when was the last time crater lake volcano erupted

Mazama was last active about 4,800 years ago, when an eruption took place near Wizard Island's eastern base.[96] This eruption took place underwater,[93] and it produced viscous lava that created a rhyodacite lava dome, about 2,400 years after the first period of postcaldera activity.[97] Given that Mazama has had periods of sporadic eruptions for 420,000 years, the United States Geological Survey thinks that it is "virtually certain" that Mazama will erupt again in the future.[6][98] Mazama is considered dormant, but it remains monitored by the United States Geological Survey Cascades Volcano Observatory.[21] Future eruptions would likely take place near the western side of the complex and within the caldera rim; they could occur underwater. The ejection of lava rich in gas from shallow water could produce huge ash columns, but submarine eruptions at deeper depths may decrease the explosiveness of the event. Nonetheless, the rapid mixing of water and lava could produce dangerous pyroclastic surges, which are more gaseous and less solid than pyroclastic flows.[6] Such flows could pass over topographic barriers, move rock fragments at rapid speeds of 800 feet per second (240 m/s), and travel several miles from their vent.[99] Mazama is unlikely to produce mudflows far from the caldera, though a nearby vent outside the caldera could erupt and mix with snow. Eruptions are unlikely to produce waves that extend beyond Crater Lake, but powerful explosions could produce tall waves in the caldera.[100] An eruption as explosive as the one 7,700 years ago is unlikely given that it would require larger volumes of magma than are known to be available within the Mazama vicinity.[39] Moreover, landslides could flood adjacent shoreline regions, but they are not likely to induce failure of the caldera's walls, as they rise more than 500 feet (150 m) above the lake's surface.[39] Earthquakes from the nearby West Klamath Lake fault zone could reach magnitudes up to 7.0 on the Richter scale, but these only occur every 3,000 to 10,000 years; they could generate tall waves by creating landslides.[39] Though local earthquakes from volcanic activity would create motion in the lake, they would likely only reach maximum magnitudes of 5.0 on the Richter scale. However, Crater Lake is poorly monitored, and not highly active seismically among the Cascade volcanoes.[101] The largest earthquake threat originates from the Cascadia subduction zone, which could produce earthquakes with a magnitude of 8 or 9 that could lead to huge waves in Crater Lake.[32]

Mount Mazama

Mount Mazama (Giiwas in the Native American language Klamath) is a complex volcano in the Oregon segment of the Cascade Volcanic Arc and the Cascade Range, in the United States. Located in Klamath County, the volcano resides 60 miles (97 km) to the north of the border between Oregon and California in the southern Cascades. Its collapsed caldera holds Crater Lake, and the entire mountain is located within Crater Lake National Park. Mazama has an elevation of 8,157 feet (2,486 m), and Crater Lake reaches a depth of 1,943 feet (592 m), making it the deepest freshwater body in the United States and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada.

Mazama formed as a group of overlapping volcanic edifices such as shield volcanoes and small composite cones, becoming active intermittently until its climactic eruption. Mazama's caldera was created about 7,700 years ago by this enormous eruption, the largest within the Cascade Volcanic Arc in a million years. The eruption also destroyed Mazama's summit, reducing its approximate 12,000-foot (3,700 m) height by about 1 mile (1,600 m). Much of the edifice fell into the volcano's partially emptied neck and magma chamber. The region is undergoing extension of tectonic plates, and it features numerous volcanic landforms and faults. Though Mazama is currently dormant, the United States Geological Survey believes that future eruptions are likely, though on a smaller scale than the climactic eruption; Mazama poses a threat to the nearby surroundings if it resumes activity.

Indigenous populations have inhabited the area around Mazama and Crater Lake for at least 10,000 years, and the volcano plays an important role in local folklore. White settlers first reached the region in the mid-19thÂ century. Since the late 1800s, the area has been extensively studied by scientists for its geological phenomena and more recently for its potential sources of geothermal energy. Crater Lake and Mazama's remnants sustain diverse ecosystems, which are closely monitored by the National Park Service because of their remoteness and ecological importance. Recreational activities including hiking, biking, snowshoeing, fishing, and cross-country skiing are available, and during the summer, campgrounds and lodges at Crater Lake are open to visitors.

Mount Mazama lies in Klamath County, within the U.S. state of Oregon,[2] 60 miles (97 km) north of the border between Oregon and California. It lies in the southern portion of the Cascade Range. Crater Lake sits partly inside the volcano's caldera,[3] with a depth of 1,943 feet (592 m);[a] it is the deepest body of freshwater in the United States[4][5] and the second deepest in North America after Great Slave Lake in Canada.[6] Before its caldera-forming eruption, Mazama stood at an elevation between 10,800 to 12,100 feet (3,300 to 3,700 m),[7] placing it about 1 mile (1.6 km) above the lake;[4] this would have made it Oregon's highest peak.[8] The Global Volcanism Program currently lists its elevation at 8,157 feet (2,486 m),[1] while the Geographic Names Information System provides an elevation of 6,174 feet (1,882 m).[2]

Crater Lake National Park covers an area of 250 square miles (650Â km2), including forest areas, alpine terrain, the Crater Lake, and the vast majority of Mount Mazama. A wilderness area, it was dedicated in 1902 and is overseen by the National Park Service. It receives about 500,000 visitors each year, and these tourists can go hiking, take bike, ranger-guided, and trolley tours, swim, fish, camp, and participate in other recreational activities. While the Park area remains open throughout the year, certain roads and facilities close in the winter season.[9]

There was frequent Glacier formation on the mountain as Mazama developed. They carved trenches in the flanks of the volcano in addition to U-shaped valleys under the base of the volcanic cone. These can be seen at three large glacial canyons on its southern slopes: Kerr Notch, Munson Balley, and Sun Notch.[4] Whenever eruptions took place in the presence of ice, lava was chilled by glaciers, creating glassy talus deposits. Sometimes, the lava coursed into areas previously carved by glaciers like at Sentinel Rock, filling canyons with volcanic rock. Moraines occur up to 17 miles (27 km) from the rim of Mazama's caldera, and there are glacial striations visible at several sites in the area.[10] When the climactic eruption occurred, the climate was warm and dry,[11] and the most recent period of glacial advance ceased about 27,000 years ago, so by the time Mazama collapsed, ice was likely only present at higher elevations.[4] Using argon geochronology and paleoclimatic records, scientists have identified that the Sand Creek, Sun Creek, and Annie Creek canyons were carved by the advance of ice over lava flows, pushing debris towards Klamath Marsh and Klamath Graben or nearby rivers.[12] A glacial cirque can be seen on Mount Scott's northwestern flank, and glacial till occurs on Mazama's slopes, especially on the western slopes and at lower elevations. Till and fluvial sediments occur in the caldera walls, forming particularly thick deposits under Roundtop and Wineglass.[12] Many lava flows that were glaciated have since been covered by more recent lava flows.[12]

Crater Lake formed from a network of lakes and ponds, eventually reaching a depth of 1,949 feet (594 m). Lake levels rose while the Wizard Island landform inside the crater was forming. Water interacted with lava flows to form pillow lava.[13] Because of climate change patterns over time, Crater Lake's surface level has changed, dropping as much as 40 feet (12 m) for example at the beginning of the 1900s.[14] The water from precipitation nearly equals water lost to evaporation and drainage, most leakage taking place at the Wineglass deposit at the northern side of the crater, without which the lake would likely have overflowed at the northern side.[6]

Average snowfall in the Crater Lake area has been decreasing since the 1930s. Crater Lake's mean surface water temperatures have increased about 5 °F (3 °C) since the 1960s. Though this may eventually cause algae to grow and obscure the water, Crater Lake remains one of the cleanest bodies of water in the world.[15]

Crater Lake National Park and the area surrounding Mount Mazama range in elevation from 4,000 to 8,929 feet (1,219 to 2,722 m), providing diverse habitats.[16] In the Cascades, the topography and elevation have influenced local climate patterns, also shaping global climate when volcanic gas and dust have been released into the atmosphere.[17] The southern region of the park supports ponderosa pine forests, and for elevations from 5,000 to 7,000 feet (1,500 to 2,100 m), mixed coniferous, fir, and hemlock forests are common. Subalpine zones occur above 7,000 feet (2,100 m), often featuring whitebark pine.[16]

Ecological disturbances tend to cause decreasing damage with increasing distance from the source, but volcanic eruptions can lead to more uniform patterns of disruption for their surrounding landscapes.[18] The immediate surroundings of Mazama continue to recover from the eruption.[17]

There are more than 50 mammal species in Crater Lake National Park. Opossum species such as the Virginia opossum can be found infrequently, while shrew and mole species in the park area include marsh shrews, Pacific shrews, American water shrews, fog shrews, Trowbridge's shrews, vagrant shrews, American shrew moles, and broad-footed moles.[19] Bats frequently sighted within the park area include the little brown bat, hoary bat, and big brown bat, while the California myotis, silver-haired bat, Yuma myotis, long-eared myotis, long-legged myotis, and pallid bat are more rare.[19] There are populations of American pikas, snowshoe hares, and white-tailed jackrabbits in the region, as well as many rodent species. Chipmunks like yellow-pine chipmunks, least chipmunks, Siskiyou chipmunks, and Townsend's chipmunks can be seen, along with various beaver species including mountain beavers and North American beavers. The mammals of the National Park area also include various species of squirrel, mice, vole, and gophers, as well as yellow-bellied marmots and North American porcupines. Carnivorous mammals consist of coyotes, red foxes, gray foxes, American black bears, raccoons, martens, fishers, ermines, long-tailed weasels, minks, wolverines, American badgers, western spotted skunks, striped skunks, North American river otters, cougars, and lynxes such as bobcats. Elk, mule deer, and pronghorns can also be found, though more frequently during the summer season.[19]

Bird species in the Crater Lake National Park area include various biological families. Common bird species include hairy woodpeckers, great horned owls, blue grouses, common ravens, dark-eyed juncos, mountain chickadees, red-breasted nuthatches, brown creepers, Clark's nutcrackers, and grey jays, which are visible throughout the year; American kestrels, northern flickers, golden-crowned kinglets, Cordilleran flycatchers, Steller's jays, western tanagers, Swainson's thrushes, hermit thrushes, American robins, and rufous hummingbirds that frequent the area in the summer season; and mountain and western bluebirds in the fall and summer. Olive-sided flycatchers and chipping sparrows are common during the spring and summer seasons, while yellow-rumped warblers, pine siskins, and Cassin's finches can frequently be seen during spring, summer, and fall.[16]

In the early 20th century, Bull trout were present in many streams and river throughout the National Park area, particularly the Sun Creek and lower Annie Creek areas. Locals began stocking streams with non-native trout populations, forcing Brook trout to compete for resources and leading to their local extinction in Annie Creek, along with a significant decline in Sun Creek by the end of the 1980s. By 1992, Crater Lake National Park initiated a bull trout conservation project, removing invasive fish populations with electrofishing, snorkeling, and introduction of the toxin and inhibitor of cellular respiration antimycin A. They also created small barriers to keep new trout from reaching Sun Creek. In 1999, Bull trout were considered a "threatened" species by the Endangered Species Act, though locally, there are now about 2,000 Bull trout in the stream, almost ten times as many as the low point for Bull trout abundance at just 200 fish. The project now works with the state government to expand Bull trout distributions from Sun Creek into neighboring forests with fish barriers and removal of invasive fish species.[20]

Climate change threatens the American pika populations in the Crater Lake area, as they cannot tolerate warm weather because their fur does not release heat efficiently. Climate change might be diminishing their food supply via disturbances of vegetation growth patterns. At least three pika populations in Oregon have disappeared within the past few decades. Likewise, as a result of climate change, mountain pine beetle infestations have become more frequent among Whitebark pines on the rim of Crater Lake and present on nearby peaks. The National Park Service estimates that roughly half of the whitebark pines in Crater Lake National Park have died or are dying.[15] Because the ecosystem in Crater Lake is isolated from the regional area, it holds particular interest from ecologists, so the United States National Park Service closely monitors human and natural changes to the lake environment.[21]

The Klamath Native Americans of the area believed that Mount Mazama was inhabited by Llao, their god of the underworld, also known as the "Chief of the Below World."[22] After the mountain destroyed itself the Klamaths recounted the events as a great battle between Llao and his rival Skell, their sky god,[23] or "Chief of the Above World."[22] Though the narrative has several slightly different iterations, commonly the legend goes that Llao saw a beautiful Klamath woman, the daughter of a chief, and became angry when she refused his offer of immortality if she would be his consort. Furious, Llao emerged from Mazama and threw fire upon the people beneath the mountain, and Skell stood on Mount Shasta, trying to defend the people against Llao's fury. As the earth shook and volcanic rock fell from the sky, two holy men sacrificed themselves to Mount Mazama's crater, and Skell was able to force Llao back into the volcano, which then collapsed on top of him;[22] other accounts tell that Skell smashed the peak on top of Llao.[24] Torrential rain followed, filling in the hole left by Mazama's collapse to form Crater Lake.[22]

Native American people have lived in the area near Mazama for at least 10,000 years.[13] At least part of the surrounding vicinity was occupied by indigenous populations when Mazama resumed activity about 8,000 years ago, following about 20,000 years of dormancy.[4] Most evidence suggests that Mazama served as a camp site, but not a permanent place of habitation.[22] Sagebrush sandals have been discovered to the east of the mountain. These populations faced an increasingly dry climate and the hazards associated with volcanic activity. In civilizations south of Mazama, stories about the volcano's eruption have been transmitted for many generations.[4] Native populations did not tell settlers about the area because it held sacred importance among tribes throughout Oregon and northern California.[22] Shamans did not allow local Native Americans to look towards Crater Lake,[25] and the Klamath people believed that just looking at Mazama would cause death. Though there are no tribal legends surrounding Crater Lake, some Native Americans still refuse to look at the water.[22]

Despite the presence of indigenous legends about the Mazama eruption, it is unlikely that these were directly preserved from tribal oral records, since almost 8,000 years (roughly 300 generations) have passed since the eruption took place. Scholars think that the legends were devised more recently to account for the peculiar topographic features of Crater Lake. During the 1800s, one Klamath leader named Lalek predicted scientific discoveries that described Mount Mazama's destruction, claiming that it had collapsed as a result of a particularly violent eruption. Geologists had not discovered this mechanism for caldera formation yet, but the hypothesis was recorded by the soldier William M. Colvig in 1865, and then reprinted in Ella Clark's Indian Legends of the Pacific Northwest.[26]

The last major volcanic landform in the Cascade Range identified by white settlers,[13] Mazama was first visited by non-indigenous people in the spring of 1853.[13] Eleven miners from Yreka, California stopped at a mercantile store in Jacksonville, Oregon owned by Isaac Skeeters, boasting that they knew where to find a gold mine called "Lost Cabin." Financed by a successful gold miner named John Wesley Hillman, Skeeters led a team with ten other Oregonians to find the mine. On June 12, they reached Crater Lake, which Skeeters noted had the bluest water he had ever seen, suggesting they name it "Deep Blue Lake." Though their trip failed to procure gold before running low on provisions, they returned with the discovery of the lake, though it was forgotten amidst the absence of gold in that region.[22]

By 1862, a separate group of Oregon prospectors led by Chauncey Nye reached the Crater Lake area. Nye authored an article for the Jacksonville Oregon Sentinel in which he wrote that he had named the depression Blue Lake for its color, the first published description of the lake. During the 1850s, Native Americans and settlers had started to feel hostility towards each other, so Fort Klamath was established in 1863, 7 miles (11Â km) to the southeast of the current boundaries of the National Park area. A wagon road was built to the Fort from the Rogue River Valley as a result. On August 1, 1865, the lake was encountered by hunters on the road, and a party of soldiers and civilians went to see the lake after hearing of their observations. Sergeant Orsen Stearns climbed down into the caldera, followed shortly after by Captain F. B. Sprague, who thought they should name the lake "Lake Majesty." The newspaper editor Jim Sutton and a group of people visited Crater Lake in August 1869, using a boat to reach Wizard Island and publishing an article about their experience in the Jacksonville newspaper. Sutton suggested the new name of "Crater Lake".[22]

Mount Mazama received its English name from William G. Steel in 1896, the founder of the climbing club The Mazamas, which formed at Mount Hood in 1894.[4] The word comes from an obsolete Native American word meaning "mountain goat",[27][b] derived from an Aztec term to refer to "small deer."[4] Steel gave United States Geological Survey geologist Joseph S. Diller the idea for Mazama's name to help promote national park status for the vicinity by using his organization as the inspiration for the mountain's name. Crater Lake is called Giiwas in the Klamath language.[4] Steel had helped map Crater Lake in 1886 with Clarence Dutton of the United States Geological Survey. The conservation movement in the United States was gaining traction, so Steel's efforts to preserve the Mazama area were achieved on two scales, first with the creation of the local Cascade Range Forest Reserve in 1893, and then on May 22, 1902 with the recognition of Crater Lake National Park.[22]

A few decades after its discovery, Mazama began attracting geological interest.[28] After conducting research at Mazama during the 1880s, in 1902, Joseph S. Diller published a major report with the United States Geological Survey concerning Crater Lake National Park.[29] In the study, he and co-author Horace B. Patton[30] made the claim that Mazama had collapsed instead of being blown apart, the first American geologists to do so.[29] Their work was followed by research led by Howel Williams of the University of California, Berkeley, which was published in 1942. In the paper, Williams mapped the volcano's dacite and andesite lava flow deposits.[31] During the 1980s, Charles Bacon and other United States Geological Survey geologists expanded on Williams's work, determining more specific details about its caldera formation.[29]

Studies of heat flow and the water chemistry in Crater Lake and the alteration of rocks older than 120,000 years ago suggest that hydrothermal areas exist in the Mazama vicinity.[32] Most springs show similar chemistry, from the weathering of volcanic glass and clinopyroxene.[33] These features probably formed due to processes related to residual heat from the magma chamber that produced the climactic Mazama eruption 7,700 years ago. The lake shows convective mixing that cycles every three years as thermal fluid moves into the lake through its floor, creating thermal springs that formed silica spires with heights up to 33 feet (10 m). As a result, the California Energy Company drilled two geothermal exploration wells: the MZI-11A with a depth of 4,669 feet (1,423 m) to the east of the national park barrier at the Scott Creek Drainage, and the MZII-1 with a depth of 2,844 feet (867 m) to the south of the same boundary and to the east of Annie Creek. The maximum temperature they have observed at the southern well is 104 °F (40 °C), while the maximum temperature was 266 °F (130 °C) at the eastern well.[32] The convective heat discharge in Crater Lake marks the third largest in the Cascades, after the Austin Hot Springs and at Lassen Volcanic National Park.[34] Scientists from the United States Geological Survey think that sources for geothermal energy use exist at Mazama and Crater Lake.[35]

Produced by the subduction of the Juan de Fuca tectonic plate,[36] which moves slowly in a northeastward direction with the Gorda tectonic plate under the North American tectonic plate, Mazama is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc that stretches from northern California to southern Washington state.[37] Mazama sits among a region of crustal extension marked by fault zones, including north–south-trending normal faults[3] such as the Annie Spring fault within the West Klamath Lake fault zone,[38] which might produce damaging earthquakes.[39] Likewise, the Red Cone Spring fault cuts through basaltic andesite deposits at Red Cone from 35,000 years ago; together, the two faults move at an average rate of 0.012 inches (0.3 mm) each year.[40] There do not appear to be faults present in the Crater Lake caldera wall,[41] but the volcano induced a stress field in the upper crust nearby.[42]

Mazama is underlain by the Quaternary High Cascade basalt and mafic (rich in magnesium and iron) andesite to the west and southwest, with high-volume rhyodacite lava flows from 600,000 to 700,000 years old underlying Mazama deposits to the south, southeast, east, and northeast.[43] It is a major Cascade volcano, and is located at the intersection of the Cascade Range and Klamath graben, the north–northwest trending basin also surrounded by fault zones. The Basin and Range Province lies to the east.[44] Mazama lies within the broad segment of the Cascades arc, where smaller volcanoes are common because of melting patterns of the Earth's mantle within the region.[45] Erupting magma that ranged from high-alumina olivine tholeiite to magnesian basaltic andesite, these volcanoes show increased contents of subduction-produced or melted fluids that mixed with another magma chamber in the mantle. These magmas vary from 47.6 percent to 73.2 percent silicon dioxide.[46]

Mazama and Crater Lake form part of the Mazama reach of the Oregon Cascades, which stretches for 25 miles (40 km) from Timber Crater to the Big Bunchgrass shield volcano. This includes 175 Quaternary volcanic vents within a belt that ranges from 16 to 19 miles (25 to 30 km) in width, which has a high vent density with many shields and monogenetic volcanic centers.[47] After Newberry Volcano, Mazama is the second largest Quaternary volcanic edifice in Oregon, and the most voluminous,[47] with an overall volume of 29 cubic miles (120 km3).[48] Mazama is the newest of the Quaternary calderas in the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which also include the Newberry calderas and the caldera at the Medicine Lake Volcano.[36] Quaternary monogenetic volcanism throughout Oregon's High Cascades includes cinder cones, lava fields, and small shield volcanoes, which have produced lava ranging from low-potassium, high-alumina olivine tholeiite to medium-potassium calc-alkaline basalt, basaltic andesite to shoshonitic basaltic andesite.[49]

The Mazama volcanic complex originally formed as a cluster of overlapping edifices. Made up of shield volcanoes and small stratocones, it had an irregular shape. Mount Scott, at a height of 8,934 feet (2,723 m),[50] marks the oldest visible remnant of this original cluster.[29] Scott was the first of the composite volcanoes that created the Mazama complex, formed by a quick and active cone-building phase and becoming inactive long before the most recent eruption at Mazama. With time, eruptive activity moved to the west, creating the Applegate Peak and Garfield Peak cones on the southern flanks of the volcanic center. Hawaiian eruptions from neighboring shield volcanoes also built up Mazama, producing basaltic andesite lava flows that ranged from 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m) on average in thickness. These flows, present on the southern, western, and eastern walls of Mazama’s caldera, also contained lava bombs.[29] Viscous eruptions of andesitic lava that reached thicknesses of several hundred feet further built up Mazama’s cones, creating a solid, dense interior rich with angular lava blocks.[51]

Prior to its collapse, Mazama was originally speculated to stand at a height of 15,000 to 16,000 feet (4,600 to 4,900 m). Research by Howel Williams superimposed the Crater Lake caldera on other Cascade stratovolcanoes including Mount Shasta in California and Mount Rainier in Washington state, and concluded that Mazama actually stood at 12,000 feet (3,700 m) pre-collapse, which has been accepted as the standard estimate by geologists.[52] By the Holocene, the Mazama volcano was made up of several, clustered peaks with Mount Scott on the eastern end and Hillman Peak on the far west side. The volcanoes likely rose in elevation from east to west, and they also featured volcanic cones and lava domes on their southern flanks. Glacial horns like the Watchman lava flow were also present, and the mountain may or may not have sustained glaciers close to the summit.[53] At the time of its collapse, Mount Mazama encompassed an area of 150 square miles (400 km2) and represented one of the major volcanoes in the High Cascades branch of the greater Cascade Range. It was the largest volcanic edifice between Mount Shasta in California and the Three Sisters complex in Oregon. Before the eruption, it had been significantly altered by glacial erosion, which carved U-shaped valleys on its southern and southeastern slopes.[7] The northern and western sides of the caldera do not exhibit prominent evidence of glacial erosion, since they feature lava flows that only underwent alteration by late Pleistocene epoch glacial motion. Outside of the caldera, most hills show evidence of glacial alteration except those from the Holocene epoch and low elevation landforms including Pleistocene lava domes and cinder cones. Mount Scott has also been heavily eroded by ice, and the Union Peak volcano now consists only of a pyramidal horn.[12]

Though it now has dimensions of 5.0 by 6.2 miles (8 by 10 km) and a width of 5.0 to 6.2 miles (8 to 10 km), scientists think the original collapse diameter was 3.1 miles (5 km). It now includes several small lava domes and cinder cones, including Wizard Island and the underwater volcano Merriam Cone.[1] The highest elevation in the Mazama Complex is now Mount Scott, located at an elevation of 8,929 feet (2,722 m), with a relief of 2,000 feet (610 m) above Crater Lake's surface waters. Except for the tallest slopes of the complex, all cones have been covered with deposits from the climactic eruption at Mazama 7,700 years ago.[44] Scientists now use the exposed contents of the caldera rim wall to investigate eruptions and mapping the eruptive history of the region.[54] Throughout its known eruptions, Mazama has produced 43 percent rhyodacite, 42 percent andesite, 15 percent dacite, and less than 1 percent basaltic andesite. All of the rhyodacite has been produced within the past 30,000 years of activity, suggesting that regional and local distribution of compositions were not uniform over time.[11] Andesite and dacite lava flows from the volcano usually have plagioclase as their major phenocryst, though augite and hypersthene are also present, the latter more abundant. Olivine form minor phenocrysts, which are found throughout lava flows from Mazama, and hornblende can be found in some andesite lava flows. Basalt and mafic andesite lava flows from Mazama and nearby eruptive vents have relatively higher amounts of olivine and lack hypersthene, and the mafic andesite deposits display textures that indicate they underwent greater mixing than andesite and dacite deposits.[55]

In the western United States and Canada, volcanic ash often forms distinct layers among recent geological deposits, which can be used for stratigraphy among geologists and archaeologists.[56][57] Given the large distribution of the historic eruption of Mount Mazama, Mazama Ash serves as a common geological marker.[56] Mazama Ash had a minimum fallout area of 350,000 square miles (900,000 km2), while ash from the nearby Glacier Peak volcano, known as Glacier Peak Ash, encompassed an area of more than 100,000 square miles (260,000 km2).[57] Mazama Ash is the most widely distributed tephra layer from the late Quaternary in the United States and southwestern Canada,[58] extending to eight states to the west and three Canadian provinces.[59] Mazama Ash forms orange colored deposits.[60]

Like the Glacier Peak Ash deposits, Mazama Ash is well-preserved in the Pacific Northwest.[57] It is distinguishable from the lump pumice deposits from the Glacier Peak volcano, which contains more phenocrysts. Mazama Ash also has more soda, yttrium, ytterbium, and zirconium, and less silica and lime than eruptive products from Glacier Peak.[56] and it forms finer deposits than Glacier Peak Ash.[57]

With an age between 6,000 and 7,000 years, Mazama Ash corresponds to the estimated time for Mazama's climactic eruption 6,600 years ago, identified by radiocarbon dating of wood charred by ashflows.[61] Some of the Glacier Peak ash has been found in strata beneath Mazama Ash in Washington state and in eastern Idaho, 419 miles (675Â km) to the southeast of Glacier Peak.[61] Studies of Glacier Peak Ash deposits suggest that they are older than Mazama Ash,[61] at about 12,000 years old.[57][62] Glacier Peak Ash has not been found in deposits less than 10,000 years old, and nearly all human artifacts have been found above its deposits, except for a site at Birch Creek where non diagnostic artifacts were discovered beneath Glacier Peak Ash.[63]

Formed of a complex of stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes,[1] there are about 35 known satellite vents in the Mazama complex.[3] Mazama is surrounded by monogenetic cinder cones, lava fields, and shield volcanoes made up of calc-alkaline basalt and andesite, tholeiite, and shoshonitic andesite. Varying in age from 600,000 to 40,000 years old, these edifices closely resemble other monogenetic volcanoes in the High Cascades. Extending from the eastern half of Mazama and to the southeast lies a volcanic field consisting of rhyodacitic lava domes and lava flows between 700,000 and 600,000 years old, which encompasses an area of more than 140 square miles (350 km2). This large field is underlain by rhyodacite in its southeastern segment, and is cut by north–south trending normal faults.[7]

Moving from west to northwest, Mazama stratovolcanoes and shield volcanoes grow progressively younger. The oldest, at 400,000 years old, occur at Phantom Ship and Mount Scott, while the youngest can be found at the Hillman Peak stratovolcano, dated to 70,000 years old. There are also andesite flows at the northern rim of Mazama dated to between 50,000 and 40,000 years old.[7] Shield volcanoes near Mazama feature lava flows made of agglutinated mafic andesite, which form sheets about 16-foot (5 m) thick, as well as more deposits from more viscous andesite and dacite magma that reach thicknesses up to 98 feet (30 m).[64] Many of these deposits (both dacitic and andesitic) contain undercooled, crystal-poor segments of andesite, including at Mount Scott and Phantom Cone. Lava and ice interactions are suggested by exposures of glassy breccia in Mazama's caldera, and lava flows cover glaciated lava deposits.[65]

About 70,000 years ago, several silicic (rich in silicon dioxide), explosive eruptions occurred, including a significant event at Pumice Castle on the eastern wall of Mazama. This formed welded deposits near the vent, also forming non-welded deposits to the south and on the northern part of Mazama.[65] Between 40,000 years ago and Mazama's major eruption, no andesitic or dacitic volcanism took place. However, rhyodacitic magma was erupted at Grouse Hill, Steel Bay, and Redcloud Cliff in the form of pumice and lava flows made of hornblende-phyric, or chemically evolved, rhyodacite. During this period of the late Pleistocene or early Holocene,[65] lava domes such as those at Sharp Peak, Grouse Hill, and Merriam Point formed,[1] sharing chemical compositions with silica contents at about 70%.[65]

Pyroclastic cones at Mazama include Wizard Island, Bald Crater, Maklaks Crater (also known as Diller Cone) and Forgotten Cone. In addition to its crater, referred to as Williams Crater or the Forgotten Crater, Mazama's various volcanic vents occur at Cleetwood, Llao Rock, and Redcloud, which are located at elevations of 7,005 feet (2,135 m), 8,045 feet (2,452 m), and 7,949 feet (2,423 m), respectively. Nearby cinder cones include Bear Butte, Crater Peak, Desert Cone, Lookout Butte, Pothole Butte, Red Cone, Scout Hill, and Union Peak.[1] There are at least 13 cinder cones within Crater Lake National Park, and at least eleven more in the nearby area. They were fed by a different magma chamber than Mazama, though they likely received magma from basaltic andesite reservoirs in the vicinity. The exception is Williams crater, which erupted basalt and dacite and got silicic lava from the western part of Mazama's magma chamber.[66] Stratovolcanoes in Mazama's vicinity consist of Sentinel Rock, Mount Scott, Phantom Cone, Dutton Cliff, and Danger Bay.[1]

Mazama has a few composite cones in the vicinity of the caldera. At about 420,000 years old, Mount Scott has a conical shape, but has been extensively altered by Pleistocene glacial erosion, which carved a large cirque on its western flank and smaller ones on its eastern and northeastern sides. Scott lacks a summit crater.[29] Hillman Peak was the youngest composite cone in the Mazama eruptive center, forming about 70,000 years ago. It lies on the southwestern side of the caldera, and it represents the highest point on the Mazama rim, rising 2,000 feet (610 m) above Crater Lake. The cone was cut down the middle during Mazama’s collapse post-eruption, creating a cross-section of its interior composition.[29]

Shield volcanoes that contributed to Mazama’s growth only erupted for several hundred to several thousand years.[67] They erupted rapidly, spraying fluid lava that included lava bombs and incandescent fragments.[29] Llao shield on the northwestern side of the Mazama complex shows a representative structure for the shields that helped form Mazama.[51]

The Mazama vicinity formed gradually, its earliest deposits consisting of dacite from up to 1.28 million years ago. Between 725,000 and 500,000 years ago, rhyodacite was erupted, eventually forming a lava dome field with a volume of 4.8 cubic miles (20 km3) and dimensions of 9.9 by 14.9 miles (16 by 24 km). This featured up to 40 rhyodacitic domes and lava flows, produced between 470,000 and 410,000 years ago before stratocone formation began.[47]

Mazama formed as a group of overlapping volcanic edifices, which included shield volcanoes and small composite cones.[29]
Cone-building eruptions took place within short periods of time.[68] Shield volcanoes fed Mazama's expansion with basaltic andesite lava flows that covered large expanses on the slopes of the mountain. Forming lava fountains similar to those observed in Hawaiian eruptions, the shield volcanoes erupted incandescent lava bombs and were deposited on the southern, western, and eastern flanks of the complex. They have average thicknesses of 15 to 20 feet (4.6 to 6.1 m).[29] Roughly 215,000 years ago, another flank vent erupted dacitic lava that coursed to the west for at least 6.2 miles (10 km), with volcanic dikes that trend toward the vent still present in the Mazama caldera wall.[69] The complex remained inactive for about 40,000 years before it resumed activity, erupting andesitic lava from another flank vent, building a large shield volcano from 170,000 to 120,000 years ago. Other andesitic lava deposits can be observed in the caldera wall's northern side. The Mazama complex was inactive between 100,000 and 75,000 years ago.[69] About 75,000 years ago, the volcano erupted effusive lava flows of andesite that formed 980-foot (300 m) thick deposits below Hillman Peak that extended at least 4.3 miles (7 km) from the caldera rim.[69]

Many of the major cone-creating eruptions at Mazama were effusive rather than violently explosive, but explosive eruptions about 70,000 years ago yielded silicic lava that created thick pyroclastic deposits. These deposits include Pumice Castle, an orange edifice at the eastern wall of the caldera, which formed by the fusion of glassy pumice fragments. Similar activity on the northern side of Cloudcap and the eastern segment of Llao Rock that ejected dacitic tephra and pyroclastic rock also formed fused edifices. About 50,000 years ago, a vent at Mazama erupted the Watchman flow, which filled a canyon at the southwestern wall of the complex.[66] From 50,000 to 40,000 years ago, Mazama vents continued to erupt andesite lava flows onto the northern and southwestern slopes and create dacite lava domes on the southern flanks. These domes often collapsed and produced pyroclastic flows that coursed down the southern slope of the volcano, forming deposits up to Devil's Backbone, a craggy volcanic dike that was exhumed when the volcano collapsed.[66]

Throughout its eruptive history, Mazama has produced basaltic andesite, andesite, and dacite lava.[66] About 40,000 years ago, it underwent a dramatic shift to solely rhyodacite lava, which was highly viscous and had a silica content at about 70 percent. Between 30,000 and 25,000 years ago, rhyodacitic eruptions occurred at the complex, yielding pumiceous tephra and lava flows from Grouse Hill, Steel Bay, and Redcloud Cliff. At Redcloud Cliff, a lava flow formed with glassy columns that touched glaciers, creating a large, inverted stone triangle on the eastern rim of Mazama. These same eruptions formed a nearly vertical-walled crater, producing pumice and creating a dome over the Redcloud vent. Grouse Hill's lava flow deposit and lava dome formed at about the same time, about 27,000 years ago. At the end of this eruptive sequence, rhyodacite lava domes formed on the northeastern slopes of the volcano.[52]

Between 100 and 200 years prior to the climactic eruption, Llao Rock, a 1,200-foot (370 m) thick block of dark lava with a volume of 0.25 cubic miles (1.0 km3), was produced from a rhyodacite flow erupted from Mazama. It has a round center and extensions on the sides, resembling a bird of prey. The formation of Llao Rock was preceded by explosive eruptions of rhyodacite, creating pumice and ash that were ejected high into the atmosphere and carried for several hundred miles into northern and eastern Washington state, eastern Oregon, and western Nevada. A large crater formed but was filled by subsequent lava flows.[70] Shortly before the major, caldera-forming eruption at Mazama, the Cleetwood flow was produced. Also composed of rhyodacite lava, it originated from a vent on the northern side of the complex located eastward of Llao Rock. It likely only occurred weeks or months before the major eruption, as Mazama's collapse formed a backward flow of lava when it cut through the Cleetwood lava, suggesting that the Cleetwood lava was still hot enough to flow and move. Tephra from the last major eruption that was emplaced atop Cleetwood deposits has been altered by heat and gas from the Cleetwood lava. Both these eruptive periods took place on the northern flank of the Mazama complex, not far from the magma chamber that produced the climactic eruption shortly after.[70]

Mazama's climactic eruption has been dated to about 6,845 ± 50 years ago via radiocarbon dating, or about 7,700 years ago via dendrochronology.[71] Other scientists have determined ages of 6,730 ± 40 years ago or roughly 7,470–7,620 calendar years ago, as well as 7,627 ± 150 calendar years ago.[72] Fallout from the eruption continued for roughly three years, though the major eruption only occurred for a few days.[72] The eruption is thought to have occurred during autumn, as inferred from pollen data.[73]

The eruptive activity that lead to Mazama's collapse proceeded in two phases.[74][75] During the first phase, shortly after the eruption of the Cleetwood flow, a vent at a higher elevation on the northern side of the Mazama complex (but still below the summit) produced a 30-mile (48 km) high ash column into the stratosphere.[76] Ash extended to eight states to the west and three Canadian provinces. As a result, Mazama Ash has become a commonly used benchmark for measuring the relative age of objects,[59] compared to its orange colored deposits.[60] Pumice deposits reached depths of 20 feet (6.1 m) adjacent to Mazama's base, still reaching thicknesses more than 1 foot (0.30 m) as far as 70 miles (110 km) to the northeast.[60] The ejecta featured blocks of medium-grain granodiorite, as well as inclusions of diabase, quartz diorite, granite, aplite, and granophyre.[77] Ashfall layers have been eroded by pyroclastic flows and with time, but they are still visible at Hillman Peak and along the Cleetwood Trail.[60] The Plinian column from the eruption devastated the area hundreds of miles north and northeast of Mazama, but to the southwest and west, little pumice or ash were deposited.[78]

The eruption's character changed dramatically as the column of pumice and ash collapsed. The exact cause is not well understood; it may have been the result of the enormous weight of the tephra or the expansion of the eruptive vent.[79][80] The sudden deposition of so much pumice generated pyroclastic flows that moved down the northern side of the volcano, coursing west–east from Llao Rock to Redcloud Cliff. The first of these pyroclastic flows were deposited at superheated temperatures, welding fragments and creating the Wineglass welded tuff, which consists of big blocks of orange-brown and gray rock. These emplacements can only be observed on the northern slopes; they are absent from the southern slopes of the volcano.[79]

Mazama was covered with incandescent pumice.[81] The extreme weight of eruptive material began to push down on the volcano's summit, similar to a piston. Eventually, the top of Mazama's magma chamber subsided, and concentric openings formed by the summit, producing smaller vents surrounding the main eruptive cone. Pumice ejected from these new fractures created rapid pyroclastic flows that coursed down all the sides of Mazama, traveling over tall ridges and summits of subfeatures and extending tens of miles from their vents. These flows altered the surfaces surrounding Mazama, removing ashfall and then depositing their contents in nearby valleys.[82] Some of the flows traveled more than 40 miles (64 km) from their source, destroying timber in their paths, while others deposited their rock into river valleys to the north and west of Mazama, leaving layers of pumice between 20 to 30 feet (6.1 to 9.1 m) in thickness.[83] Ash clouds also rose up from the pyroclastic flows.[84] Pyroclastic flows also moved to the east, reaching more than 25 miles (40 km) from the base of Mazama. These deposits have diameters between 1 to 2 feet (0.30 to 0.61 m), though they are punctuated by pumice blocks with diameters of 6 feet (1.8 m) that extend as far as 20 miles (32 km) from Mazama's summit. Flows containing pumice coursed into the Annie Creek and Sun Creek canyons southward of Mazama, depositing 250 feet (76 m) of material, which have still not been fully eroded after almost 8,000 years. To the southeast, pyroclastic flows coursed into Sand Creek and extended more than 10 miles (16 km) in that direction, some reaching Klamath Marsh, the Williamson River, and the Klamath Lakes.[83]

Mazama's eruptive activity drew from deeper layers of the magma chamber that fed its climactic eruption, with denser layers of andesite and basaltic andesite lying beneath lighter layers of rhyodacite. The last of the pyroclastic flows erupted contained andesitic, gray scoria that was deposited above the pale orange and yellow rhyodacite pumice from earlier phases of the eruption.[83] The final eruptions formed the Pumice Desert, a treeless plain on the northern and northeastern side of Mazama, as well as filling the Pumice Creek valley and parts of the Klamath Marsh. Reaching thicknesses between 250 to 300 feet (76 to 91 m), the emplacements from these flows yielded fumarolic activity, still detectable in the Annie Creek and Sand Creek canyons.[85] Erosion from rain and stream flow has left pipes from the andesitic lava flows as columns and spires.[86]

Prior to collapse, the Mazama edifice had an estimated volume of 27 cubic miles (112 km3), though it may have exceeded 31 cubic miles (130 km3) taking glacial erosion into account.[87] After the climactic eruption, Mazama's peak was completely destroyed, replaced by a depression with a depth of 4,000 feet (1,200 m) surrounded by cliffs. The volume of magma ejected from Mazama more or less equals the volume from the peak that collapsed, which scientists have estimated at between 12 to 14 cubic miles (50 to 58 km3) of lava.[88] The lava produced was zoned vertically according to arrangement within the source magma chamber, and was calc-alkaline in composition.[89] It consisted of roughly 90 percent uniform rhyodacitic pumice, which contained about 10 percent phenocrysts, the rest made up of crystalline andesite scoria and mafic crystals.[74] The eruption released aerosol that lowered temperatures globally[26] in the Northern Hemisphere, with estimates of 34.2 to 34.7 °F (1.2 to 1.5 °C) for one to three years after the eruption.[90] The temperature changes were possibly greater than the effects of the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora.[26] Mazama's climactic eruption produced stratospheric mass loadings of 97,000,000 to 247,000,000 short tons (88 to 224 Mt) of sulfuric acid, with an estimated minimum sulfate degassing of 102,400,000 short tons (92.9 Mt) during its eruption.[90] Aerosol from the eruption traveled as far as Greenland,[58] falling for as long as six years.[73]

The United States Geological Survey has referred to the 7,700 years ago Mazama eruption as the largest explosive eruption within the Cascades in the past million years, and one of the largest eruptions during the Holocene epoch.[91] Considering Mazama's eruptive output within the past 420,000 years, it may have produced more than 43 cubic miles (180Â km3) of eruptive volume, making it either the third or fourth most productive Quaternary volcanic center in the Cascade Range.[87] The eruption had a Volcanic Explosivity Index of 7,[58] as determined from eruption cloud height, eruptive volume, and qualitative observations.[92]

Since the climactic eruption 7,700 years ago, all eruptive activity at Mazama has occurred within the caldera.[93] After the caldera formed, the original crater was widened by avalanches from the walls. These gave a scalloped profile to the caldera, such as the coves at Llao Bay, Steel Bay, and Grotto Cove. The Chaski slide, for example, the most prominent landslide detectable on the caldera wall, occurred long after the formation of the crater. Located on the southern side, it contains lava blocks between 850 to 1,400 feet (260 to 430 m) in length, many of which now reside underwater on the floor of Crater Lake.[26] As the crater filled with landslides, lava, and water, the caldera's appearance changed over time.[94] New cones and lava fields have formed inside the caldera, all of which have been submerged except for Wizard Island. Mapping the caldera floor with high-resolution multibeam echo sounders, vehicle-motion sounders and navigators, and a dual-differential global positioning system (DGPS), scientists from the US government and universities detected volcanoes and landslide deposits under the water. Between 7,700 and 7,200 years ago, the central lava platform, the Merriam Cone, and Wizard Island were produced, as well as lava flows. These eruptions produced 1 cubic mile (4.2 km3) of andesitic lava, half of that in the Wizard Island cone. Wizard Island lava interacted with water to form breccia piles, and as the water levels rose, only the top of the Wizard Island edifice stayed above the water. The edifice has a lavaberg shape, as it sits above a larger, ovular pedestal rising 1,200 feet (370 m) above the floor of Crater Lake;[95] just two percent of Wizard Island sits above the water surface.[93] At the summit of the above-water cone, a small lava flow from a lava fountain appears, located on the southwestern flank. There is also a volcanic plug poking out of the crater floor as a body of dark lava.[95] Lava blocks with diameters of 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m) can be seen along the rim of the crater, possibly produced from later stages of cone-building eruptions that created Wizard Island. The central platform was created by a similar vent eastward of Wizard Island, made up of effusive lava that created lava fields northward and eastward of its vent. Merriam cone does not have a summit crater, but rises to 1,300 feet (400 m) above the northern lake floor. Merriam cone was produced underwater, and was probably formed at the same or similar time as Wizard Island and the central platform.[96]

Though the population within 6.2 miles (10 km) of Mount Mazama is only about 50 people, more than 270,000 live within 62 miles (100 km) of the volcano.[1] Still, highly consequential eruptions at Mazama seem unlikely in the near future. Large, pyroclastic eruptions like the climactic eruption are unlikely for thousands of years. Similarly, the release of lethal gases like carbon dioxide from Crater Lake, similar to the eruption from Lake Nyos in Cameroon in 1986, is unlikely as a result of the natural mixing of deep and surface water within the lake. There is no known mechanism by which Crater Lake's water could be catastrophically drained or by which the caldera walls would fail suddenly.[32] Even minor hydrothermal explosions could potentially be dangerous, as the ejection of ballistic blocks or tall waves could threaten people standing near the lake,[102] traveling at speeds from 330 to 820 feet per second (100 to 250 m/s).[103] Likewise, landslides could threaten visitors to the national park or researchers by creating tsunami-sized waves, also potentially damaging infrastructure surrounding the lake.[104]

Located 56 miles (90 km) north of the city of Klamath Falls and 62 miles (100 km) northeast of Medford, Crater Lake can be reached from U.S. Route 97 on the east, on the southwest by Highway 62, and on the northwest by Highway 138.[105] Crater Lake and the remnants of Mount Mazama can be seen from Rim Drive, a 33-mile (53 km) road that surrounds the caldera,[106] which is the only part within the Crater Lake National Park where vehicles are permitted.[105] The Garfield Peak Trail, which runs 1.5 miles (2.4 km) east from the Crater Lake Lodge, offers views from 1,900 feet (580 m) above the lake's surface, with Mount Shasta visible 125 miles (201 km) southward. Another trail runs for 2.5 miles (4.0 km) from Rim Drive's eastern edge to Mount Scott, which offers views of central and southern Oregon such as the Three Sisters located 80 miles (130 km) north of Mazama and Mount Thielsen, also to the north. The Cleetwood trail leads for 1 mile (1.6 km) down the northern flank of the caldera rim, eventually reaching Cleetwood Cove where boat trips run from late June or early July throughout the summer season to Wizard Island.[100] Wizard Island can be climbed, offering views of Crater Lake.[106]

Because Mount Mazama lies within a national park area, collecting rocks within the vicinity is prohibited unless a permit is obtained.[107] The park's facilities lie at Rim Village, at the southern edge of the caldera.[105] Lodging and camping facilities open during the summer season between May and October.[108] No lodges, gas stations, or camping areas remain open from October through late May.[109] Popular activities within Crater Lake National Park include biking,[110] fishing,[111] cross-country skiing, and snowshoeing.[112]


when does assassin's creed 2 take place

The plot is set in a fictional history setting and follows the centuries-old struggle between the Assassins, who fight for peace with free will, and the Knights Templars, who desire peace through control. The framing story is set in the 21st century and follows Desmond Miles as he relives the genetic memories of his ancestor Ezio Auditore da Firenze. The main narrative takes place at the height of the Renaissance in Italy during the 15th and early 16th century. Players can explore Florence, Venice, Tuscany and Forlì as they guide Ezio on a quest for vengeance against those responsible for betraying his family. The primary focus is to utilize the player's combat and stealth abilities, as Desmond begins to uncover the mysteries left behind by an ancient race known as the First Civilization in the hope of ending the conflict between the Assassins and Templars.

Assassin's Creed II

Assassin's Creed II is a 2009 action-adventure video game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft.[1] It is the second major installment in the Assassin's Creed series, a sequel to 2007's Assassin's Creed, and the first chapter in the Ezio trilogy. The game was first released on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in November 2009, and was later made available on Microsoft Windows in March 2010 and OS X in October 2010. Several minor game related features could be redeemed on Uplay and three downloadable expansion packs were released on Xbox Live.

Using a newly updated Anvil game engine, Assassin's Creed II began development shortly after the release of Assassin's Creed. The game received critical acclaim from video game publications, with praise directed towards its Renaissance setting, narrative, characters, map design and visuals, as well as improvements from its predecessor. It was the biggest selling game of 2009â€“2010 and has sold more than 9 million copies. It is considered to be one of the best games ever made, and it popularized the Assassin's Creed franchise. The PC version was met with some criticism in relation to the digital rights management system and, thus had the always-online DRM permanently removed. The game spawned a follow-up, Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood and its direct sequel, Assassin's Creed: Revelations. Remastered versions of all three games were released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on November 15, 2016 as part of The Ezio Collection.

Players directly control the on-screen character through a third-person perspective and can control the camera, allowing for a 360° view of their surroundings. The game takes place in an open world environment with nonlinear gameplay, allowing the player to roam freely within several regions of late fifteenth-century Italy such as Venice, Florence, Monteriggioni, Forlì, San Gimignano, Rome (The Vatican only) and the Tuscan countryside. The Animus 2.0, a new version of the machine of the same name present in Assassin's Creed, provides in-game context for changes and additions to several game elements. A database is also available, providing extra historical information about key landmarks, characters and services that the player encounters. The health system has been made more dynamic, with synchronization to the Animus and causing the character to recover only from minor injuries.[2] More grievous injuries require visiting a street-side doctor or use of medicine (which can be purchased from doctors or found on bodies).

The player may now swim in water, and Eagle Vision—the ability to identify specific people and landmarks—can now be used in third-person view and while moving.[2] A young Leonardo da Vinci is present in the game, aiding the player by creating new weapons from translated "Codex pages" that Altaïr, the original game's main character, left behind for future Assassins' analysis and insight.[2] Within the game, the player will be able to use Leonardo's flying machine (based on real-life plans by Leonardo) during one mission. The player also has the ability to control a carriage in one level, and can row gondolas, as well as ride horses at any point in the game where they are readily available between towns and cities.[2] The setting of the various places the player may go to have been made more detailed and in-depth; civilians sometimes cough or sneeze. Additionally, the player can hire different groups of NPCs, such as mercenaries, courtesans, or thieves; these groups can be used to fight, distract, or lure guards, respectively. A day and night cycle has been added to the game, giving the game more of a sense of time, in addition to setting missions and events at certain times of the day.[2]

There are many ways to interact with NPCs. Money thrown to the ground, or a corpse carried and then deposited on the ground, may also serve as a distraction for both guards and peasants. There are also several different types of enemies, some more agile or stronger than others, and some of which will actively search hiding places where Ezio was last seen.

The combat system is more complex than that of its predecessor, with the ability to disarm opponents using counter-attacks while unarmed. If the player steals an enemy's weapon, it is possible to follow up with an attack that instantly kills the enemy.[2] Da Vinci provides the player with specialized weaponry, such as the dual hidden blades, poison blade and the miniature wheellock firearm, which are all based on schematics found in AltaÃ¯r's Codex pages. Generic swords, cutlasses, maces, axes and daggers can all be purchased from vendors in each city. The player can also pick up any weapon on the ground or use improvised weapons, such as brooms or halves of a spear. These weapons are used just like normal blunt weapons. In addition, players are able to purchase artwork for their villa, obtain new armor as the game progresses, and even dye Ezio's clothing with a number of different colors. Other equipment includes larger pouches to carry more throwing knives and medicine. Six additional weapons can be unlocked by connecting a PSP with Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines to the PS3.[3]

The Auditore family's countryside villa, located in Monteriggioni, acts as Ezio's headquarters: the surrounding property can be upgraded, drawing income for the player's use. There are several outlets for using currency, with vendors selling items such as medicine, poison, weapons, repairs, upgrades, paintings, and clothing dyes. When these shops are renovated, Ezio receives discounts at the shops on the goods they sell. Purchasing weaponry, armour sets and artwork also contributes to increasing the villa's overall worth, in turn generating more income for Monteriggioni.

There is now a broader array of methods for hiding or blending in the area. One can dive underwater to break guards' line of sight, and blending may be performed with any group of people, rather than only a specific type (as in the first Assassin's Creed).[2] The game features a notoriety system, with guards more alert to Ezio's presence depending on his behavior, location, and current mission. This infamy can be reduced through bribery, removing wanted posters, or assassinating corrupt officials.[2]

The missions in the game now have an expanded variety, with different structuring. For example, a mission may have the objective to escort someone, but may change to a chase and assassination. Investigation is less explicit, and instead missions may follow people and/or a narrative. There are roughly 200 missions in the game; about half are part of the main storyline, while the rest are side quests which need not be completed in order to finish the game's main storyline. Cities also contain hidden locations such as catacombs and caves (the design of which have been compared by the developers to the Prince of Persia series, where the objective is to navigate the area). Exploring these locations eventually rewards the player with an Assassin's Seal; the collection of all six Seals allows the player to unlock the Armor of AltaÃ¯r, in a concealed section of the Villa.

Like Assassin's Creed, characters based on historical figures are present in the game, including Leonardo da Vinci, Niccolò Machiavelli, Caterina Sforza, Bartolomeo d'Alviano, Lorenzo de' Medici, the Pazzi family, the Barbarigo family and Pope Alexander VI.[4]

Locations in the game include the Tuscany region[2] (Florence, Monteriggioni and San Gimignano),[5] the Apennine Mountains, the Romagna region (Forlì),[5] Venice and Rome. Specific landmarks include St Mark's Basilica,[2] the Grand Canal, the Little Canal, the Rialto Bridge,[2] Santa Maria del Fiore, the Sistine Chapel, Santa Croce, Palazzo Vecchio, Ponte Vecchio, and Santa Maria Novella.[5]

After the events of Assassin's Creed, test subject Desmond Miles is rescued from confinement by undercover Assassin Lucy Stillman and taken to a remote safe house, where he meets her team, consisting of historian and analyst Shaun Hastings and technician Rebecca Crane. Using design plans stolen by Lucy, they have constructed their own version of the Animus, dubbed "Baby", which they intend to use to train Desmond as an Assassin through the so-called "Bleeding Effect", which allows the user to learn all their ancestor's skills instantly. Desmond is assigned to investigate the memories of his ancestor Ezio Auditore da Firenze, starting with his birth to a wealthy Florentine family in the late 15th century.

The story then skips forward several years, with Ezio growing into a charismatic but reckless young man in the time of the Renaissance. After his father and brothers are hanged after being framed for treason by a corrupt magistrate, Ezio kills him and flees to his ancestral home of Monteriggioni with his mother and sister. There, his uncle Mario explains that both he and his late father served an ancient order known as the Assassins, and agrees to train Ezio in stealth and combat. With his new abilities, Ezio embarks on a quest to kill the men responsible for arranging his father's death, including politicians, bankers, mercenaries, and merchants aligned to the Pazzi and Barbarigo families. The search takes him to cities such as Florence, San Gimignano, Forlì, and Venice. During his journey, Ezio also makes a number of new allies, including philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and inventor Leonardo da Vinci, the latter of whom provides him with new equipment based on information left by Altair's Codex. While in Venice, he learns the identity of the Templar grandmaster known as "the Spaniard": Rodrigo Borgia, who has been planning to secure all of Italy for the Order by unifying the most influential families behind his leadership. Dressed as a soldier, he confronts Rodrigo while helping him transport an Apple of Eden to Rome. Armed with the papal staff—which turns out to be a Piece of Eden—Rodrigo reveals his intention to unlock the "Vault", a chamber he believes to contain a power greater than any the world has ever known. He manages to escape, leaving the Apple in Ezio's possession. As a reward for service, Mario has him formally inducted into the Assassins.

Around this time, Desmond uncovers a random memory left over from his time at Abstergo, in which Altair is shown impregnating Maria Thorpe, a Templar he encountered in the previous game. He also finds a series of glyphs similar to the drawings he found in his cell, which, when deciphered, reveal a vision of two human slaves stealing an Apple. The video ends with the ASCII codes (in binary) for "EDEN" (01000101 01000100 01000101 01001110). The team theorizes that the two humans may be Adam and Eve, the first man and woman.

With several sections of memory too corrupted to access (later made available as DLC Sequences), the team sends Desmond to the final memory, set in 1499. With Rodrigo now secure in his position as Pope Alexander VI, Ezio infiltrates Vatican City during Mass and beats him in a fistfight. Rather than kill his nemesis, he lets him live with the knowledge that he has failed.[6] Combining the Apple and Staff, he opens the entrance to the vault. Inside, he is contacted by a strange woman named Minerva. Aware that Desmond is listening, she explains how her people, the "First Civilization", created humanity to serve them, but were subsequently destroyed by an unknown catastrophe. The survivors joined forces with their former servants, building a network of vaults to both preserve their technology and culture and serve as a preventative measure against a future disaster. Before vanishing, she tells Desmond that only he has the power to fulfill this "prophecy", leaving both him and Ezio confused as to what she means.

Shortly thereafter, Abstergo agents led by Vidic enter the hideout, forcing the team to abandon everything except the Animus. As they head to a new location, Lucy informs Desmond that the Assassins have detected strange occurrences in the Earth's magnetic field; a solar flare scheduled to pass the planet in a few months would likely trigger the same event that ended the First Civilization. Desmond prepares to reenter the Animus, beginning the story of Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood.

Ubisoft's Yves Guillemot officially confirmed that Assassin's Creed II was in development on November 26, 2008, during the company's financial performance report.[7] This was followed by Michael Pachter speculating in GameTrailers' "Bonus Round" that game would change its setting to the events of the French Revolution, which turned out to be false.[8]

A promotional video was released by Ubisoft on April 6 showing a skull, some hidden blade designs, and Leonardo's flying machine on a scroll.[9] On April 16, Game Informer released details of the game, including pictures of Ezio,[10] a new teaser trailer[11] was released, and the game was "officially" announced by Ubisoft.[12]

In an interview, in May 2009, Sebastien Puel stated that the development team working on Assassin's Creed II had increased to 450 members, and the development team's size had tripled since the first game.[13]

On June 1, 2009, Ubisoft released a new four-minute cinematic Assassin's Creed II trailer at E3.[14] On June 2, 2009, Ubisoft revealed the first live gameplay demo, lasting 6 minutes, at the Sony Press Conference.[15] GameTrailers features an exclusive developer walkthrough from E3 2009. In an interview with GameTrailers Ubisoft Montreal creative director Patrice Desilets stated Desmond would be doing more than walking around and discovering clues.[16]

It was announced at the Assassin's Creed panel at Comic Con 2009 that a mini-series of three episodes, Assassin's Creed: Lineage, would be released showing the events leading up to the game and the history of Ezio and his father Giovanni.

It was also revealed that the humorist Danny Wallace would be voicing a new character in Assassin's Creed II: Shaun Hastings, a sarcastic historian assisting Desmond. The character's face would also be modeled after him.[17] Actress Kristen Bell returned for the character of Lucy Stillman.[18]

The game was originally due to be released at the same time on all three platforms, but Ubisoft announced on September 24, 2009 that the PC version would be delayed to the first quarter of 2010 in order to have "a bit more time for the dev team to deliver the best quality game."[19]

On December 1, 2009, Ubisoft announced the first of several downloadable content (DLC) expansions for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions of Assassin's Creed II. The first, titled The Battle of Forlì, continues the story of Caterina Sforza, and was released on January 28, 2010. It also includes a special memory that allows users to pilot Leonardo da Vinci's flying machine over Forlì. The second expansion, titled Bonfire of the Vanities, concerns the mass burning of sinful objects in Florence and was released on February 18, 2010.[20] These were both initially planned to be included as part of the main game, but were later cut due to time constraints;[21] this issue was written into the game's story as the Animus corrupting several memory sequences. Both the retail and digital releases of the Deluxe PC version include these DLC packages as part of the main storyline.[22]

Ubisoft's Uplay system enables further in-game enhancements which can be redeemed by points that are given when playing the game. The available awards are an Assassin's Creed II theme or wallpaper for PC and PlayStation 3, 5 additional throwing knives, AltaÃ¯r outfit and the Uplay exclusive Auditore Family Crypt map.[23]

The two downloadable content packs feature the corrupted memory sequences, which Rebecca is able to repair with a computer patch. Sequence 12, "Forlì Under Attack" (released as The Battle of Forlì) is set in 1488, just after Ezio has recovered the Apple of Eden. Machiavelli, Mario Auditore, Ezio and da Vinci meet to discuss what to do to protect the Apple, and it is decided that it will be sent to Romagna, to be defended by Caterina Sforza. When Ezio arrives however, he finds that the city is under attack from the Orsi Brothers, who have been hired by Borgia to take a map featuring the locations of the Codex pages, made by Sforza's late husband. In an attempt to force Sforza to hand over the map, the brothers kidnap her children. Ezio leaves the Apple in Sforza's protection; he rescues her children and kills one Orsi brother. When he returns, he discovers that Checco, the other brother, used the distraction to steal the Apple. Ezio gives chase, and kills Checco. As he stands over Checco's body, Checco stabs Ezio. Ezio falls to the floor bleeding, and before he passes out, he sees a man missing a finger and wearing monastic robes take the Apple.

Ezio wakes up with Sforza at his side. He sets out to reclaim the Apple, and Sforza gives him the map of the Codex page locations. He travels to a monastery in the wetlands, where he is sent to ForlÃ¬'s monastery. He attempts to speak to the abbot, but the abbot recognizes him as the Assassin who killed Stefano de Bagnone (one of the Pazzi conspirators) and flees. When Ezio catches him, the abbot names the monk who stole the Apple as Girolamo Savonarola.

The Pack also includes a bonus memory in which Ezio can pilot Leonardo's Flying Machine over the ForlÃ¬ area. Unlike regular memories, the player is able to play this memory an unlimited number of times.

Sequence 13 begins in 1497, two years prior to Sequence 14 and nine years after Sequence 12, after the events of Assassin's Creed II: Discovery. Ezio has tracked Savonarola to Florence, where the player can now explore the southern district of the city. After meeting with Machiavelli, Ezio devises that bringing unrest to the city will force Savonarola to come out and settle the unrest. In order to bring about this unrest, Ezio assassinates nine of Savonarola's lieutenants who preach within the city. The people become angry and a mob forms outside the plaza, where Savonarola preaches to the mob to disperse. He exposes the Apple to bewitch the mob, but Ezio quickly throws a knife at the Piece of Eden and Savonarola drops it. The mob proceeds to take the monk away, but a Templar courier quickly rushes in to retrieve the Apple; Ezio rushes after the guard and reclaims it. Afterward, the mob takes Savonarola to the Piazza della Signoria to burn him at the stake, but Ezio, believing no one deserves such a painful fate, jumps onto a wooden platform, leaps at Savanarola, and stabs the monk with his hidden blade to spare him the pain. Ezio stands before the confused crowd and declares that all should follow their own path, as he was taught by his mentors.

These three dungeons, platforming puzzles, similar to the game's Assassin's Tombs but without special rewards other than treasure, were originally included in the Assassin's Creed II: Black Edition (European and Australian release), with one included in the White Edition and two in the North American Master Assassin's Edition. Ubisoft subsequently offered them as DLC via PlayStation Network and Xbox Live. They have since been included in Assassin's Creed II: Deluxe Edition and Game of the Year Edition.

This costume (dye) is unlocked by entering a code obtained after buying the Assassin's Creed II 3D mobile game from the Verizon App Store. Also this bonus skin is included in the Game of the Year Edition, "The Complete Edition" and Digital Deluxe Edition.

The score to Assassin's Creed II was composed by Jesper Kyd. It was recorded at Capitol Records with a 35-piece string ensemble and 13-person choir, with featured vocals by Melissa Kaplan.[24] A soundtrack was released via download on November 16, 2009.[25] 14 tracks of the soundtrack were also released on the game disc available with the special pre-order Black edition of Assassin's Creed II.[26]

In the marketing, "Genesis" by Justice was used in the "Visions of Venice" trailer.[27]

On October 20, 2009, Ubisoft announced a series of short films, to be broadcast via YouTube, that would provide additional back story and the introduction of some of the characters found in the game. The shorts, collectively called Assassin's Creed: Lineage, came in three parts and were developed by Ubisoft's Hybride Technologies, who previously worked on the films 300 and Sin City. The series focused on Ezio's father, Giovanni Auditore, and contained live-action and computer-generated imagery. The first of the films was released on October 27, 2009, with the remaining two released on November 13, 2009.

On November 12, 2009, Ubisoft released Assassin's Creed II themed virtual items on PlayStation Home to promote the release of the game, as well as the game Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines for PSP.[28] Assassin's Creed II virtual items and an Ezio costume were also released on the Xbox Live Marketplace for the Xbox 360's avatars.[29] On November 19, 2009, more Assassin's Creed II virtual items were released in PlayStation Home, along with a costume for Ezio, which was released on November 26, 2009, in which the player could obtain and roam PlayStation Home in it.[30] On December 3, 2009, more 15th century Italian renaissance themed items were released in Home.[31] Ezio's "Purple Assassin" costume is available to download on LittleBigPlanet, as of December 8, 2009, on the PlayStation Network.[citation needed]

Assassin's Creed II is the first game to be linked to Ubisoft's Uplay feature.[32] Progression through the game allows Uplay members to acquire points that can be redeemed for bonuses for use in the game, including a new crypt to explore and an AltaÃ¯r costume.[33]

A novel based on the game, Assassin's Creed: Renaissance (by Oliver Bowden), was published by Penguin Books in November 2009.[34]

There are several different limited editions of Assassin's Creed II. The Black Edition contains an Ezio figurine garbed in a black outfit and was released in Europe and Australia. Included also are three bonus areas and missions, an art book, a DVD with part of the game's soundtrack, one premium PS3/Xbox 360 theme, behind the scenes videos, and 2 desktop wallpapers. The White Edition contains one bonus area/mission and an Ezio figurine in his white outfit.[35] The Master Assassin's Edition is the North American limited edition, which contains an Ezio figurine, two bonus areas, an art book and a Blu-ray with music and behind the scenes videos.[36]

After much complaining from Assassin's Creed II fans that they were unable to complete the game due to the need to complete the three Templar Lairs (only available on the White or Black Editions) to earn 100% synchronisation, Ubisoft released Assassin's Creed II: The Complete Edition. Included in the package are download codes for the two DLCs, Battle of ForlÃ¬ and Bonfire of the Vanities and the three Templar Lairs. Later Assassin's Creed II: The Game of the Year Edition was released, containing the extra content incorporated on the game disc. Both versions also have the Bonus Skin, however, it needs to be unlocked through the game code.

Eventually Assassin's Creed II: Digital Deluxe Edition was also released, containing the three bonus areas & missions and the downloadable content Battle of ForlÃ¬ and Bonfire of the Vanities. This Edition, however, is only available via Digital Download. Assassin's Creed II: Digital Deluxe Edition as of now is available only on the PlayStation 3 through PSN and PC through Steam. It also has the Bonus Dye for Ezio's outfit, albeit it is unlocked from the very beginning of the game and available for free at Monteriggioni.

The PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher forced to run in Offline Mode in the Settings Menu. Even in Offline mode, users can log in into Uplay, provided they have already logged in online with a legitimate e-mail account when they started using the software for the first time.

Users already owning the Retail Edition through Steam can upgrade to the Deluxe Edition.

Upon release, Assassin's Creed II received critical acclaim. Review aggregator site Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version a score of 91 and the Xbox 360 version a 90, making it the highest-rated game in the franchise on the site.

In an exclusive review by Official Xbox Magazine, Assassin's Creed II scored 9/10.[41] Its second review was a perfect score from the Official PlayStation Magazine US, while the Official PlayStation Magazine UK scored the game a 9/10.[40]

German magazine Computer Bild Spiele reported that the game's publishers offered to provide a pre-release copy of the game if the magazine would guarantee a review score of "very good". The magazine rejected the request and instead opted to delay their review.[53][54]

GameSpot which reviewed the PC version of the game, said despite the game being "fun and beautiful" it was hard to justify the higher price point. It was also mentioned that the game was hindered by Ubisoft's DRM and the game "deserved better. For that matter, PC gamers deserved better too."[55][56]

According to pre-official sales estimates, Ubisoft announced that Assassin's Creed II sold 1.6 million copies worldwide during its first week of sale, representing a 32 percent increase over the first week retail performance of the original Assassin's Creed.[57] As of February 10, 2010, the game has sold 9 million copies.[58]

At the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards, Assassin's Creed II was named Best Action Adventure Game, and IGN named it as the Action Game of the Year for Xbox 360 and Xbox 360 Game of the Year. Game Informer also named it as Xbox 360 Game of the Year. It also received Game of the Year from GamePro, Eurogamer and The New York Times. Assassin's Creed II has been nominated for the "Outstanding Achievement in Animation", "Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction", "Outstanding Achievement in Visual Engineering", "Outstanding Achievement in Game Play Engineering", "Outstanding Achievement in Original Story", "Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition", "Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design", "Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction", "Adventure Game of the Year" and "Overall Game of the Year" Interactive Achievement Awards from the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.[59] The game was also nominated for several Game Developers Choice Awards including "Best Game Design", "Best Visual Art", "Best Technology", and "Game of the Year".[60]

The game is included in the 2010 book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die.[61] In December 2015, Game Informer ranked the game as the second best game in the Assassin's Creed series to date.[62]

The PC version of the game utilizes Ubisoft's Uplay platform, which includes a digital rights management (DRM) system that initially required all users to remain connected to the Internet while playing. In the initial retail version, any progress made subsequent to the last checkpoint was lost if the Internet connection was severed. Ubisoft stated that if the disconnection was temporary, the game would pause. In addition, the company argued that there were numerous checkpoints spread throughout Assassin's Creed II.[63] The company was also criticized by overseas members of the U.S. Armed Forces, who could not play the game while in locations with sporadic and expensive connections.[64] Ubisoft has since published a patch to finally remove the DRM: the PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher logged in offline. The game can then be activated many times on the existing or new machine and still be played offline.[65]

Shortly after the release of the Windows version, Ubisoft claimed that a cracked version of the game had not been created, and was confirmed by at least one website. During the following weekend, the DRM servers for Silent Hunter 5 and Assassin's Creed II were, according to Ubisoft, affected by a denial-of-service attack. Ubisoft later stated that "95 per cent of players were not affected, but a small group of players attempting to open a game session did receive denial of service errors."[66][67][68] A server emulator to overcome the DRM has been developed. A cracked dynamic-link library bypassing the connection requirement entirely was released in late April.[69][70][71]

Following the series of server outages, Ubisoft offered owners of the Windows version all DLC from the Assassin's Creed II Black Edition (despite already having the Battle of Forli and Bonfire of the Vanities DLC incorporated into the story mode from the beginning by default), or a free copy of Heroes Over Europe, Tom Clancy's EndWar, Tom Clancy's H.A.W.X, or Prince of Persia (2008).[72]

The DRM was modified in December 2010. By that time the game no longer required a constant Internet connection while playing. Instead, the player had to be connected to the Internet every time the game was launched.[73] In 2012, Ubisoft announced that they would patch the game to remove internet access as a requirement to play, and would not require internet access for DRM henceforth. It worked on the PC version. The PC version of the Retail Edition or the Digital Deluxe Edition now requires a one-time online activation, after which the game, its activation key, and the Uplay Account will be bound together and the game can be played offline, even with the Uplay Launcher forced to run in Offline Mode in the Settings Menu. The game can then be activated infinitely on the existing or a new machine if the game is ever reinstalled for some reason, and it can still be played offline. The same rule for Assassin's Creed II on PC now applies to any Ubisoft game on the PC that once required a persistent online connection.[65] However none of these changes affected the Mac OS X version of the game which still requires a constant Internet connection and players still lose progress if the Internet connection is disrupted.

Discussions about details of Assassin's Creed III were already present before the release of Assassin's Creed II, with the game staff's notion of possibly having a female descendant in England during World War II.[74] However, co-writer Corey May has stated that the series will never take place during that period, as a major goal was to take players to settings normally unvisited in games.[75] Ubisoft's Philippe Bergeron stated that potential settings could include England in the Middle Ages, during the era of King Arthur, and feudal Japan, the latter of which had been a "personal favorite" of many in the staff. However, on March 1, 2012, the setting for Assassin's Creed III was revealed to be colonial Boston during the American Revolution, starring a Native American protagonist named Ratonhnaké:ton.[76] This game was released at the end of October 2012.

Two Assassin's Creed games were released concurrently with Assassin's Creed II: Assassin's Creed: Bloodlines and Assassin's Creed II: Discovery. Discovery is set during the missing chapters in II and features Ezio Auditore.[77] A direct sequel, Assassin's Creed: Brotherhood was released on November 16, 2010 for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360,[78] continuing directly after the events of Assassin's Creed II. The game once again featured Ezio Auditore da Firenze as the primary protagonist, and included a new online multiplayer mode.[79] The game takes place primarily in Rome, the seat of power for the Borgia family and the Knights Templar. The game's primary antagonist is Cesare Borgia, Rodrigo Borgia's son.


who plays tara's mom on true blood

Adina Elizabeth Porter[2] (born March 13, 1971) is an American actress. She began her career appearing on Off-Broadway stage, winning Obie Award in 1996 for Venus.

Adina Porter

Porter is best known for her performances on television. From 2008 to 2014, she starred as Lettie Mae Thornton in the HBO drama series True Blood. From 2012 to 2014, Porter also co-starred as Kendra James in the HBO drama The Newsroom. In 2014, she began appearing in a recurring role as Indra in the CW post-apocalyptic drama, The 100, and in 2016 was cast as Lee Harris in the FX anthology series American Horror Story: Roanoke and as Beverly Hope in the current season of the series, American Horror Story: Cult.

Porter was born and raised in New York City, New York.[2] She graduated from the State University of New York at Purchase.[1] Her first acting teacher was Butterfly McQueen.[1] She was married two times and has a son with her second husband, Larry Earl Madison Jr.[1]

Porter began her acting career in the theatre, appearing in off Broadway plays and in regional theatre. Her off-Broadway credits include The Debutante Ball, Jersey City, Aven' U Boys, Girl Gone, Silence, Cunning, Exile, Dancing on Moonlight and Hurricane. In 1996, she received Obie Award for Distinguished Performance by an Actress for her performance in Venus.[3] Her Broadway debut came in 2001 with the Roundabout Theater's revival of The Women, directed by Scott Elliott, broadcast as part of PBS's Stage on Screen series, in addition, she performed in multiple productions at the New York Shakespeare Festival.

Porter began her screen career playing guest starring roles on television dramas include Law & Order, New York Undercover, Brooklyn South, and NYPD Blue. She had a recurring role as housekeeper Gwen Walker in the NBC period drama American Dreams from 2002 to 2003.[4] In film, she made her debut in 1992 Leopold/Loeb New Queer Cinema feature, Swoon. She went to appear in small roles in films The Peacemaker (1997), Gia (1998), Body Shots (1999), The Fluffer (2001), and The Salon (2005). In 2005, Porter played Ricky in the film adaptation of Ruben Santiago-Hudson's play Lackawanna Blues for HBO. She received Black Reel Award for Best Supporting Actress: Television Movie/Cable for her role. She went to appear ER, Prison Break, Without a Trace, House, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.

In 2008, Porter was cast as Lettie Mae Thornton, mother to Rutina Wesley's Tara Thorton, in the HBO drama series, True Blood. She was promoted to series regular in seventh and final season of show.[5] In 2012, she guest starred in an episode of Grey's Anatomy.[6] From 2012 to 2014, she also had a recurring role on the HBO series The Newsroom playing Kendra James. In 2014, she began appearing in a recurring role as Indra in the CW post-apocalyptic drama, The 100. Porter also starred in two unsold drama pilots for ABC, Doubt in 2013, and The Jury in 2016.[7] In 2016, she played Pearly Mae during first season of WGN America period drama Underground.[8] Later that year, Porter was cast as Lee Harris in the FX anthology series American Horror Story: Roanoke, after previously appearing as a minor character in American Horror Story: Murder House in 2011.[9] For her performance in Roanoke, she received positive reviews from critics and was nominated for a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television. She later portrayed Beverly Hope in American Horror Story: Cult where she received similar praise from critics.