when did pokemon diamond and pearl come out

Pokémon Diamond Version and Pearl Version (ポケットモンスター ダイヤモンド・パール, Poketto Monsutā Daiyamondo & Pāru, "Pocket Monsters: Diamond & Pearl") are role-playing games (RPGs) developed by Game Freak, published by The Pokémon Company and distributed by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS. With the enhanced remake Pokémon Platinum, the games comprise the fifth installment and fourth generation of the Pokémon series of RPGs. First released in Japan on September 28, 2006, the games were later released to North America, Australia, and Europe over the course of 2007.

Pokémon Diamond and Pearl

Like previous Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl chronicle the adventures of a young Pokémon trainer as he/she trains and battles Pokémon while also thwarting the schemes of a criminal organization. The games add many new features, such as Internet play over the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection and changes to battle mechanics and Pokémon Contests, along with addition of 107 new Pokémon. The games are independent of each other but feature largely the same plot and while both can be played separately, it is necessary to trade between them in order to complete the games' Pokédexes.

Development of Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo Press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004. The games were designed with features of the DS. It was forecasted to be released in Japan in 2005, but was shipped in 2006. In promotion of the games, Nintendo sold a limited-edition Nintendo DS Lite in Japan, and held a release party celebrating their North American release.

The games received generally favorable reviews. Most critics praised the addition of Wi-Fi features and felt that the gameplay, though it had not received much updating from previous games, was still engaging. Reviewers were divided on the graphics, however, and the audio was criticized as being primitive. The games enjoyed more commercial success than their Game Boy Advance predecessors: with around 18 million units sold worldwide, Diamond and Pearl have sold over 2 million more units than Ruby and Sapphire and almost 6 million more units than FireRed and LeafGreen, while outselling their successors, Black and White, by over 2 million copies.

Pokémon Diamond and Pearl are role-playing games with adventure elements. The basic mechanics of the games are largely the same as their predecessors.[1] As with all Pokémon games for handheld consoles, gameplay is in third-person overhead perspective,[2] and consists of three basic screens: a field map, in which the player navigates the main character; a battle screen; and the menu, in which the player configures his or her party, items, or gameplay settings. The player begins the game with no Pokémon or Poké Balls, but is given the choice of three Pokémon as a part of the story line. Once Pokéballs are obtained, the player can capture more Pokémon using Pokéballs. The player can also use his/her Pokémon to do damage to the other Pokémon. Whenever the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle, the screen switches to a turn-based battle screen where the Pokémon fight.[2] During battle, the player may fight, use an item, switch the active Pokémon, or flee (the last not an option in battles against trainers). All Pokémon have hit points (HP); whenever a Pokémon's HP is reduced to zero, it faints and cannot battle unless revived at a Pokémon center or with an item. If the player's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon (causes it to faint), it receives experience points. After accumulating enough experience points, it can level up; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon whenever they reach a certain level. Pokémon's stats also increase every time it levels up, and they will also learn new moves as well. If the player cancels an evolution the Pokémon will learn new moves faster.

Apart from battling, capturing Pokémon is the most important element of Pokémon gameplay.[2] Although other trainers' Pokémon cannot be captured, the player can use different kinds of Poké Balls on a wild Pokémon during battle. A successful capture adds the Pokémon to the player's active party or stores it if the player already has the maximum of six Pokémon. Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon and the strength of the Poké Ball used; the lower the target's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball, the higher the success rate of capture is. Also, inflicting certain status effects such as sleep or paralysis add a multiplier to the capture rate, making it easier to capture wild Pokémon. Each species has a capture rate of its own as well.

As with other generations of Pokémon games, Diamond and Pearl retained the basic gameplay of their predecessors while introducing additional new features. Increased from three times of day in Gold and Silver, there are five time periods in Diamond and Pearl: morning, day, afternoon, evening, and night.[3][fn 1] Diamond and Pearl introduced several changes to battle mechanics. In previous generations, Pokémon moves were classified as "physical" or "special" based on their type; for example, all Fire-type moves were special and all Ground-type moves were physical. In Diamond and Pearl, however, moves are categorized into three groups.[4] Attacks that make physical contact with the opponent are "physical", attacks that do not make physical contact are "special", and moves that do not deal damage directly are classified as "status".[5]

Some of the games' new features capitalize on the Nintendo DS's features. The Pokétch (ポケッチ, Poketchi), a simulated smartwatch, uses the DS's bottom screen and hosts applications including a clock, a calculator, a map, a counter, and a drawing pad.[6][7] These applications are obtained throughout the game.[1] Beneath Sinnoh's surface is the Underground (ちかつうろ, Chikatsūro), a large area used for wireless multiplayer gaming;[8][fn 2] in it, players can create and decorate secret bases (first featured in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire) and participate in minigames. Diamond and Pearl also employ support for the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, allowing players to communicate through voice chat, trade, and battle online. (No longer available since May 20, 2014.)[citation needed] The main system for trade is the Global Trade Station, which allows players to trade with people around the world. Players can search for any Pokémon that they have seen in the game and can offer their own; if another player is offering the requested Pokémon and is looking for the offered Pokémon, the trade occurs immediately.[9][10] (The trade does not have to be instant; an offer can be left for other players to browse and complete, even while the player is offline.)[11] Certain species of Pokémon traded internationally will have a Pokédex entry in the language of the game it originated from.[12]

Diamond and Pearl's Pokémon Contests (events in which the player's Pokémon compete in a show to win ribbons) consist of three stages, two more than the Contests of the Game Boy Advance games.[13] In the Visual Competition stage, players use the Nintendo DS's touchscreen to place accessories on their Pokémon to boost a particular trait, such as "Cool" or "Cute", and earn points.[14] In the Dance Competition stage, the player must tap buttons on the touchscreen in rhythm with the music. The final stage, Acting Competition, is similar to Pokémon Contests of the Game Boy Advance games; Pokémon use their moves to appeal to the judges and crowd. Like Pokéblocks in the third-generation games, baked goods called Poffins can be made from berries and fed to Pokémon in order to boost a particular trait, and therefore, the likelihood of success in a relevant Contest.[15]

In addition to compatibility with each other, Diamond and Pearl offer compatibility with the Game Boy Advance Pokémon RPGs, Pokémon Ranger, and Pokémon Battle Revolution. After earning the National Pokédex in Diamond and Pearl, the player can "Migrate" Pokémon from the Game Boy Advance games to Diamond and Pearl by inserting a Game Boy Advance cartridge into the Game Boy Advance cartridge slot of the Nintendo DS while Diamond or Pearl is in the DS slot. After six Pokémon are uploaded from the cartridge, they are sent to the Pal Park, an area where the player can capture the transferred Pokémon.[16][fn 3] Pokémon uploads are restricted to six every twenty-four hours per Game Boy Advance cartridge, and the player must capture the uploaded Pokémon before performing another transfer. Pokémon transferred to Diamond and Pearl this way cannot be sent back to a Game Boy Advance cartridge. After completing a special mission in Pokémon Ranger, the player will be able to send a Manaphy egg or Riolu from Ranger to Diamond or Pearl.[17] Finally, players can wirelessly upload Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl to the Wii games Pokémon Battle Revolution and My Pokémon Ranch.[18] DS players can also connect to the Internet and "battle" with other players around the world. They can use "DS Wireless" to play with people within approximately 5 m. They can also play underground (for example, steal flags, find spheres and set traps).

Diamond and Pearl are set in the fictional region of Sinnoh, an island based on the Japanese island of Hokkaidō. Sinnoh is probably not directly connected to any other region in the Pokémon universe, much like Hoenn. It is characterized by large, snow-covered mountains (Mt. Coronet, a part of a mountain range, divides Sinnoh in half). In this game, the starters are the grass-type Turtwig, the fire-type Chimchar, and the water-type Piplup. Turtwig can evolve into Grotle and then into Torterra, Chimchar can evolve into Monferno and then into Infernape, and Piplup can evolve into Prinplup and then into Empoleon.[20] Unlike other regions, Sinnoh has a "northern" feel to it because it is the only region with snow-covered routes.[19] Sinnoh is also characterized by its waterways; it has three main lakes (Verity, Acuity, and Valor) that form a triangle. Unlike the Hoenn region, however, which is mostly water routes, only 30 percent of Sinnoh's landscape comprises waterways.[19] Underneath Sinnoh's surface is the Sinnoh Underground, which is a large maze of caves and tunnels.

The games chronicle the adventures of a new Pokémon trainer who strives to become the Pokémon League Champion by collecting and training Pokémon. Like most games in the series, Diamond and Pearl feature eight Pokémon gyms led by Gym Leaders, professional trainers whose expertise lies in a particular Pokémon type. Gym Leaders (Roark, Gardenia, Maylene, Crasher Wake, Fantina, Byron, Candice, and Volkner) serve as bosses and reward skilled trainers with Gym Badges, key to the advancement of the plot. As all core games, the protagonist must also thwart the schemes of a crime syndicate (and here, it is Team Galactic), who plans to use Pokémon to create a new universe just for themselves, while destroying the current one.

Like all other Pokémon RPGs, Diamond and Pearl begin in the protagonist's hometown. After viewing a television report about a media-conducted search for a Red Gyarados, which was spotted at a faraway lake (Johto's Lake of Rage),[21] the protagonist and his or her best friend travel together to check the local lake for a Pokémon like it. They spot Professor Rowan, a Pokémon evolution researcher, and his assistant, the playable character not selected in the game: Lucas (boy) or Dawn (girl). After a short discussion, the professor and his assistant leave the lake, leaving a briefcase behind. When they are attacked by wild Starly, the protagonist and his or her rival examine the case. The player is then given a choice among the three Pokémon found in the briefcase (Turtwig, Chimchar, or Piplup) with which to battle the Starly. After defeating the Starly, Lucas or Dawn retrieves and returns the briefcase to the professor. Noticing that a bond has been forged between the young protagonist and his or her chosen Pokémon, Rowan offers it to him or her, asking that he or she embark on a journey and fill his or her Pokédex.

The protagonist encounters the antagonistic team, Team Galactic, early in the game, when he or she must save Professor Rowan from some of their thugs; however, their motives are unclear until later. The protagonist encounters the Team twice (when it takes over a wind farm and when it sets up a base in Eterna City) before it takes over Sinnoh's three lakes in an attempt to capture the Mirage Pokémon (Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit). Shortly after the player earns his or her seventh Gym Badge, Team Galactic captures the Mirage Pokémon and imprisons them inside the science laboratory of the Team Galactic Headquarters Building, where its members extract crystals from the Pokémon to create the Red Chain, an object that can control the legendary Pokémon Palkia (in Pearl) or Dialga (in Diamond) (both in Pokémon Platinum, though Giratina appears after this). After releasing the trio, the protagonist is able to access the cave atop Mt. Coronet, where the leader of Team Galactic awakens Dialga or Palkia. The legendary Pokémon's powers begin to overwhelm Sinnoh, causing the newly free Uxie, Azelf, and Mesprit to attempt to stop it. The player then battles Palkia/Dialga; after defeating or capturing the Pokémon, Sinnoh returns to normal. After this, the player will continue, eventually battling the Sinnoh Region Pokémon League's Elite Four: Aaron, Bertha, Flint, and Lucian. After defeating all four members, the player will battle the Sinnoh League champion, a woman named Cynthia, who had appeared before in the game. If the protagonist beats Cynthia, he or she is the new Sinnoh League champion, beating the game. After the player beats the game, there is a new island to explore that is filled with other types of Pokémon. His or her old friend, who challenged him or her to battles multiple times before, will be waiting for him or her here. The old friend will challenge the player to another battle. On this island, there are also stores and a tournament center.

With Pokémon Dash's release and the release date of the Nintendo DS, the development of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl was announced at a Nintendo Press conference in the fourth calendar quarter of 2004.[22] Junichi Masuda at Game Freak developed the titles, saying it would "become a new type of game that offers a number of new forms of play" and that he was determined to create "the ultimate [Pokémon] version".[23][24] Though Diamond and Pearl were expected to be released in Japan by 2005, Nintendo revealed that the developers were still working on aspects of the gameplay and that the games would not be released until 2006.[25] The company said that Diamond and Pearl would be able to communicate with Pokémon games for the Game Boy Advance, allowing players to transfer their Pokémon to the new games. Nintendo also announced that the games would make full use of the Wi-Fi capabilities of the DS, allowing 16 players to communicate wirelessly at one time.[26] Further information concerning the games was not released until mid 2006, when Nintendo President Satoru Iwata mentioned that connectivity with Pokémon Battle Revolution was also still in development;[27] new features such as the Pokétch and time sensitivity were also mentioned.[28][29]

According to Pokémon co-creator Ryan Long, the games were designed with the DS's unique features in mind, such as the Wi-Fi capabilities and slot for Game Boy Advance cartridges.[30] The command buttons in the battle screen are large and color-coded; according to Masuda, this feature would facilitate gameplay for players unable to read.[31] Also, the touchscreen interface was designed to encourage players to use their fingers rather than the stylus to manipulate the screen.[32] Though most of the graphics in Diamond and Pearl are 2D, some of the background elements are 3D.[33][34][35] The decision to retain 2D graphics in Diamond and Pearl drew criticism; in response, Tsunekazu Ishihara said that "we wanted to maintain the original idea of Pokémon being a game that you played on this big map" and explained that physically, the games were in three dimensions but was designed to "maintain the original feel of the game". Responding to criticism over the use of Friend Codes in the games, Ishihara explained that it was a security measure taken to ensure that players would not be able to chat with strangers over the Wi-Fi connection.[36] Nintendo released a statement detailing glitches found in Japanese releases of Diamond and Pearl. The glitches caused players to be stuck in an in-game wall or lose saved data. Nintendo has released patches to certain retailers in Japan to fix these glitches.[37][38]

The games were released in Japan on September 28, 2006. To commemorate the release, Nintendo sold a limited-edition DS Lite in Japanese Pokémon Center stores and through the Pokémon fan club by mail. The consoles featured the games' mascots Dialga and Palkia painted in silver and gold respectively on a metallic black finish.[39] On December 20, 2006, Nintendo of America announced that the North American release of the games was slated for April 22, 2007, and that those who pre-ordered their copies of the games would receive special DS styluses branded with some of the new Pokémon.[40] Shortly before the games' North American release, The Pokémon Company presented a limited demo of the games for Nintendo's booth at the Game Developer's Conference.[41] To celebrate the games' North American release, Nintendo held a release party at the Nintendo World Store in New York City's Rockefeller Plaza.[42] Nintendo of Europe announced a release date of July 27, 2007, for the European Union,[43] and Nintendo Australia announced a June 21 release date.[44] A launch event was held in GAME stores at Hamleys to celebrate the European release of the games. The event, held on July 26, 2007, offered a chance to purchase the games one day before their official release date and featured an appearance by band McFly.[45][46] To celebrate the Australian release of the games, Nintendo launched the nationwide Nintendo DS Connection Tour 07; each stop in the tour featured events such as Pokémon Trading Card Game competitions and Pokémon trivia games.[47]

The success of the games revived the popularity of the Pokémon brand.[48] George Harrison, then Nintendo of America's vice president of marketing, noted that the games were attracting "players of all ages"—from younger children to "grown men and women" and older players who "played the original Pokémon games".[48] As a result, Pokémon USA opened a temporary boutique in the Times Square Toys "R" Us that sold exclusively Pokémon licensed merchandise including Jakks Pacific-created action figures, plush toys, backpacks, and clothing.[49] Ronald Boire, president of Toys "R" Us, stated that the store planned to open temporary boutiques in all 585 of its domestic locations.[50] Other Pokémon merchandise includes a BattleDome Playset and a talking Pokédex.[51] Additionally, Pokémon USA partnered with Burger King in 2008 to launch a promotional campaign in which Burger King included exclusive Pokémon trading cards and accessories with Kids Meals. The promotion lasted from July 7 to August 3 in the United States and continued through the fall internationally.[52]

Nintendo DS PokÃ©mon Diamond & Pearl Super Music Collection is a two-disc soundtrack featuring music scored by Hitomi Sato and Junichi Masuda under the supervision of Go Ichinose, with a few other fanfares composed by Morikazu Aoki.[53] The album, released in Japan on December 22, 2006, peaked at #253 on Japan's Oricon charts and charted for one week.[54]

Pokémon Diamond and Pearl garnered slightly higher ratings than FireRed and LeafGreen and Ruby and Sapphire. The Japanese version of the games have an 85 out of 100 on Metacritic and an 85% ("generally favorable reviews") on GameRankings. The highest score given was a 92 by UK Official Nintendo Magazine, while the lowest was a 67 by Game Revolution.[64] Ryan Davis of GameSpot gave the games an 8.5/10 ("Great") and called the games "the most well-rounded Pokémon games to date."[34] IGN and GameZone also gave the games an 8.5/10.[35][1] The UK Official Nintendo Magazine gave the games 92%, and GameSpy gave them a 4.5/5.[65] The games received slightly lower reviews from ComputerAndVideoGames.com than Ruby/Sapphire had, but earned an "A-" grade from 1UP.com, an improvement from Ruby/Sapphire's "B-".[2][59]

Most reviewers felt that though the gameplay and storyline had not changed much since the first games, Diamond and Pearl were still engaging. Ryan Davis of GameSpot said, "[I]t's a little surprising how well the formula holds up in Diamond and Pearl, which is a testament to the strong fundamentals of the series as well as the quality of the execution."[34] The games' Wi-Fi connectivity also earned largely positive reviews. 1UP.com called the addition of wireless connectivity the games' "biggest improvements".[2] GameSpot and GameSpy both listed the addition of online play as one of the positive points of the games and called the system "robust" and "probably the most significant new feature."[34][62] ComputerAndVideoGames.com said of the Global Trade Center, "Suddenly, Pokémon feels properly alive for the first time since playgrounds were abuzz with monsters in the late '90s – and you'll instantly forgive Game Freak their technical stubbornness the first time you switch on your DS and find the level 100 Munchlax you craved is on your cart."[59]

The graphics generally received positive reviews. GameSpot praised the blend of 2D and 3D graphics, and GameZone said that the graphics were "better than what I had originally imagined" and that "a Pokemon title hasn't ever looked this good on a handheld."[34][35] GameSpy felt that the graphics, though simple, made the game "a pleasure to explore".[66] ComputerAndVideoGames.com, however, said that "the so-called '3D' isn't up to much: it's just a viewpoint shuffle, with DS's gutsy engine taking a nice long nap between the odd hypnotic windfarm or fog effect."[67] The audio was not so well-received: IGN felt that the cries made by the PokÃ©mon "still screech with the flair of the original Game Boy" and that the music, while "more advanced", was "not much beyond [Game Boy Advance] quality".[68] GameZone also felt that the sounds had not been updated, saying "This [the audio] is the only area that hasn't taken one step forward. It remains stagnant and doesn't show any progression over the GBA titles".[35] GameSpot cited the games' "recycled" sounds as one of the negative points.[34]

First released in Japan in 2006, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl have the most successful launch week of games in the Pokémon series, and the best launch week for any Nintendo DS game for the country alone.[69] Within forty-six days, the games sold three million units, becoming the fastest DS games to do so; by the end of the year, the number increased to five million units in just under three months, making Diamond and Pearl the best-selling Pokémon games in Japan.[70][71] In the United States, pre-orders for Diamond and Pearl passed 533,000,[72] almost twice the pre-sale numbers for FireRed and LeafGreen.[73] Within five days of release, the games sold around one million copies and were the fastest-selling Pokémon games ever until the release of Pokémon Platinum.[74][75] The games were the seventh-best-selling video games of 2007, with around 4.27 million units sold in the United States;[76] in early 2009 sales passed 5.3 million units.[77] As of October 15, 2013, Pokémon Diamond and Pearl combined have sold 17.63 million copies worldwide,[78] making their sales totals around one million higher than those of Ruby/Sapphire and around six million higher than those of FireRed/LeafGreen.[79][80][81] The games also boosted sales of hardware in the United States, spurring the sales of 471,000 DS units and causing the sales of video games in April 2007 to rise 20% from April 2006.[82] In Europe, the games sold around 1.6 million units within just seven weeks of their release and topped the charts in Spain, Germany, and the United Kingdom.[83][84][85] Additionally, there have been more than 10 million Pokémon trades via Wi-Fi.[86] At G4's G-phoria 2007, the games won "Best Handheld Game", and were nominated for "Best RPG".[87] In 2008 Pokémon Diamond and Pearl were nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts Children's Kids Vote Award.[88] In IGN's Best of 2007 Awards, Diamond and Pearl were named the best online multiplayer games and the best RPG games.[89][90] In the 2006 Famitsu Game Awards, Diamond and Pearl won the Best Hit award and tied with Final Fantasy XII for the Game of the Year award.[91]

Pokémon Platinum Version (ポケットモンスタープラチナ, Poketto Monsutā Purachina, "Pocket Monsters: Platina") is an enhanced remake of Pokémon Diamond and Pearl developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console. It was released on September 13, 2008 in Japan, March 22, 2009 in North America, May 14, 2009 in Australia, and May 22, 2009 in Europe. The developers made Platinum with the intent of making it a stronger version of Diamond and Pearl, which they described as the "ultimate" Pokémon titles.

PokÃ©mon Platinum has been met with generally positive reception, holding aggregate scores of 84 and 83.14% at Metacritic and GameRankings respectively. It was praised for the additions and changes made to Diamond and Pearl by publications such as IGN, Nintendo Power, and GamePro, though it has been criticized for being too similar to them. IGN included it as the ninth best Nintendo DS game ever made, as well as nominating it as one of the best DS role-playing games of 2009. It was the fastest-selling game in Japan at the time, selling 7.06 million copies by May 7, 2010.

Pokémon Battle Revolution (ポケモンバトルレボリューション, Pokémon Batoru Reboryūshon) is the first Wii incarnation of the Pokémon video game franchise. It is also the first Wii game to use the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection in North America and Japan and the first Wii game to wirelessly interact with the Nintendo DS handheld.

My Pokémon Ranch (みんなのポケモン牧場, Minna no Pokemon Bokujō, Everyone's Pokémon Ranch) is a Wii game developed by Ambrella and released via the WiiWare download service. First released on March 25, 2008, in Japan, it was later made available in North America on June 9, 2008, and in Europe on July 4, 2008,[92] for 1000 Wii Points.[93] Like the GameCube's Pokémon Box, Ranch allows players to store and arrange Pokémon from Diamond and Pearl. Pokémon transferred from those games are rendered in 3D and can interact with the player's Miis. Although given positive reviews by parents and children, it was received very poorly by critics, who criticized it for its graphics, one responding "I can't even tell what these things are! I bet the children can't either!".


of which indian state mandovi and 'zuari' are major rivers

The Mahadayi/Mandovi River (Mandovi, pronounced [maːɳɖ(ɔ)wĩː]), also known as Mahadayi or Mhadei river, is described as the lifeline of the Indian state of Goa. The river has a length of 77 kilometres (48 miles), 29 kilometres (18 miles) in Karnataka and 52 kilometres (32 miles) in Goa. It originates from a cluster of 30 springs at Bhimgad in the Western Ghats in the Belagavi district of Karnataka.[2] The river has a 2,032 km2 catchment area in Karnataka and a 1,580 km2 catchment area in Goa.[3] With its cerulean waters, Dudhsagar Falls and Varapoha Falls, it is also known as the Gomati in a few places. The Mandovi and the Zuari are the two primary rivers in the state of Goa.

Mandovi River

The Mandovi enters Goa from the north via the Sattari Taluka in Goa and from Uttara Kannada District of Karnataka near the Castle Rock Rly. Stn. The Mandovi flows through Belagavi, Uttara Kannada in Karnataka and Cumbarjua, Divadi and ChodnÃ© in Goa, eventually pouring into the Arabian Sea. Mandovi joins with the Zuari at a common point at Cabo Aguada, forming the Mormugao harbour. Panaji, the state capital and Old Goa, the former capital of Goa, are both situated on the left bank of the Mandovi. The river Mapusa is a tributary of the Mandovi.

The Cumbarjuem Canal, which links both rivers, has made the interiors of the Mandovi accessible to ships carrying iron ore. Iron ore is Goa's prime mineral and it is mined in the eastern hills. Three large freshwater isles — Divar, Chorao and Vashee are present in the Mandovi near the town of Old Goa. The island of Chorão is home to the Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary, named after the renowned ornithologist Salim Ali. A regular ferry transports the inhabitants between the isles and the mainland.

Spanning across the Mandovi River near Panjim is the majestic Mandovi Bridge. The bridge collapsed in the 1980s before a new bridge was constructed to accommodate heavy transport vehicles. The Mandovi Bridge links the towns of Panjim to Porvorim. On 14 June 2014, the foundation stone for the third bridge, which would be the largest bridge in Goa, was laid by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. It will span 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) and will be 15 metres (49 feet) higher than the existing bridges and will be spaced in between the two.

During the winter months, the peak tourist season, special dusk cruises on the Mandovi - complete with serenading bands - add to the charm of the river.[4]

The sharing of the waters of this river is a cause of dispute between the governments of Karnataka and Goa. The Karnataka government proposes to divert some water from the Mahadayi river to the Malaprabha river basin as part of the Kalasa-Banduri Nala project, as approximately 200 tmc feet of water flows into the Arabian Sea now without being used for anything. The Mahadayi Water Tribunal has to decide on the sharing of this river's waters between Karnataka and Goa. There may be a dam built in Old Goa for allotment of water to the two states. Sharing justice may be 30:70.


where is parris island marine boot camp located

Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island (often abbreviated as MCRD PI) is an 8,095-acre (32.76 km2) military installation located within Port Royal, South Carolina, approximately 5 miles (8.0 km) south of Beaufort, the community that is typically associated with the installation. MCRD Parris Island is used for the training of enlisted Marines. Male recruits living east of the Mississippi River and female recruits from all over the United States report here to receive their initial training. Male recruits living west of the Mississippi River receive their training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, California, but may train at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island by special request.

A French Huguenot expedition, led by Jean Ribault in 1562, was the first European group to attempt to colonize Parris Island. Earlier Spanish expeditions had sighted the area, and named it "Punta de Santa Elena", which now remains one of the oldest continuously used European place names in the United States. The French expedition built an outpost named Charlesfort, and Ribault left a small garrison as he returned to France for colonists and supplies. After a long absence, due to Ribault's delay from wars in Europe, Charlesfort was abandoned after the garrison mutinied, built a ship on the island, and sailed back to France in April 1563. In 1566 the Spanish, led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés founded a settlement named Santa Elena which became the capital of La Florida for the next decade. Spain finally abandoned Santa Elena in 1587. England took control of the region by the 17th century, and Parris Island became home to British plantations after being purchased by Colonel Alexander Parris, treasurer of the South Carolina colony, in 1715. From the 1720s to the Civil War, the island was divided into a number of plantations, initially growing indigo, then later cotton. During and after the Civil War, the island became home to freed slaves, and was a site of freedmen schools taught by abolitionists such as Frances Gage and Clara Barton.

Union forces captured Port Royal Sound in 1861, and Parris Island became a coaling station for the Navy. This function was taken up again after the war, thanks in large part to the former slave turned Congressman Robert Smalls, who fought for the creation of a new federal military installation on the island.

Marines were first assigned to Parris Island on June 26, 1891, in the form of a small security detachment headed by First Sergeant Richard Donovan, two corporals and 10 privates.[2] This unit was attached to the Naval Station, Port Royal, the forerunner of Parris Island. Donovan's unit was highly commended for preserving life and property during hurricanes and storm surges that swept over the island in 1891 and 1893.

Military buildings and homes constructed between 1891 and World War I form the nucleus of the Parris Island Historic District. At the district center are the commanding general's home, a 19th-century wooden dry dock and a start of the 20th century gazeboâ€”all of which are on the National Register of Historic Places.[3]

On November 1, 1915, Parris Island was officially designated a Marine Corps Recruit Depot and training was continued from then on.

Prior to 1929, a ferry provided all transportation to and from the island from Port Royal docks to the Recruit Depot docks. In that year the causeway and a bridge over Archer's Creek were completed, thus ending the water transportation era. The causeway was dedicated as the General E. A. Pollock Memorial Causeway in April 1984. During the fateful December 1941, 5,272 recruits arrived there with 9,206 arriving the following month, making it necessary to add the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th Recruit Training Battalions. As the war influx continued, five battalions were sent to New River, North Carolina, to train, and the Depot expanded to 13 battalions. From 1941 through 1945, the Marines trained 204,509 recruits here and at the time of the Japanese surrender, the Depot contained more than 20,000 recruits.

On February 15, 1949, the Marines activated a separate "command" for the sole purpose of training female recruits. Later, this command was designated the 4th Recruit Training Battalion and it now serves as the only battalion in the Corps for training female recruits, and is the only all-female unit in the Department of Defense.

The Korean War began in 1950 when 2,350 recruits were in training. From then until the 1st Marine Division withdrew from Korea, Parris Island drill instructors trained more than 138,000 recruits. During March 1952, the training load peaked at 24,424 recruits. The recruit tide again flooded during the years of the Vietnam War, reaching a peak training load of 10,979 during March 1966.

On the night of April 8, 1956, the Ribbon Creek incident resulted in the drowning of six recruits, and led to widespread changes in recruit training policies. Supervision of drill instructors was expanded, such as the introduction of the Series Commander.

On October 11, 2002, the Town of Port Royal annexed the entire island,[4] although most visitors still associate the installation with Beaufort, a larger community five miles to the north.

On June 17, 2011, Brigadier General Lori Reynolds became the first female commander of the base.[5]

At the next change of command on June 20, 2014, Brigadier General Terry Williams became the first African-American commander of the base.[6][7][8]

The Marines train about 17,000 recruits at Parris Island each year. Recruit training for those enlisted in the United States Marine Corps includes a thirteen-week process during which the recruit becomes cut off from the civilian world and must adapt to a Marine Corps lifestyle. During training, the drill instructors train recruits in a wide variety of subjects including weapons training, Marine Corps Martial Arts Program, personal hygiene and cleanliness, close order drill, and Marine Corps history. The training emphasizes physical fitness and combat effectiveness. Recruits must attain a minimum standard of fitness to graduate. This standard includes a Physical Fitness Test and a Combat Fitness Test. Recruits must also meet minimum combat-oriented swimming qualifications, qualify in rifle marksmanship with the M16A4 service rifle, pass minimum curriculum standards and complete a 54-hour simulated combat exercise known as "The Crucible".


how do you say peace be with you in muslim

As-salāmu ʿalaykum (Arabic: السَّلَامُ عَلَيْكُمْ [asːaˈlaːmu ʕaˈlajkum]) is a greeting in Arabic that means "peace be upon you". The greeting is a standard salutation among Muslims, whether socially or within worship and other contexts. [1] The typical response to the greeting is wa ʿalaykumu s-salām (وَعَلَيْكُمُ السَّلَام) "and upon you be peace".

As-salamu alaykum

This greeting appears in greatly abbreviated forms in many languages from Malagasy to Urdu as some variant of salām (سَلَام; cf. Persian سلام [sæˈlɒːm]).

The expression uses the second person plural masculine, even when used to address one person. It may be modified by choosing the appropriate enclitic pronoun to address a person in the masculine and feminine singular form, the dual form, or the feminine plural form. The conjugations are as follow (note: according to the standard pronunciation rules of Classical Arabic, the last short vowel in each word is not pronounced unless it is followed by another word):

A third-person variant,  ʿalayhi as-salām "peace be upon him", is often used in for divine figures.

It is also preferred to use the greeting when arriving and also while leaving. It was reported that Abu Hurairah said "When one of you joins a gathering, let him say 'Peace'. When he wants to get up and leave, let him say 'Peace'. The former is not more important than the latter" (Hasan hadith reported in Jāmiʿ at-Tirmidhi).[2]


what connects the two halves of the cerebral cortex

The corpus callosum (/ˈkɔːrpəs kəˈloʊsəm/; Latin for "tough body"), also callosal commissure, is a wide commissure, a flat bundle of commissural fibers, about 10 cm long[citation needed] beneath the cerebral cortex in the brains of placental mammals. It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres, and enables communication between the hemispheres. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, consisting of 200–250 million axonal projections.[1]

Corpus callosum

The posterior end of the corpus callosum, near to the cerebellum, is called the splenium. This is the thickest part, and overlaps the tela chorioidea of the third ventricle and the mid-brain, and ends in a thick, convex, free border. Splenium translates as bandage in Greek. A sagittal section of the brain shows that the posterior end of the corpus callosum is acutely bent forward, the upper and lower parts being applied to each other.

The anterior end near to the frontal lobes is called the genu ("knee"). The genu of the corpus callosum is bent downward and backward in front of the septum pellucidum; diminishing rapidly in thickness. It is prolonged backward under the name of the rostrum, and is connected below with the lamina terminalis, which stretches from the interventricular foramina to the recess at the base of the optic stalk. The rostrum is so named for its resemblance to a bird's beak.

The anterior cerebral arteries are in contact with the under surface of the rostrum; they then arch over the front of the genu, and are carried backward above the body of the corpus callosum.

The body or truncus of the corpus callosum is between the splenium and the genu. A narrowed part between the body and the splenium is known as the isthmus of the corpus callosum.

On either side of the corpus callosum, the fibers radiate in the white matter and pass to the various parts of the cerebral cortex; those curving forward from the genu into the frontal lobe constitute the forceps anterior, and those curving backward into the occipital lobe, the forceps posterior. Between these two parts is the main body of the fibers which constitute the tapetum and extend laterally on either side into the temporal lobe, and cover in the central part of the lateral ventricle.

Thinner axons in the genu connect the prefrontal cortex between the two halves of the brain; these fibres arise from a fork-like bundle of fibers from the tapetum, the forceps anterior. Thicker axons in the mid body, or trunk of the corpus callosum, interconnect areas of the motor cortex, with proportionately more of the corpus callosum dedicated to supplementary motor regions including Broca's area. The posterior body of the corpus, known as the splenium, communicates somatosensory information between the two halves of the parietal lobe and the visual cortex at the occipital lobe, these are the fibres of the forceps posterior.[2][3]

In a study of five- to eighteen-year-olds there was found to be a positive correlation between age and callosal thickness.[1]

The corpus callosum and its relation to sex has been a subject of debate in the scientific and lay communities for over a century. Initial research in the early 20th century claimed the corpus to be different in size between men and women. That research was in turn questioned, and ultimately gave way to more advanced imaging techniques that appeared to refute earlier correlations. However, advanced analytical techniques of computational neuroanatomy developed in the 1990s showed that sex differences were clear but confined to certain parts of the corpus callosum, and that they correlated with cognitive performance in certain tests.[4] One recent study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) found that the midsagittal corpus callosum cross-sectional area is, after controlling brain size, on average, proportionately larger in females.[5]

Using diffusion tensor sequences on MRI machines, the rate at which molecules diffuse in and out of a specific area of tissue, anisotropy can be measured and used as an indirect measurement of anatomical connection strength. These sequences have found consistent sex differences in human corpus callosal morphology and microstructure.[which?][6][7][8]

Morphometric analysis has also been used to study specific three-dimensional mathematical relationships with MRIs, and have found consistent and statistically significant differences across genders.[9][10] Specific algorithms have found significant differences between the two genders in over 70% of cases in one review.[11]

The front portion of the human corpus callosum has been reported to be significantly larger in musicians than nonmusicians,[12] and to be 0.75Â cm2[13] or 11% larger in left-handed and ambidextrous people than right-handed people.[13][14] This difference is evident in the anterior and posterior regions of the corpus callosum, but not in the splenium.[13] Other magnetic resonance morphometric study showed corpus callosum size correlates positively with verbal memory capacity and semantic coding test performance.[15] Children with dyslexia tend to have smaller and less-developed corpus callosums than their nondyslexic counterparts.[16][17]

Musical training has shown to increase plasticity of the corpus callosum during a sensitive period of time in development. The implications are an increased coordination of hands, differences in white matter structure, and amplification of plasticity in motor and auditory scaffolding which would serve to aid in future musical training. The study found children who had begun musical training before the age of six (minimum 15 months of training) had an increased volume of their corpus callosum and adults who had begun musical training before the age of 11 also had increased bimanual coordination.[18]

The symptoms of refractory epilepsy can be reduced by cutting the corpus callosum in an operation known as a corpus callosotomy.[19] This is usually reserved for cases in which complex or grand mal seizures are produced by an epileptogenic focus on one side of the brain, causing an interhemispheric electrical storm. The work up for this procedure involves an electroencephalogram, MRI, PET scan, and evaluation by a specialized neurologist, neurosurgeon, psychiatrist, and neuroradiologist before surgery can be considered.[20]

The formation of the corpus callosum begins with the first midline crossing of pioneer axons around week 12 of the human prenatal development,[21] or embryonic day 15 of the mouse.[22] Agenesis of the corpus callosum (ACC) is a rare congenital disorder that is one of the most common brain malformations observed in human beings,[23] in which the corpus callosum is partially or completely absent. ACC is usually diagnosed within the first two years of life, and may manifest as a severe syndrome in infancy or childhood, as a milder condition in young adults, or as an asymptomatic incidental finding. Initial symptoms of ACC usually include seizures, which may be followed by feeding problems and delays in holding the head erect, sitting, standing, and walking. Other possible symptoms may include impairments in mental and physical development, hand-eye coordination, and visual and auditory memory. Hydrocephaly may also occur. In mild cases, symptoms such as seizures, repetitive speech, or headaches may not appear for years. Some syndromes that are often associated with ACC are Aicardi syndrome, Andermann syndrome, Shapiro syndrome, and acrocallosal syndrome.

ACC is usually not fatal. Treatment usually involves management of symptoms, such as hydrocephaly and seizures, if they occur. Although many children with the disorder lead normal lives and have average intelligence, careful neuropsychological testing reveals subtle differences in higher cortical function compared to individuals of the same age and education without ACC. Children with ACC accompanied by developmental delay and/or seizure disorders should be screened for metabolic disorders.[24]

In addition to agenesis of the corpus callosum, similar conditions are hypogenesis (partial formation), dysgenesis (malformation), and hypoplasia (underdevelopment, including too thin).

Recent studies have also linked possible correlations between corpus callosum malformation and autism spectrum disorders.[25]

Kim Peek, a savant and the inspiration behind the movie Rain Man, was found with agenesis of the corpus callosum.

Anterior corpus callosum lesions may result in akinetic mutism or anomic aphasia. See also:

The first study of the corpus with relation to gender was by R. B. Bean, a Philadelphia anatomist, who suggested in 1906 that "exceptional size of the corpus callosum may mean exceptional intellectual activity" and that there were measurable differences between men and women. Perhaps reflecting the political climate of the times, he went on to claim differences in the size of the callosum across different races. His research was ultimately refuted by Franklin Mall, the director of his own laboratory.[26]

Of more mainstream impact was a 1982 Science article by Holloway and Utamsing that suggested sex difference in human brain morphology, which related to differences in cognitive ability.[27] Time published an article in 1992 that suggested that, because the corpus is "often wider in the brains of women than in those of men, it may allow for greater cross-talk between the hemispheres—possibly the basis for women’s intuition."[28]

More recent publications in the psychology literature have raised doubt as to whether the anatomic size of the corpus is actually different. A meta-analysis of 49 studies since 1980 found that, contrary to de Lacoste-Utamsing and Holloway, no sex difference could be found in the size of the corpus callosum, whether or not account was taken of larger male brain size.[26] A study in 2006 using thin slice MRI showed no difference in thickness of the corpus when accounting for the size of the subject.[29]

The corpus callosum is found only in placental mammals (the eutherians), while it is absent in monotremes and marsupials,[30] as well as other vertebrates such as birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish.[31] (Other groups do have other brain structures that allow for communication between the two hemispheres, such as the anterior commissure, which serves as the primary mode of interhemispheric communication in marsupials,[32][33] and which carries all the commissural fibers arising from the neocortex (also known as the neopallium), whereas in placental mammals, the anterior commissure carries only some of these fibers.[34]) In primates, the speed of nerve transmission depends on its degree of myelination, or lipid coating. This is reflected by the diameter of the nerve axon. In most primates, axonal diameter increases in proportion to brain size to compensate for the increased distance to travel for neural impulse transmission. This allows the brain to coordinate sensory and motor impulses. However, the scaling of overall brain size and increased myelination have not occurred between chimpanzees and humans. This has resulted in the human corpus callosum's requiring double the time for interhemispheric communication as a macaque's.[2] The fibrous bundle at which the corpus callosum appears, can and does increase to such an extent in humans that it encroaches upon and wedges apart the hippocampal structures.[35]

Coronal T2 (grey scale inverted) MRI of the brain at the level of the caudate nuclei emphasizing corpus callosum

Corpus callosum parts on MRI

DTI Corpus callosum

Ventricles of brain and basal ganglia.Superior view. Horizontal section.Deep dissection

Cerebrum. Inferior view.Deep dissection


what is the difference between a raven and a crow in australia

The Australian raven (Corvus coronoides) is a passerine bird in the genus Corvus native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring 46–53 centimetres (18–21 in) in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs and feet. The upperparts are glossy, with a purple, blue or green sheen, and its black feathers have grey bases. The Australian raven is distinguished from the Australian crow species by its throat hackles, which are prominent in adult birds. Older adult individuals have white irises, younger adults have a white irises with an inner blue rim, while younger birds have dark brown irises until fifteen months of age, and hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months. Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield described the Australian raven in 1827, its species name highlighting its similarity with the carrion crow (C. corone). Two subspecies are recognised, which differ slightly in calls and are quite divergent genetically.

Australian raven

Corvus affinis Brehm, 1845
Corvus marianae Mathews, 1911
Corvus difficilis Stresemann, 1943
Corvus australis Gmelin, 1788
Corone australis (Gmelin)

The preferred habitat is open woodland and transitional zones. It has adapted well to urban environments and is a common city bird in Sydney, Canberra and Perth. An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder, it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material, as well as food waste from urban areas. In eastern Australia its range is strongly correlated with the presence of sheep, and it has been blamed for killing lambs. However, this is very rare, and the raven most often scavenges for afterbirth and stillborn animals as well as newborn lamb faeces. The Australian raven is territorial, with pairs generally bonding for life. Breeding takes place between July and September, with almost no variation across its range. The nest is a bowl-shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree, or occasionally in a man-made structure such as a windmill or other building.

The Australian raven was first described by Nicholas Aylward Vigors and Thomas Horsfield in 1827, when they reported George Caley's early notes on the species from the Sydney district.[2] Its specific epithet coronoides "crow-shaped" is derived from the Greek corone/κορόνη "crow" and eidos/είδος "shape" or "form".[3] The two naturalists regarded the Australian raven as very similar in appearance to the carrion crow (C. corone) of Europe,[4] though they noted it was larger with a longer bill. They did not give it a common name.[2] The location where the type specimen was collected is not recorded, but thought to be in the Parramatta district.[5] Christian Ludwig Brehm described Corvus affinis in 1845,[6] later determined to be this species.[7] In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia, John Gould recognised only one species of corvid in Australia, Corvus australis, which he called the white-eyed crow. He used Johann Friedrich Gmelin's 1788 name,[a] which predated Vigors and Horsfield's description.[10] In 1877 Richard Bowdler Sharpe recognised two species, but recorded that the feather bases of the type specimen of C. coronoides were white. He named C. coronoides as the "crow" and C. australis (as Corone australis) the "raven".[5] Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie-Grant corrected this in 1912 after re-examining the type specimen, clarifying the species as C. coronoides (raven, and incorporating little and forest ravens) and C. cecilae (Torresian crow).[11]

Gregory Mathews described the western subspecies perplexus in 1912, naming it the southwestern crow and noting that it was smaller than the nominate subspecies. He called C. coronoides coronoides the eastern crow, listing its range as New South Wales, and described what is now the Australian crow as another subspecies, C. coronoides cecilae, calling it the north-western crow and recording its range as northwestern Australia. In the same work he listed the raven as Corvus marianae, with a type specimen from Gosford and listing its range as New South Wales. He listed the little raven and forest raven as subspecies.[12] Mathews had erected C. marianae in 1911 as the name after declaring Corvus australis Gould to be preoccupied;[13] French-American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym—in 1788, Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird—to preserve the stability of the name.[14] This has been followed by later authors.[15]

German ornithologist Erwin Stresemann lumped all Australian corvids plus other species as far as India into a single species, C. coronoides, as he believed there was intergradation between all characteristics such as iris colour, colour of feather bases and plumage. This was hotly disputed by Mathews. The official RAOU checklist listed three species (Australian raven, Torresian crow and little crow), with the little raven recognised as a fourth species in 1967 and forest raven in 1970. Streseman described C. difficilis in 1943 from a single specimen, now thought to have been an unusual Australian raven or an Australian raven/Torresian crow hybrid.[5]

Alternative names sometimes seen include southern raven, southern crow and Kelly,[4] the last thought to have alluded to the Kelly Gang, though did not appear until the 1920s. Southern crow was considered by the RAOU before Australian raven was adopted as the official name for the species in 1926.[16] The term "crow" is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid.[5] The Australian raven was called wugan by the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney Basin.[17]

The Australian raven's closest relatives are the other two species of raven occurring in Australia: the little raven and forest raven. The Australian raven is also somewhat closely related to the Torresian and little crow, although not as closely related as it is to the other raven species. Initial single gene genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another. The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the little raven may be nested within the Australian raven, though the authors conceded more genetic work was needed.[18] Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by JÃ¸nsson and colleagues in 2012 showed the eastern and western subspecies of the Australian raven to form two clades, almost as genetically distinct as the forest and little raven are to each other. This led the authors to propose that the subspecies be recognised as separate species.[19]

Australian raven (eastern subspecies)

Australian raven (western subspecies)

Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north,[20] which molecular evidence indicates occurred in the early Pliocene epoch around 4 million years ago.[19] The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west,[20] this split occurring around 2 million years ago in the early Pleistocene.[19] As the climate became cooler and drier, the aridity of central Australia split them entirely. Furthermore, the eastern birds diverged into nomadic little ravens and, in forested refuges, forest ravens. As the climate eventually became warmer, the western birds spread eastwards and almost outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia. Rowley noted that the western subspecies of the Australian raven had features intermediate between the eastern subspecies of Australian and little ravens.[20]

Two subspecies are recognised:

Measuring 46–53 cm (18–21 in) in length with a 100 cm (39 in) wingspan and weighing around 650 g (1.43 lb),[4] the adult Australian raven is an all black-bird with a black beak, mouth and tongue and sturdy black or grey-black legs and feet.[23] The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long, and the feet large and strong.[24] It has white irises.[23] The plumage is glossy with a blue-purple to blue-green sheen, greenish over the ear coverts, depending on light. The underparts are not glossy.[25] The Australian raven has throat feathers (hackles) that are lanceolate with rounded tips, while the other four species of Australian corvids have bifurcate tips, though this can be difficult to see in the field.[21] The hackles are also longer than those of the other four species; when they are raised (such as when the bird is calling), they give the bird an unusual bearded appearance. The upper third of the upper mandible, including the nares and nasal groove, is covered with bristles,[25] which can be up to 3 cm (1.2 in) long.[26] The heavy-set beak is tipped with a slight hook,[25] and is longer than the bird's head. The wings are long and broad, with the longest of its ten primary feathers (usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth) almost reaching the end of the tail when the bird is at rest. The tail is rounded or wedge-shaped.[24] The Australian raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers, which is white in the latter species. The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows. Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field, but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled.[21] Unlike the other four species, the Australian raven has a bare patch of skin under, and extending to beside, the bill. This can be hard to discern in the field. The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species, with the forest raven the stockiest of all.[27] Relative size of species is only useful when two species can be seen side by side, as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small.[28]

Juveniles resemble adults, but lack throat hackles,[26] and sometimes have a pink fleshy gape.[29] The bill is shorter and shallower;[25] its base can be pinkish and the tip can be light grey.[23] The plumage is more ruffled and softer in appearance, lacks the glossy highlights and often having a brown tinge.[25] The bare skin on the throat is pink in bird that have recently left the nest.[23] Eye colour varies with age, gradually lightening from juvenile to adult.[25] Nestlings up to four months old have blue-grey irises, juveniles aged from four to fifteen months have dark brown irises, and immature birds have hazel irises with an inner blue rim around each pupil until age two years and ten months.[5][b] Immature birds older than one year develop hackles,[24] while some pink remains in the gape until the bird is two or three years of age.[23]

The territorial call of the Australian raven is a slow, high ah-ah-aaaah with the last note drawn out. It uses this call to communicate with other Australian ravens in the area.[30] When giving this call, the species has a horizontal posture, holding its head forward and body parallel to the ground, while perched on a prominent position. It ruffles its hackles and lowers its tail, and sometimes holds its beak open between calls. In contrast, the little raven and forest raven hold their bodies in an upright posture.[28] This call becomes louder if trespassers encroach upon the Australian raven's territory.[31] The five Australian species are very difficult to tell apart, with the call being the easiest way to do so,[4] although the drawing-out of the final note—long held to be solely recorded for the Australian raven—has been recorded for the other species and is hence not diagnostic.[28]

The volume, pitch, tempo and order of notes can be changed depending on the message the Australian raven intends to convey. There are a variety of contact calls: a pair often makes a low murmuring sound when preening each other while roosting, and members of a flock carry on with a quiet chattering while at rest. Birds make a call and answer sequence if temporarily out of sight of one another while foraging. Birds in flocks make a single high-pitched caa while flying over another territory as a transit call to signify they are just passing through. An Australian raven will give a longer caa with a downward inflexion to signify its return to the nest to its mate.[31]

The Australian raven is common throughout eastern Australia,[29] and southern Western Australia (the populations being connected by a narrow strip across the Nullarbor Plain), but it is rarer and more scattered in the north, with isolated sightings in Cape York at Coen, Windmill Creek and the Mitchell River,[32] and becoming more common south of Rockhampton in central Queensland. It is found throughout New South Wales, though is uncommon in the northeast of the state. It is rare in the Australian Alps, being replaced there by the little raven. It occurs across Victoria and eastern South Australia, through the Eyre Peninsula and Nullarbor Plain into Western Australia, across the state north to the Wooramel River.[33] It is found on some offshore islands such as Rottnest Island[34] and Kangaroo Island.[33] It is a rare vagrant to Lord Howe Island.[33]

The Australian raven can be found in a wide range of natural and modified habitats. It requires available water and trees (or buildings) to roost in or perch on. Preferred habitats include eucalypt-dominated sclerophyll forest, and farmland adjacent to trees. It is also found in heath and mangroves. In areas where it occurs with the little raven, namely over much of central New South Wales, Victoria and into South Australia,[21] the Australian raven is restricted to more forested areas while the latter species prefers more open areas.[35] Similarly, in inland Australia it can share range with the little crow, as the two do not appear to compete. However, the ranges of similar-sized forest raven and Torresian crow only narrowly overlap with the Australian raven as all three compete with each other. In central and western regions, Australian ravens and Torresian crows vie for the scattered uncommon trees and outcrops, and only one or the other are found there.[5] It co-occurs with the forest raven in northeastern New South Wales from Port Stephens northwards.[21] The Australian raven has adapted very well to human habitation in some cities and is the most common corvid in Canberra, Sydney and Perth; in Melbourne and Adelaide it is replaced by the little raven,[21] and by the Torresian crow in Brisbane.[36] Its large range, abundance and increasing population mean it is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.[1]

Difficulties in distinguishing Australian corvids has hampered understanding of seasonal movements. The Australian raven is thought to be largely sedentary, with most movement of over 16 km (9.9 mi) due to flocks of non-breeding subadult birds.[37] Juvenile birds leave their parents and join flocks when they are four or five months old. Smaller flocks of 8–30 birds stay within an area of around 260 square kilometres, while larger flocks of up to 300 birds may travel hundreds of kilometres seeking food.[38]

A single breeding pair and their brood can occupy a territory of up to around 120 hectares (300 acres) and remains there year-round, though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage.[37] Australian ravens will defend their territory by chasing, dive-bombing and occasionally striking the backs of birds of prey, foxes or even people.[39] They generally mate for life, though occasionally one male has been found to be mated with two females in adjacent territories.[31] If the female dies, the male Australian raven maintains the territory and finds another mate, while if the male bird is lost, the female abandons the territory.[40] No courtship behaviour has been observed, and species that mate for life often lack elaborate courting displays.[31] Once they begin breeding at three years of age, they live another four to five years on average. During this time they produce two surviving young each year on average.[40] The longest-lived Australian raven recorded is an adult (of at least 3 years of age) that was banded and recaptured alive 12 years and 5 months later.[38]

Australian ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground, though do hop when hurrying. They preen themselves frequently, particularly when roosting in the middle of the day. They also engage in allopreening, where birds will preen each other's head and neck. This takes place particularly in autumn, winter and spring, and is important in pair bonding.[31] Either member may initiate it, generally by landing near the other bird, shuffling next to its mate, then bending its head forward and presenting its nape.[41]

Australian ravens begin breeding once they are three years old.[40] Breeding season is from July to September,[42] with no substantial difference in timing across its range around the country despite it inhabiting a range of diverse climates and habitats across 19 degrees of latitude. Rowley has pointed out this is unusual for a bird species with a wide range and has postulated that breeding is initiated by day length. Rarely, breeding can take place in May, June or October.[43] Australian ravens generally nest in tall trees, never near to the ground as some species do.[32] The nest also functions as a lookout post and so tall or emergent trees are selected.[44] The ravens occasionally nest on buildings, telegraph poles,[32] or tall windmills which allow the species to occupy areas lacking in tall trees. Windmills may have assisted the spread of the species in North Queensland and the Northern Territory. The highest recorded corvid nest in Australia was found atop the AWA Tower in Sydney.[44]

Nests are generally large and untidy, consisting of a bowl or platform of sticks lined with grasses, barks, and feathers that can be up to 5 cm (2.0 in) thick.[45] As they are relatively heavy, they are built on larger forks in trees rather than out in the canopy. Building the nest is often time-consuming initially as the birds try (and often fail) to wedge sticks, which are 30–60 cm (12–24 in) long and 0.6–1.2 cm (1⁄4–1⁄2 in) thick, into the tree fork to make a platform. Thinner sticks and rootlets are used to make the bowl before the bowl is lined with feathers. Both birds build the nest, with the female taking over the lining of the nest while the male brings her material. New nests are built each year generally, as the re-use of old ones might spread disease or parasites—nests become caked with faeces as the nestlings grow and the parents cannot keep up with its removal. Furthermore, old nests often disintegrate within twelve months due to their exposed locations.[44] The female develops a brood patch—a patch of bare skin on the bird's underparts that reddens and becomes much more extensive from around three weeks before the first egg is laid. The skin itself is oedematous and wrinkled, and does not get re-feathered until December after the breeding season has finished.[43]

Their lofty locations makes monitoring of Australian raven nests difficult.[44] A clutch can comprise up to six eggs, though usually four or five are laid, with five being the most common number.[44] Measuring 45 by 30 mm (1 3⁄4 by 1 1⁄4 in), eggs are pale green or bluish-green and splotched with darker olive, brown and blackish markings.[42] Eggs are quite variable, and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified.[44] Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female over roughly 20 days. Incubation is intermittent initially, becoming constant by the time the third or fourth egg is laid.[45] Only one brood is raised per year, though a second clutch may be laid if the first clutch is lost early in the season. Late clutches have poor survival rates, possibly due to chicks getting dehydrated on hot days as the year progresses or being eaten by wedge-tailed eagles.[43] The chicks are altricial and nidicolous; that is, they are born helpless, naked and blind, and remain in the nest for an extended period.[45] They have pink skin until 5 days of age, when feathers under the skin turn it grey. They lose their egg tooth at the same time.[44] Their eyes begin opening at 5 to 6 days of age and are fully open by 11 to 12 days, by which time their feathers begin emerging. At 14 days, their primary feathers begin emerging, and they are fully feathered by 35–36 days old.[45] They leave the nest at 40–45 days of age, and stay with the parents for three to four months after that. They follow their parents and beg for food for the first month outside the nest but are feeding themselves by the third month. Young birds are often attacked when they enter neighbouring territories, and melees ensue as their parents try to defend them and herd them back.[44]

The Australian raven is omnivorous, though eats more meat than smaller corvids. Its diet in summer contains a high proportion of insects, while more plant items are eaten in autumn. Flesh makes up over half its diet in winter. Invertebrates commonly eaten include spiders, millipedes, centipedes (which ravens behead before eating), grasshoppers, cicadas and caterpillars (especially of the family Noctuidae), which are important in feeding nestlings. Australian ravens sometimes eat yabbies (Cherax destructor) from the edges of dams. Unusually for a ground-feeding omnivore, earthworms are rarely eaten. Australian ravens have been reported killing birds of such size as young galahs (Eolophus roseicapillus) and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Most mammals are eaten as carrion, as many species are too large for the raven to kill, though young rabbits are a frequent prey item.[46] Australian ravens drink water frequently, up to ten times a day in hot weather. Birds have been observed dunking pieces of meat in water before eating them,[31] as well as doing the same with hard biscuits to make them soggy and soft.[47]

Australian ravens are intelligent birds, and like many other corvids have innovative methods of seeking out food.[19] Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon; birds rest in the hotter part of the day. Food is taken mainly from the ground, birds either finding objects while flying overhead, or by walking along and looking.[31] However, they occasionally feed in treesâ€”Australian ravens forage eucalypt foliage for Christmas beetles (Anoplognathus), and devote a substantial amount of time to look for nests and eggs to eat. They have also been known to take golf balls from fairways, possibly mistaking them for eggs.[46] Ravens use their bill rather than their feet to explore or turn items on the ground (rocks or sticks) over, or hold or snatch food while flying. They have also been recorded using fence posts as anvils to bash snails against before eating them. Australian ravens most often eat food where they find it unless taking food back for nestlings. Occasionally they have been observed caching carrion or a killed animal in a hole nearby to store it. They can pack shredded meat in their mouth under their tongue.[31] Australian ravens have adapted well to eating food scraps in urban areas, such as school playgrounds, rubbish tips, bins outside supermarkets or restaurants, abattoirs, piggeries and farmyards.[32] In one isolated study, they were observed feeding on nectar from eucalypt flowers.[48] Australian ravens sometimes forage in mixed-species flocks with any of the other four species of Australian corvids. Sometimes they are aggressive with little ravens if both are at a food source and drive them off, though not if the smaller species greatly outnumbers the larger.[49]

A circovirus—given the name raven circovirus or RaCV—was isolated from an Australian raven suffering from feather lesions in 2006. It has affinities with canary circovirus (CaCV) and pigeon circovirus (PiCV). Its clinical significance is unknown.[50] Tick infestation is rare in the Australian raven, with Ixodes holocyclus and Amblyomma triguttatum recorded. Lice and hippoboscid flies have been recorded yet little-researched, and an infestation by the fly Passeromyia longicornis was recorded in one nest.[44]

The wedge-tailed eagle (Aquila audax) preys on adult, nestling, and fledgling Australian ravens, while the little eagle (Hieraaetus morphnoides) also takes nestlings, and powerful owl (Ninox strenua) has been recorded killing adults;[26] other birds of prey are seen as threats, yet there is no evidence they have successfully preyed on the ravens. The introduced red fox (Vulpes vulpes) competes with the Australian raven for carrion and can drive it off. It may also kill young birds that it catches on the ground.[44] The channel-billed cuckoo (Scythrops novaehollandiae) has been recorded as a brood parasite.[26]

Australian ravens die most often by being shot or poisoned—generally by farmers. Despite their fondness for roadkill, fewer ravens are hit by vehicles than Australian magpies. Research in the 1950s and 60s showed that 64% of Australian ravens perished in their first year of life. Immature birds are most at risk of dying as they are more likely to come into conflict with farmers.[38] The Australian Raven is a peaceful bird, showing no aggression toward humans or other birds without reason. However, the Australian raven is frequently blamed for the loss of young lambs.[51] Scientific observation in the country's southeast showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare, but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked.[52] Australian ravens mostly eat faeces (often from the lamb's anus), afterbirth or stillborn lambs.[47][c] Newborn lamb faeces is nutritious, containing around 21–44% protein, 9–37% fat and 10–30% carbohydrate. It has the consistency of treacle and often sticks to the lamb's hindquarters or tail. The raven bites a sleeping lamb's tail, holding on and walking behind it when it wakes up. A healthy lamb would respond by running away or butting the bird, but a sick one might not respond and be attacked further as it alerts the bird that it is vulnerable. Wounded lambs can also succumb to Clostridium infection as these bacteria are present on raven bills.[52] Ravens bring some benefits to agricultural areas as they clean away carrion and eat insects that are potentially damaging to crops.[53] In areas of Western Australia, the species is classified as a Declared Pest of Agriculture under the provisions of the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976, meaning that shooting on private land in rural areas is legal, although should be considered only after other options have been exhausted.[54]

In Australian Aboriginal mythology, Crow is a trickster, culture hero and ancestral being. In the Kulin nation in central Victoria he was known as Waa (also Wahn or Waang) and was regarded as one of two moiety ancestors, the other being the more sombre eaglehawk Bunjil. Legends relating to Crow have been observed in various Aboriginal language groups and cultures across Australia.[55]

To the Noongar people of southwestern Australia, the Australian raven was Waardar, "the Watcher" and was wily and unpredictable. Noongar people were socially divided into two moieties or kinships: waardarng-maat and marrnetj-maat, or members of the Australian raven and long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) respectively.[56]


who sings are you gonna stay the night

"Stay the Night" is a song by Russian-German electronic dance music producer Zedd, from the deluxe edition (2013) of his debut studio album, Clarity (2012). It features vocals from Hayley Williams, the lead singer of American rock group Paramore. The song was written by Zedd, Williams, Benjamin Eli Hanna, and Carah Faye. "Stay the Night" was released to digital retailers on September 10, 2013, by Interscope Records as the lead single off the deluxe edition of Clarity, and the fourth overall single from the album.[3]

Stay the Night (Zedd song)

The song has been compared to Zedd's previous electro house ballad "Clarity", with Critic of Music saying "Stay the Night" is primed for "pop radio".[1] Digital Spy said the song was "generic EDM",[2] and Idolator pointed to its EDM-style club-ready dance beats, "dreamy" synths, and a pop-style vocal.[4] "Stay the Night" received critical acclaim, with some critics noting the song's potential for crossover appeal to audiences of mainstream pop.[4]

The single reached the number one spot on both Billboard's Hot Dance Club Songs and Dance/Mix Show Airplay charts in its December 7, 2013 issue,[5][6] giving Zedd his second number one at Dance Airplay and his third chart-topper at Dance Club Play, while Williams marks her first number one on a Billboard chart (at Dance/Mix Show Airplay) as a solo artist.[7] The song has sold over a million copies in the U.S. as of March 2014.[8]

Idolator editor Mike Wass call the song "another soaring house anthem with massive crossover potential" and praised the "inspired" choice of vocalist: "Hayley Williams puts her trademark angsty rock leanings to the side... and she lends the track a certain credibility outside the ever-growing EDM market."[4]

James Shotwell of the entertainment news blog Under the Gun Review gave "Stay the Night" a mixed review. While stating the song "is destined for dance club glory" and will "fit nicely" on contemporary hit radio, Shotwell also criticized its lack of uniqueness.[9]

Music blog Critic of Music gave the song an Aâ€“ rating, noting that while the song suffers in comparison to previous single "Clarity", particularly in the weakness of its lyrics, "Stay the Night" is still successful at highlighting Williams' "vocal versatility" and Zedd's "excellent, radio-friendly" dance beats.[1]

"Stay the Night" won the MTV Clubland Award in the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards.[10]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone


how many medals did hungary win in the 2012 olympics

Hungary left London originally with a total of 17 medals (8 gold, 4 silver, and 5 bronze), finishing tenth in the overall medal standings. Almost a third of the medals were awarded to the team in sprint canoeing, three in swimming, and two each in judo and wrestling. Three Hungarian athletes, all from sprint canoeing, won more than a single Olympic medal in London. For the first time since 1996, Hungary did not win an Olympic medal in men's water polo.

Hungary at the 2012 Summer Olympics

Hungary competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, from 27 July to 12 August 2012. Hungarian athletes have competed at every Summer Olympic Games in the modern era, except the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, and the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles because of the Soviet boycott. The Hungarian Olympic Committee (Hungarian: Magyar Olimpiai BizottsÃ¡g, MOB) sent the nation's smallest delegation to the Games since 1956. A total of 159 athletes, 97 men and 62 women, competed in 18 sports.

Among the nation's medalists were gymnast Krisztián Berki, who became the fourth Hungarian to claim the title in men's pommel horse after 24 years, and hammer thrower Krisztián Pars, who nearly missed out of the medal standings in Beijing. Katalin Kovács, who won gold and silver in London, emerged as the greatest Hungarian sprint kayaker in history, with a total of eight Olympic medals. Multiple-time European champion László Cseh, who won bronze in London, became one of the most successful Hungarian swimmers in history, with a total of five Olympic medals. Meanwhile, former Olympic silver medalist Dániel Gyurta, set a world record to win the gold in men's breaststroke swimming. Éva Risztov, who retired from the pool after competing in two of her events, became an Olympic champion in women's open water marathon.

On 7 November 2012, the International Olympic Committee stripped Uzbek wrestler Soslan Tigiev of his bronze medal after testing positive for the prohibited substance methylhexaneamine. Gábor Hatos, who lost to Tigiev in the final repechage bout, was subsequently awarded the bronze medal.[1]

Magyar Olimpiai Bizottság (MOB) selected a team of 159 athletes, 97 men and 62 women, to compete in 18 sports; it was the nation's smallest delegation sent to the Olympics since 1956. Water polo and men's handball were the only team-based sports in which Hungary had its representation in these Olympic games. There was only a single competitor in road cycling, triathlon, and weightlifting. Swimming was the largest team by sport, with a total of 31 competitors.

The Hungarian team featured past Olympic champions, three of them defending (sprint kayakers Katalin Kovács and Nataša Dušev-Janić, and the men's national water polo team). Dusev-Janics, who won a total of three gold medals for Hungary, previously competed as part of the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 2000. Six Hungarian athletes made their fifth Olympic appearance: sprint canoer and multiple-time Olympic champion Zoltán Kammerer, water polo player Tamás Kásás, table tennis player Krisztina Tóth, fencers Géza Imre and Aida Mohamed, and windsurfer Áron Gádorfalvi. Double trap shooter Richárd Bognár, at age 45, was the oldest athlete of the team, while butterfly swimmer Liliána Szilágyi was the youngest at age 15. Péter Biros, who led his water polo team by winning the gold medal in three consecutive Olympic Games, was the nation's flag bearer at the opening ceremony.

Other notable Hungarian athletes featured swimmer and triple Olympic silver medalist László Cseh, pommel horse gymnast and two-time defending world champion Krisztián Berki, hammer thrower and multiple-time World Challenge champion Krisztián Pars, and sabre fencer Áron Szilágyi.

The following is the list of number of competitors participating in the Games:

Hungarian athletes have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following athletics events (up to a maximum of 3 athletes in each event at the 'A' Standard, and 1 at the 'B' Standard):[2][3]

Track & road events

Combined events – Decathlon

Track & road events

Combined events – Heptathlon

Hungary has so far qualified boxers for the following events

Hungary has qualified boats for the following events

Legend: FA = Qualify to final (medal); FB = Qualify to final B (non-medal); OB = Olympic Best

Hungary has qualified 4 fencers.

Hungary has qualified three athletes.

The following is the Hungary roster in the men's handball tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics.[4]

Head coaches: Lajos Mocsai

FT: 27–27 ET: 3–3, 3–4

Bronze medal game

Hungary has qualified two men and two women.

* Did not finish

Hungary has qualified the following boats.

Qualification Legend: FA=Final A (medal); FB=Final B (non-medal); FC=Final C (non-medal); FD=Final D (non-medal); FE=Final E (non-medal); FF=Final F (non-medal); SA/B=Semifinals A/B; SC/D=Semifinals C/D; SE/F=Semifinals E/F; QF=Quarterfinals; R=Repechage

Hungary has qualified 1 boat for each of the following events

Legend: M=Medal race; DNF=Did not finish; EL= Eliminated â€“ did not advance into the medal race;

Swimmers have so far achieved qualifying standards in the following events (up to a maximum of 2 swimmers in each event at the Olympic Qualifying Time (OQT), and potentially 1 at the Olympic Selection Time (OST)):[13][14]

Gábor Financsek[15] was designated to compete in 4 × 100 m medley relay, Orsolya Tompa[16] and Brigitta Gregus[17] were designated to compete in 4 × 100 m medley relay, Sára Joó[18] and Vivien Kádas[19] were designated to compete in 4 × 200 m freestyle relay, but they did not participate. They are official members of the Hungarian Olympic Team, but they did not compete in any event.

Hungary has qualified 2 quota places in synchronized swimming.

Two Hungarian table tennis players have qualified for the Games. Based on their world ranking on 16 May 2011 Krisztina T贸th and Georgina P贸ta qualified for the women's singles.[20]

Hungary has qualified the following athletes.

Hungary has qualified a men's and a women's team. The team will have 13 athletes.

The following is the Hungarian roster in the men's water polo tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics.[21]

Semifinals 5â€“8

Fifth place game

The following is the Hungarian roster in the women's water polo tournament of the 2012 Summer Olympics.[22]

Bronze medal game

Hungary has qualified the following quota places.

Hungary has qualified the following quota place.

Men's freestyle

Men's Greco-Roman

Women's freestyle


who invented the 4 way automatic traffic light

The first four-way traffic signal tower in the world was located at the Woodward and Michigan Avenue intersection in October 1920. The tower was manually operated and had 12 lamps, three in each direction. In December 1920, signals were added along Woodward Avenue at Grand River, State, Fort and Congress, but all were controlled from the manual tower at Woodward and Michigan.

William Potts (inventor)

William Potts (May 1883 â€“ 1947), a Detroit police officer, is credited with inventing the modern, three-lens traffic light in Detroit in 1920 (the two-lens, red/green traffic signal was invented in London in 1868).

William Potts was born in Bad Axe, Michigan. The 1900 census lists Potts as 17 years old and a police officer. By 1910, he was married to Grace (Baker) Potts, and they subsequently had 4 children. By 1920, Potts had become the'superintendent, signal person police' for the city of Detroit. Charged with finding a way to control traffic and with the old system of police directing traffic increasing outmoded (there were some two-color signals, with green and red lights already), Potts invented a 'yellow' or 'amber' light which removed the need for police to switch the signal.

Then in 1921, Potts, who was a Superintendent of Signals for the Police Department, installed his first automatic signal light system in 15 towers. During the next 25 years the location and operation of traffic lights throughout the world changed considerably, but the original principle developed by Potts remained. The last traffic tower in Detroit was removed from East Jefferson and Grand Boulevard in 1930. The traffic light system has been modernized with corner posts, hanging center lights and mast arm extensions.

Twenty-six years later, there were more than 600 signalized intersections in Detroit with more than 11,000 lamps in service. Throughout the United States, the American Automobile Association reports, there are more than 36,000 signalized intersections.

According to Potts, the idea for red, green and amber lights was first used by railroads and his first automatic timing device at Woodward and Michigan was built from a sign flasher that cost $37.[citation needed]

“There was a definite growing need for traffic control, or as they say, ‘Necessity is the mother of invention,’” Potts related. “We couldn’t coordinate men at different intersections with a manual system, but we could coordinate automatic electric signals.”

Potts held no patents on the device, but is generally regarded as its inventor. In 1924 the traffic signal device was being made commercially, and in 1928 a legal dispute arose between manufacturers. The United States District Court of Appeals in Chicago handed down a decision in which Potts was credited with constructing and initiating the use of the first four-way traffic signal.

The first traffic lights had only four-inch lenses and the shell was wood with a tin cover. An original lamp was presented to Henry Fordâ€™s collection of Americana at the Edison Institute, Greenfield Village, in 1938.

Potts retired from the police force in 1939 and joined the Safety and Traffic Department at Automobile Club of Michigan. He was initially recognized only locally for his invention and died in obscurity.