the main function of a deed is to

A deed (anciently "an evidence") is any legal instrument in writing which passes, affirms or confirms an interest, right, or property and that is signed, attested, delivered, and in some jurisdictions, sealed. It is commonly associated with transferring (conveyancing) title to property. The deed has a greater presumption of validity and is less rebuttable than an instrument signed by the party to the deed. A deed can be unilateral or bilateral. Deeds include conveyances, commissions, licenses, patents, diplomas, and conditionally powers of attorney if executed as deeds. The deed is the modern descendant of the medieval charter, and delivery is thought to symbolically replace the ancient ceremony of livery of seisin.[1]

Deed

The traditional phrase signed, sealed and delivered refers to the practice of seals; however, attesting witnesses have replaced seals to some extent. Agreements under seal are also called contracts by deed or specialty; in the United States, a specialty is enforceable without consideration.[2] In some jurisdictions, specialties have a liability limitation period of double that of a simple contract and allow for a third party beneficiary to enforce an undertaking in the deed, thereby overcoming the doctrine of privity.[3] Specialties, as a form of contract, are bilateral and can therefore be distinguished from covenants, which, being also under seal, are unilateral promises.

At common law, to be valid and enforceable, a deed must fulfill several requirements:

Conditions attached to the acceptance of a deed are known as covenants. A deed indented or indenture is one executed in two or more parts according to the number of parties, which were formerly separated by cutting in a curved or indented line known as the chirograph.[5] A deed poll is one executed in one part, by one party, having the edge polled or cut even, and includes simple grants and appointments.

In the transfer of real estate, a deed conveys ownership from the old owner (the grantor) to the new owner (the grantee), and can include various warranties. The precise name and nature of these warranties differ by jurisdiction. Often, however, the basic differences between them is the degree to which the grantor warrants the title. The grantor may give a general warranty of title against any claims, or the warranty may be limited to only claims which occurred after the grantor obtained the real estate. The latter type of deed is usually known as a special warranty deed. While a general warranty deed was normally used for residential real estate sales and transfers, special warranty deeds are becoming more common and are more commonly used in commercial transactions.

A third type of deed, known as a bargain and sale deed, implies that the grantor has the right to convey title but makes no warranties against encumbrances. This type of deed is most commonly used by court officials or fiduciaries that hold the property by force of law rather than title, such as properties seized for unpaid taxes and sold at sheriff's sale, or an executor.

A so-called quitclaim deed is (in most jurisdictions) actually not a deed at allâ€”it is actually an estoppel disclaiming rights of the person signing it to property.

In some jurisdictions, a deed of trust is used as an alternative to a mortgage. A deed of trust is not used to transfer property directly. It is commonly used in some states — California, for example — to transfer title to land to a “trustee”, usually a trust or title company, which holds the title as security ("in escrow") for a loan. When the loan is paid off, title is transferred to the borrower by recording a release of the obligation, and the trustee's contingent ownership is extinguished. Otherwise, upon default, the trustee will liquidate the property with a new deed and offset the lender's loss with the proceeds.

Sanad, also spelt as sunnud, was a deed granted to the rulers of native princely states in British India confirming them in their ruling position in return for their allegiance to the British Raj.

Since the extinction of the royal bloodline would be a ground for annexation of a principality by the British,[7] some rulers were also granted sanads of adoption. Devised as a reward for loyalty to British rule in India, especially after the Indian rebellion of 1857, such deeds gave a ruler the right to adopt chosen heirs from local noble families in case of lack of direct issue.[8] Among the rulers that were given Sanads of adoption, Takht Singh, Jaswant Singh of Bharatpur, as well as the rulers of Nagod State, Samthar State and the Chaube Jagirs are worth mentioning.

The main clauses of a deed of conveyance are:

Usually the transfer of ownership of real estate is registered at a cadastre in the United Kingdom. In most parts of the United States, deeds must be submitted to the recorder of deeds, who acts as a cadastre, to be registered. An unrecorded deed may be valid proof of ownership between the parties, but may have no effect upon third-party claims until disclosed or recorded. A local statute may prescribe a period beyond which unrecorded deeds become void as to third parties, at least as to intervening acts.

Ownership transfer may also be crafted within deeds to pass by demise, as where a property is held in concurrent estate such as "joint tenants with right of survivorship" (JTWROS) or "tenants by the entirety". In each case, the title to the property immediately and automatically vests in the named survivor(s) upon the death of the other tenant(s).

In most states joint tenancy with the right of survivorship requires all owners to have equal interests in the property, meaning upon sale or partition of the property, all owners would receive an equal distribution of the proceeds.

Joint ownership may also be by tenants in common (TIC). In some states, joint ownership is presumed to be as tenants in common unless the parties are married and the deed so states or the deed sets for joint tenants with right of survivorship. Upon death, the decedent's share passes to his or her estate.

A life estate is the right to use, possess and enjoy the property for a period of time measured by the natural life of a person or persons. When all life tenants are dead, the remainderman holds full title.

When deeds are taken as joint tenants with rights of survivorship (JTWROS) or joint tenants in common (TIC), any co-owner can file a petition for partition to dissolve the tenancy relationship. JTWROS deed holders always take the property in equal shares; therefore, if the partnership is dissolved through partition, the proceeds must be equally distributed between all of the co-owners without regard to how much each co-owner contributed to the purchase price of the property. No credits would be allowed for any excess contributions to the purchase price. For example, if A and B co-own property as JTWROS and A contributed 80% of the purchase price, A and B would still receive equal distributions upon partition. On the other hand, TIC deed holders may be granted at partition a credit for unequal contributions to purchase price. During either partition, credits may be awarded to any co-owner who may have contributed in excess of his share to the property expenses after taking deed to the property. Credits may be allowed for utilities and maintenance; however, credits for improvements may not be allowed unless the improvements actually added substantial value to the property.

In the United States, a pardon of the President was once considered to be a deed and thus needed to be accepted by the recipient. This made it impossible to grant a pardon posthumously. However, in the case of Henry Ossian Flipper, this view was altered when President Bill Clinton pardoned him in 1999.

The United Kingdom, England and Wales operate a 'property register'. Title deeds are documents showing ownership, as well as rights, obligations, or mortgages on the property. Since around 2000, compulsory registration has been required for all properties mortgaged or transferred. The details of rights, obligations, and covenants referred to in deeds will be transferred to the register, a contract describing the property ownership.

The main difference between a deed and an agreement is that the deed is generally signed by only one person / party. Examples of a deed are deeds of hypothecation for creating charge on movable properties in favour of the banks/financial institutions etc.

An agreement by its name suggests that there should be at least two parties signing/approving the same. Examples of an agreement are agreement to sale, loan agreement etc.

At common law, ownership was proven via an unbroken chain of title deeds. The Torrens title system is an alternative way of proving ownership. First introduced in South Australia in 1858 by Sir Robert Torrens and adopted later by the other Australian states and other countries, ownership under Torrens title is proven by possession of a certificate of title and the corresponding entry in the property register. This system removes risks associated with unregistered deeds and fraudulent or otherwise incorrect transactions. It is much easier and cheaper to administer, lowering transaction costs. Some Australian properties are still conveyed using a chain of title deeds – usually properties that have been owned by the same family since the nineteenth century – and these are often referred to as 'Old System' deeds.

A deed that is recorded, but is not connected to the chain of title of the property, is called a wild deed. A wild deed does not provide constructive notice to later purchasers of the property, because subsequent bona fide purchasers cannot reasonably be expected to locate the deed while investigating the chain of title to the property. Haupt has stated that

Because title searching relies on the grantor/grantee indexes, it's possible that a deed won't be discovered even though it was recorded. "Example: Atwood sells his land to Burns, but Burns does not record his deed. Burns later sells the land to Cooper, and Cooper records her deed. But because the previous deed (the deed from Atwood to Burns) was not recorded, Cooper's deed is outside the chain of title. In a title search, someone looking up Atwood's name in the grantor index would find no indication that Atwood conveyed the property, and nothing would lead the searcher to Cooper's deed." A deed that is outside the chain of title is called a wild deed. The general rule is that a subsequent purchaser is not held to have constructive notice of a wild deed. In the example, Cooper's title is unprotected against subsequent good faith purchasers. Suppose Atwood were to fraudulently sell the same property to another person, Dunn. A court would rule that Dunn has good title to the property, not Cooper.[10]

A wild deed has been described as a deed "executed by a stranger to the record title hung out in the air like Mahomet's coffin."[11] Mahomet is an archaic spelling of Muhammad. There is a legend that the Prophet Muhammad's coffin was suspended without visible supports, from the ceiling of his tomb, just as a wild deed just hangs there, not touching the chain of title.[12]


where was sky full of stars video filmed

The official music video was directed by Mat Whitecross and the shooting took place on King Street in the inner Sydney suburb of Newtown, on 17 June 2014.[31] It was released on 19 June 2014.

A Sky Full of Stars

"A Sky Full of Stars" is a song by the British rock band Coldplay. It was released in 2014 as the third single from their sixth album, Ghost Stories (2014). The band co-wrote and co-produced the song with Avicii and received production assistance from Paul Epworth, Daniel Green and Rik Simpson. It was recorded at The Bakery and The Beehive in North London, England.

Upon its release, "A Sky Full of Stars" garnered mostly positive reviews from music critics and charted inside the top 10 in over 16 countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and United States. A music video for the song was directed by Mat Whitecross and was released on 19 June 2014. The single peaked at number one in Italy, Israel, Luxembourg, Portugal, Lebanon, and the Walloon region of Belgium. It also topped the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart. It was nominated for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance at the 57th Grammy Awards.

"A Sky Full of Stars" marks the band's first dance track, being outlined as an EDM track with house influences.[1][2][4] A piano-centric song which is written in the key of G♭ major, the track opens as a piano ballad, with progressive house-influenced electronic music that plays out in between verses. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com, the song follows a chord progression of E♭m7– Bmaj9 –G♭–B♭m(♭6) with a tempo of 125 beats per minute,[5] and the vocals span from A♭3 to G♭5. The track has been described as "[falling] in line with the synth-heavy soundscapes of 'Midnight', but with more danceable flavor".[6] The song's repeating chord sequence and varied melody was inspired by the work of American pop singer Katy Perry and Nirvana's "Smells Like Teen Spirit" (1991).[7]

"A Sky Full of Stars" was recorded during the sessions for the band's sixth studio album, at their purpose-built studios The Bakery and The Beehive in North London, England. The studios were both originally constructed for work on their two previous studio albums, 2008's Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends and 2011's Mylo Xyloto.

Swedish record producer Avicii was invited by the band to collaborate on "A Sky Full of Stars". In addition to producing the track, he was also asked by lead singer Chris Martin to play and record the piano parts. However, Martin later stated in a BBC Radio 1 interview with Zane Lowe that he felt that he had "cheated" on the band by asking Avicii to play the piano instead of playing it himself.[8]

On 2 May 2014, "A Sky Full of Stars" was released early through Ghost Stories on the iTunes Store worldwide,[9] and on Spotify.[10] On 5 May 2014, the single was released on Google Play store in Australia. On 26 June, Coldplay announced the A Sky Full of Stars EP. It would feature the radio edit of the song, as well as the three bonus tracks from the deluxe version of Ghost Stories: "All Your Friends", the title track "Ghost Story" and "O (Reprise)", sold by Target. The extended play was available worldwide, with the exception of the United States, as the deluxe version of the album was only available in the U.S. The EP was released on 29 June 2014.[11]

The single art for "A Sky Full of Stars" was etched by UK-based, Czech etching artist Mila Fürstová.[9][12] The artwork continues the motif of artworks in the Ghost Stories album cycle, which feature a scene occurring in a larger, enclosed body. Multiple figures such as angels with wings like of the Ghost Stories artwork, buildings such as a church, and objects such as a maze and a chair, also alluding to those in the Ghost Stories artwork, are depicted encased in a three-dimensional star chart. The artwork is reminiscent of Fürstová's earlier work, Other Skies, which also features various figures, buildings and objects imposed onto a star map.[13]

"A Sky Full of Stars" was met with positive reception upon its release. Carl Williott of Idolator gave the track a positive review, stating: "Quite honestly it sounds more like a Zedd or Avicii offering than a Coldplay one, and it's certainly the loudest and most joyful cut we've heard from the album so far".[14] Melinda Newman of HitFix had similar thoughts, calling the song "the most commercial and dance-y track so far" from the album.[15] Chris De Ville of Stereogum gave "A Sky Full of Stars" an overwhelmingly positive comment, stating that the song is "the most energetic and classically Coldplay song we've heard from the album so far".[16] Chris Martins of Spin magazine also commented relatively positively, writing that "The big-tent EDM offering is pretty satisfying in all of the ways that those things are".[1]

Consequence of Sound's wrote the song "starts off as a heartfelt piano ballad before flourishes of pounding electronics take over the chorus" and noted that it "falls in line with the synth-heavy soundscapes of 'Midnight', but with more danceable flavor."[17] Zane Lowe of BBC Radio 1 named the track his 'Hottest Record' for 29 April 2014.[18] However, a negative review came from Carolyn Menyes of Music Times who criticized the song for "lack[ing] a personality or heart, something that the best Coldplay songs are chock full of."[19] Josh Modell of The A.V. Club panned it as a "blatantly pandering, album-interrupting, mood-f*cking-up [track] which is destined to be a hit and also instantly dated."[20]

Within 24 hours of its iTunes release, the track had sold 121,690 units worldwide,[21] peaking at number one in 86 countries on the iTunes Store Charts.[citation needed] As of July 2014, the song reached the Top 10 of nearly every country it charted in, including the bands' homeland country, the United Kingdom where it reached number 9 on UK Singles Chart.[22] The single enjoyed massive commercial success in Australia and New Zealand. In Australia, the song reached number two on the ARIA Charts,[23] their highest-charting single since 2008's "Viva La Vida",[24] and became one of their three highest-charting singles in the country.[25] In New Zealand, the song reached number two on New Zealand Singles Chart,[26] becoming the band's highest-charting single to date and their fifth top-ten single in the country.[27]

On the issue dated 21 May 2014, the song reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100, making it their third top 10 hit and first since their number-one single "Viva la Vida" in 2008.[28] It also became their first number-one single on the Billboard Hot Rock Songs chart. "A Sky Full of Stars" was the band's second number one on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart.[29] The song has sold over a million digital copies in the U.S. as of November 2014.[30]

At the beginning of the video, Coldplay's lead singer, Chris Martin, walks through Sydney's streets dressed as a one-man band, singing the first verse of the song. Then he reaches the other members of the band (also dressed as one-man bands) and, together, they play the instrumental refrain. Martin is then seen walking through the street, without the other members, while he sings the second verse. At the end of the video the band reunites in a square, singing and playing the final part of the song with a crowd of fans. While Martin is singing the final part, many paper-made stars are blown into the square.

An alternate music video leaked onto the internet in late 2014.[32] No further information was given about it. However, snippets from the alternate video can be seen in the first video,[33] playing on the TVs in a shop's showcase, proving the former video is a scrapped version.

"A Sky Full of Stars" was first played in closed-audience performances. The band, when performing the song before the release of the "A Sky Full of Stars" single, would routinely ask the audience not to record their performance of the song, in an attempt to prevent the song from leaking ahead of its release. Despite their intentions, the song was leaked after their performance of the song during the opening night of their Ghost Stories Promotional Tour at E-Werk in Cologne, Germany on 25 April 2014.[34] The song was premiered live on the 29 April 2014 airing of BBC Two music television show Later... with Jools Holland.[35] The band then performed the song on Saturday Night Live on 3 May 2014. The band also performed the song on The Graham Norton Show, in the UK, on 30 May 2014.[36]

The song was also played during the 3-Point Shootout of the 2015 NBA All-Star Game weekend.

All tracks written by Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland, Guy Berryman, and Will Champion, except "A Sky Full of Stars" (co-written with Avicii).

Adapted from Ghost Stories liner notes.[39]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone


when did hurricane gloria hit long island new york

Hurricane Gloria was the first significant system to strike the northeastern United States since Hurricane Agnes in 1972 and the first major storm to affect New York and Long Island directly since Hurricane Donna in 1960. It was also the most intense Category 4 hurricane that did not attain Category 5 status until surpassed by Hurricane Opal in the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season. It was a powerful Cape Verde-type hurricane that formed during the 1985 Atlantic hurricane season, originating from a tropical wave on September 16 in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. After remaining a weak tropical cyclone for several days, Gloria intensified into a hurricane on September 22 north of the Lesser Antilles. During that time, the storm had moved generally westward, although it turned to the northwest due to a weakening of the ridge. Gloria quickly intensified on September 24, and the next day reached peak winds of 145 mph (230 km/h). The hurricane weakened before striking the Outer Banks of North Carolina on September 27. Later that day, Gloria made two subsequent landfalls on Long Island and later western Connecticut, before becoming extratropical on September 28 over New England. The remnants moved through Atlantic Canada, eventually dissipating on October 2.

Hurricane Gloria

Before Gloria made landfall, the National Hurricane Center issued hurricane warnings at some point for the East Coast of the United States from South Carolina to Maine. Hundreds of thousands of people evacuated, and the hurricane was described as the "storm of the century". In general, Gloria's strongest winds remained east of the center, which largely spared locations from North Carolina to New Jersey, and the passage at low tide reduced storm surge. Hurricane-force winds and gusts affected much of the path, which knocked down trees and power lines. This left over 4 million people without power, including the worst power outage in Connecticut history related to a natural disaster. The extended power outage on Long Island, affecting 1.5 million people at some point, caused the Long Island Lighting Company to be shut down and be replaced with a public company. Fallen trees caused six of the storm's fourteen deaths.

In North Carolina, high waves damaged many homes along the Outer Banks and caused heavy beach erosion. High waves also damaged piers, boats, and docks throughout the Mid-Atlantic states. Flooding forced several highways to close, and in Pennsylvania, thousands were forced to evacuate their homes. The storm surge destroyed 48 homes on Long Island, while the winds damaged the roofs of many more. Widespread crop damage occurred, amounting to about $20 million (1985 USD)[nb 1]. Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $900 million, which was less than expected. In neighboring Canada, the remnants of Gloria caused minor power outages in New Brunswick, although confusion related to the storm's arrival led to the creation of the Canadian Hurricane Centre.

A tropical wave[nb 2] moved off the west coast of Africa on September 15. Based on data from satellite imagery, it is estimated that a tropical depression formed on September 16 near Cape Verde,[2] with an associated low-level circulation.[3] The next day, the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Gloria, but there was no further intensification. On September 18, Gloria weakened back to tropical depression status, but re-intensified into a tropical storm on September 20.[4] During this time, it moved generally westward due to a strong ridge to the north. On September 21, the Hurricane Hunters began flying into Gloria to measure the storm's intensity, and the next day, a flight observed winds of 78 mph (126 km/h) at a height of 1,500 ft (460 m). As a result, the National Hurricane Center (NHC) upgraded Gloria to a hurricane about 465 mi (750 km) east-northeast of the Lesser Antilles.[2]

After having moved generally to the west, Gloria turned more to the west-northwest on September 22. This occurred after tropical storms Fabian and Henri weakened the ridge.[2] On September 23, Gloria passed about 155 miles (250 km) to the north of Anegada, the northernmost island in the Lesser Antilles. It initially remained a minimal hurricane until September 24 when it began quickly intensifying. That day, it became a major hurricane[nb 3] while passing northeast of the Bahamas.[4] Gloria developed a 10 mi (16 km) wide eye,[5] surrounded by an eyewall, and was producing the stadium effect. At 0120 UTC on September 25, Hurricane Hunters extrapolated a barometric pressure of 919 mbar (27.1 inHg), and reported flight-level winds of 145 mph (230 km/h).[6] At the time, this was the lowest pressure measured by reconnaissance aircraft over the northern Atlantic Ocean.[2] Because there was little difference in the flight-level winds and the surface winds, this was estimated to have been Gloria's peak intensity, making it a Category 4 on the Saffir-Simpson scale.[6] However, a preliminary reanalysis released in 2008 suggested peak winds of 155 mph (249 km/h).[5] At peak intensity, the hurricane was located about 930 mi (1500 km) southeast of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina,[2] and had an eye diameter of only 8 mi (13 km).[5]

After peak intensity, Gloria weakened while turning to the north, moving around the western end of the ridge,[2] toward a cold front.[5] By September 26, the winds had decreased to 90 mph (150 km/h), just 30 hours after its peak intensity.[4] Later that day, a buoy about 60 mi (100 km) east of the center recorded a wave height of 46.9 ft (14.3 m), which at the time was the highest buoy wave recording in an Atlantic hurricane.[2] While accelerating toward North Carolina, Gloria re-intensified slightly to winds of 105 mph (165 km/h), making it a Category 2 hurricane. At 0530 UTC on September 27, the hurricane struck southern Hatteras Island in the Outer Banks.[7] After weakening further, Gloria passed just east of the Delmarva Peninsula and New Jersey and interacted with a cold front. Its strongest winds remained on the eastern edge of the circulation, and the storm was gradually losing tropical characteristics.[2][5] At 1600 UTC on September 27, the hurricane made landfall with a broad and poorly defined center between John F. Kennedy International Airport and Islip, New York, with winds of 85 mph (140 km/h) on western Long Island.[7][8] This was only about three days after Henri struck the same general area as a much weaker tropical storm.[9]

About an hour after striking Long Island, Gloria made its final landfall in western Connecticut near Westport, and proceeded to move through New England while weakening.[5][9] The NHC estimated that Gloria became extratropical over Maine early by 0000 UTC on September 28.[6] The storm continued to the northeast through Atlantic Canada passing south of Greenland on September 30. The extratropical circulation of Gloria was last noted on October 2,[4] although the remnants later affected Europe.[6]

Early in Gloria's duration, it threatened the northern Lesser Antilles, prompting a hurricane watch and later warning for the area.[3] Gloria also threatened the Bahamas, prompting that government to issue hurricane watches and warnings.[10]

While Gloria was off the east coast of Florida, the NHC issued a hurricane watch from Edisto Beach, South Carolina to Cape Henry, Virginia, which was upgraded to a hurricane warning at 1000 UTC on September 26, or 19.5 hours before landfall. By later that day, a hurricane watch was issued for the rest of the eastern United States to Eastport, Maine. By two hours before Gloria's landfall on Long Island, a hurricane warning was in effect for the same area, after warnings were gradually extended further north.[6][10] Officials anticipated higher winds and storm surge[nb 4] than what occurred, due to the hurricane weakening as it approached landfall.[8]

Officials in Delaware and Maryland declared a state of emergency before the storm struck, and thousands of people from coastal communities evacuated to shelters. Schools closed in Delaware, and non-emergency workers were sent home. Along Long Island in New York, hundreds of thousands of people evacuated their homes, and a state of emergency was declared for several counties. In Connecticut, about 20,000 people evacuated along the coast, and 7,300 evacuated from neighboring Rhode Island. Residents also evacuated portions of Cape Cod.[9]

As Gloria approached the East Coast of the United States, National Hurricane Center director Neil Frank called it the "Storm of the Century", due to its intensity and potential track over the densely populated region of New England.[11] Such a track gathered the attention of many people, and led to the evacuation of 380,000Â people along the coast from North Carolina to Connecticut.[12] In Maryland, officials implemented lane reversing to expedite the evacuation process, a policy many other coastal states use.[13]

Officials advised 95,000 citizens along the New Jersey coastline, an area that rarely experiences hurricanes, to evacuate. Cape May County—the most vulnerable part of the state and among the most susceptible in the entire country—would require 36 hours in 2005 to evacuate the 100,000 citizens and 900,000 tourists that were commonly present during busy summer weekends.[14]

Offices and classes of Harvard University closed only for the third time in the 20th century, the previous cases being the New England Hurricane of 1938 and the Blizzard of '78. Although Gloria's winds downed numerous trees and caused tens of thousands in damage in the area, overall effects were much less than expected.[15]

At the same time Gloria was making landfall on Long Island, a storm warning was issued for western New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.[6][10] Across Atlantic Canada, the threat of Hurricane Gloria caused many citizens to rely on American media for storm coverage.[16]

Hurricane Gloria was a large hurricane that affected much of the northeastern United States. Gloria brought strong wind gusts, which downed trees and left hundreds of thousands without power. Overall damage was estimated at $900Â million, and there were fourteen deaths.[17][2] Gloria was the first significant hurricane to affect New England since Hurricane Donna in 1960.[9]

While offshore the eastern United States, the hurricane's strongest winds were on the eastern periphery, which reduced the winds over land. In North Carolina, where Gloria made its first landfall, the strongest winds were 74 mph (119 km/h) at a station near Buxton at the Cape Hatteras National Weather Service office; a gust of 87 mph (140 km/h) was also observed there. At Diamond Shoal Light, located offshore, sustained winds reached 98 mph (158 km/h), with gusts to 120 mph (190 km/h). A peak storm surge of 5.9 ft (1.8 m) was estimated at the Neuse River. A minimal surge of around 1.3 ft (0.4 ft) occurred in neighboring South Carolina, where winds were below tropical storm force.[2] The highest rainfall related to Gloria was 9.7 in (250 mm), recorded in Edenton, North Carolina.[18] High waves and storm surge resulted in heavy coastal flooding and beach erosion along the Outer Banks,[2] and several new inlets were created. Coastal flooding damaged several homes in the Outer Banks. Damage in the state was estimated at $8.1 million, including $2.4 million in crop damage. There was one death in North Carolina when a man was struck by a fallen tree.[9]

Throughout much of the Mid-Atlantic, the winds remained generally below hurricane force; however, winds reached 92 mph (147 km/h) along the Chesapeake Bay Bridge-Tunnel in Virginia and gusts to 89 mph (144 km/h) in Ocean City, Maryland. The strongest winds in the region occurred after the center passed the area. Due to Gloria's fast motion, there was minimal coastal flooding because the highest storm surge occurred during low tide, generally less than 4.9 ft (1.5 m). Beach erosion was reported in both Maryland and Delaware.[2] The heaviest rainfall was west of the center. Statewide peaks included 9.17 in (233 mm) at Valley Forge National Historical Park in Pennsylvania, 8.6 in (220 mm) in Holland, Virginia, and 7.19 in (183 mm) in Annapolis, Maryland. Rainfall spread as far inland as West Virginia.[19]

High waves washed away 30 ft (9.1 m) of a fishing pier in Virginia Beach, Virginia. The rainfall caused minor flooding, and high tides flooded coastal portions of the Hampton Roads region. There was minor damage to trees, roofs, and signs in southeastern Virginia. The center of Gloria passed about 30 mi (48 km) offshore eastern Maryland. In Ocean City, waves of 15 ft (4.6 m) severely damaged the boardwalk, washing sand and debris a block inland. Downed trees left about 150,000 people in Maryland. High winds forced the Chesapeake Bay Bridge to close, and there was little damage outside of eastern Maryland. High waves in Delaware eroded beaches, wrecked dunes, and damaged oceanfront buildings and boardwalks. Storm flooding closed several highways, including Delaware Route 1. Damage was heaviest in Sussex County, although the storm damaged corn and soybean crops in northern Delaware. Monetary damage totaled over $500,000 in the state. In neighboring Pennsylvania, wind gusts reached 56 mph (90 km/h) in Allentown, which knocked down many trees and left thousands without power. Heavy rainfall flooded many streams, which closed or damaged several highways, bridges, and rail lines. About 3,000 houses were flooded, forcing thousands to evacuate.[9]

While just off the New Jersey coast, Gloria produced strong winds, peaking at 81 mph (130 km/h) in Ocean City, where a gust of 101 mph (162 km/h) was also reported.[2] In the town, an F0 tornado was reported damaging a house.[9] Rainfall in the state reached 6.00 in (152 mm) at the Charlotteburg Reservoir near West Milford.[19] Heavy beach erosion occurred along the coast, and several coastal towns sustained damage to boardwalks. Strong winds downed trees and power lines, which damaged homes and cars. One person was killed in Long Branch after touching a downed power line.[9]

Though Gloria moved quickly through the region, it dropped moderate rainfall in locations, including 6.04 inches (153 mm) at Baltimore–Washington International Airport.[20] In addition, some unofficial reports in southeastern Virginia indicated amounts of up to 8 inches (200 mm) of rain.[21] Because much of the Mid-Atlantic experienced the western, weaker side of this hurricane, damage was relatively light. High winds downed numerous trees throughout the area, leaving hundreds of thousands without power, including 237,000 in New Jersey, 124,000 in Maryland, and 56,000 in Virginia.[22] Extreme rainfall in Virginia resulted in $5.5 million (1985 USD) in damage.[21] Intense flood waters split Long Beach Island in half for a period of time.[23]

While making its second landfall, Gloria was accompanied by a storm surge of 6.9 ft (2.1 m) at Battery Park, the highest along its path. The highest wind report was a gust of 85 mph (137 km/h) at Islip Airport. Central Park reported a gust of 51 mph (83 km/h).[2] Rainfall in the state reached 8.04 in (204 mm) at Unadilla,[19] although was much less near the coast, reaching 3.48 in (88.4 mm) in Central Park.[2]

Along Long Island, the high storm surge flooded hundreds of streets and caused heavy beach erosion. High winds downed thousands of trees and damaged hundreds of homes, causing widespread power outages. About 1.5 million people in the state lost power, including two-thirds of the Long Island Lighting Company customers, making it one of the worst power outages in the state. There were four deaths on Long Island, two of whom related to heart attacks and the other two related to fallen trees. There were also 14 injuries in the region, many of them due to downed tree branches. In the New York mainland, heavy rainfall flooded rivers and alleviated drought conditions. Rough waves damaged boats and docks along the Hudson River. Unsettled weather contributed to a traffic fatality and an airplane crash that killed one in the New York mainland.[9]

It is believed peak gusts reached 115 mph (185 km/h) in eastern Long Island.[22] Weather forecasters believe that damage across parts of Long Island indicated winds in the Category Three range, as evidence of the damage received at MacArthur Airport.[2] Gloria's high winds caused significant damage across Long Island and southeastern New York. The area hit the worst was eastern Long Island, where high wind gusts blew thousands of trees into buildings and across roads. The broadcast tower of WBLI-FM toppled on Bald Hill in Farmingville. In addition, the winds ripped roofs off of many buildings, including hangars at the MacArthur Airport, a hangar at the Bayport Aerodrome and the roof of the Islip Police Station.[22] Prolonged exposure to high winds and waves led to moderate beach erosion, washing away several piers and docks.[22] The storm surge, though relatively weak, destroyed 48 houses on the ocean side of the island. Gloria's high winds left 683,000 people in New York without power, with some lacking electricity for over eleven days.[24]

While moving across New England, Gloria was a weakened hurricane that passed quickly through the area. Though still a large hurricane, Gloria hit at low tide, resulting in low to moderate storm surges of 5 feet (1.5 m) in Groton, Connecticut, 6 feet (1.8 m) in New Bedford, Massachusetts, and 3 feet (1 m) in Portland, Maine. The high waves caused heavy beach erosion in Connecticut and Rhode Island. The highest sustained winds were reports of 83 mph (135 km/h) in Waterbury, Connecticut, and Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts, although neither location is at sea level. Gusts peaked at 110 mph (176 km/h) in Chatham, Massachusetts, and widespread areas across New England reported hurricane-force gusts.[2] It is estimated that hurricane-force winds occurred in Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire.[5] Rainfall in the region peaked at 6.90 in (175 mm) at Borden Brook Reservoir in Springfield, Massachusetts.[25]

In Connecticut, Gloria crossed from Westport along the Long Island Sound, passed near Hartford, and exited into Massachusetts. Wind gusts peaked at 92 mph (148 km/h) in Bridgeport, and also reached 82 mph (132 km/h) in Hartford. The winds downed thousands of trees, many of which knocked down power lines. This left about 727,000 residents without power, setting a record for the state related to a weather event. High waves damaged or sunk hundreds of boats along the coast, and several beachfront homes and docks were damaged. Light rainfall caused some minor flooding, mostly in northwestern Connecticut. Statewide there was about $6 million in crop damage. Damage was heaviest near Hartford, and overall storm damage was estimated at $91 million. Fallen trees contributed to two of the three deaths in the state, as well as several other injuries.[9]

Hurricane-force gusts affected Rhode Island, peaking at 92 mph (148 km/h) in Westerly. The winds uprooted thousands of trees and caused widespread roof damage. About 300,000 people statewide lost power, the greatest since the Northeast blackout of 1965. Coastal flooding was minimized due to the storm striking at low tide, although were high enough in Narragansett Bay to damage docks and hundreds of boats. Damage in the state was estimated at $20 million, including the cost for restoring the power outages. There were two deaths in Rhode Island; one was related to a fallen tree, and one occurred when a man was trying to secure his boat.[9]

In Massachusetts, the hurricane moved from Connecticut through the Springfield area.[9] There was a small F1 tornado in Middlesex County that damaged trees.[26] High winds knocked over thousands of trees, and about 500,000 people statewide lost power. Heavy rainfall caused stream flooding, although the heaviest damage was from the winds. The hurricane destroyed a radio tower in Framingham and damaged hundreds of homes in the eastern portion of the state. Along the coast, the storm tide caused minor coastal flooding and damaged hundreds of boats. Across Massachusetts, damage was estimated at $61 million, including $6 million from crop damage.[9]

By the time Gloria reached New Hampshire, it had weakened and was becoming extratropical, although hurricane-force wind gusts were reported across the state. On the top of Mount Washington, wind gusts reached 127 mph (204 km/h). The winds were strong enough to knock down large trees, many over 50 years old and 50 ft (15 m). Downed trees cut power lines, which left 97,116 people without power, mostly along the coast. Fallen trees also damaged 16 homes and several vehicles. High rainfall damaged portions of North Woodstock, although water damage was generally minor. There was one death in the state, when an elderly woman was knocked over by the strong winds and died two weeks later. There was about $2.5 million in crop damage, mostly to the apple crop. In neighboring Maine, about 600,000 people lost power due to the storm, the most since the passage of hurricanes Carol and Edna in 1954. Winds in Maine reached 86 mph (138 km/h), and the storm knocked down about 100 power poles in addition to the downed lines. Downed trees blocked roads and damaged houses and cars. The winds damaged roofs, including the 127‑year‑old spire of a church in Groveville. Crop damage to the apple crop was estimated at $3 million. High waves along the coast damaged lobster traps and dozens of boats, many of which were driven ashore.[26]

Gloria's high winds downed numerous trees across New England, causing minor to moderate damage. In the region, Connecticut received the worst of the hurricane, where tree and structural damage was greatest. Along the coastline, storm surge and strong waves washed away several fishing piers, and some roadways were underwater during the storm's passage.[22] New Hampshire was affected only slightly from the hurricane, and was limited to minor wind damage and localized flooding.[27] In Maine, damage was more severe, where strong wind gusts ripped off roofs and uprooted hundreds of trees. High winds across New England resulted in significant power outages, leaving 250,000 in Maine.[28] In all, seven deaths occurred in New England, many of which occurred from falling tree limbs.[22]

While the remnants of Gloria were moving through Atlantic Canada, they produced rainfall to the north of the track, reaching as high as 4.53 in (115 mm) in Quebec. The highest winds in the country were 58 mph (93 km/h), peaking in the Bay of Fundy and to the northeast of Newfoundland. The remnants of Gloria caused wind and wave damage in Nova Scotia. Wind gusts of 55 mph (89 km/h) in Fredericton, New Brunswick knocked down power lines, affecting more than 1,800 people.[29]

On Long Island, thousands were left without power for over a week,[9] until the last outages were restored two weeks after the storm on October 8. The long duration without electricity forced hundreds of schools to close, extended train times by six hours due to lack of powered crossings, and price gouging on food, ice, and generators. The lack of power led to a general disdain for the Long Island Lighting Company (LILCO), which increased further when the company left the $40 million (1985 USD) repair bill to the ratepayers, citing the company's lack of hurricane insurance. Citizens quickly protested LILCO's decision, and within years the publicly owned Long Island Power Authority was formed.[24]

Residents in both Massachusetts and Connecticut were also without power for up to one week, which caused many food products to spoil due to lack of refrigeration. The states brought in workers from other states, although the delay in restoring the widespread outages caused many schools to remain closed. In Connecticut, one man was electrocuted while repairing downed power lines.[9] About 477,000 Connecticut Light & Power customers in the state lost power, a record that was surpassed by the 754,000 who lost power during Hurricane Irene in 2011.[30] Later in 2011, a nor'easter in October left over 830,000 people statewide without power, also breaking the record set by Gloria.[31] In New Hampshire, most power outages were quickly restored, and all were restored within six days. In Maine, all power outages were restored in 11 days.[26]

In Maine, most citizens remained indoors during the passage of the hurricane. One police officer noted that even the criminals stayed home. In the Lewiston area, restaurants experienced a great surge in business. During the power outage after the storm, several businesses stored frozen goods for houses without a generator.[28]

After the storm, President Ronald Reagan declared several counties in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts as federal disaster areas. This declaration allowed those counties to apply for disaster assistance.[32]

In Canada, the damage was less than expected, but confusion related to the storm threat prompted Environment Canada to research the need for a dedicated hurricane centre in 1986. The following year, the Canadian Hurricane Centre was established with offices on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts.[16]

Due to its impact, the name Gloria was retired from the Atlantic tropical storm naming list. It will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane.[33] It was replaced with Grace in the 1991 season.[4]


what is the current in finding nemo called

In the 2003 Disney/Pixar animated film Finding Nemo, the EAC is portrayed as a superhighway that fish and sea turtles use to travel down the east coast of Australia. The characters Marlin and Dory join a group of sea turtles in using the EAC to help them travel to Sydney Harbour. The basic premise of this storyline is correct. Every summer, thousands of fish are swept from the Great Barrier Reef to Sydney Harbour and further south.[8]

East Australian Current

The East Australian Current (EAC) is the southward western boundary current that is formed from the South Equatorial Current (SEC) crossing the Coral Sea and reaching the eastern coast of Australia. At around 15° S near the Australian coast the SEC divides forming the southward flow of the EAC. It is the largest ocean current close to the shores of Australia. The EAC reaches a maximum velocity at 30° S where its flow can reach 90 cm/s. As it flows southward it splits from the coast at around 31° to 32° S. By the time it reaches 33° S it begins to undergo a southward meander while another portion of the transport turns back northward in a tight recirculation. At this location the EAC reaches its maximum transport of nearly 35 Sv.[1] The majority of the EAC flow that does not recirculate will move eastward into the Tasman Front crossing the Tasman Sea just north of the cape of New Zealand. The remaining will flow south on the EAC Extension until it reaches the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. The Tasman Front transport is estimated at 13 Sv. The eastward movement of the EAC through the Tasman Front and reattaching to the coastline of New Zealand forms the East Auckland Current.[1][2] The EAC also acts to transport tropical marine fauna to habitats in sub-tropical regions along the south east Australian coast.

The EAC is a surface current driven by winds over the South Pacific. During different parts of the year these winds control how the current behaves. The EAC starts on the west edge of the South Pacific gyre where it collects warm, nutrient poor water. As it skirts along the East Coast of Australia it carries a large amount of warm tropical water from the equator southward. This process is part of what allows the Great Barrier Reef to thrive, it keeps the east coast of Australia around 18 °C year round instead of dropping to 12 °C in the winter.[3]

The current is very low in nutrients, however, it remains important for the marine ecosystem. The EAC removes heat from the tropics and releases it to the mid-latitude water and atmosphere.[4] It does this by producing warm core eddies, which allow the Tasman Seas to have a large biodiversity.[5] The most southern tip of the EAC can produce these Eddies by wind currents. As instabilities in the current develop due to a westward Tasman Front, the meander pinches off to form eddies at a rate of once or twice per year.[6]

The EAC has nutrient poor water, however it does cause upwelling in places along the coast line.[7] The Eddies produced cause an increase in vertical mixing within the Tasman Sea. The process of producing, moving, and destroying eddies causes the thermocline layer to mix with the surface layer, bringing some nutrients up to the surface. The EAC and its eddies frequently flow onto the continental shelf and inshore, influencing circulation patterns and increasing mixing. Eddies arenâ€™t the only way the EAC brings nutrients to the surface. Features along the coast push the current further off shore and if there is a strong northerly wind, it will push the current even further off shore, allowing deep water to rise up the coast, bringing nutrients up to the surface.

The EAC experiences seasonally variations. It tends to be strongest in the summer, with an amplitude flow around 36.3 Sv. It is its weakest during the winter months flowing at a rate around 27.4 Sv.[6] Over the past 50â€“60 years the EAC has shifted. The south Tasman Sea has become warmer and saltier from 1944-2002. This has resulted in the current strengthening and extending southward. This shift in the EAC flow past Tasmania is controlled the Southern Hemisphere subtropical ocean circulation. This trend is thought to be caused by changes in wind patterns due to ozone depletion over Australia. There is a strong consensus with climate models that this trend will continue to intensify and accelerate over the next 100 years. The current is predicted to increase greater than 20%, thanks to the increase in South Pacific winds.[7]


who won the battle of ramsour's mill

The one to two-hour battle during the foggy morning of June 20 did not involve any regular army forces from either side and was literally fought between family, friends, and neighbors with muskets sometimes being used as clubs because of a lack of ammunition. Numerous cases of fratricide occurred during the battle. William Simpson, a patriot scout, rushed to the battle to kill his brother Reuben, and Peter Costner, a loyalist, was killed by his brother Thomas who buried his sibling's corpse after the fight.[2] Despite being outnumbered, the Patriot militia defeated the Loyalists.[3]

Battle of Ramsour's Mill

John Moore
 Nicholas Warlick

The Battle of Ramsour's Mill took place on June 20, 1780 in present-day Lincolnton, North Carolina, during the British campaign to gain control of the southern colonies in the American Revolutionary War. The number of fighters on each side of the battle is still an issue of contention, but Loyalist militiamen (many of them German Palatine emigrants and settlers in the local area) outnumbered Patriot militia and had captured a group of Patriots who they were planning to hang on the morning of June 20.

The battle was significant in that it lowered the morale of Loyalists in the south, weakening their support of the British.

On June 18, 1780, Patriot General Griffith Rutherford, who was camped near Charlotte, North Carolina, learned that a large force of Loyalists was assembling at Ramsour's Mill, near present-day Lincolnton.[4] Rutherford began moving his troops in that direction, and on June 19 he sent orders to Lieutenant Colonel Francis Locke and other local militia leaders to call up their militia.

Locke gathered a force of 400 cavalry and infantry at Mountain Creek,[5] about 16 miles (26 km) to the northeast of Lincolnton.[6] Their intelligence showed that the Loyalist force was more than three times their size, but it was decided to attack early the next morning without waiting for Rutherford's forces to join up due to a fear of reinforcements to the British force. At daybreak on June 20, they were one mile from the Loyalist camp, located on a hill about 300 yards (270 m) east of the mill belonging to Jacob Ramsour.[6]

Loyalist John Moore had served with the British at the Siege of Charleston and returned to his home a few miles from Ramsour's Mill with tales of battle. He called together a group of about 40 Loyalists on June 10 and shared with them instructions from Cornwallis that for safety they should avoid organizing before British troops entered the area. News came to the meeting that a group of about twenty Patriots was looking for Moore and other Loyalist leaders. Moore and his men decided to find and confront them, but were unsuccessful. Moore then told his men to return home, and instructed them to join him in a few days at Ramsour's Mill. On June 13, 200 men arrived there, and the number grew in the following days, buoyed by news of the British victory at Waxhaws. By June 20 the Loyalist camp had grown to about 1,300 men.[7]

When the cavalry leading the Patriot column approached, the Loyalist sentries on the road fired at them and retreated to their main body. After an initial cavalry charge, the Patriot infantry moved up. In the confusion of the battle, the Patriots were able to turn the Loyalists' flank and gain control of the ridge. General Rutherford, then only a few miles from Ramsour's Mill, received word of the action and immediately dispatched his cavalry to assist and hurried the infantry along.

Patriot Colonel Francis Locke was unable to reform his line on the ridge and ordered his men to fall back. However, Captain John Dickey refused and led his company to higher ground, where the rifle marksmanship of Captain John Hardin's men turned the battle into victory. When ordered to retreat by Colonel Locke, he had soundly cursed (Presbyterian elder though he was), saying he would not retreat. Captain Dickey was credited with saving the day at the battle.

Neither side in the battle wore military uniforms. Tories wore a green pine twig in their hats, and Whigs wore a piece of white paper (flag) in their hats. Several of the Whigs were found shot through the head afterwards, leading to speculation that the flags were used by the Tories as targets for their musket fire.[8]

The Patriot soldiers composed a ballad, which for many years was sung about the countryside in Captain Dickey's honor. Only one verse is preserved in the National Archives in Washington:

"Old Colonel Locke kept pretty well back,
While brave Captain Dickey commenced the attack.
He, Colonel Locke, ordered us to retreat and reform,
Which made our old hero mightily storm."

One affidavit in the National Archives Pension Files tells that Captain Dickey called out, “Shoot straight, my boys, and keep on fighting. I see some of them beginning to tumble.”[9] According to the most reliable account of the battle, by General Joseph Graham in 1825,[10] the fighting between family, friends, and neighbors was often brutal and intense:

When the Tories were driven back the second time, and the left of their line became mixed with the Whigs, a Dutchman (of the Tories) meeting suddenly with an acquaintance of the Whigs addressed him, "Hey, how do you do, [B]illy? I has known you since you was a little boy, and I would not hurt one hair of your head, because I has never known no harm of you, only that you was a rebel." Billy, who was not so generous, and was much agitated, and his gun being empty, clubbed it and made a blow at the Dutchman's head, which he dodged. The Dutchman cried out, "Oh, stop, stop! I is not going to stand still and be killed like a damned fool neder," and raised the butt of his gun and made a blow at Billy's head, which he missed, and one of Billy's comrades, whose piece was loaded, clapped his muzzle under the Dutchman's arm and the poor fellow fell dead...

However, there are also some examples of compassion on both sides of the battle:

Captain M'Kissick was wounded early in the action, being shot through the top of the shoulder; and finding himself disabled, went from the battleground about 80 poles to the west. About the time the firing ceased he met ten of the Tories coming from a neighboring farm, where they had been until the sound of the firing started them. They were confident their side was victorious, and several of them knowing Captain M'Kissick, insulted him and would have used him ill, but for Abra[ha]m Keener, Sr., one of his neighbors, who protected and took him prisoner. While marching on towards the battle ground Keener kept lamenting, "That a man so clever and such a good neighbor and of such good sense should ever be a rebel." He continued his lecture to Captain M'Kissick until they came where the Whigs were formed. Keener looking around and seeing so many strange faces, said, "Hey, boys, I believe you has got a good many prisoners here." Immediately a number of guns were cocked, and Captain M'Kissick, though much exhausted by loss of blood, had to exert himself to save the lives of Keener and party.[11]

The Loyalists were soon in disarray, and many fled. When Colonel Rutherford reached the field he was met by a white flag, and the Loyalists requested a truce to treat the wounded. Rutherford, whose entire force had yet to arrive, instead demanded an immediate surrender. As the discussions went on, most of the remaining Loyalists fled, and only about 50 were taken prisoner.

Casualties were difficult to assign since almost no one was wearing any sort of uniform. Estimates of dead on each side were between 50 and 70, with about 100 wounded on each side. The battle, in which muskets were sometimes used as clubs because of little ammunition, was fought between "neighbors, near relations, and friends".[12] Many bodies lay scattered over the hill in the aftermath, and many dead we buried on the hill by their grieving wives, mothers, and children.[13]

Loyalists were imprisoned, and their property was seized in the aftermath. Six years after the battle, Abraham Keener was summoned by the Sherriff to help build a road from Beatties Ford to Lincolnton as punishment for his involvement in the battle.[14] However, according to one account of the battle's aftermath published in 1979 by Robert O. DeMond: "Of the Tories captured, all were paroled except a few who had committed serious depredations, and these were placed in the Salisbury jail. Those who were paroled were as honest now in keeping their new pact as they had been before in keeping their former one to the King. Many of us believe that Abraham Keener was one of this group who changed his allegiance and became a loyal Patriot."[15]

Loyalist James Karr wrote to his old friend Patriot General Griffith Rutherford, who he had served with in the Cherokee War of 1776, for reconciliation and help in regaining his confiscated property and reuniting with family. Rutherford rebuffed his request, telling Karr: "As to your General Conduct an Honest Neighbor you have cause to think you desarve my countenance, but as an open enemy you must know that you desarve none."[10]

Their defeat so badly demoralized the Loyalists that they never organized again in that area. Moore and about 30 men managed to reach Cornwallis at Camden, where Cornwallis threatened him with charges for disobeying his orders. Lieutenant Colonel Turnbull wrote to Cornwallis that "had it not been for the Weak Silly man Moore who led a Parcell of those poor Innocent Devils of North Carolina into a Scrape, we should have been now in Perfect Peace on this Frontier." As for the majority Scots-Irish inhabitants of the Catawba River Valley, Turnbull wrote: "I wish I could say something in their favor. I Believe them to be the worst of Creation - and Nothing will Bring them to Reason but Severity."[10]

The Lincoln County Historical Association has done some historic preservation of the site (behind what is now Lincolnton High School) and an archaeological investigation of the mass graves has been completed.[16] In 1997 the Lincoln County Historical Association and descendants of Loyalist John Martin Shuford dedicated a new monument to Shuford's memory and moved his original grave marker to the Lincoln County Museum of History.[17]


what are the upper limits of normal for the qtc

Definitions of normal QTc vary from being equal to or less than 0.40 s (≤400 ms),[9] 0.41s (≤410ms),[10] 0.42s (≤420ms)[11] or 0.44s (≤440ms).[12] For risk of sudden cardiac death, "borderline QTc" in males is 431–450 ms; and, in females, 451–470 ms. An "abnormal" QTc in males is a QTc above 450 ms; and, in females, above 470 ms.[13]

QT interval

In cardiology, the QT interval is a measure of the time between the start of the Q wave and the end of the T wave in the heart's electrical cycle. The QT interval represents electrical depolarization and repolarization of the ventricles. A lengthened QT interval is a marker for the potential of ventricular tachyarrhythmias like torsades de pointes and a risk factor for sudden death.

Like the R–R interval, the QT interval is dependent on the heart rate in an obvious way (i.e., the faster the heart rate, the shorter the R–R interval and QT interval) and may be adjusted to improve the detection of patients at increased risk of ventricular arrhythmia. Modern computer-based ECG machines can easily calculate a corrected QT (QTc), but this correction may not aid in the detection of patients at increased risk of arrhythmia, as there are a number of different correction formulas.

The most commonly used QT correction formula is the Bazett's formula,[1] named after physiologist Henry Cuthbert Bazett (1885-1950),[2] calculating the heart rate-corrected QT interval (QTcB).

Bazett's formula is based on observations from a study in 1920.
Bazett's formula is given as:

Q
T
c
B
=

Q
T

R
R

{\displaystyle QTcB={QT \over {\sqrt {RR}}}}

where QTcB is the QT interval corrected for heart rate, and RR is the interval from the onset of one QRS complex to the onset of the next QRS complex, measured in seconds, often derived from the heart rate (HR) as 60/HR. Here QT is measured in milliseconds, therefore the result will be given in seconds per square root of milliseconds.[3] This non-linear QT correction formula is generally not considered accurate, as it over-corrects at high heart rates and under-corrects at low heart rates.[4] Bazett's correction formula is one of the most suitable QT correction formula for neonates.[5]

Fridericia[6] had proposed an alternative correction formula using the cube-root of RR.

Q
T
c
F
=

Q
T

R
R

3

{\displaystyle QTcF={QT \over {\sqrt[{3}]{RR}}}}

The Framingham correction, also called as Sagie's formula based on the Framingham Heart Study, which used long-term cohort data of over 5,000 subjects, is considered a better[7] method.[8]

Q
T
l
c
=
1000
(

Q
T

/

1000
+
0.154
(
1
−
R
R
)

)

{\displaystyle QTlc=1000({QT/1000+0.154(1-RR)})}

Again, here QT and QTlc are in milliseconds and RR is measured in seconds.

A recent retrospective study suggests that Fridericia's method and the Framingham method may produce results most useful for stratifying the 30-day and 1-year risks of mortality.[7]

If there is not a very high or low heart rate, the upper limits of QT can roughly be estimated by taking QT=QTc at a heart rate of 60 beats per minute (bpm), and subtracting 0.02s from QT for every 10 bpm increase in heart rate. For example, taking normal QTc ≤ 0.42 s, QT would be expected to be 0.42 s or less at a heart rate of 60 bpm. For a heart rate of 70 bpm, QT would roughly be expected to be equal to or below 0.40 s. Likewise, for 80 bpm, QT would roughly be expected to be equal to or below 0.38 s.[9]

The QT interval is most commonly measured in lead II for evaluation of serial ECGs, with leads I and V5 being comparable alternatives to lead II. Leads III, aVL and V1 are generally avoided for measurement of QT interval.[14] The accurate measurement of the QT interval is subjective[15] because the end of the T wave is not always clearly defined and usually merges gradually with the baseline. QT interval in an ECG complex can be measured manually by different methods, such as the threshold method, in which the end of the T wave is determined by the point at which the component of the T wave merges with the isoelectric baseline, or the tangent method, in which the end of the T wave is determined by the intersection of a tangent line extrapolated from the T wave at the point of maximum downslope to the isoelectric baseline.[16]

With the increased availability of digital ECGs with simultaneous 12-channel recording, QT measurement may also be done by the'superimposed median beat' method. In the superimposed median beat method, a median ECG complex is constructed for each of the 12 leads. The 12 median beats are superimposed on each other and the QT interval is measured either from the earliest onset of the Q wave to the latest offset of the T wave or from the point of maximum convergence for the Q wave onset to the T wave offset.[17]

Prolonged QTc causes premature action potentials during the late phases of depolarization. This increases the risk of developing ventricular arrhythmias, including fatal ventricular fibrillation.[18] Higher rates of prolonged QTc are seen in females, older patients, high systolic blood pressure or heart rate, and short stature.[19] Prolonged QTc is also associated with EKG findings called Torsades de Pointes, which are known to degenerate into ventricular fibrillation, associated with higher mortality rates. There are many causes of prolonged QT intervals, acquired causes being more common than genetic.[20]

An abnormally prolonged QT interval could be due to long QT syndrome, whereas an abnormally shortened QT interval could be due to short QT syndrome.

The QTc length is associated with variations in the NOS1AP gene.[21] The autosomal recessive syndrome of Jervell and Lange-Nielsen is characterized by a prolonged QTc interval in conjunction with sensorineural hearing loss.

Prolongation of the QT interval may be due to an adverse drug reaction.[22] Many drugs, such as haloperidol,[23] vemurafenib, ziprasidone, methadone[24] and sertindole,[25] can prolong the QT interval. Some antiarrhythmic drugs, like amiodarone or sotalol, work by getting a pharmacological QT prolongation. Also, some second-generation antihistamines, such as astemizole, have this effect. In addition, high blood alcohol concentrations prolong the QT interval.[26] A possible interaction between selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and thiazide diuretics is associated with QT prolongation.[27] Macrolide antibiotics are also suspected to prolong the QT interval, after it was discovered recently that azithromycin is associated with an increase in cardiovascular death.[28]

Hypothyroidism, a condition of low function of the thyroid gland, can cause QT prolongation at the electrocardiogram.  Acute hypocalcemia causes prolongation of the QT interval, which may lead to ventricular dysrhythmias.

A shortened QT can be associated with hypercalcemia.[29]

Since 2005, the FDA and European regulators have required that nearly all new molecular entities be evaluated in a Thorough QT (TQT) study to determine a drug's effect on the QT interval.[30] The TQT study serves to assess the potential arrhythmia liability of a drug.  Traditionally, the QT interval has been evaluated by having an individual human reader measure approximately nine cardiac beats per clinical timepoint.  However, a number of recent drug approvals have used a highly automated approach, blending automated software algorithms with expert human readers reviewing a portion of the cardiac beats, to enable the assessment of significantly more beats per timepoint in order to improve precision and reduce cost.[31] As the pharmaceutical industry has gained experience in performing TQT studies, it has also become evident that traditional QT correction formulas such as QTcF, QTcB, and QTcLC may not always be suitable for evaluation of drugs impacting autonomic tone.[32]

Electrocardiography is a safe and noninvasive tool that can be used to identify those with a higher risk of mortality. In the general population, there has been no consistent evidence that prolonged QTc interval in isolation is associated with an increase in mortality from cardiovascular disease.[33] However, several studies[which?] have examined prolonged QT interval as a predictor of mortality for diseased subsets of the population.

Rheumatoid arthritis is the most common inflammatory arthritis.[34] Studies have linked rheumatoid arthritis with increased death from cardiovascular disease.[34]
In a 2014 study,[18] Panoulas et al. found a 50 ms increase in QTc interval increased the odds of all-cause mortality by 2.17 in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Patients with the highest QTc interval (> 424 ms) had higher mortality than those with a lower QTc interval. The association was lost when calculations were adjusted for C-reactive protein levels. The researchers proposed that inflammation prolonged the QTc interval and created arrhythmias that were associated with higher mortality rates. However, the mechanism by which C-reactive protein is associated with the QTc interval is still not understood.

Compared to the general population, type 1 diabetes may increase the risk of mortality, due largely to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.[19][35] Almost half of patients with type 1 diabetes have a prolonged QTc interval (> 440 ms).[19] Diabetes with a prolonged QTc interval was associated with a 29% mortality over 10 years in comparison to 19% with a normal QTc interval.[19] Anti-hypertensive drugs increased the QTc interval, but were not an independent predictor of mortality.[19]

QT interval dispersion (QTd) is the maximum QT interval minus the minimum QT interval, and is linked with ventricular repolarization.[36] A QTd over 80 ms is considered abnormally prolonged.[37] Increased QTd is associated with mortality in type 2 diabetes.[37]
QTd is a better predictor of cardiovascular death than QTc, which was unassociated with mortality in type 2 diabetes.[37] QTd higher than 80 ms had a relative risk of 1.26 of dying from cardiovascular disease compared to a normal QTd.