who has the longest name in the mlb

At 14 characters, his last name is the longest in Major League Baseball history.[1] Saltalamacchia is Italian for "jump over" (salta) "the thicket" (la macchia, Southern Italy dialectical term that refers to a kind of tall shrub). His nickname is Salty.[2]

Jarrod Saltalamacchia

Jarrod Scott Saltalamacchia (/ˌsɒltələˈmɑːkiə/; born May 2, 1985) is an American professional baseball catcher in the Detroit Tigers organization. He has played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Atlanta Braves, Texas Rangers, Boston Red Sox, Miami Marlins, Arizona Diamondbacks, Tigers, and Toronto Blue Jays.

Born in West Palm Beach, Florida, Saltalamacchia attended Royal Palm Beach High School in Royal Palm Beach, Florida, graduating in 2003. Saltalamacchia attended high school along with future Texas Rangers teammate Kason Gabbard, and the two were friends growing up. A standout, Saltalamacchia was a member of Team Florida USA and won gold with the team in the 2001 Junior Olympics.[3]

The Atlanta Braves selected Saltalamacchia in the first round (36 overall) of the 2003 Major League Baseball Draft.

In 2006, Saltalamacchia had a breakout season for the Class A Myrtle Beach Pelicans, where the switch-hitting slugger hit.314 with 35 doubles, 19 home runs, and 81 runs batted in (RBIs) in 129 games. Saltalamacchia ranked 18th in Baseball America top 100 prospects in 2006, and 36th the following year.[4]

In the 2007 season, Saltalamacchia started at catcher for the Double-A Mississippi Braves. In 22 games played, he belted 7 home runs with a batting average of.373.

On his 22nd birthday, he was called up to Atlanta to replace Brayan Peña on the roster and to fill in for Brian McCann, who re-injured his finger on May 1, 2007.[5] Saltalamacchia's call-up made him the new record-holder of the longest surname in Major League Baseball history, at 14 letters,[6] breaking the record set by William Van Landingham (or tying it, depending on whether one counts the space in the latter's surname).

On May 6, 2007, Saltalamacchia had the first hit of his major league career in the sixth inning against the Los Angeles Dodgers. In the seventh inning, with two outs and two men on base, Saltalamacchia got his first RBI, which also drove in the winning run for the Braves. On May 27, 2007, Saltalamacchia hit his first major league home run, a solo shot off Cole Hamels of the Philadelphia Phillies. On June 26 in a start at first base, Saltalamacchia had his first multi-home run game. Both blasts came batting right-handed off Washington Nationals pitcher Mike Bacsik.

Because Saltalamacchia was "blocked" (by McCann, who was recently signed to a large contract with Atlanta), he was the subject of much trade speculation within baseball, and was traded to the Texas Rangers on July 31, 2007, with Elvis Andrus, Neftalí Feliz, Matt Harrison, and Beau Jones for first baseman Mark Teixeira and reliever Ron Mahay.

In 2007, Saltalamacchia batted.284 with 4 home runs and 12 RBIs in 47 games with Atlanta.

Upon joining the Rangers after being traded Saltalamacchia changed his number to 25. In his first game with the Rangers on August 1, 2007, Saltalamacchia started at first base and drove in two runs.

On August 22, 2007, Saltalamacchia had two home runs and seven RBIs in the historic 30â€“3 rout of the Baltimore Orioles.[7]

In 46 games with the Rangers in 2007, Saltamacchia batted.251, collecting seven home runs and 21 RBIs.

On March 26, 2008, Saltalamacchia lost the starting catching job to Gerald Laird, and the Rangers chose to send him down to the minors to catch every day instead of sitting as the backup.[8] However, Saltalamacchia was soon called up on April 25, 2008.[9]

After the Rangers signed free agent Andruw Jones, Saltalamacchia gave up his number 25 to Jones and selected the number 21.[10] On April 25, 2009, Saltalamacchia struck out in his 28th consecutive game played, setting a new MLB strikeout streak record for a position player (pitcher Bill Stoneman holds the all-time record with 37 games). Saltalamacchia's streak started on July 23, 2008.[11] Saltalamacchia suffered a shoulder injury on August 15, 2009 and was placed on the disabled list.

Saltalamacchia was placed on the disabled list after the second game of the 2010 season. On April 27, 2010, Saltalamacchia was removed from the DL and assigned to the Oklahoma City RedHawks.[12] He has struggled with throwing the ball back to the pitcher.

Saltalamacchia was traded to the Boston Red Sox just before the Major League Baseball trading deadline on July 31, 2010. The Rangers received minor league prospects Chris McGuiness, Román Méndez, a player to be named later (Michael Thomas), and cash. He reported to the Pawtucket Red Sox of the Class AAA International League.[13][14] Saltalamacchia was called up on August 11 after Kevin Cash went on the disabled list needing surgery in his left thumb, in September 2010.[15][16]

In the 2011 season, Saltalamacchia was slated at the beginning of the year to be Boston's primary catcher with veteran Jason Varitek taking the role as the backup. Out of the gate, he struggled defensively and showed weakness in the batter's box.[17] However, he showed improvement at the plate as the season progressed, hitting.327 in the month of June. Despite his low average, Saltalamacchia showed decent power and finished out the year hitting.235/.288/.450 with 16 HR, and 56 RBIs in 103 games played.

On January 15, 2012, Saltalamacchia avoided arbitration by signing a one-year, non-guaranteed contract worth $2.5 million with the Sox to be their starting catcher. Kelly Shoppach was his backup until being traded, making Ryan Lavarnway his backup catcher.[18]

On May 26, 2012, with one out in the ninth inning, Saltalamacchia hit a 2-run walk-off home run off of Fernando Rodney to beat the Tampa Bay Rays. As the season progressed, Saltalamacchia was moved to 1st base as manager Bobby Valentine gave Ryan Lavarnway a look as the team's starting catcher. Saltalamacchia finished the year batting.222/.288/.454 with 25 HR, and 59 RBIs in a career high 121 games played.

Saltalamacchia was the starting catcher in 2013 for the Red Sox, and David Ross and Ryan Lavarnway were his backups. He went 1-2 with 3 walks and a double on Opening Day against the Yankees. On October 13, 2013, Saltlamacchia hit a walk-off single, driving in Jonny Gomes to beat the Detroit Tigers 6-5 in the second game of the 2013 ALCS. Saltalamacchia was benched for the final three games of the 2013 World Series against the St. Louis Cardinals in favor of David Ross following a series of defensive errors.[19]

Saltalamacchia appeared in 121 games in 2013 and hit.273/338/.466 with 14 home runs, 65 RBIs, 68 runs and 40 doubles, becoming the thirteenth different catcher ever to have 40 doubles in a season.[20]

Following the 2013 season, the Red Sox declined to offer Saltalamacchia a qualifying offer, making him an unrestricted free agent.[19]

On December 3, 2013, Saltalamacchia agreed to a three-year, $21 million contract with the Miami Marlins.[21] The deal was finalized on December 6.[22] He was designated for assignment by the Marlins on April 27, 2015, and released on May 5.[23][24]

On May 7, Saltalamacchia signed a minor league contract with the Arizona Diamondbacks.[25] After reporting to extended spring training and then playing for the Reno Aces for a week, the Diamondbacks promoted him to the major leagues to replace Tuffy Gosewisch, who suffered a season-ending knee injury, as their starting catcher.[26]

On December 6, 2015, Saltalamacchia signed a one-year major league contract with the Detroit Tigers for the league minimum salary. The Miami Marlins are still paying the bulk of Saltalamacchia's existing contract.[27]

On April 13, 2016, Saltalamacchia hit his 100th career home run, a grand slam off Arquimedes Caminero of the Pittsburgh Pirates.[28] Saltalamacchia would finish the 2016 season with a.171 batting average.[29]

On February 6, 2017, Saltalamacchia signed a minor league contract with the Toronto Blue Jays that included an invitation to spring training.[30] He made the Opening Day roster as the backup catcher to Russell Martin. On April 28, Saltalamacchia was designated for assignment.[31] He was released on May 3,[32] and signed a new minor league contract with Toronto on May 16.[33] He was assigned to the Triple-A Buffalo Bisons. On June 30, Saltalamacchia was released from his minor league contract.[34]

On March 9, 2018, Saltalamacchia signed a minor league contract to return to the Tigers organization.[35] As of early June 2018, Saltalamacchia is with the Triple-A Toledo Mud Hens.[36]

Saltalamacchia is a Christian.[37] He is married to Ashley Saltalamacchia, who was a gym teacher at his high school during his time there. They started dating a year after he graduated and were married in the summer of 2005.[38] The couple have four daughters: Sidney, Hunter, Sloane and April.

Saltalamacchia and his former Rangers teammate Kason Gabbard were childhood friends. Both attended Royal Palm Beach High School and were traded to the Rangers from different teams on July 31, 2007.[39]

During the second half of the 2017 season, Saltalamacchia worked as a Red Sox studio analyst for New England Sports Network (NESN), and made his debut as color commentator with play-by-play announcer Dave O'Brien during Boston's August 20 home game against the New York Yankees.


what is the largest national forest in the united states

There is at least one National Forest in all but ten states: Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, North Dakota, New Jersey, and Rhode Island (although Kansas and North Dakota have national grasslands). In addition, Puerto Rico contains El Yunque National Forest. Alaska has the most national forest land with 21.9 million acres (8.9 million ha), followed by California (20.8 million acres, 8.4 million ha) and Idaho (20.4 million acres, 8.3 million ha). Idaho also has the greatest percent of its land in national forests with 38.2%, followed by Oregon with 24.7% and Colorado with 20.9%. On maps, national forests in the west generally show the true extent of their area, but those in the east often only show purchase districts, within which usually only a minority of the land is owned by the Forest Service.[1]

List of U.S. National Forests

The United States has 154 protected areas known as National Forests covering 188,336,179 acres (762,169Â km2/294,275 sq. mi).[1] The National Forests are managed by the U.S. Forest Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.[2] The first National Forest was established as the Yellowstone Park Timber and Land Reserve on March 30, 1891, then in the Department of the Interior. In 1897, the Organic Act provided purposes for which forest reserves could be established, including to protect the forest, secure water supplies, and supply timber. With the Forest Reserve Act of 1891, the President of the United States was given the power to set aside forest reserves in the public domain. With the Transfer Act of 1905, forest reserves became part of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in the newly created U.S. Forest Service.[3][4]

By 1907 President Theodore Roosevelt more than doubled the forest reserve acreage, and Congress responded by limiting the President’s ability to proclaim new reserves. The National Forest System underwent a major reorganization in 1908, and in 1911 Congress authorized new additions to the system under the authority of the Weeks Act. The management goals provided by the Organic Act were expanded upon by the Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 to include “outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish purposes” as well as for the establishment of wilderness areas.[3][4]

As of September 30, 2014, the Forest Service manages a total 192,922,127 acres (780,728.15 km2), 188,336,179 acres (762,169.48 km2) of which are National Forests. The additional land areas include 20 National Grasslands, 59 purchase units, 19 research and experimental areas, five land utilization projects and 37 other areas. The National Forest System has an extensive and complicated history of reorganization, so while there are currently 154 named National Forests, many of these are managed together as either a single forest or separate forests.[A][1][4][5]


who came up with the service profit chain

The service–profit chain is the central concept in a theory of business management which links employee satisfaction to customer loyalty and profitability. It was proposed in an article in the Harvard Business Review in 1994 by James L. Heskett, Thomas Jones, Gary Loveman, W. Earl Sasser, and Leonard Schlesinger,[1] and was later the subject of the book The Service Profit Chain – How Leading Companies Link Profit and Growth To Loyalty, Satisfaction and Value, published in 1997 by three of the same authors.[2]

Service–profit chain


the office does michael end up with holly

Hollis "Holly" Partridge Scott (nÃ©e Flax) is a fictional character from the US television series The Office played by Amy Ryan.  She was an original character, and not based on a character from the British version of the show. Initially, she served as a replacement HR Representative for the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin when Toby Flenderson left for Costa Rica. Later, her character was developed into a friend and romantic interest for Steve Carell's character Michael Scott. She and Michael have a shared sense of humor and similar personality traits, though Holly does prove to be more rational than Michael. In the office, she is noticeably more acquiescent to Michael's antics and ideas than was her predecessor, Toby. At the office, Michael proposes to her with the help of their co-workers. She and Michael eventually get back together, move to Colorado, marry and start a family together.

Holly Flax

Holly Flax is the human resources representative for the Scranton branch of Dunder Mifflin. She and Michael Scott become good friends in the office, though Michael desires to turn their friendship into a romance, which eventually takes place. Executive producer Greg Daniels has repeatedly stated that the inspiration for Flax's character stems from a shopgirl who served him on a vacation in Newfoundland, Canada, whom he described as "a female Michael Scott."

She is originally from Des Moines, Iowa, and her parents now live in Boulder, Colorado and her father suffers from dementia. In her early life, she held the position of hall monitor in middle school due to her geeky demeanor, and because of this, was a target of harassment by other students. When she was in high school, she was diagnosed with mono.

Holly arrives at Dunder Mifflin to serve as Toby's replacement.  Michael initially dislikes her because she is part of Human Resources, but quickly falls in love with her. She is subjected to hazing by Dwight Schrute, who convinces her that Kevin Malone is mentally challenged, a belief she continued to harbor until Season Five when it was embarrassingly pointed out to her that he wasn't. During an attempt to put a raccoon in Holly's car, a Toyota Camry Solara convertible, Dwight is berated by Michael, who takes Holly's side and loudly proclaims that she is the "best thing that has happened to him and the company since World War II." Holly invites Michael to go out for dessert after Toby's going away party, but Michael turns her down, opting instead to go with Jan Levinson, who is pregnant and had asked Michael to be there as if he were the child's father.[1]

Michael had been courting Holly in the first episode of the season. Holly practices yoga, so Oscar refers Holly to a yoga class with an attractive teacher. Holly agrees to a date with him, much to Michael's dismay. Holly buys tickets for Counting Crows, but the yoga instructor doesn't call her. Michael, who does not pick up on several hints that Holly has given him (about attending the concert with her), purchases the tickets from her and rips them to pieces.[2] She ultimately considers him to be her best friend in the office. It is also revealed that she was picked on as a child just like Michael.[3] Michael is pleased when Corporate HR blasts Holly for seeking disciplinary action against Meredith over the sex-for-supplies (and Outback Steakhouse coupons) deal instead of conducting a stupid seminar and getting signatures, but he also yells at the staff to complete the seminar. This also restores good feelings between Holly and Michael.

Michael tells Holly he will treat her poorly in front of Jan during her baby shower because he has a vested interest in Jan's baby, which is not his. Despite being told of this, she is shown to be uncomfortable with Michael's attitude toward her. However, despite witnessing Michael's treatment of Holly throughout the day, Jan notices the two of them have a lot in common after Holly makes jokes in front of her. Jan then orders Michael not to date Holly before driving away. This, in addition to feeling no connection with Jan's baby, prompts Michael to apologetically hug Holly and ask her out on a date, which she accepts, visibly moved.[4]

Holly and Michael date, and on their third date have sex in the office (inadvertently leading to the break-in at the office). She helps Michael organize a fundraiser (offering yoga lessons) and displeases CFO David Wallace, who sees them kissing, thus noticing a relationship.[5] In response, she is transferred back to Nashua. She and Michael plan to continue dating, but realize on the trip that the distance is insurmountable. Thus, they are forced to end their relationship, sharing one last embrace before saying goodbye. Michael tells everyone that they are engaged upon his return, but later admits this is not true.[6] Later, David is called out on the transfer by Michael, who chastises him on the phone before hanging up.[7]

When Michael comes to Nashua with Pam Beesly to give his lecture and find closure with Holly, she is not there because she is on an HR retreat. It is also revealed that she is dating one of the salesmen there, A.J., which deeply upsets Michael and makes him unable to do his presentation; he ultimately breaks down and asks her boyfriend about Holly in front of everyone before leaving. He goes to her desk and smells her sweater, cutting a sleeve off to take with him. Michael finds a file on her computer titled "Dear Michael" and copies it to his flash drive. He tells Pam about it, and Pam volunteers to read it herself and deletes it afterward, telling Michael it said she still has feelings for him and that it isn't over. It is unclear whether Pam was telling the truth.[8]

Holly and Michael reunite at the Dunder Mifflin company picnic for the first time since she was transferred. She is still seeing A.J., who arrives with her. Holly and A.J. have apparently started living together. David Wallace lets Holly and Michael do a skit about the history of Dunder Mifflin; the two decide to do a skit that spoofs Slumdog Millionaire. The presentation goes horribly and gets worse when they reveal that the Buffalo branch is closing down, much to everyone's surprise. Michael and Holly reminisce about the presentation and talk about one in the future. Holly leaves with A.J., with Michael noting that it wasn't the right time to talk to her and that they will eventually find each other.

Holly does not appear in Season 6, but is mentioned many times by Michael, who still has feelings for her. Her return is hinted at in the season finale, "Whistleblower," after Michael takes the fall for Sabre's defective printers. In return for his loyalty, Michael requests that Holly be returned to Scranton. Jo says she will see what she can do.

Holly first appears over speakerphone in "Sex Ed", when Michael calls her in fear that he may have contracted herpes and infected Holly with it. The lighthearted conversation turns serious when Holly suggests that Michael over-romanticized their relationship, which she characterizes as "just a fling".

In "Classy Christmas", Holly returns to Scranton to fill in while Toby is away at jury duty. The initial excitement about seeing her old friend again turns to anger when a jealous Michael vandalizes her Woody doll (a gift from her boyfriend AJ). Holly divulges to the women of the office that AJ won't commit, and she's going to give him an ultimatum to propose to her by New Year's. When Pam tells Michael, he is cheered up by the news, as well as Holly lying to AJ about how Woody got damaged.

Holly returns from the holiday break in "Ultimatum" without an engagement ring. Michael is briefly enthusiastic until he learns that Holly gave up on her ultimatum, considering it unreasonable. However, at the end of the episode, Holly tells A.J. that she wants to take a "break" from their relationship. Her and Michael's friendship seems to rebuild itself with "The Seminar".

In "The Search", Holly rejects Michael's advances, saying she doesn't want to be involved with a coworker again. When he goes missing, Holly is able to track Michael's footsteps due to their similar thought patterns. When she finds him on a building rooftop, they admit that they miss each other and share a kiss.

In the episode "PDA", it is revealed that Michael and Holly are officially dating. They make the rest of the office uncomfortable with their excessive public displays of affection, and agree to stop only at the insistence of their coworkers. Later that day, when Michael declares that he loves Holly and she says that she returns his feelings, they must settle for a handshake. In order to avoid the kind of breakup they have previously experienced, they decide to move in together.

As the season progresses, Holly's presence leads Michael to become a more mature adult. In "Threat Level Midnight", Michael screens the film that he had been working on for the past 11 years. Michael is hurt when Holly isn't impressed, but her honesty helps him realize that the film is laughably awful. In "Todd Packer", Todd Packer returns to the sales bullpen. She initially trusts Michael's assessment of Packer, but confronts Michael about his friend after Packer shows his true colors. When Michael tries to smooth things over, Packer speaks disrespectfully about Holly. Michael decides not to disclose that Packer's "promotion" in Florida is a prank by Jim and Dwight, and as Michael and Holly watch him drive away it's obvious that she is helping Michael to grow. A deleted scene from this episode reveals that Holly has a blind friend named Lois, who doesn't get along with Michael.

In  "Garage Sale", she realizes her aging parents need assistance and decides to move home to Colorado. She briefly changes her mind when Michael seems reluctant, saying that he is her life now. At the end of the episode, Michael leads her through various spots in the building that are meaningful to them (the stairwell where they first kissed, the water cooler he visited just to watch her work). He finally leads her to the annex which is filled with lighted candles. He begins to propose to her when the sprinkler system goes off. Through her laughter, she accepts his proposal. Afterwards, he announces to the office he's quitting his job to move to Colorado with his fiancÃ©e.

Holly does not appear in the subsequent episodes "Training Day" and "Michael's Last Dundies", but did have a voice-only segment (in a telephone conversation) in "Goodbye, Michael", confirming with Michael that she'll pick him up at the airport when his plane lands. In the process, she unintentionally cheers a distraught Michael up when he initially gets cold feet about moving to Colorado. The episode marked Steve Carell's final episode as a series regular.

Holly does not appear in any episodes, but Michael makes a surprise appearance at Dwight and Angela's wedding in the series finale. During the wedding reception, Michael shows Pam pictures of Holly and Michael's kids on his cell phone. Pam reveals that Michael and Holly are living very happily together. Michael now has two cell phones to store all the pictures that he takes of their kids, and is very happy to finally have a family plan. NBC.com later revealed that Michael and Holly had four children together.


what does it mean to be a phi beta sigma

Today, Phi Beta Sigma has blossomed into an international organization of leaders. The fraternity has experienced unprecedented growth and continues to be a leader among issues of social justice as well as proponent of the interests of minority communities, the needy, the oppressed, and the youth. No longer a single entity, the Fraternity has now established the Phi Beta Sigma Educational Foundation, the Phi Beta Sigma Housing Foundation, the Phi Beta Sigma Federal Credit Union, a notable youth auxiliary program, "The Sigma Beta Club," and the Phi Beta Sigma Charitable Outreach Foundation.

Phi Beta Sigma

Phi Beta Sigma (ΦΒΣ) is a social/service collegiate and professional fraternity founded at Howard University in Washington, D.C. on January 9, 1914, by three young African-American male students with nine other Howard students as charter members. The fraternity's founders, Abram Langston Taylor, Leonard Frances Morse, and Charles Ignatius Brown, wanted to organize a Greek letter fraternity that would exemplify the ideals of Brotherhood, Scholarship and Service while taking an inclusive perspective to serving the community as opposed to having an exclusive purpose. The fraternity exceeded the prevailing models of Black Greek-Letter fraternal organizations by being the first to establish alumni chapters, to establish youth mentoring clubs, to establish a federal credit union, to establish chapters in Africa, and establish a collegiate chapter outside of the United States, and is the only fraternity to hold a constitutional bond with a predominantly African-American sorority, Zeta Phi Beta (ΖΦΒ), which was founded on January 16, 1920, at Howard University in Washington, D.C., through the efforts of members of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity.

The fraternity expanded over a remarkably broad geographical area in a short amount of time when its second, third, and fourth chapters were chartered at Wiley College in Texas and Morgan State College in Maryland in 1916, and Kansas State University in 1917. Today, the fraternity serves through a membership of more than 200,000 men in over 700 chapters in the United States, Africa, Europe, Asia, and the Caribbean. Although Phi Beta Sigma is considered a predominantly African-American Fraternity, its membership also consists of diverse college-educated men of African, Caucasian, Hispanic, Native American and Asian descent. According to its Constitution, academically-eligible male students of any race, religion, or national origin may join while enrolled at a college or university through collegiate chapters, or professional men may join through an alumni chapter if a college degree has been attained, along with a certain minimum number of earned credit hours.

Phi Beta Sigma is a member of the National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) and the North-American Interfraternity Conference (IFC or NIC). The current International President is Michael Cristal, and the fraternity's headquarters are located at 145 Kennedy Street, NW Washington, D.C.

In the summer of 1910, after a conversation with a recent Howard University graduate in Memphis, Tennessee, A. Langston Taylor formed the idea to establish a fraternity and soon after, enrolled into Howard University in Washington, D.C. Once there, Taylor began to set his vision of a brotherhood into action. In October 1913, Taylor and Leonard F. Morse had their initial conversation about starting a fraternity. As a result, Charles I. Brown was named as the third member of the founding group. By November 1913, a committee was established to begin to lay the foundation of what was to become Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity. Soon after the first committee meeting, Taylor, Morse, and Brown chose 9 associates to assist them with the creation of the fraternity. Those men were the first charter members of the organization.

On January 9, 1914, the permanent organization of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity was established in the Bowen Room of the 12th Street Y.M.C.A Building in Washington, D.C. On April 15, 1914, the Board of Deans at Howard University officially recognized Phi Beta Sigma and the following week The University Reporter, Howard University's student publication, made known the news.

The first two years of the fraternity's existence would see them organize and maintain a Sunday school program, led by A.H. Brown, open a library and art gallery to the public, the foundation of the Benjamin Banneker Research Society, and also the Washington Art Club.[1] In addition to their impact to the Washington, D.C. Community, the members of Sigma were also impacting the campus of Howard University. Abraham M. Walker was elected associate editor of the Howard University Journal. The following year, Walker and Founder A. Langston Taylor, were elected Editor-in-Chief and circulation manager respectively. Other members were also taking leadership positions as W.F. Vincent, William H. Foster, John Berry, Earl Lawson, among others, were presidents of the Debating Society, the college YMCA, the Political Science Club, and the Athletic Association respectively. On the athletic field, captain John Camper and J. House Franklin were standout football players for Howard University.

In the spring of 1915, the fraternity was seeking to further its intellectual pool. As a result, several affluent African-American scholars Dr. Edward P. Davis, Dr. Thomas W. Turner, T.M. Gregory, and Dr. Alain Leroy Locke, were inducted into the Fraternity. On March 5, 1915, Herbert L. Stevens was initiated, in turn making him the first Graduate member of Phi Beta Sigma.[2]

A year after the establishment of Phi Beta Sigma, the Fraternity saw that the scope of Sigma needed to be expanded beyond just Washington, D.C. and Howard University. On November 13, 1915, Beta Chapter was chartered at Wiley College in Marshall, Texas by graduate member Herbert Stevens. Beta chapter became the first chapter of any African-American Greek-lettered organization to be chartered south of Richmond, Virginia.[2] As Phi Beta Sigma continued its expansion in the Eastern and Southern United States, other national fraternities were beginning to take notice.

On December 28, 1916, Phi Beta Sigma hosted the fraternity's first conclave in Washington, D.C. 200 members representing three collegiate chapters, Alpha, Beta and Gamma (established at Morgan State College) were in attendance. As a result of the 1916 conclave, an official publication for the Fraternity was authorized and member W.F. Vincent was elected as the National Editor.

Phi Beta Sigma responded to a "call to arms" in 1917 as the United States entered the First World War. No definite study has ever been made as to the participation of Phi Beta Sigma members in World War I. However, the Alpha chapter had about seventy members in uniform.[3] The troubles of membership affected several chapters beyond the Alpha Chapter; other chapters of Sigma were so depleted that only the Alpha Chapter showed any signs of activity, and the National Office ceased to function. The General Board was forced to re-organize as a result of death and other dislocations brought on by the war. Fraternity President I. L. Scruggs would ask fraternity founder and then National Treasurer A. Langston Taylor to contact members as soon as they re-appeared in civilian clothes.[4] It was through the efforts of Taylor that the fraternity was able to continue and proceed to operate financially as numerous Sigma men served on the European battle front.[4]

By February 1920, Phi Beta Sigma had expanded to ten active chapters. During the December 1919 Conclave, Phi Beta Sigma's first conclave after the war, A. Langston Taylor was given approval from the General Board to assist in the organization of what was to become Phi Beta Sigma's sister sorority

In the spring of 1919, Sigma member Charles Robert Samuel Taylor - then a student at Howard University - shared with fellow student Arizona Cleaver his idea for a sister organization to the fraternity. Cleaver then presented this idea to fourteen other Howard Women; and with the help of Charles Taylor and Sigma Founder A. Langston Taylor, work began to establish the new sorority.[5] With permission from the Howard University administration, Zeta Phi Beta Sorority held its first official meeting on January 16, 1920. The founders and charter members of the Sorority consisted of Arizona Cleaver (Stemons), Viola Tyler (Goings), Myrtle Tyler (Faithful), Pearl Anna Neal, and Fannie Pettie (Watts). The five founders chose the name Zeta Phi Beta. The similar names of both Sigma and Zeta are intentional in nature, as the ladies adopted the Greek letters 'Phi' and 'Beta' to "seal and signify the relationship between the two organizations".[6]

The newly established Zeta Phi Beta Sorority was given a formal introduction at the Whitelaw Hotel by their Sigma Counterparts, Charles R. and A. Langston Taylor. The two Sigma Brothers had been a source of advice and encouragement during the establishment, and throughout the early days. of Zeta Phi Beta[8] As National Executive Secretary of Phi Beta Sigma, Charles Taylor wrote to all Sigma Chapters requesting they establish Zeta chapters at their respective institutions. With the efforts of Taylor, Zeta added several chapters in areas as far west as Kansas City State College; as far south as Morris Brown College in Atlanta, Georgia; and as far north as New York City.[9]

The 1920s also witnessed the birth of the Harlem Renaissance - a flowering of African-American cultural and intellectual life that began to be absorbed into mainstream American culture. Phi Beta Sigma fraternity brother Alain LeRoy Locke is unofficially credited as the "Father of the Harlem Renaissance." His philosophy served as a strong motivating force in keeping the energy and passion of the Movement at the forefront.[10] In addition to Locke, Sigma brothers James Weldon Johnson and A. Philip Randolph were participants in this creative emergence, led primarily by the African-American community based in the neighborhood of Harlem in New York City.

On January 31, 1920, Phi Beta Sigma was incorporated in the district of Washington, D.C. and became known as Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Incorporated.

In November 1921, the first volume of the Phi Beta Sigma Journal was published. The journal was the official organ of the fraternity; Eugene T. Alexander was named its first editor. The following month, the fraternity held its 1921 Conclave at Morris Brown College in Atlanta, Georgia. This conference saw the first ever inter-fraternity conference between Phi Beta Sigma and Omega Psi Phi. This would lead to the first inter-fraternity council meeting between the two organizations the following spring in Washington, D.C.

In 1922, Founder Taylor called for the assembly of the Black Greek-lettered organizations of Howard University to discuss the formation of a governing council. Although the efforts of Taylor failed on that particular day, they would sow the seeds for what was to become the National Pan-Hellenic Council eight years later.

In March 1924, the name of the fraternity's official publication, The Phi Beta Sigma Journal, was changed to The Crescent Magazine. The magazine's name change was suggested by members of the Mu chapter at Lincoln University to reference the symbolic meaning of the crescent to the fraternity. At the 1924 conclave, a special exhibit introduced the concept of the "Bigger and Better Negro Business". This would lead to the establishment of Bigger and Better Business as a national program at the 1925 conclave. At the 1928 Conclave, held in Louisville, Kentucky, the tradition of branding the skin with a hot iron, as a part of the initiation process was officially sanctioned by the fraternity.

At the 1929 Conclave held in New York City, Dr. Carter G. Woodson was invited as a guest speaker and saw the creation of the Distinguished Service chapter. The fall of 1929 saw the crash of the nation's stock markets. Like many other organizations during this period, Phi Beta Sigma faced financial difficulties. With brothers faced with financial worries, some members were forced to leave their respective institutions due to lack of funds to continue their educations; several chapters became inactive. The fraternity saw its income drastically shrink to the point of nearly disappearing completely. As a result of the bank closures, the remaining funds of the fraternity were frozen.

As the nation came to terms with the Great Depression, Phi Beta Sigma and its members continued to implement programs to support the black community. In February 1930, the General Board met in New York City and appointed then vice president of the Eastern Region, Dr. T. H. Wright, as head of the new Bigger and Better Business program. The first objective of Phi Beta Sigma's new program was to call upon colleges to provide business courses for its students. The fraternity went forward with its plans to implement the bigger and better business program and aid as many financially strapped chapters as possible through scholarships for brothers.

Later that year, at the 1930 Conclave held in Tuskegee, Alabama, northern region vice president C.L. Roberts suggested that instead of a yearly meeting, the annual conclaves should be held once every two years. It was also at this conclave that brother George Washington Carver delivered an impassioned and emotional speech to the brothers in attendance.

Fraternity brother A. Phillip Randolph, who organized the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, played a role in the amendments to the Railway Labor Act in 1934. As a result, railway porters were granted rights under federal law. This victory and the continuing work of Randolph and the BSCP led to the Pullman Company contract with the union, which included over $2Â million in pay increases for employees, a shorter workweek, and overtime pay. 1934 also marked the birth of Social Action as a national program and the return of founder A. Langston Taylor to the forefront of Sigma. Brother Emmett May was elected as the first director of the social action initiative.

The 1935 Atlanta Conclave saw yet another meeting between Sigma and Omega Psi Phi fraternities. Omega founders Edgar Amos Love and Oscar James Cooper brought greetings to the brothers in attendance of the conference on behalf of the members of Omega Psi Phi. The following year, the general board approved the fraternity's affiliation with the already established National Pan-Hellenic Council. in continuation of Sigma's Social Action initiative, brothers of Sigma were actively involved the Chicago meeting of the National Negro Congress.

As Phi Beta Sigma prepared for the Silver (25th) Anniversary, a special search was made for lost founder Charles I. Brown. The search would yield no results as to the fate or location of Founder Brown. The 1939 conclave marking the 25th anniversary of the fraternity was held on the campus of Howard University.

At the 1941 Conclave in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the fraternity became a permanent member of the National Negro Business League. At the same conclave Brother A. Phillip Randolph announced a proposed march on Washington, D.C., to protest racial discrimination in defense work and the armed forces. This proposed march would lead then president of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt to create the Committee on Fair Employment Practice and issue Executive Order 8802 which barred discrimination in governmental and defense industry hiring.

Due to the outbreak of the Second World War no Conclaves were held, although some brothers in various regions were able to assemble independently of the General Board. At the fraternity's first spring conclave in 1944, the fraternity voted to support the United Negro College Fund. 1949 would mark the reunion of two of the founders of Sigma: A. Langston Taylor and Leonard F. Morse.

The 1940s and 1950s would show the continued expansion of Phi Beta Sigma. In 1949, the fraternity became an international organization with the chartering of the Beta Upsilon Sigma graduate chapter and the Gamma Nu Sigma graduate chapter in Monrovia, Liberia. The fraternity would extend its international chapters into Geneva, Switzerland, with the chartering of the Gamma Nu Sigma graduate chapter in 1955.

As the struggle for the civil rights of African Americans renewed in the 1950s, Sigma men held positions of leadership among various civil rights groups, organized protests, and proposed the famous March on Washington of 1963. In Atlanta, A. Phillip Randolph helped with the establishment of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. Randolph and fraternity brother John Lewis would later be involved with the 1963 March on Washington, Randolph as a key organizer and Lewis as a speaker representing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).

In 1961, Phi Beta Sigma brother James Forman joined and became the executive secretary of the then newly formed Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. From 1961 to 1965 Forman, a decade older and more experienced than most of the other members of SNCC, became responsible for providing organizational support to the young, loosely affiliated activists by paying bills, radically expanding the institutional staff, and planning the logistics for programs. Under the leadership of Forman and others, SNCC became an important political player at the height of the Civil Rights Movement.

During the Selma to Montgomery marches, Brothers Hosea Williams and John Lewis (U.S. politician) led a 54-mile protest march from Selma to the capital of Alabama: Montgomery. Lewis became known nationally for his prominent role in the marches and became a Congressman as a Democrat from Georgia. During police attacks on the peaceful demonstration Lewis was beaten mercilessly, leaving head wounds that are still visible today.

Phi Beta Sigma brothers Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale established the revolutionary left-wing Black Panther Party. Originally the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, their goal was the protection of African-American neighborhoods from police brutality in the interest of African-American justice. As one of the many advocates of The Black Power Movement, the Black Panthers were considered part of one of the most significant social, political, and cultural movements in U.S. history. "The Movement['s] provocative rhetoric, militant posture, and cultural and political flourishes permanently altered the contours of American Identity."[13]

In 1970, brother Melvin Evans was elected the first governor of the United States Virgin Islands. In 1979, Phi Beta Sigma celebrated its 65th anniversary Conclave in Washington, D.C. In 1983, Sigma brother Harold Washington became the first African-American mayor of the city of Chicago, Illinois. In 1986, the Fraternity opened the Phi Beta Sigma Federal Credit Union which is open to members of the Fraternity, members of the sister sorority, Zeta Phi Beta, their families, and their respective Regions and Chapters. With the establishment of the credit union, Phi Beta Sigma became the first NPHC organization to offer such an entity to its members.[citation needed]

In 1989, the Fraternity celebrated its Diamond Jubilee in Washington, D.C. Also in that year, brother Edison O. Jackson became the president of Medgar Evers College in Brooklyn, New York. In 1990, two Sigma brothers made significant firsts in their respective fields as Brothers Charles E. Freeman and Morris Overstreet were elected the first district judge of the Illinois Supreme Court and first African-American elected by popular vote to a statewide office in the state of Texas respectively. In 1995, the fraternity was the only NPHC organization involved with the planning and support of the Million Man March as brother Benjamin Chavis Muhammad served as national coordinator of the March.[citation needed]

In 2001, Sigma brother Rod Paige became the first African American Secretary of Education. At the 2003 conclave, in Memphis, Tennessee, the fraternity added Projects S.W.W.A.C & S.A.T.A.P as national programs in attempts to combat cancer and teenage pregnancy.[14] In addition to those projects, the fraternity added Project Vote and the Phi Beta Sigma Capital Hill Summit under the social action umbrella.[14] At the 2007 conclave in Charlotte, North Carolina the fraternity introduced the Sigma Wellness initiatives as the latest national programs. The 2009 Conclave in New Orleans saw former President William Jefferson Clinton accept honorary member invitation to Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity."[15]

The founders deeply wished to create an organization that viewed itself as "a part of" the general community rather than "apart from" the general community. They believed that each potential member should be judged by his own merits rather than his family background or affluence... without regard of skin tone or texture of hair. They wished and wanted their fraternity to exist as part of even a greater brotherhood which would be devoted to the "inclusive we" rather than the "exclusive we." The fraternity's defiance of stereotypes that have plagued other organizations indeed goes back to the founders themselves with their careful and deliberate building of the fraternity by promoting a membership with diverse backgrounds.

From its inception, the Founders also conceived Phi Beta Sigma as a mechanism to deliver services to the general community. Rather than gaining skills to be utilized exclusively for themselves and their immediate families, the founders of Phi Beta Sigma held a deep conviction that they should return their newly acquired skills to the communities from which they had come. This deep conviction was mirrored in the Fraternity's motto, "Culture For Service and Service For Humanity."

Phi Beta Sigma's Constitution states that race, religion, and national origin are not criteria for membership. Membership is predominantly African-American in composition, with members in over 650 collegiate and alumni chapters in the United States, District of Columbia, Germany, Switzerland, The Bahamas, Virgin Islands, South Korea, Japan and countries in Africa. Since its founding in 1914, more than 185,000 men have joined the membership of Phi Beta Sigma.[citation needed]

A chapter name ending in "Sigma" denotes a graduate chapter. No chapter of Phi Beta Sigma is designated Omega, the last letter of the Greek alphabet, and deceased brothers are referred to as having joined The Omega Chapter.

Through the years, members of Phi Beta Sigma have been involved in incidents related to hazing, although now denounced by the fraternity, incidents have been discovered of pledges being subjected to activities which in some case have resulted in serious injury and even death. Prior to 1990, the Crescent Club was the official pledge club of Phi Beta Sigma and potential candidates interested in becoming a member of the fraternity would join the pledge club before being fully initiated. In response to the increasing number of lawsuits stemming from allegations and incidents related to hazing, Phi Beta Sigma and other members of the National Pan-Hellenic Council jointly agreed to disband pledging as a form of admission.[17] In an attempt to eliminate Hazing from these organizations, each revised its orientation procedures and developed the Membership Intake Process.

In 2012, then Phi Beta Sigma International President Jimmy Hammock, along with the National Action Network, led by Sigma member Al Sharpton, launched a coalition whose aim was to combat hazing culture not just within the black Greek Lettered Organizations, but also the broader community at large. The coalition, also pledged their support of federal anti-hazing legislation that was being spearheaded by former United States House of Representatives member Frederica Wilson.[18][19] As part of the campaign, the fraternity developed anti-hazing training materials, held a town hall meetings, facilitated workshops and encouraged local chapters to participate in the annual National Anti-Hazing Awareness Day.[20] Phi Beta Sigma's efforts to eliminate hazing from the fraternity continue as local chapters are now mandated to participate in anti-hazing awareness workshops.

In 1992, a pledge at Southern University (Baton Rouge) went blind after being intentionally hit on the head with a frying pan by a member of the fraternity.[21]

In 1996, the fraternity was sued by a former pledge and football player at the University of Georgia for violating hazing laws. As a pledge, he was hospitalized with bruises to his buttock and torn blood vessels due to being paddled by fraternity members. Three members were arrested and pled guilty to hazing and battery charges.[22]

In 1998, a pledge at Southern Illinois University was struck in the chest by several members of the fraternity which caused him to suffer from a severe asthma attack.[23]

In 2006, seven Sigmas were arrested for beating pledges from the University of South Carolina.[24] One known pledge was hospitalized due to the severe beatings and torment.

In 2009, Donnie Wade Jr., a student at Prairie View A&M University, died of extreme exhaustion due to illegal hazing activity while he was pledging the fraternity. His family filed a $97 million lawsuit against the fraternity and the chapter was temporarily expelled from campus for several years..[25][26]

In 2012, seven members (six students and one staff member) of the fraternity were banned from the campus of Wiley College after reports surfaced of the brutal and dangerous hazing practices pledges had to go through.[27]

In 2014, a former Francis Marion University student won a $1.6 million lawsuit against the fraternity after suffering acute renal failure due to being severely beaten throughout his pledge process. Nine Phi Beta Sigma members were arrested.[28]

In 2015, the fraternity was kicked off the campus of Salisbury University until Spring 2017. The university had received several anonymous complaints of pledges being beaten with paddles, forced to drink alcohol, and being harassed.[29]

Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity's membership includes many notable members who are involved in the fields of arts and entertainment, business, civil rights, education, health, law, politics, science, and sports. The fraternity's membership roster includes heads of state Benjamin Nnamdi Azikiwe, Kwame Nkrumah, William Tolbert, and William V.S. Tubman, the past presidents of Nigeria, the Republic of Ghana, and Liberia respectively. Other notable members include world-famous scientist George Washington Carver, the first black Rhodes Scholar Alain LeRoy Locke, Black Panther Party founders Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale, organizer of the Million Man March Benjamin Chavis Muhammad, civil rights activists Hosea Williams and the Rev. Al Sharpton, musicians The Original Temptations, actor Terrence Howard, television personality Al Roker, professional athletes Jerry Rice, Emmitt Smith, Hines Ward, Richard Sherman and Ryan Howard, the Philadelphia Phillies first baseman and award-winning actor Blair Underwood.[30]

Listed below are the thirty-five International Presidents[31] since the 1914 institution of the office

The Conclave is the legislative power of Phi Beta Sigma. During a conclave year, delegates representing all of the active chapters from within the seven regions of the Fraternity meet in the chosen city. The Conclave-or fraternity convention- is currently held biannually and usually co-hosted by the alumni and collegiate chapters of the chosen city. During the convention, members of the General Board â€“ the administrative body of the fraternity-are elected and appointed. The General Board may act in the interest of the Fraternity when the Conclave is not in session. In addition, seminars, social events, concerts, an international Miss Phi Beta Sigma Pageant, Stepshow, and oratorical contests are also held during the week-long conference. Throughout the years, notable individuals such as George Washington Carver, Dr. Carter G. Woodson, and NFL quarterback Charlie Batch were speakers at past Conclaves.

The Current General board is composed of The International President, First Vice-President, Second-Vice President, Treasurer, General Counsel, a Distinguished Service Chapter Representative, the regional directors, the immediate past-president, two collegiate members at large, and director of collegiate affairs. The offices of Second-Vice President and collegiate member at large are reserved positions on the general board for collegiate (undergraduate) members to hold. In addition, the Editor of The Crescent Magazine, Director of publicity, and the National Executive Director make up the members of the General Board. The latter-mentioned members are appointed to their positions and do not hold voting powers.

Established at the 1929 Conclave, the Distinguished Service Chapter is the highest honor bestowed on a member of Phi Beta Sigma. Membership in the Distinguished Service Chapter must be recommended and approved by the awardees Chapter, Region, and by the General Board of the Fraternity prior to entry. One must meet the following criteria in order to be considered for this honor:

Brother Jesse W. Lewis holds the distinction of being voted in as the DSC's 1st member (1929).

Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity organizes its chapters according to their regions in the United States and abroad. The seven regions are each led by a regional director and a regional board. A comprehensive list of regions is shown below:[32]

Phi Beta Sigma aims their focuses on issues that greatly impact the African American community and the youth of the nation. The Phi Beta Sigma national programs of Bigger and Better Business, Education and Social Action are realized through the Fraternity's overarching program, Sigma Wellness, adopted in 2007.[34] Through its national mentoring program for males ages 8â€“18, the organization provides opportunities for the development of young men as they prepare for college and the workforce.

The organization's partnerships with the American Cancer Society, March of Dimes, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Boy Scouts of America and the Thurgood Marshall College Fund speaks to its mission to address societal ills including health disparities and educational and developmental opportunities for young males.

As told by Dr. I.L. Scruggs (excerpts from Our Cause Speeds On):

The Bigger and Better Business serves as an umbrella for other national initiatives involving business. The program's goals include supporting minority businesses, increasing communication with sigma brothers involved with business, and instilling sound business principals and practices to members of the community. Project S.E.E.D. (Sigma Economic Empowerment Development) is the foremost Bigger and Better Business Program. The program was developed to help the membership focus on two important areas: Financial Management and Home ownership.

The founders of Phi Beta Sigma were all educators in their own right. The genesis of the Education Program lies in the traditional emphasis that the fraternity places on Education. During the 1945 conclave in St. Louis, Missouri, the fraternity underwent a constitution restructuring which led to the birth of the Education as a National Program.

The National Program of Education focuses on programming and services to graduate and undergraduates in the fraternity. Programs such as scholarships, lectures, college fairs, mentoring, and tutoring enhance this program on local, regional and national levels.[36]

Project S.E.T. (Sigma Education Time) is focused on increasing grade point averages and graduation rates of collegiates throughout the nation. The program aims to help with job readiness, choosing a career path {3â€“5 year outlook}, interviewing techniques, negotiating and entrepreneurship.

The Sigma Beta Club provides mentoring, guidance, educational tutorial assistance and advise to young men between ages 6 to 18. Created in 1950, it was the first youth auxiliary group of any of the National Pan-Hellenic Council organizations.

Phi Beta Sigma has from its very beginning concerned itself with improving the general well-being of minority groups. In 1934, a well-defined program of Social Action was formulated and put into action. Elmo M. Anderson, then president of Epsilon Sigma Chapter (New York) formulated this program calling for the reconstruction of social order. It was a tremendous success. It fit in with the social thinking of the American public in those New Deal years.

In the winter of 1934, Sigma brothers Elmo Anderson, James W. Johnson, Emmett May and Bob Jiggets presented the Social Action proposition to the Conclave in Washington, D.C. The idea was adopted as a national program at the same conclave. Anderson is credited as "The Father of Social Action".[37]

The fraternity's five main social action programs are Project Vote, Sigma Wellness, Sigma Presence on Capitol Hill, and projects S.W.W.A.C. & S.A.T.A.P.P.

Project S.W.W.A.C. (Sigmas Waging War Against Cancer) is a concentrated and coordinated effort to reduce the incidence of cancer in the African American community. Through a partnership with the American Cancer Society, the goal of Project S.W.W.A.C. is to increase awareness, with a strong emphasis on early detection and prevention of prostate and colorectal cancer.[38] Project S.A.T.A.P.P. is a collaborative venture with the March of Dimes Birth Defects Foundation to address the alarming rise in teenage pregnancy. The Sigma Wellness Project is focused on living healthier lifestyles through education. The goal of Project Vote is to register and educate citizens and encourage members of the community to participate in the democratic process. The Sigma Presence on Capitol Hill Program is focused on presenting Sigma members the opportunity to discuss many of the critical issues facing our communities with members of the U.S. Congress.[38]

In the early 1950s, Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity developed a youth auxiliary group. Under the direction of Dr. Parlett L. Moore the Sigma Beta Club was founded. While as National Director of Education, Brother Moore was concerned about our changing needs in our communities and recognized the important role that Sigma men could play in the lives of our youth. On April 23, 1954, the first club chapter was organized in Montgomery, AL. Throughout its existence, Sigma Beta Club has been an essential part of the total organizational structure of many of the Alumni chapters of Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc. and offers men of Sigma a unique opportunity to develop wholesome value, leadership skills, and social and cultural awareness of youth at a most critical stage in the youth's personal development. The Sigma Beta Clubs' principles of focus emphasize Culture, Athletics, Social and Educational needs. Sigma Beta Club programs are geared to meet the needs of its members, but at the same time provide them with a well-rounded outlook that is needed to cope with today's society. Phi Beta Sigma is confident that investing in our youth today will produce effective leaders of tomorrow. Sigma Beta Clubs also provide services to youths in their communities. Phi Beta Sigma Fraternity, Inc.'s interest in fostering the development of youth into effective leaders has been realized in the establishment of strong and productive Sigma Beta Club all across the country.

The Sigma History Museum was a traveling exhibition created in 2001 by Sigma brothers Mark Pacich, Louis W. Lubin, Jr. and Ahab Elâ€™Askeni. The museum's initial goal was to dispel the discrepancies of the Fraternity's history, by collecting as many newspaper articles, Crescent Magazines, Conclave Journals, autographs, pictures, etc., as possible. With the help of many Sigma members, in addition to families and friends of Sigmas brothers, some impressive artifacts of the history of the Fraternity were discovered. Among those artifacts, pictures of Sigma Founder A. Langston Taylor; historical pictures from the 1914, 1915, and 1916 yearbooks at Howard University; original letters; Conclave banners; and interviews with Sigma Brother Decatur Morse, son of Sigma Founder Leonard F. Morse, Samuel Proctor Massie II, son of a Alpha Chapter charter member, Samuel P. Massie, Robert L. Pollard II, son of Sigma brother Col. Robert L. Pollard who joined Sigma in 1919, and Dr. Gregory Tignor, son of Sigma brother Madison Tignor who also joined Sigma in 1919. The exhibit has been displayed in many cities including; Orlando, Philadelphia, Detroit, Memphis, and Las Vegas.

On July 16, 2014, as part of the fraternity's centennial celebration, a permanent museum was opened at the Phi Beta Sigma International Headquarters in Washington D.C. As a result, Phi Beta Sigma became the first Historically Black Greek Lettered fraternity to open its own museum.[39]

The assets of the museum have grown since the initial display in 2000. The most coveted possession yet to be acquired are the first 2 issues of the Phi Beta Sigma Journal. The museum is only 14 issues away from having every Crescent magazine ever printed.[40]


why the glass measuring cylinder of the rain gauge is inside an outer container

The standard NWS rain gauge, developed at the start of the 20th century, consists of a funnel emptying into a graduated cylinder, 2 cm in radius, which fits inside a larger container which is 20 cm in diameter and 50 cm tall. If the rainwater overflows the graduated inner cylinder, the larger outer container will catch it. When measurements are taken, the height of the water in the small graduated cylinder is measured, and the excess overflow in the large container is carefully poured into another graduated cylinder and measured to give the total rainfall. Sometimes a cone meter is used to prevent leakage that can result in alteration of the data.  In locations using the metric system, the cylinder is usually marked in mm and will measure up to 250 millimetres (9.8 in) of rainfall. Each horizontal line on the cylinder is 0.5 millimetres (0.02 in). In areas using Imperial units each horizontal line represents 0.01 inch.

Rain gauge

A rain gauge (also known as an udometer, pluviometer, or an ombrometer) is an instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation over a set period of time.

The first known rainfall records were kept by the Ancient Greeks, about 500 B.C.

People living in India began to record rainfall in cca 400 B.C.[1] The readings were correlated against expected growth. In the Arthashastra, used for example in Magadha, precise standards were set as to grain production. Each of the state storehouses were equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes.[2] In 1247, the Song Chinese mathematician and inventor Qin Jiushao invented Tianchi Basin rain and snow gauges to reference rain, snowfall measurements, as well as other forms of meteorological data.[3][4]

In 1441, the Cheugugi was invented during the reign of King Sejong the Great of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as the first standardized rain gauge.[5][6][7] In 1662, Christopher Wren created the first tipping-bucket rain gauge in Britain in collaboration with Robert Hooke.[5] Hooke also designed a manual gauge with a funnel that made measurements throughout 1695.

It was Richard Towneley who was the first to make systematic rainfall measurements over a period of 15 years from 1677 to 1694, publishing his records in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Towneley called for more measurements elsewhere in the country to compare the rainfall in different regions,[8] although only William Derham appears to have taken up Towneley's challenge. They jointly published the rainfall measurements for Towneley Park and Upminster in Essex for the years 1697 to 1704.[9]

The naturalist Gilbert White took measurements to determine the mean rainfall from 1779 to 1786, although it was his brother in law, Thomas Barker, who made regular and meticulous measurements for 59 years, recording temperature, wind, barometric pressure, rainfall and clouds. His meteorological records are a valuable resource for knowledge of the 18th century British climate. He was able to demonstrate that the average rainfall varied greatly from year to year with little discernible pattern.[10]

The meteorologist George James Symons published the first annual volume of British Rainfall in 1860. This pioneering work contained rainfall records from 168 land stations in England and Wales. He was elected to the council of the British meteorological society in 1863 and made it his life's work to investigate rainfall within the British Isles. He set up a voluntary network of observers, who collected data which was returned to him for analysis. So successful was he in this object that by 1866 he was able to show results which gave a fair representation of the distribution of rainfall, and the number of recorders gradually increased until the last volume of British Rainfall which he lived to edit (that for 1899) contained figures from 3,528 stationsâ€”2,894 in England and Wales, 446 in Scotland, and 188 in Ireland. He also collected old rain fall records going back over a hundred years. In 1870 he produced an account of rainfall in the British Isles starting in 1725.

Due to the ever-increasing numbers of observers, standardisation of the gauges became necessary. Symons began experimenting on new gauges in his own garden. He tried different models with variations in size, shape, and height. In 1863 he began collaboration with Colonel Michael Foster Ward from Calne, Wiltshire, who undertook more extensive investigations. By including Ward and various others around Britain, the investigations continued until 1890. The experiments were remarkable for their planning, execution, and drawing of conclusions. The results of these experiments led to the progressive adoption of the well known standard gauge, still used by the UK Meteorological Office today. Namely, one made of '... copper, with a five-inch funnel having its brass rim one foot above the ground...'[11]

Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres in height collected on each square meter during a certain period, equivalent to litres per square metre. Previously rain was recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254Â mm or 0.01 of an inch.[12]

Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by automatic weather station (AWS). The frequency of readings will depend on the requirements of the collection agency. Some countries will supplement the paid weather observer with a network of volunteers to obtain precipitation data (and other types of weather) for sparsely populated areas.

In most cases the precipitation is not retained, however some stations do submit rainfall (and snowfall) for testing, which is done to obtain levels of pollutants.

Rain gauges have their limitations. Attempting to collect rain data in a hurricane can be nearly impossible and unreliable (even if the equipment survives) due to wind extremes. Also, rain gauges only indicate rainfall in a localized area. For virtually any gauge, drops will stick to the sides or funnel of the collecting device, such that amounts are very slightly underestimated, and those of.01 inches or.25 mm may be recorded as a trace.

Another problem encountered is when the temperature is close to or below freezing. Rain may fall on the funnel and ice or snow may collect in the gauge, blocking subsequent rain.

Rain gauges should be placed in an open area where there are no obstacles, such as buildings or trees, to block the rain. This is also to prevent the water collected on the roofs of buildings or the leaves of trees from dripping into the rain gauge after a rain, resulting in inaccurate readings.

Types of rain gauges include graduated cylinders, weighing gauges, tipping bucket gauges, and simple buried pit collectors. Each type has its advantages and disadvantages for collecting rain data.

The pluviometer of intensities (or Jardi's pluviometer) is a tool that measures the average intensity of rainfall in a certain interval of time. It was initially designed to record the rainfall regime in Catalonia but eventually spread globally throughout the world.[13]

It employs the principle of feedback... the incoming water pushes the buoy upwards, making the lower "adjusting conic needle" to let pass the same amount of water that enters into the container, this way... the needle records on the drum the amount of water flowing through it at every momentâ€”in mm of rainfall per square-meter.

It consists of a rotating drum that rotates at constant speed, this drum drags a graduate sheet of cardboard, which has the time at the abscissa while the y axis indicates the height of rainfall in mm of rain. This height is recorded with a pen that moves vertically, driven by a buoy, marking on the paper the rainfall over the time (the cardboard sheet is usually for one day).

While the rain falls, the water collected by the funnel falls into the container and raises the buoy..., that makes the pen arm raising in the vertical axis marking the cardboard accordingly. If the rainfall does not vary, the water level in the container remains constant, and while the drum rotates, the pen's mark it's more or less a horizontal line, proportional to the amount of water that is falling. When the pen reaches the top edge of the recording paper, it means that the buoy is "up high in the tank" leaving the tip of the conic needle in a way that uncovers the regulating hole (i.e. the maximum flow that the apparatus is able to record). If the rain suddenly decreases, making the container (as it empties) to quickly lower the buoy, that movement corresponds to a steep slope line that can reach the bottom of the recorded cardboard, if it stops raining.

The pluviometer of intensities allowed to record the precipitation over the time and the years, particularly in Barcelona (95 years), apart from many other places around the world, such as Hong Kong.[13][14]

A weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the mass.  Certain models measure the mass using a pen on a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger.[6] The advantages of this type of gauge over tipping buckets are that it does not underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation, including rain, hail and snow. These gauges are, however, more expensive and require more maintenance than tipping bucket gauges.

The weighing-type recording gauge may also contain a device to measure the quantity of chemicals contained in the location's atmosphere. This is extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and their effects on the levels of the acid rain.  Some Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) units use an automated weighing gauge called the AWPAG (All Weather Precipitation Accumulation Gauge).

The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a funnel that collects and channels the precipitation into a small seesaw-like container.  After a pre-set amount of precipitation falls, the lever tips, dumping the collected water and sending an electrical signal. An old-style recording device may consist of a pen mounted on an arm attached to a geared wheel that moves once with each signal sent from the collector. In this design, as the wheel turns the pen arm moves either up or down leaving a trace on the graph and at the same time making a loud click.

The tipping bucket rain gauge is not as accurate as the standard rain gauge because the rainfall may stop before the lever has tipped. When the next period of rain begins it may take no more than one or two drops to tip the lever. This would then indicate that pre-set amount has fallen when in fact only a fraction of that amount has actually fallen.  Tipping buckets also tend to underestimate the amount of rainfall, particularly in snowfall and heavy rainfall events.[15][16] The advantage of the tipping bucket rain gauge is that the character of the rain (light, medium, or heavy) may be easily obtained. Rainfall character is decided by the total amount of rain that has fallen in a set period (usually 1 hour) and by counting the number of 'clicks' in a 10-minute period the observer can decide the character of the rain. Correction algorithms can be applied to the data as an accepted method of correcting the data for high level rainfall intensity amounts.

Modern tipping rain gauges consist of a plastic collector balanced over a pivot. When it tips, it actuates a switch (such as a reed switch) which is then electronically recorded or transmitted to a remote collection station.

Tipping gauges can also incorporate weighing gauges. In these gauges, a strain gauge is fixed to the collection bucket so that the exact rainfall can be read at any moment. Each time the collector tips, the strain gauge (weight sensor) is re-zeroed to null out any drift.

To measure the water equivalent of frozen precipitation, a tipping bucket may be heated to melt any ice and snow that is caught in its funnel.  Without a heating mechanism, the funnel often becomes clogged during a frozen precipitation event, and thus no precipitation can be measured.  Many Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) units use heated tipping buckets to measure precipitation.[17]

This type of gauge has a row of collection funnels. In an enclosed space below each is a laser diode and a photo transistor detector. When enough water is collected to make a single drop, it drops from the bottom, falling into the laser beam path. The sensor is set at right angles to the laser so that enough light is scattered to be detected as a sudden flash of lights. The flashes from these photo detectors are then read and transmitted or recorded.

The acoustic disdrometer is an acoustic rain gauge. Also referred to as a hydrophone, it is able to sense the sound signatures for each drop size as rain strikes a water surface within the gauge. Since each sound signature is unique, it is possible to invert the underwater sound field to estimate the drop-size distribution within the rain. Selected moments of the drop-size distribution yield rainfall rate, rainfall accumulation, and other rainfall properties.[18]


when was the first yamaha dirt bike made

Led by Genichi Kawakami, the companyâ€™s first president, Yamaha Motor began production of its first product, the YA-1, in 1955. The 125cc motorcycle won the 3rd Mount Fuji Ascent Race in its class.

Yamaha Motor Company

Coordinates: 34°43′29″N 137°52′38″E / 34.7246951°N 137.8773371°E / 34.7246951; 137.8773371

Yamaha Motor Company Limited (ヤマハ発動機株式会社, Yamaha Hatsudōki Kabushiki-gaisha) is a Japanese manufacturer of motorcycles, marine products such as boats and outboard motors, and other motorized products. The company was established in 1955 upon separation from Yamaha Corporation (however Yamaha Corporation is still the largest shareholder with 12.21%, as of June 30, 2014),[1] and is headquartered in Iwata, Shizuoka, Japan. The company conducts development, production and marketing operations through 109 consolidated subsidiaries as of 2012.[2][3]

The company's products includes motorcycles, scooters, motorized bicycles, boats, sail boats, personal water craft, swimming pools, utility boats, fishing boats, outboard motors, 4-wheel ATVs, recreational off-road vehicles, go-kart engines, golf carts, multi-purpose engines, electrical generators, water pumps, snowmobiles, small snow throwers, automobile engines, surface mounters, intelligent machinery, industrial-use unmanned helicopters, electrical power units for wheelchairs and helmets.The company is also involved in the import and sales of various types of products, development of tourist businesses and management of leisure, recreational facilities and related services.motorcycle is the second largest in the world,[4]Outboard motor and water vehicle sales are the world leader [5]

The motorcycle division of Yamaha was founded in 1955, and was headed by Genichi Kawakami. Yamaha's initial product was a 125cc two-cycle, single cylinder motorcycle, the YA-1, which was a copy of the German DKW RT 125. The YA-1 was a competitive success at racing from the beginning, winning not only the 125cc class in the Mt. Fuji Ascent, but also sweeping the podium with first, second and third place in the All Japan Autobike Endurance Road Race that same year.[6] Early success in racing set the tone for Yamaha, as competition in many varieties of motorcycle racing has been a key endeavor of the company throughout its history, often fueled by a strong rivalry with Honda and other Japanese manufacturers.

Yamaha began competing internationally in 1956 when they entered the Catalina Grand Prix, again with the YA-1, at which they placed sixth. The YA-1 was followed by the YA-2 of 1957, another 125cc two stroke, but with significantly improved frame and suspension.[7] The YD-1 of 1957 was a 250cc two-stroke twin cylinder motorcycle, resembling the YA-2, but with a larger and more powerful motor. A performance version of this bike, the YDS-1 housed the 250cc two-stroke twin in a double downtube cradle frame and offered the first five-speed transmission in a Japanese motorcycle.[8] This period also saw Yamaha offer its first outboard marine engine.

By 1963 Yamaha's dedication to both the two-stroke engine and racing paid off with their first victory in international competition, at the Belgium GP, where they won the 250cc class. Success in sales was even more impressive, and Yamaha set up the first of its international subsidiaries in this period beginning with Thailand in 1964, and the Netherlands in 1968. 1965 saw the release of a 305cc two-stroke twin, the flagship of the company's lineup. It featured a separate oil supply which directly injected oil into the gasoline prior to combustion (traditionally riders had to pre-mix oil into gasoline together before filling the gas tank on two stroke engines). In 1967 a new larger displacement model was added to the range, the 350cc two stroke twin R-1.

In 1968 Yamaha launched their first four-stroke motorcycle, the XS-1. The Yamaha XS-1 was a 650cc four-stroke twin, a larger and more powerful machine that equaled the displacement and performance of the popular British bikes of the era, such as the Triumph Bonneville and BSA Gold Star. Yamaha continued on with both the two-stroke line and four-stroke twins at a time that other Japanese manufacturers were increasingly moving to four cylinder four-stroke machines, a trend led by Honda in 1969 with the legendary CB-750 four-stroke four-cylinder cycle.

Not until 1976 would Yamaha answer the other Japanese brands with a multi-cylinder four stroke of their own. The XS-750 (and later 850) a 750cc triple cylinder machine with shaft final drive was introduced almost seven years after Honda's breakthrough bike. Yamaha's first four-cylinder model, the XS-1100 followed in 1978, again with shaft drive.[9] Despite being heavier and more touring oriented than its rivals it produced an impressive string of victories in endurance racing.

The 1970s also saw some of the first dedicated off-road bikes for off-road racing and recreation. Yamaha was an early innovator in dirt-bike technology, and introduced the first single-shock rear suspension, the trademarked "Monoshock" of 1973.[10] It appeared in production on the 1974 Yamaha YZ-250, a model which has continued in production, with many updates, until 2015, making it Yamaha's longest continuous model and name.

Yamaha continued racing throughout the 1960s and 1970s with increasing success in several formats. The decade of the 1970s was capped by the XT500 winning the first Paris-Dakar Rally in 1979.[11]

By 1980 the combination of consumer preference and environmental regulation made four strokes increasingly popular. Suzuki ended production of their GT two stroke series, including the flagship water-cooled two-stroke 750cc GT-750 in 1977. Kawasaki, who had considerable success throughout the 1970s with their two-stroke triples of 250cc, 350cc, 500cc and 750cc ended production of road-going two strokes in 1980. Yamaha bucked this trend and continued to refine and sell two-strokes for the street into the 1980s. These bikes were performance oriented, water-cooled twin cylinder machines, designed to achieve excellent performance taking advantage of the lower weight of two strokes. The RZ-250 of 1980[12] was the progenitor of this series. The RZ-350, the largest displacement model, was a popular hot-rod bike of the 1980s and continued to be sold in some countries into the early 1990s.

Throughout the 1980s the motorcycle industry gradually went from building a few basic but versatile models designed to work well in many roles, to offering many more specialized machines designed to excel in particular niches. These included racing and performance street riding, touring, motocross racing, enduro and recreational off-road riding, and cruising. Yamaha branched out from the relatively small number of UJMs (Universal Japanese Motorcycle) at the start of the decade to a much larger set of offerings in several clearly defined markets at the end of the decade.

The XV750 of 1981 featured an air-cooled V-twin four stroke engine and cruiser styling, and was one of the first Japanese cruiser style motorcycles. By the end of the 1980s Yamaha had offered dozens of cruiser styled bikes in a variety of displacements and engine configurations.

The RZV500 was one of the first "repli-racers", a near copy of Kenny Roberts competition GP bike, it featured a liquid-cooled two-stroke motor of 500cc displacement in a V4 configuration, along with a perimeter frame and full fairing.[13]

A more popular and practical high-performance model for the street was introduced in 1985, the FZ750. It was an innovative 750cc four-stroke inline four cylinder model. It was the first motorcycle to feature a five valve cylinder head, something Yamaha became well known for. It also featured a cylinder block canted forward at 45 degrees, and a box-section steel perimeter frame. Production of the FZ continued until 1991.

In 1998 Yamaha marketed a 1000cc four cylinder road bike called the YZF 'R1', this model introduced a new style of gearbox design which shortened the overall length of the motor/gearbox case, to allow a more compact unit. This, in turn allowed the motor to be placed in the frame further forward, designed to improve handling in a short wheel-based frame.[14]

In 1995, Yamaha announced the creation of Star Motorcycles, a new brand name for its cruiser series of motorcycles in the American market. In other markets, Star motorcycles are still sold under the Yamaha brand. This was an attempt to create a brand identity more closely aligned with the cruiser market segment, one of the largest and most lucrative in the USA.

In 2007, Yamaha established the Philippine operations and distributes Yamaha motorcycles under the corporate name of Yamaha Motor Philippines, Inc., one of more than 20 worldwide subsidiaries operating on all continents.

In motorcycle racing Yamaha has won 39 world championships, including 6 in MotoGP and 9 in the preceding 500 cc two-stroke class, and 1 in World Superbike. In addition Yamaha have recorded 208 victories at the Isle of Man TT[15] and head the list of victories at the Sidecar TT with 40.[15] Past Yamaha riders include: Giacomo Agostini, Bob Hannah, Heikki Mikkola, Kenny Roberts, Eddie Lawson, Wayne Rainey, Jeremy McGrath, Stefan Merriman, Dave Molyneux, Ian Hutchinson, Phil Read, Chad Reed, Ben Spies and Jorge Lorenzo. Their current lineup consists of nine-time world champion Valentino Rossi and Maverick Viñales.

The Yamaha YZ450F won the AMA Supercross Championship two years in a row, in 2008 with Chad Reed, and 2009 James Stewart. Yamaha was the first to build a production monoshock motocross bike (1975 for 250 and 400, 1976 for 125) and one of the first to have a water-cooled motocross production bike (1977 in works bikes, 1981 in off-the-shelf bikes). Yamaha's first Motocross competition four-stroke bike, the YZ400F, won the 1998 USA outdoor national Championship with factory rider Doug Henry.

Since 1962, Yamaha made production road racing Grand Prix motorcycles that any licensed road racer could purchase. In 1970, non-factory privateer teams dominated the 250Â cc World Championship with Great Britain's Rodney Gould winning the title on a Yamaha TD2.

Yamaha also sponsors several professional ATV riders in several areas of racing, such as cross country racing and motocross. Yamaha has had success in cross country with their YFZ450, ridden by Bill Ballance, winning 9 straight titles since 2000. Yamaha's other major rider, Traci Cecco, has ridden the YFZ450 to 7 titles, with the first in 2000. In ATV motocross, Yamaha has had success with Dustin Nelson and Pat Brown, both who race the YFZ450. Pat Brown's best season was a 3rd place title in 2007, while Nelson has had two 1st place titles in the Yamaha/ITP Quadcross, one in 2006 and the other in 2008.

Yamaha produced Formula One engines from 1989 to 1997, initially for the Zakspeed team, in 1991 for the Brabham BT60Y, in 1992 for the Jordan 192, from 1993 to 1996 for Tyrrell, and in 1997 for the Arrows A18. These never won a race, but drivers including Damon Hill, Ukyo Katayama, Mark Blundell and Mika Salo scored some acceptable results with them. However their engines were often unreliable and were usually regarded as not very powerful.

(key)

Yamaha Motors is a highly diversified company which produces products for a large number of industries and consumer market segments:

Yamaha has built engines for other manufacturers' vehicles beginning with the development and production of the Toyota 2000GT (1967) with the Toyota Motor Corporation. Also, the cylinder head from the Toyota 4A-GE engine was developed by Yamaha Motor Corporation and was built at Toyota's Shimayama plant alongside the 4A and 2A engines.[18] All performance-oriented cylinder heads on Toyota/Lexus engines were designed and/or built by Yamaha. Some examples are the 1LR-GUE engine found on the 2010–2012 Lexus LFA, the 2UR-GSE found in Lexus ISF, the 3S-GTE engine found on the Toyota Celica GT4 and the 2ZZ-GE engine found on the 1999–2006 Toyota Celica GT-S. In 1984, executives of the Yamaha Motor Corporation signed a contract with the Ford Motor Company to develop, produce, and supply compact 60° 3.0 Liter DOHC V6 engines for transverse application for the 1989–'95 Ford Taurus SHO.[19][20] From 1993 to 1995, the SHO engine was produced in 3.0 and 3.2 Liter versions. Yamaha jointly designed the 3.4 Liter DOHC V-8 engine with Ford for the 1996–'99 SHO. Ford and Yamaha also developed the Zetec-SE branded 4-cylinder engines used in several Ford cars like the small sports car Ford Puma. From 2005 to 2010, Yamaha produced a 4.4 Liter V8 for Volvo. The B8444S engines were used in the XC90 and S80 models. British sportscar maker Noble also uses a bi-turbo version of the Volvo V8 in their M600.

Yamaha also tunes engines for other manufacturers, such as Toyota, so Yamaha logos on Toyota S engines.[21]

In 2010, Yamaha was the only snowmobile manufacturer to use four-stroke engines across its range.[22] In Canada though, there are still three models that Yamaha manufactures that are still two-stroke. They are the Bravo, VK 540 and the Venture XL. Yamaha had introduced four-strokes to their line-up in 2003, and the line-up became four-stroke based for model year 2005. The RX-1, released in 2003, was the first performance-oriented four-stroke snowmobile on the market. It was not, however, the first modern four-stroke snowmobile produced. That honor belongs to Arctic Cat for their Yellowstone Special, released in 2000, which was designed as a rental sled that could meet Yellowstone National Park's stringent emission requirement. However, Yamaha received much criticism for its weight disadvantage when compared to similar two-strokes, despite its fuel economy and low-range torque. Yamaha is now using four-stroke technology with the introducing of their 80FI engine, which is equipped on the Phazer and Venture Lite models. This engine has one of the highest specific output of any four-stroke in production, with 160 HP/L, Yamaha achieves this even without the use of a forced induction system. Yamaha is also a key player in the "four-stroke wars", which are a series of advertisements from opponent Ski-Doo, who claim their E-tec and power-tec equipped two-strokes are still cleaner and more efficient than four-strokes, while Yamaha still claims the four-strokes are cleaner. Yamaha also broke a multi-year absence from sno-cross in the winter of 2006/2007 with their introduction of a factory race team headed by former Arctic Cat racer Robbie Malinoski.

Yamaha was the first brand to win with a 4-stroke in a professional snowcross race. This happened in 2006 at the WPSA snow cross championship.


where does the last name harris originate from

Harris is a (patronymic or paternal) family name of British origins, and has many different spellings, none of which are definitive or 'correct'. These spellings are largely regional which, when combined with the fact that the spelling of modern English would only standardise in the 17th through 19th centuries, has led to different branches of the same families having different spellings of the name. Harris is the 23rd most common surname in England and 21st most common surname in the United States.[1]

Harris (name)

In most cases the Harris surname appears to be British in origin. It was commonly adopted as a surname in south western England, the Midlands, Essex and Wales. As with other similar names it was adopted by most families in England between 1300 and 1400, and later in Wales and Scotland. Very few families used the name prior to 1300.

Some other Harris families originated in Germany, France, etc., and adopted the name Harris upon immigration to Britain or America.

Irish Harris families probably originate from England, Wales and Scotland and arrived in Ireland during the conquest of Ireland c.1603.

Harrises also began to emigrate to Canada and America in the 17th century, to Australia and New Zealand in the 18th century and to South Africa in the 19th century. Initial numbers of emigrants were small and it was not until the last half of the 19th century that large numbers of Harrises emigrated from Britain.

In 2014 [1] statistics for different spellings of Harris were:-

In 2000 Harris ranked twenty-fourth in the United States Census, down from fifteenth in the 1990 Census.[3][4]

Very few Harrises have any association with, or the right to bear, coats of arms. Throughout the ages various Harrises have been awarded arms by the College of Arms, London, but very few were hereditary (passed on to successive generations).

As is often the case in heraldry, a tradition has emerged in the design of different Harris coats of arms; one or more hedgehogs are often incorporated into the blazon. The original reason for this has been lost in time, but it is likely that it was originally due to one, or both, of the following explanations:-


when does wreck it ralf two come out

Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck-It Ralph 2 is an upcoming American 3D computer-animated comedy-adventure film that is being produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios. It will be the sequel to 2012's Wreck-It Ralph, and is scheduled to be released on November 21, 2018 by Walt Disney Pictures.

Taking place six years following the events of the first film,[3] the story will center on Ralph's adventures in the Internet data space when a Wi-Fi router gets plugged into the arcade as he must find a replacement part to fix Sugar Rush. Along the way, Ralph and his best friend Vanellope von Schweetz encounter new customs, worlds, and characters, such as the trendy algorithm Yesss and even the Disney Princesses.[4][5]

The film will also feature appearances of all the Disney Princesses[12][13] including: Jodi Benson as Ariel, Paige O'Hara as Belle, Linda Larkin as Jasmine, Irene Bedard as Pocahontas, Ming-Na Wen as Mulan, Anika Noni Rose as Tiana, Mandy Moore as Rapunzel, Kelly Macdonald as Merida, Kristen Bell as Anna, Idina Menzel as Queen Elsa, and Auli'i Cravalho as Moana; all of which are reprising their roles from previous films, while Snow White, Cinderella and Aurora will be voiced by new actresses.[12][13][14]

C-3PO, R2-D2, Yoda and Princess Leia, Stormtroopers from Star Wars, and Iron Man and Gamora, from Marvel Comics, will appear in the film as well.[15]

In October 2012, director Rich Moore said that he and Disney had ideas about a sequel that would bring the characters up to date and explore online gaming and console gaming.[16] Moore stated that many of the crew and voice cast were open to the sequel, believing that they have "barely scratched the surface" of the video game world they envisioned. He also stated that he planned to include Mario and Tron in the sequel.[17][18] In 2014, the film's composer Henry Jackman said that a story for the sequel was being written.[19] In July 2015, John C. Reilly said he had signed on to reprise his role of Ralph in a projected sequel.[6]

On March 24, 2016, Moore stated that a sequel was still being planned. Moore specifically stated that a sequel would include an appearance from Mario, citing a "good relationship with Nintendo".[20] On June 30, 2016, Walt Disney Animation Studios announced that the sequel would be released on March 9, 2018, with Reilly, Moore and writer Phil Johnston attached, and that it would focus on "Ralph leaving the arcade and wrecking the Internet".[21]

The sequel's title was officially announced in March 2017 as Ralph Breaks the Internet: Wreck-It Ralph 2. Further, Disney affirmed that Reilly, Jane Lynch, Jack McBrayer, and Sarah Silverman are set to reprise their roles, while Moore returns as director joined by co-writer Phil Johnston in his directing debut and Clark Spencer returns as producer.[22] At the 2017 D23 Expo, it was announced that Taraji P. Henson would join the cast and that many of the Disney Princess characters would cameo with their respective actresses, including Paige O'Hara, who was previously replaced by Julie Nathanson, would reprise their roles.[13]

On June 30, 2016, Walt Disney Animation Studios initially announced that the sequel would be released on March 9, 2018,[21] but in April 2017, A Wrinkle in Time took over its date.[23] The film will be released on November 21, 2018 in 3D, 2D and IMAX.[24]


where is anai mudi located in india map

Anamudi (Malayalam pronunciation: [aːnɐmʊɖi], ആനമുടി) is a mountain located in the Indian state of Kerala. It is the highest peak in the Kerala and South India, at an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft)[1][2] and a topographic prominence of 2,479 metres (8,133 ft).[3] It lies on the border of Devikulam Taluk, Idukki district and Kothamangalam Taluk, Ernakulam district.[5] The name Anamudi literally translates to "elephant's forehead," a reference to the resemblance of the mountain to an elephant's head.[6]

Anamudi

The first recorded ascent of Anamudi was by General Douglas Hamilton of the Madras Army on May 4, 1862,[citation needed] but it is likely that there had been earlier ascents by local people.

Anamudi peak is one of only three ultra prominent peaks in South India. It is also the peak with the greatest topographic isolation within India.[7]It is the highest point in India south of Himalayas. Thus it is known as "Everest of South India".[8]

Anamudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats in India,[9] having an elevation of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft).[1][2][4] Anamudi is also the highest point in South India.[10] This gives Anamudi its relatively large topographic prominence of 2,479 metres (8,133 ft), the associated key saddle being over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) away at 28°35′20″N 76°27′59″E / 28.58889°N 76.46639°E / 28.58889; 76.46639 in.[3] The peak is the highest point of the Periyar river basin.[11]

The peak is not exceptionally dramatic in term of steepness or local relief and is a fault-block mountain.[12] It is located in the southern region of Eravikulam National Park at the junction of the Cardamom Hills, the Anaimalai Hills and the Palani Hills. The nearest town is Munnar, 13 kilometres (8.1 mi). The easiest route to the summit of Anamudi is a technically easy hike on grass slopes, starting from a rolling hill plateau with a base elevation of about 2,000 metres (6,600 ft). The north and south slopes are gentle, while the east and west slopes are steeper, with more difficult rock faces.

Anamudi and the Eravikulam National Park surrounding it is home to the largest surviving population of the Nilgiri tahr (Nilgiritragus hylocrius). Asian elephants, gaur, Bengal tigers, and the Nilgiri marten (Martes gwatkinsii)  are some of the species of animals found here.[10] The Anamudi peak[13] area is also habitat of a unique frog Raorchestes resplendens.[14] This newly discovered species is located in the Eravikulam National Park and is restricted to less than three km2 on the summit of Anamudi.[15] The summit of the Anamudi is vegetated with patches of stunted Arundinaria densifolia and Gaultheria fragrantissima (wintergreen), Anaphalis sp., Impatiens and some species of Eriocaulon.[16]

Anamudi as seen from an aircraft. The peak is in the center of the image with a small white cloud seen behind its rounded summit

Anamudi, on the right, as seen on the descent towards Cochin International Airport from the Delhi-Kochi flight

Anamudi, Mannamala and Meesapulimala - the three highest peaks of the Western Ghats - all visible from a plane on the descent towards Kochi airport