress. The aerial conductor on shore was a strip of wire netting attached to a mast 40 feet (12Â m) high, and several hundred messages were sent and correctly received during the progress of the races.

At this time His Majesty King Edward VII, then Prince of Wales, had the misfortune to injure his knee, and was confined on board the royal yacht Osltorm in Cowes Bay.[105] Marconi fitted up his apparatus on board the royal yacht by request, and also at Osborne House, Isle of Wight, and kept up wireless communication for three weeks between these stations. The distances covered were small; but as the yacht moved about, on some occasions high hills were interposed, so that the aerial wires were overtopped by hundreds of feet, yet this was no obstacle to communication. These demonstrations led the Corporation of Trinity House to afford an opportunity for testing the system in practice between the South Foreland Lighthouse, near Dover, and the East Goodwin Lightship, on the Goodwin Sands. This installation was set in operation on December 24, 1898, and proved to be of value. It was shown that when once the apparatus was set up it could be worked by ordinary seamen with very little training.

At the end of 1898 electric wave telegraphy established by Marconi had demonstrated its utility, especially for communication between ship and ship and ship and shore.[106]

The Haven Hotel station and Wireless Telegraph Mast was where much of Marconi's research work on wireless telegraphy was carried out after 1898.[107] In 1899, he transmitted messages across the English Channel. Also in 1899, Marconi delivered "Wireless Telegraphy" to the Institution of Electrical Engineers.[106] In addition, in 1899, W. H. Preece delivered "Aetheric Telegraphy", stating that the experimental stage in wireless telegraphy had been passed in 1894 and inventors were then entering the commercial stage.[108] Preece, continuing in the lecture, details the work of Marconi and other British inventors. In October, 1899, the progress of the yachts in the international race between the Columbia and Shamrock was successfully reported by aerial telegraphy, as many as 4,000 words having been (as is said) despatched from the two ship stations to the shore stations. Immediately afterward the apparatus was placed by request at the service of the United States Navy Board, and some highly interesting experiments followed under Marconi's personal supervision.[109] The Marconi Company was renamed Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company in 1900.

In 1901, Marconi claimed to have received daytime transatlantic radio frequency signals at a wavelength of 366 metres (820 kHz).[111][112][113] Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, Co. Wexford in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in Cornwall and Clifden in Co. Galway. His announcement on 12 December 1901, using a 152.4-metre (500 ft) kite-supported antenna for reception, stated that the message was received at Signal Hill in St John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada) via signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The message received had been prearranged and was known to Marconi, consisting of the Morse letter 'S' - three dots. Bradford has recently contested the reported success, however, based on theoretical work as well as a reenactment of the experiment. It is now well known that long-distance transmission at a wavelength of 366 meters is not possible during the daytime, because the skywave is heavily absorbed by the ionosphere.[citation needed] It is possible that what was heard was only random atmospheric noise, which was mistaken for a signal, or that Marconi may have heard a shortwave harmonic of the signal.[112][113] The distance between the two points was about 3,500 kilometres (2,200 mi).

The Poldhu to Newfoundland transmission claim has been criticized.[114] There are various science historians, such as Belrose and Bradford, who have cast doubt that the Atlantic was bridged in 1901, but other science historians have taken the position that this was the first transatlantic radio transmission. Critics have claimed that it is more likely that Marconi received stray atmospheric noise from atmospheric electricity in this experiment.[115] The transmitting station in Poldhu, Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter that could produce a signal in the medium frequency range and with high power levels.

Marconi transmitted from England to Canada and the United States.[116] In this period, a particular electromagnetic receiver, called the Marconi magnetic detector[117] or hysteresis magnetic detector,[118] was developed further by Marconi and was successfully used in his early transatlantic work (1902) and in many of the smaller stations for a number of years.[119][120] In 1902, a Marconi station was established in the village of Crookhaven, County Cork, Ireland to provide marine radio communications to ships arriving from the Americas. A ship's master could contact shipping line agents ashore to enquire which port was to receive their cargo without the need to come ashore at what was the first port of landfall.[121] Ireland was also, due to its western location, to play a key role in early efforts to send trans-Atlantic messages. Marconi transmitted from his station in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada across the Atlantic, and on 18 January 1903 a Marconi station sent a message of greetings from Theodore Roosevelt, the President of the United States, to the King of the United Kingdom, marking the first transatlantic radio transmission originating in the United States

In 1904, Marconi inaugurated an ocean daily newspaper, the Cunard Daily Bulletin, on the R.M.S. "Campania." At the start, passing events were printed in a little pamphlet of four pages called the Cunard Bulletin. The title would read Cunard Daily Bulletin, with subheads for "Marconigrams Direct to the Ship."[122] All the passenger ships of the Cunard Company were fitted with Marconi's system of wireless telegraphy, by means of which constant communication was kept up, either with other ships or with land stations on the eastern or western hemisphere. The RMS Lucania, in October 1903, with Marconi on board, was the first vessel to hold communications with both sides of the Atlantic. The Cunard Daily Bulletin, a thirty-two page illustrated paper published on board these boats recorded news received by wireless telegraphy, and was the first ocean newspaper. In August 1903, in agreement was made with the British Government by which the Cunard Co. were to build two steamers, to be, with all other Cunard ships, at the disposal of the British Admiralty for hire or purchase whenever they might be required, the Government lending the company £2,600,000 to build the ships and granting them a subsidy of £150,000 a year. One was the RMS Lusitania and another was the RMS Mauritania.[123]

In June and July 1923, Marconi's shortwave transmissions took place at night on 97 meters from Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall, to his yacht Elettra in the Cape Verde Islands. In September 1924, Marconi transmitted during daytime and nighttime on 32 meters from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. In July 1924, Marconi entered into contracts with the British General Post Office (GPO) to install telegraphy circuits from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada as the main element of the Imperial Wireless Chain. The UK-to-Canada shortwave "Beam Wireless Service" went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa and India went into service in 1927. Electronic components for the system were built at Marconi's New Street wireless factory in Chelmsford.[124]

Marconi was awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Karl Ferdinand Braun for contributions to radio sciences. Marconi's demonstrations of the use of radio for wireless communications, equipping ships with life saving wireless communications,[125] establishing the first transatlantic radio service,[116] and building the first stations for the British shortwave service, have marked his place in history. Shortly after the turn of the 20th century, the US Patent Office re-awarded Marconi a patent for radio. The U.S. Patent RE11,913 was granted on June 4, 1901. Marconi's U.S. Patent 676,332 was awarded on June 11, 1901, also. This system was more advanced than his previous works. The United States Supreme Court, decision of MARCONI WIRELESS T. CO. OF AMERICA v. U.S., 320 U.S. 1 (1943) stated that “Marconi's reputation as the man who first achieved successful radio transmission … is not here in question” this statement is followed by “Marconi's patent involved no invention over Lodge, Tesla, and Stone”. The 1943 decision didn't overturn Marconi's original patents, or his reputation as the first person to develop practical radiotelegraphic communication. It just said that the adoption of adjustable transformers in the transmitting and receiving circuits, which was an improvement of the initial invention, was anticipated by patents issued to Oliver Lodge and John Stone. (This decision wasn't unanimous).[126]

Ferdinand Braun's major contributions were the introduction of a closed tuned circuit in the generating part of the transmitter, and its separation from the radiating part (the antenna) by means of inductive coupling, and later on the usage of crystals for receiving purposes. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg. Braun had written extensively on wireless subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician and other scientific journals.[127] In 1899, he would apply for the patents, Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils and Wireless electro transmission of signals over surfaces.[128]

Pioneers working on wireless devices eventually came to a limit of distance they could cover. Connecting the antenna directly to the spark gap produced only a heavily damped pulse train. There were only a few cycles before oscillations ceased. Braun's circuit afforded a much longer sustained oscillation because the energy encountered less loss swinging between coil and Leyden Jars. Also, by means of inductive antenna coupling[129] the radiator was matched to the generator.

In spring 1899 Braun, accompanied by his colleagues Cantor and Zenneck, went to Cuxhaven to continue their experiments at the North Sea. On February 6, 1899, he would apply for the United States Patent, Wireless Electric Transmission of Signals Over Surfaces. Not before long he bridged a distance of 42 km to the city of Mutzing. On 24 September 1900 radio telegraphy signals were exchanged regularly with the island of Heligoland over a distance of 62 km. Lightvessels in the river Elbe and a coast station at Cuxhaven commenced a regular radio telegraph service. On August 6, 1901, he would apply for Means for Tuning and Adjusting Electric Circuits.

By 1904, the closed circuit system of wireless telegraphy, connected with the name of Braun, was well known and generally adopted in principle. The results of Braun's experiments, published in the Electrician, possess interest, apart from the method employed. Braun showed how the problem could be satisfactorily and economically solved.[130] The closed circuit oscillator has the advantage, as was known, of being able to draw upon the kinetic energy in the oscillator circuit, and thus, because such a circuit can be given a much greater capacity than can be obtained with a radiating aerial alone, much more energy can be stored up and radiated by its employment.[130] The emission is also prolonged, both results tending towards the attainment of the much desired train of undamped waves. The energy available, though greater than with the open system, was still inconsiderable unless very high potentials, with the attendant drawbacks, were used.[130][131] Braun avoided the use of extremely high potentials for charging the gap and also makes use of a less wasteful gap by sub-dividing it.[130][132] The chief point in his new arrangement, however, is not the sub-division of the gap merely but their arrangement, by which they are charged in parallel, at low voltages, and discharge in series. The Nobel Prize awarded to Braun in 1909 depicts this design.[133]

John Stone Stone labored as an early telephone engineer and was influential in developing wireless communication technology, and holds dozens of key patents in the field of "space telegraphy". Patents of Stone for radio, together with their equivalents in other countries, form a very voluminous contribution to the patent literature of the subject. More than seventy United States patents have been granted to this patentee alone. In many cases these specifications are learned contributions to the literature of the subject, filled with valuable references to other sources of information.[134]

Stone has had issued to him a large number of patents embracing a method for impressing oscillations on a radiator system and emitting the energy in the form of waves of predetermined length whatever may be the electrical dimensions of the oscillator.[135] On February 8, 1900, he filed for a selective system in U.S. Patent 714,756. In this system, two simple circuits are associated inductively, each having an independent degree of freedom, and in which the restoration of electric oscillations to zero potential the currents are superimposed, giving rise to compound harmonic currents which permit the resonator system to be syntonized with precision to the oscillator.[135] Stone's system, as stated in U.S. Patent 714,831, developed free or unguided simple harmonic electromagnetic signal waves of a definite frequency to the exclusion of the energy of signal waves of other frequencies, and an elevated conductor and means for developing therein forced simple electric vibrations of corresponding frequency.[136] In these patents Stone devised a multiple inductive oscillation circuit with the object of forcing on the antenna circuit a single oscillation of definite frequency. In the system for receiving the energy of free or unguided simple harmonic electromagnetic signal waves of a definite frequency to the exclusion of the energy of signal waves of other frequencies, he claimed an elevated conductor and a resonant circuit associated with said conductor and attuned to the frequency of the waves, the energy of which is to be received.[136] A coherer made on what is called the Stone system[137] was employed in some of the portable wireless outfits of the United States Army. The Stone Coherer has two small steel plugs between which are placed loosely packed carbon granules. This is a self-decohering device; though not as sensitive as other forms of detectors it is well suited to the rough usage of portable outfits.[137]

In 1899 the United States Navy Board issued a report on the results of investigations of the Marconi system of wireless telegraphy.[138] The report noted that the system was well adapted for use in squadron signalling, under conditions of rain, fog, darkness and motion of speed although dampness affected the performance.[139] They also noted that when two stations were transmitting simultaneously both would be received and that the system had the potential to affect the compass. They reported ranges of from 85 miles for large ships with tall masts (43m) to 7 miles for smaller boats. The board recommended that the system was given a trial by the US navy.

The HMS Hector became the first British warship to have wireless telegraphy installed when she conducted the first trials of the new equipment for the Royal Navy.[140][141] Starting in December 1899, the HMS Hector and HMS Jaseur were outfitted with wireless equipment. In 1901, HMS Jaseur received signals from the Marconi transmitter on the Isle of Wight and from the HMS Hector (25 January).[142]

In late 1886, Reginald A. Fessenden began working directly for Thomas Edison at the inventor's new laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey. Fessenden quickly made major advances, especially in receiver design, as he worked to develop audio reception of signals. The United States Weather Bureau began, early in 1900, a systematic course of experimentation in wireless telegraphy, employing him as a specialist.[143] Fessenden evolved the heterodyne principle here where two signals combined to produce a third signal.

In 1900, construction began on a large radio transmitting alternator. Fessenden, experimenting with a high-frequency spark transmitter, successfully transmitted speech on December 23, 1900, over a distance of about 1.6 kilometres (0.99 mi), the first audio radio transmission. Early in 1901 the Weather Bureau officially installed Fessenden at Wier's Point, Roanoke Island, North Carolina, and he made experimental transmissions across water to a station located about 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Cape Hatteras, the distance between the two stations being almost exactly 50 miles (80 km).[143] An alternator of 1 kW output at 10 kilohertz was built in 1902. The credit for the development of this machine is due to Charles Proteus Steinmetz, Caryl D. Haskins, Ernst Alexanderson, John T. H. Dempster, Henry Geisenhoner, Adam Stein, Jr., and F. P. Mansbendel.[30]

In a paper written by Fessenden in 1902, it was asserted that important advances had been made, one of which was overcoming largely the loss of energy experienced in other systems. In an interview with a New York Journal correspondent, Fessenden stated that in his early apparatus he did not use an air transformer at the sending end, nor a concentric cylinder for emitters and antennae,[143][144] and had used capacity, but arranged in a manner entirely different from that in other systems, and that he did not employ a coherer or any form of imperfect contact. Fessenden asserted that he had paid particular attention to selective and multiplex systems, and was well satisfied with the results in that direction.[143] On August 12, 1902, 13 patents were issued to Fessenden, covering various methods, devices, and systems for signaling without wires.[143] These patents involved many new principles, the chef-d'oeuvre of which was a method for distributing capacity and inductance instead of localizing these coefficients of the oscillator as in previous systems.[135]

By the summer of 1906, a machine producing 50 kilohertz was installed at the Brant Rock station, and in the fall of 1906, what was called an electric alternating dynamo was working regularly at 75 kilohertz, with an output of 0.5 kW.[30] Fessenden[145] used this for wireless telephoning to Plymouth, Massachusetts, a distance of approximately 11 miles (18 km).[30] In the following year machines were constructed having a frequency of 96 kilohertz[146] and outputs of 1 kW and 2 kW. Fessenden believed that the damped wave-coherer system was essentially and fundamentally incapable of development into a practical system.[30] He would employ a two-phase high frequency alternator method[147] and the continuous production of waves[148] with changing constants of sending circuit.[30][149] Fessenden would also use duplex and multiplex commutator methods.[150] On December 11, 1906, operation of the wireless transmission in conjunction with the wire lines took place.[151][30] In July 1907 the range was considerably extended and speech was successfully transmitted between Brant Rock and Jamaica, on Long Island, a distance of nearly 200 miles (320 km), in daylight and mostly over land,[152] the mast at Jamaica being approximately 180 feet (55 m) high.[30]

In November 1904, the English physicist John Ambrose Fleming invented the two-electrode vacuum-tube rectifier, which he called the Fleming oscillation valve.[153] for which he obtained GB patent 24850 and U.S. Patent 803,684.[154] This "Fleming Valve" was sensitive and reliable, and so it replaced the crystal diode used in receivers used for long-distance wireless communication. It had an advantage, that it could not be permanently injured or set out of adjustment by any exceptionally strong stray signal, such as those due to atmospheric electricity.[155] Fleming earned a Hughes Medal in 1910 for his electronic achievements. Marconi used this device as a radio detector.[when?]

The Supreme Court of the United States would eventually invalidate the US patent because of an improper disclaimer and, additionally, maintained the technology in the patent was known art when filed.[156] This invention was the first vacuum tube. Fleming's diode was used in radio receivers for many decades afterward, until it was superseded by improved solid state electronic technology more than 50 years later.

Lee De Forest[157][158][159] had an interest in wireless telegraphy and he invented the Audion in 1906. He was president and secretary of the De Forest Radio Telephone and Telegraph Company (1913).[160][161] The De Forest System was adopted by the United States Government, and had been demonstrated to other Governments including those of Great Britain, Denmark, Germany, Russia, and British Indies, all of which purchased De Forest apparatus previous to the Great War. De Forest is one of the fathers of the "electronic age", as the Audion helped to usher in the widespread use of electronics.[162]

De Forest made the Audion tube from a vacuum tube. He also made the "Oscillion", an undamped wave transmitter. He developed the De Forest method of wireless telegraphy and founded the American De Forest Wireless Telegraph Company. De Forest was a distinguished electrical engineer and the foremost American contributor to the development of wireless telegraphy and telephony. The elements of his device takes relatively weak electrical signals and amplifies them. The Audion Detector, Audion Amplifier, and the "Oscillion" transmitter had furthered the radio art and the transmission of written or audible speech. In World War I, the De Forest system was a factor in the efficiency of the United States Signal Service, and was also installed by the United States Government in Alaska.[162]

Below is a brief selection of important events and individuals related to the development of radio, from 1860 to 1910.[163]


who was the winner in the 2011 season of american idol

On May 25, 2011, after 122.4 million votes were cast for the finale (and nearly 750 million votes for the seasonal total),[6] Scotty McCreery was crowned the winner of the tenth season of American Idol, making him the youngest male winner at 17 years and seven months old, and the second youngest winner ever behind season 6 winner Jordin Sparks. Season 10 was the first season where 11 contestants went on tour instead of 10.[7] Eight contestants from this season were signed to record labels. The signed artists are Scotty McCreery, Lauren Alaina, Haley Reinhart, James Durbin, Casey Abrams, Stefano Langone, Pia Toscano and Naima Adedapo.

American Idol (season 10)

The tenth season of American Idol premiered on January 19, 2011 and concluded on May 25, 2011, on the Fox television network. The show underwent a number of changes from the ninth season, including the return of Nigel Lythgoe as executive producer.[2] Randy Jackson returned as judge for his tenth season while Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler joined the judging panel following the departures of Simon Cowell, Kara DioGuardi and Ellen DeGeneres.

Interscope Records, which is part of Universal Music Group, replaced Sony Music Entertainment as Idol's official partner record label. Interscope's Chairman Jimmy Iovine, a songwriter and producer, was named as the in-house mentor to work with the contestants on a weekly basis. He was supported by associated producers Rodney Jerkins, Alex da Kid, Tricky Stewart, Don Was, will.i.am, and Timbaland, who all helped the contestants tailor their song choices to their chosen genre of performance, while also producing arrangements for the contestants and offering original material to be performed. Ray Chew replaced Rickey Minor as the show's musical director and leader of Idol's live band.[3]

Programming changes affecting viewership included a revision in the days of broadcast from Tuesdays and Wednesdays to Wednesdays and Thursdays.[4] The show also opened up an option for viewers to cast their votes online through Facebook, allowing 50 votes per account. Specific changes in the competition itself included extending extra rounds (such as the Las Vegas show) and a final solo round, while also returning the judges' wild card choice. The show additionally lowered the age of eligibility to 15 years.[5] More contestants made it to Hollywood in season 10 than in previous seasons.

Simon Cowell, who had been a judge since the first episode of the first season, announced on January 11, 2010 that he would not be returning as a judge for this season in order to focus on launching the American version of his hit British singing competition The X Factor.[8] Ellen DeGeneres officially announced her departure on July 29, 2010, after judging for only one season, because she felt the show was not the "right fit" for her.[9] Kara DioGuardi then announced on September 3, 2010, that she would also not return this season.[10] On September 22, 2010, it was announced that Jennifer Lopez and Steven Tyler would join the judging panel.[11]

There were a number of other major changes in season ten, from the judges to the format of the show itself including the opening intro, which used the "Hall of Idols". Nigel Lythgoe returned as the executive producer, and Ray Chew has been hired as the show's new musical director, replacing Rickey Minor, who left the show along with vocal coach Dorian Holley to become the musical director of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno.[12] Peisha McPhee, mother of season 5's runner-up Katharine McPhee, joined as one of the vocal coaches.[13] In this season, online voting was also offered for the first time for fans with Facebook accounts; up to 50 votes may be cast.[14]

The Season 10 also saw a return to the process of singers singing two songs each on performance nights starting earlier in the season, and three songs each starting on Top 3 night.

â€“ Ron Fair[15]

Extra rounds were added in the Hollywood phase of the competition which would narrow the contestants down to sixty potential finalists. Those who made the final sixty were then taken to Las Vegas in an extra round where they were asked to sing songs from The Beatles, and then a further solo round in Los Angeles.  It was originally planned that 20 contestants would be left by the end of the Hollywood rounds, however, 24 contestants were chosen instead for the semifinal,[16] and they would perform in two groups of twelve in a semi-final sudden death round where ten finalists – five girls and five boys – would be voted in by the viewers. The judges were given three wild card picks, making a total of thirteen finalists.[17]

Nigel Lythgoe had previously suggested significant format changes that would replace the following semifinal, with contestants having "to make the best music video, to promote themselves, and to work with a band and dancers for an awards show-style performance."[18][19] However, the plans were shelved.[20][21]  Despite previous reports that Idol producers had axed the weekly music theme,[22] the themes remained.

At the end of the ninth season, Sony Music Entertainment's affiliation to Idol also ended. The partnership was superseded by a new deal with Universal Music Group, meaning that the winner would now be signed to Interscope Records. Interscope's sister labels, A&M Records and Geffen Records, would also be involved in promoting and distributing the albums of the show's finalists.[23][24] Chairman of the Interscope-Geffen-A&M label group, Jimmy Iovine, worked directly with contestants this season as the in-house mentor.[24] Additionally, a team of Universal Music-associated producers and songwriters, such as Rodney "Darkchild" Jerkins, Timbaland and Alex da Kid, also worked alongside the contestants to help them take on original arrangement and material.  Some suggested changes, such as allowing the finalists to release music while the season is still in progress rather than waiting to record an album,[15]  were not implemented, although music were released somewhat earlier than previous seasons.

The judges were Steven Tyler, Jennifer Lopez, and Randy Jackson.

This is the first season in which the contestant age minimum was reduced to 15 years old. The maximum age however still remained 28.[25]

Auditions were held in the following cities:[25]

Note 1: Actual number not announced on the show but this number is based on the number of names listed on americanidol.com website and may not be the actual total.

In addition to the above cities, for the first time contestants were allowed to audition online via Myspace / Facebook / Twitter. To audition, they were required to upload a 40-second audition clip of them singing a pre-approved song.[32] The internet auditioners, including Karen Rodriguez, were called back to Los Angeles to audition in front of the judges.

The Hollywood week phase of the competition was held in the Pasadena Civic Center. There were a record-number 327 contestants in the first round, which lasted over two days, exceeding season 2's record of 234. The contestants emerged in groups of ten and each performed individually a cappella. After the whole group had finished their performances, those who failed were cut immediately. 168 advanced to the next round, where the contestants performed in groups; out of the 168, only 100 advanced to the next round. In the next round, the contestants performed solo, accompanied by a band or an instrument. The contestants were then separated into four rooms, with two of the four rooms containing eliminated contestants and the other two containing contestants who made it into the next round. Only 61 of the 100 remaining advanced.

This year, due to the large number of contestants, two more rounds were added. The 61 remaining contestants proceeded to Las Vegas where they performed songs from The Beatles as duos and trios in the Love theatre at The Mirage for this newly added 'Las Vegas' round. After that, 41 advanced to the final "Sing For Your Life" round back in Los Angeles. In that round, each contestant performed a song of their own choosing at Howard Hughes' Spruce Goose aircraft hangar.[33] The Top 24 were then selected from the remaining 41 for the semifinals.

The semi-final round began on Tuesday, March 1, 2011. This year, the producers used a new format. Below are the two semi-final groups (males and females) with contestants listed in their performance order. The top five males and top five females, along with the three wild card choices by the judges, advanced to the finals. There were twenty-four semifinalists, twelve females and twelve males. The males started the semifinal round, and the females continued on following night's episode, the contestants perform songs of their choice (there was no particular theme).

Following those ten singers advancing on Thursday, March 3, six of the remaining 14 semi-finalists were selected by the judges to compete in the Wild Card round. The Wild Card round immediately began, following the announcement of the ten finalists. Following another performance by each Wild Card contender, the judges then selected three contestants to advance to the final group of 13.

Scotty McCreery (born October 9, 1993) is from Garner, North Carolina and was 17 years old at the time of the show. He auditioned in Milwaukee, Wisconsin with Josh Turner's "Your Man" and Travis Tritt's "Put Some Drive in Your Country". He reprised "Your Man" in the Hollywood rounds but forgot the words to Lee Ann Womack's "I Hope You Dance". He also performed "Get Ready" with the group "The Guaps" and became involved in the drama when Clint Jun Gamboa ousted young Jacee Badeaux from their group. For his final solo he performed Josh Turner's "Long Black Train". McCreery was announced as the winner on May 25, and was signed to 19/Interscope/Mercury Nashville. His debut album, Clear as Day, was released on October 4, 2011.

Lauren Alaina (born November 8, 1994) is from Rossville, Georgia and 16 years old at the time of the show. She auditioned in Nashville, Tennessee with Faith Hill's "Like We Never Loved At All" and Aerosmith's "I Don't Want to Miss a Thing" which she also reprised for the Hollywood rounds. She also performed "Unchained Melody" twice, once for the first solo in the Hollywood rounds and again for the final solo. She also performed Soul Brothers Six's "Some Kind of Wonderful" in a girl group which was notable for getting Steven Tyler to sit on the chair while they performed around him. She performed "Hello, Goodbye" for the Las Vegas' Beatles round with Scotty McCreery and Denise Jackson. Alaina was announced as the runner-up and was signed to 19/Interscope/Mercury Nashville, and her debut album, Wildflower, was released on October 11, 2011.

Haley Reinhart (born September 9, 1990) is from Wheeling, Illinois and 20 years old at the time of the show. She originally auditioned in Chicago in the ninth season and did not advance to the Hollywood round. She auditioned in Milwaukee, Wisconsin with The Beatles' "Oh! Darling". She performed Corinne Bailey Rae's "Breathless" in the first solo round. In the group round she forgot her words of the song but still made it through, and in the Hollywood rounds she performed Billie Holiday's "God Bless the Child". In the Las Vegas group round, she performed The Beatles' "The Long and Winding Road" with Naima Adedapo and Jacob Lusk. For her final solo she performed The Shirelles' song "Baby It's You". Reinhart was eliminated on May 19, coming in 3rd place. Reinhart was signed to Interscope Records after the show. Her first single, "Free", was released on March 20, 2012, and her debut album, Listen Up!, was released on May 22.

James Durbin (born January 6, 1989) is from Santa Cruz, California and 22 years old at the time of the show. He originally auditioned in the eighth season and was not selected. He auditioned in San Francisco, California with Muddy Waters's "You Shook Me" and Aerosmith's "Dream On". He performed The Beatles' "Oh! Darling" for his solo in the Hollywood round, Queen's "Somebody to Love" with the group "Deep Vees" in the group round and Sam Cooke's "A Change Is Gonna Come" for his final solo. He was the lead singer with a band The Hollywood Scars prior to Idol. He has Tourette and Asperger's syndromes. Durbin was eliminated on May 12, coming in 4th place.  He was signed to Wind-up Records in with an album, Memories of a Beautiful Disaster released on November 21, 2011.

Jacob Lusk (born June 23, 1987) is from Compton, California and 23 years old at the time of the show. Before American Idol, he worked as a spa concierge. He auditioned in Los Angeles, California. He was first shown in the group stage of the competition where he performed with fellow finalist Naima Adedapo, Vegas contestant Sophia Shorai, and Matthew Nuss, and Da'Quela Payne. Randy Jackson considered his performance of Billie Holiday's "God Bless the Child" during the Hollywood rounds the best ever seen on Idol. He also performed The Temptations' "Get Ready" with Naima Adedapo in the group "Ebony, Ivory, and Every", and Leon Russell's "A Song for You" for his final solo. In the Top 24 round, he earned standing ovation for his performance of "A House Is Not a Home" by Luther Vandross. After singing "No Air" by Jordin Sparks and Chris Brown and "Love Hurts" by The Everly Brothers, Lusk was eliminated on May 5, coming in 5th place.

Casey Abrams (born February 12, 1991 in Austin, Texas) is from Idyllwild, California and 20 years old at the time of show. He auditioned in Austin, Texas with Ray Charles' "I Don't Need No Doctor". He impressed the judges with his performance of "Georgia on My Mind" in Hollywood week. He also performed Ella Fitzgerald's "Lullaby of Birdland", The Temptations' "Get Ready" with the group "Night Owls" in the Hollywood rounds, "A Hard Day's Night" with Chris Medina in the Las Vegas's Beatles round, and Kansas Joe McCoy's "Why Don't You Do Right?" for his final solo. He played the double bass and melodica on the show. He suffers from ulcerative colitis which resulted in him missing the Top 13 result show. He got the one judges' save of the season on the Top 11 show. Abrams was eliminated on April 28, coming in 6th place. Abrams was signed to Concord Music Group after the show.

Stefano Langone (born February 27, 1989) is from Kent, Washington and 22 years old at the time of the show. He auditioned in San Francisco, California with Marvin Gaye's "I Heard It Through the Grapevine". He performed Stevie Wonder's "Sir Duke" in the Hollywood week, "Get Back" for the Las Vegas round with James Durbin, and his own composition "Come Home" for his final solo. He survived a near-fatal car accident in 2009 being hit by a drunk driver.[34] Langone was chosen by the judges as one of the Wild Cards to join the Top 13 finalists. Langone was eliminated on April 21, coming in 7th place. Langone was signed to Hollywood Records after the show. He released his debut single "I'm on a Roll" featuring New Boyz and Rock Mafia on April 24, 2012.

Paul McDonald (born August 29, 1984) is from Huntsville, Alabama and 26 years old at the time of the show. He auditioned in Nashville, Tennessee with Rod Stewart's "Maggie May". Prior to Idol, he was the lead singer of the band Hightide Blues formed in 2005 and renamed The Grand Magnolias in 2010. He performed Fleetwood Mac's "Landslide" and his own composition "American Dreams" for his final solo. McDonald was eliminated on April 14, coming in 8th place.

Pia Toscano (born October 14, 1988) is from Howard Beach, New York and 22 years old at the time of the show. She had auditioned for Idol four times before and made it through Hollywood in the sixth season and did not continue further. She auditioned in Jersey City, New Jersey, and was a make-up artist. She sang the national anthem at a Mets game. Pia Toscano and Karen Rodriguez get together to duet The Beatles' "Can't Buy Me Love" on Las Vegas, they also went to New York's LaGuardia Arts School together. She also performed Bruno Mars's "Grenade" for the group round in Hollywood and Alicia Keys's "Doesn't Mean Anything" for her final solo. Toscano was eliminated on April 7, coming in 9th place. Toscano was signed to Interscope Records after the show, releasing her debut single "This Time" on July 11, 2011. Pia auditioned five times.

Naima Adedapo (born October 5, 1984 in Maywood, Illinois) is from Milwaukee, Wisconsin and 26 years old at the time of the show. She auditioned in Milwaukee, Wisconsin with Donny Hathaway's version of "For All We Know". She was doing janitorial duties at the Summerfest in Milwaukee before she auditioned on Idol. She performed Beatles' "The Long and Winding Road" together with Jacob Lusk and Haley Reinhart during the Las Vegas round, and Corinne Bailey Rae's "Put Your Records On" for her final solo. Adedapo was chosen by the judges to join the competition during the Wild Card round. Adedapo was eliminated on March 31, coming in 10th with Thia Megia.

Thia Megia (born January 30, 1995) is from Mountain House, San Joaquin County, California and 16 years old at the time of the show. She auditioned in Milwaukee, Wisconsin with Adele's "Chasing Pavements" and she turned 16 at the time of the show. Before her stint on American Idol, she previously competed on the fourth season of America's Got Talent, making it to the quarterfinals. She also participated in the YouTube edition of "We Are the World" along with 56 other YouTube artists, including American Idol season 11 runner-up Jessica Sanchez. She performed "Summertime" from Porgy and Bess and Louis Armstrong's "What a Wonderful World" in the Hollywood rounds, "Here Comes the Sun" for the Las Vegas round with Melinda Ademi, and Secret Garden's "You Raise Me Up" for her final solo. At 16 years and 1-month, she was the youngest contestant to reach the finals. Megia was eliminated on March 31, coming in a joint 10th place with Naima Adedapo.

Karen Rodriguez (born March 22, 1989 in Miami, Florida) is from New York City and 21 years old at the time of show. She turned 22 years old soon after she got voted off. She was one of the Myspace auditioners and then auditioned in front of the judges in Los Angeles, California with Whitney Houston's "You Give Good Love". She performed Jennifer Lopez's "If You Had My Love", Bruno Mars's "Just the Way You Are" with Jovany Baretto in the group "Spanglish" for the Hollywood rounds, and Selena's "No me queda más" in the final round. She had previously appeared in the fifth season of a Puerto Rican talent show Objetivo Fama. Rodriguez was eliminated on March 17, coming in 12th place.

Ashthon Jones (born February 27, 1986) is from Goodlettsville, Tennessee and 24 years old when she auditioned and turned 25 at the time of show. She auditioned in Nashville, Tennessee. She sang "And I Am Telling You I'm Not Going" from Dreamgirls, Blu Cantrell's Hit 'Em Up Style (Oops!) with the group "The Hits" in the Hollywood rounds and Whitney Houston's "I Wanna Dance with Somebody" for her final solo. Jones was chosen by the judges as one of the Wild Card finalists. She was eliminated on March 10, coming in 13th place.

This is the first season in which there were 12 weeks of the finals instead of 11 and the 2nd season to have 13 finalists, instead of 12 as in the previous seasons, with one of the 13 finalists eliminated each week. In the eighth season there were 13 finalists but two were eliminated in the first week, the final rounds thereby only lasted 11 weeks. The top 13 performance show was pre-recorded, but the subsequent performance shows of the finals were broadcast live. Season seven winner David Cook recorded the Simple Minds song "Don't You (Forget About Me)" as the send-off song played when a contestant is eliminated. The finals venue was same stage as used in the Semi-Finals.

Unmentioned mentor: Marc Anthony[35]

Group performances:

Mentors: will.i.am & Russell Brand

Mentors: will.i.am & Rob Reiner

Group performances:

Group performance on performance night:

Group performances on results night:

Mentor: Babyface

Each contestant sang one solo and one duet with a fellow contestant.

On results night, no "bottom three" was announced. Ryan Seacrest stated early in the show that voting results would be announced in "random order". After Haley, James, and Lauren were announced as safe, Jacob, Casey, and Scotty were the last three remaining. Ryan then repeated "Tonight the results are in random order" before announcing that Casey was eliminated. Ryan later confirmed that Jacob and Scotty were not necessarily among the bottom three vote-getters that week. Ryan also revealed Top 5 results night that Scotty had never been in the bottom 2.[36]

The Top 5 contenders covered two songs apiece: one current (new millennium) and one from the 1960s.[37]

Mentor: Sheryl Crow

Mentor: Lady Gaga

Group performances:

Mentor: Beyoncé

Lauren Alaina damaged her vocal cords while rehearsing for the finale, but she was treated and cleared to continue in the competition.[38]

In a break with the normal format, the judges did not offer their critiques of the performances until after both contestants had sung both of their opening songs, and then the critiques were delivered to both contestants at the same time.[39] Also, the schedule for the 2-part finale was moved back to its previous schedule of Tuesday and Wednesday.

^Note 1Â : Due to the judges using their one 'Judges' Save' per season, in order to save Abrams, the 'Top 11' remained intact for another week.

The first five contestants eliminated from the finals were all female contestants, and this early elimination of females led to criticism of bias against women.[51][52][53][54] Idol producer Ken Warwick said, "It's no secret that most reality shows are female driven, either by moms or by young girls. It does mean we're going to get a heftier amount of female votes and it's always bent towards the boys, obviously, we are very much aware that the voting can be skewed towards the boys."[55] The voting also provoked considerable criticism after the last of these five females, Pia Toscano, a presumed front-runner, was surprisingly eliminated in ninth place.[51][56][57] In response to criticism, the producers considered tweaking the voting format for the next season.[58]

Online critics from major news sources like Brian Mansfield of USA Today, Craig Berman of MSNBC, Dalton Ross of Entertainment Weekly, Andrea Reiher of Zap2it, and Tom Gliatto of People criticized the judges for being too nice, not being honest enough, offering hardly any constructive criticism towards the contestants, and for not giving any guidance and direction for the viewers/voters in terms of why they should or should not be voting for someone.[53][54][59][60][61] Executive producer Ken Warwick responded to these criticisms and said, "The truth of the matter is these kids are very good and I wouldn't influence the judges to say anything they don't absolutely believe... They are trying to keep things on the straight and narrow. What they feel are genuine feelings, that's all I can ask them to do."[55] Nigel Lythgoe, another executive producer, also responded to these criticisms on his Twitter and answered, "IT IS NOT ABOUT THE JUDGES OPINION IT'S ABOUT YOURS!! U R NOT SHEEP!"[62] In October 2011, however, judge Jennifer Lopez revealed that all three judges would be tougher on the contestants in season 11.[63]

Many fans of the ninth season winner, Lee DeWyze, were upset that he did not take part in the season ten finale like he was rumored to. Executive producer Nigel Lythgoe responded on his Twitter that he asked DeWyze to take part in the finale, but he declined, "I was so upset Lee DeWyze wouldn't present the winners trophy to Scotty," he wrote. "Especially as he'd been on the show this Season. I guess he was shy." However, DeWyze said that he was actually not asked to take part in the finale, "Just for the recordâ€¦ I was not asked to be involved in the Finale. It wasn't until about 2 minutes before they announced that Nigel had approached me and asked if he could "borrow" me for a second. I didn't feel a last second jump on stage was appropriate. It was Scotty's moment. I appreciate American Idol, and the opportunity it has given me. And the people who have made that show possible. I am not angry, or bitter etc. It was an amazing Finale, and I would have loved to be a part of it. I just wasn't asked." DeWyze was seen in the audience towards the end of the show.[64][65][66]

Ten of the contestants from season 10 auditioned for the subsequent season and made into the Top 24. Five of those advanced into the Top 13.

Three of the contestants from season 10 also auditioned for the subsequent season and made into the Top 40. Three of them made into the Top 20 and voting rounds. Only Janelle Arthur and Candice Glover had made it into Top 10.

Two of the contestants from season 10 also auditioned for the subsequent season and made into the Top 30. Caleb Johnson became the only contestant auditioning since season 10 to have qualified in the season's Top 13.

One contestant from season 10 also auditioned for the subsequent season and made into the Top 24.

One contestant from season 10 also auditioned, but did not make the Top 24.

American Idol ended the 2010–2011 television season as the number one and number two show in Total Viewers, and the number one and number three show in Adults 18–49.  The Wednesday performance shows earned an average of 25.864 million viewers and an 8.8/24 rating in the Adults 18–49 demographic, while the Thursday results show earned an average of 23.798 million viewers and a 7.7/22 rating in the Adults 18–49 demographic.[67]  The show's success helped Fox network achieve the longest winning streak in broadcast history of seven consecutive season in the Adult 18–49 demo.[68]