the hypogastric region of the abdomen is located

In anatomy, the hypogastrium (also called the hypogastric region or suprapubic region) is a region of the abdomen located below the umbilical region. The pubis bone constitutes its lower limit. The roots of the word hypogastrium mean "below the stomach"; the roots of suprapubic mean "above the pubic bone".

Hypogastrium


how many grand slam matches has federer won

Federer has won the most grand slam tournament titles for a male player (19). He has reached the most finals (29), semifinals (42) and quarterfinals (51). He has participated in the highest number of majors (71), and the most consecutively (65). He has won the most matches at these tournaments (325). He is the only man to reach each final at least five times. He is the only man to win three tournaments five times each. He is the only man to win two of these tournaments five times consecutively. He is one of eight men to win all four majors.

Roger Federer career statistics

3) Formerly known as "Super 9" (1996–1999), "Tennis Masters Series" (2000–2003) or "ATP Masters Series" (2004–2008)

This is a list of the main career statistics of Swiss professional tennis player Roger Federer. All statistics are according to the ATP World Tour website.[1][2] To date, Federer has won ninety-three ATP singles titles including a record nineteen Grand Slam singles titles, twenty-six ATP Masters 1000 titles and a record six Year-End Championships. Federer was also a Gold Medalist in men's doubles with Stan Wawrinka at the 2008 Beijing Olympics and a Silver Medalist in men's singles at the 2012 London Olympics. Representing Switzerland, Federer also won the 2001 Hopman Cup and the 2014 Davis Cup.

Roger Federer is considered by many sports analysts as the greatest tennis player of all time.[3][4][5][6][7]

Federer has won an all-time record 19 Grand Slam singles titles and has reached a record 29 Grand Slam finals (10 consecutive, and another 8 consecutive â€“ the two longest streaks in history, 23 consecutive semi-final appearances, and 36 consecutive quarter-final appearances). He is one of eight men to have won a career Grand Slam (winning all four Grand Slams at least once) and one of four players to have won a career Grand Slam on three different surfaces, hard, grass & clay courts.

Federer has won 8 Wimbledon titles, an all-time record. He is the only male player in history to reach 11 Wimbledon finals. He is the only player to win three different majors at least 5 times (Australian Open, Wimbledon, and US Open) and is the only player to win two Grand Slams five consecutive times, at Wimbledon from 2003–07 and the US Open from 2004–08. Roger Federer has spent 302 weeks as the No. 1 ranked player in the world (ranked No. 1 for 237 consecutive weeks), the most of any men's tennis player in the Open Era. Federer has also recorded more than 10,000 career aces and is 2nd on the all-time list.

Federer is the only player to register at least ten titles on three different surfaces, he has 63 hard court titles, 17 grass court titles, and 11 clay court titles. In his prime years, he won an unparalleled 11 Grand Slams (3 Australian Open titles, 4 Wimbledon titles and 4 US Open titles) of a possible 16 events from 2004 to 2007. He reached the finals of all four Grand Slams in the same calendar year in 2006, 2007, and 2009, joining Rod Laver (1969) and later joined by Novak Djokovic (2015). In the World Tour Finals, Federer has won 6 titles in 10 finals, both Open Era records at the prestigious year-end tournament featuring the top-8 players in the year-end rankings. He qualified for the tournament a record 14 consecutive years from 2002 through 2015.

Federer's 2006 season is considered by most tennis experts to be one of the greatest years since the beginning of the Open Era. He won three Slams while reaching the finals of the fourth and won the season-ending Master's Cup. He won four Master's Series events, while winning 12 events of the 17 he entered, having made the finals of all but one of the events. His overall record was 92â€“5.

Federer has won the most year-end championship titles (6). He has reached the most finals (10) and semifinals (13). He has participated at the most championships (14) and the most consecutively (14). He has won the most matches at the championships (52).

Federer has won the third highest number of masters titles (26). He has reached the most number of finals (45) and the second highest number of semifinals (59). He is one of seven men to win at least seven different titles and is one of four to reach each final. He has won the most matches at these tournaments (347).

Current through the 2017 US Open.

1 Held as Hamburg Masters (outdoor clay) until 2008, Madrid Masters (outdoor clay) 2009 – present.
2 Held as Stuttgart Masters (indoor hard) until 2001, Madrid Masters (indoor hard) from 2002–08, and Shanghai Masters (outdoor hard) 2009 – present.
3 Including appearances in Grand Slam and ATP World Tour main draw matches, and in Summer Olympics.
4 Including matches in Grand Slam, in ATP World Tour, in Summer Olympics and in Davis Cup.

Federer's ATP-only record against players who have been ranked world No. 10 or higher is as follows:[22]

Federer's record against players who have been ranked world No. 11â€“20.

Federer has the most wins over top-10 ranked players in the Open Era and is the first player ever to reach 200 top-10 wins.[23] He has a 207–108 record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10.[24]

Federer holds nine winning streaks of eighteen matches or more and an Open Era record of seven winning streaks of twenty matches or more with his two longest among the top 10 of the era.

This is the seventh longest all-surface streak of the Open Era.

This is tied for eighth longest all-surface streak of the Open Era.

This is the longest hard court streak of the Open Era.

This is the longest grass streak of the Open Era.

This is the longest streak on American soil of the Open Era.

This list shows Federer's wins over the top ranked player in the world, or if he was world No.1 himself, then the highest ranked player other than himself which is the world No.2.

The tournaments won by Federer are in boldface. Federer has been seeded 1st in 23 Grand Slam tournaments, with 19 of those being consecutively. Also, he was seeded 1st or 2nd in 30 consecutive Grand Slams and was among the top 4 seeds for 10 straight years after winning his first Grand Slam (the 2003 Wimbledon Championships), through the 2013 Wimbledon Championships. He has both won and been runner-up at tournaments when seeded 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th.


who owns the rights to destroy all humans

The franchise intellectual property (IP) holder, THQ, went bankrupt in late 2012. During this, many IPs of THQ were sold off. On April 22, 2013, it was announced that in a $4.9 million deal with THQ, Nordic Games purchased the rights to Destroy All Humans! among other IPs.[15] On their official Twitter account the company claimed: "We are thinking about what to do next with it."[16] In June 2016, Reihard Pollice, Nordic Games' product development director and executive producer, stated, "there are a few options we are evaluating now. Hope to get started on one of these soon."[17] In late 2016, Destroy All Humans! and Destroy All Humans! 2 were ported to PlayStation 4 upsized to 1080p.[1][18].  In 2018, Destroy All Humans! was ported to Xbox One in their backward compatibility catalog.[19]

Destroy All Humans!

Destroy All Humans! is an open world action-adventure video game franchise that is designed as a parody of Cold War-era alien invasion films. Destroy All Humans! is available for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, and Xbox One game consoles, Destroy All Humans! 2 is available for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox game consoles, Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed is available for the Wii game console, and Destroy All Humans! Path of the Furon is available for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 game consoles (in Australia and Europe). All Furons are named after viral or bacterial infections, or sometimes, the actual bacteria that cause the infections, such as Helicobacter. The game has been ported to PS4 being upscaled to 1080p, along with Destroy All Humans! 2.[1]

The two main protagonists of the series are voiced by J. Grant Albrecht and Richard Steven Horvitz, with the exception of the game Big Willy Unleashed, in which actors Sean Donnellan and Darryl Kurylo portray the characters. The musical score for the series is performed by composer Garry Schyman.

The games take place mostly on Earth where the Furon Cryptosporidium, also known as Crypto, is tasked by his superiors to gather Furon DNA locked inside human brain stems in order to save his race from cloning themselves into extinction. In Destroy All Humans!, Crypto's objectives also include investigating what happened to his previous clone. Destroy All Humans! 2 features Crypto hunting for revenge, after the KGB try to assassinate him and successfully destroy the mothership and his mission officer, Orthopox, as well as exterminating the Furons' enemy from the Martian War, the Blisk. Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed involves Crypto protecting Pox's new fast food chain using a giant robot mech disguised as the restaurant's mascot, called "Big Willy". Destroy All Humans! Path of the Furon is available on Xbox 360 (and PlayStation 3 only in Australia and Europe), and involves Crypto seeking enlightenment to help him stop a conspiracy that threatens the Furon empire. Destroy All Humans! takes place in 1959; Destroy All Humans! 2 takes place in 1969; Destroy All Humans! Big Willy Unleashed takes place in 1975; Destroy All Humans! Path of the Furon takes place in 1979.

In 1959, Cryptosporidium 137 first arrived on Earth to investigate the planet and search for his predecessor clone, Cryptosporidium-136, who disappeared in 1947 after Orthopox 13 sent him to Earth on a similar mission. Pox sends Crypto on a mission to harvest human brain stems (which contain Furon DNA due to an encounter between Furon warriors and humans in ancient times) to prevent his species from going extinct. To accomplish his mission, he must defeat Majestic, a shadowy government organization led by a black-clad figure named Silhouette. After accomplishing this, Crypto takes over the United States by posing as the President.

Ten years have gone by since Crypto defeated Majestic and took over the American government. Orthropox 13 has died after a Soviet nuclear missile destroyed the Furon mothership. Pox has downloaded his consciousness into a personal holographic projector designed to communicate between Furons on Motherships and planet surfaces. Pox's unit, dubbed a HoloPox, allows him to communicate with, advise, and vex Crypto down on Earth. Crypto 137 has died of unknown causes, but appears in Big Willy Unleashed and Crypto 138, a clone with pure Furon DNA harvested from human brains, has taken his place as the President. Crypto 138 is the first Furon in millennia to possess genitalia, as his pure DNA has not been corrupted by radiation. When the KGB destroy the mothership and Pox, Crypto must find a way to stop them from destroying what he has worked so hard to achieve. Along the way, he is supported by Natalya Ivanova, a rogue KGB agent whom he constantly hits on. He also comes across the Blisk, the dreaded enemy that the Furons thought they defeated in the Martian War.

Big Willy Unleashed takes place after Destroy All Humans! 2 and before Path of the Furon. Crypto and Pox start a fast food restaurant that serves human meat from all the people Crypto has killed harvesting more Furon DNA. Later, their rival restaurant, Colonel Kluckin' (a parody of Colonel Sanders), discovers their secret, where upon Crypto must protect the restaurant with the Big Willy mascot mech.

Using the money earned from the Big Willy fast food franchise that Orthopox started, Pox and his destructive Furon warrior minion Crypto have opened a "family friendly" casino with which they use to obtain a steady financial income and human DNA. Crypto has lost his motivation because the death of Natalya, and has forgotten what it means to destroy humans. He drinks too much alcohol, watches too much television, and has ultimately become lazy. Later Crypto is attacked by mysterious cyborgs called Nexosporidium Warriors, who arrive from his own planet, which frightens both Crypto and his commander Pox. Soon Crypto finds himself face to face with a conspiracy from his own homeworld that, if not stopped, could destroy his entire race. In the midst of all the chaos, Crypto hears a voice in his head, telling him to go to the city of Shen Long. Later, Crypto, while in Sunnywood, is shot in the neck, faints, and then wakes up in a Kung Fu monastery where he is greeted by a Furon martial arts expert known as The Master. The Master beseeches him to submit to his tutelage, and train in mind and firepower, to help him defeat these new threats. Now Crypto is about to go down the path to enlightenment, shape his own destiny, uncover who is behind this frightening conspiracy, and ultimately be able to destroy all humans.


during nucleotide excision repair in e. coli which proteins identify the damaged dna

The process of nucleotide excision repair is controlled in Escherichia coli by the UvrABC endonuclease enzyme complex, which consists of four Uvr proteins: UvrA, UvrB, UvrC, and DNA helicase II (sometimes also known as UvrD in this complex). First, a UvrA-UvrB complex scans the DNA, with the UvrA subunit recognizing distortions in the helix, caused for example by pyrimidine dimers. When the complex recognizes such a distortion, the UvrA subunit leaves and an UvrC protein comes in and binds to the UvrB monomer and, hence, forms a new UvrBC dimer. UvrB cleaves a phosphodiester bond 4 nucleotides downstream of the DNA damage, and the UvrC cleaves a phosphodiester bond 8 nucleotides upstream of the DNA damage and created 12 nucleotide excised segment. DNA helicase II (sometimes called UvrD) then comes in and removes the excised segment by actively breaking the hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases. The resultant gap is then filled in using DNA polymerase I and DNA ligase. The basic excision process is very similar in higher cells, but these cells usually involve many more proteins â€“ E.coli is a simple example.[5]

Nucleotide excision repair

Nucleotide excision repair is a DNA repair mechanism.[2] DNA damage occurs constantly because of chemicals (e.g. intercalating agents), radiation and other mutagens. Three excision repair pathways exist to repair single stranded DNA damage: Nucleotide excision repair (NER), base excision repair (BER), and DNA mismatch repair (MMR). While the BER pathway can recognize specific non-bulky lesions in DNA, it can correct only damaged bases that are removed by specific glycosylases. Similarly, the MMR pathway only targets mismatched Watson-Crick base pairs.

Nucleotide excision repair (NER) is a particularly important excision mechanism that removes DNA damage induced by ultraviolet light (UV). UV DNA damage results in bulky DNA adducts - these adducts are mostly thymine dimers and 6,4-photoproducts. Recognition of the damage leads to removal of a short single-stranded DNA segment that contains the lesion. The undamaged single-stranded DNA remains and DNA polymerase uses it as a template to synthesize a short complementary sequence. Final ligation to complete NER and form a double stranded DNA is carried out by DNA ligase. NER can be divided into two subpathways: global genomic NER (GG-NER or GGR) and transcription coupled NER (TC-NER or TCR). The two subpathways differ in how they recognize DNA damage but they share the same process for lesion incision, repair, and ligation.

The importance of NER is evidenced by the severe human diseases that result from in-born genetic mutations of NER proteins. Xeroderma pigmentosum and Cockayne's syndrome are two examples of NER associated diseases.

Nucleotide excision repair is more complex in eukaryotes than prokaryotes, but the general principle is similar. There are 9 major proteins involved in NER in mammalian cells. Deficiencies in certain proteins leads to disease; protein names are associated with the disease. XPA, XPB, XPC, XPD, XPE, XPF, and XPG all derive from Ñ…eroderma pigmentosum and CSA and CSB represent proteins linked to Cockayne syndrome. Additionally, the proteins ERCC1, RPA, RAD23A, RAD23B, and others also participate in nucleotide excision repair. A more complete list of proteins involved in NER is found below.

Eukaryotic nucleotide excision repair can be divided into two subpathways: global genomic NER (GG-NER) and transcription coupled NER (TC-NER). Three different sets of proteins are involved in recognizing DNA damage for each subpathway. After damage recognition, the three subpathways converge for the steps of dual incision, repair, and ligation.

Global genomic NER repairs damage in both transcribed and untranscribed DNA strands in active and inactive genes throughout the genome. This process is not dependent on transcription. This pathway employs several "damage sensing" proteins including the DNA-damage binding (DDB) and XPC-Rad23B complexes that constantly scan the genome and recognize helix distortions: the XPC-Rad23B complex is responsible for distortion recognition, while DDB1 and DDB2 (XPE) can also recognize some types of damage caused by UV light. Additionally, XPA performs a function in damage recognition that is as yet poorly defined. Upon identification of a damaged site, subsequent repair proteins are then recruited to the damaged DNA to verify presence of DNA damage, excise the damaged DNA surrounding the lesion then fill in the repair patch.

Mutations in GG-NER machinery are responsible for multiple genetic disorders including:

At any given time, most of the genome in an organism is not undergoing transcription; there is a difference in NER efficiency between transcriptionally silent and transcriptionally active regions of the genome. For many types of lesions, NER repairs the transcribed strands of transcriptionally active genes faster than it repairs nontranscribed strands and transcriptionally silent DNA.

TC-NER and GG-NER differ only in the initial steps of DNA damage recognition. The principal difference between TC-NER and GG-NER is that TC-NER does not require XPC or DDB proteins for distortion recognition in mammalian cells. Instead TC-NER initiates when RNA polymerase stalls at a lesion in DNA: the blocked RNA polymerase serves as a damage recognition signal, which replaces the need for the distortion recognition properties of the XPC-RAD23B and DDB complexes. CS proteins (CSA and CSB) bind some types of DNA damage instead of XPC-Rad23B.

Other repair mechanisms are possible but less accurate and efficient.

TC-NER initiates when RNA polymerase stalls at a lesion in DNA, whereupon protein complexes help move the polymerase backwards. Mutations in TC-NER machinery are responsible for multiple genetic disorders including:

Transcription factor II H (TFIIH) is the key enzyme involved in dual excision. TFIIH and XPG are first recruited to the site of DNA damage (XPG stabilizes TFIIH). The TFIIH subunits of XPD and XPB act as a 5'-3' and 3'-5' helicase, respectively - they help unwind DNA and generate a junction between the double-stranded and single-stranded DNA around the transcription bubble. In addition to stabilizing TFIIH, XPG also has endonuclease activity; it cuts DNA damage on the 3' side while the XPFâ€“ERCC1 heterodimeric protein cuts on the 5' side. The dual incision leads to the removal of a ssDNA with a single strand gap of 25~30 nucleotides. The small, excised, damage-containing DNA (sedDNA) oligonucleotides are initially released from the duplex in complex with TFIIH but then dissociate in an ATP-dependent manner and become bound to RPA. Inhibition of gap filling DNA synthesis and ligation results in an accumulation of RPA-bound sedDNAs in the cell.

Replication protein A (RPA) and XPA are the last two proteins associated with the main NER repair complex. These two proteins are present prior to TFIIH binding since they are involved with verifying DNA damage. They may also protect single-stranded DNA. After verification, the 5' side incision is made and DNA repair begins before the 3' side incision. This helps reduce exposed single stranded DNA during the repair process.

Replication factor C (RFC) loads the Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) onto the DNA strand. This allows DNA polymerases implicated in repair (δ, ε and/or κ) to copy the undamaged strand via translocation. DNA ligase I and Flap endonuclease 1 or the Ligase-III-XRCC1 complex seal the nicks to complete NER.

TC-NER also exists in bacteria, and is mediated by the TRCF (Mfd) protein. TRCF is an SF2 ATPase that uses ATP hydrolysis to translocate on dsDNA upstream of the transcription bubble and forward translocate RNA polymerase, thus initiating dissociation of the RNA Polymerase ternary elongation complex. TRCF also recruits the Uvr(A)BC nucleotide excision repair machinery by direct physical interaction with the UvrA subunit.

Though historical studies have shown inconsistent results, genetic variation or mutation to nucleotide excision repair genes can impact cancer risk by affecting repair efficacy. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and nonsynonymous coding SNPs (nsSNPs) are present at very low levels (>1%) in the human population.[7] If located in NER genes or regulatory sequences, such mutations can negatively affect DNA repair capacity resulting in an increase likelihood of cancer development. While the functional impact of all polymorphisms has not been characterized, some polymorphisms in DNA repair genes or their regulatory sequences do induce phenotypical changes and are involved in cancer development.[8] A study of lung cancer cases found modest association between NER specific SNP polymorphisms and lung cancer risk.[9] The results indicate that some inherited polymorphic variations in NER genes may result in predisposition to lung cancer, and potentially other cancer states.

Two important genes in the NER pathway for which polymorphism has shown functional and phenotypic impact are the XPD and XPC genes.[10] XPD, also known as ERCC2, serves to open DNA around the site of damage during NER, in addition to other transcriptional activities. Studies have shown that polymorphisms at Exon 10 (G>A)(Asp312Asn) and Exon 23 (A>T)(Lys751Gln) are linked with genetic predisposition to several cancer types.[11][12] The XPC gene is responsible for a protein which recognizes DNA during the early portion of the NER pathway. This gene can have polymorphisms at Intron 9 and SNPs in Exon 15 which have been correlated with cancer risk as well. Research has shown that a biallelic poly (AT) insertion/deletion polymorphism in Intron 9 of XPC is associated with increased risk for skin, breast and prostate cancers,[12][13][14] especially in North Indian populations.

The study of a hereditary cancer, xeroderma pigmentosum has helped identify several genes which encode proteins in the NER pathway, two of which are XPC and XPD. XP is caused by a homozygous deficiency in UV DNA damage repair (TC-NER) which increases the patientsâ€™ risk of skin cancer by 1000-fold. In heterozygous patients, the risk of cancer is sporadic but can be predicted based on analytical assessment of polymorphisms in XP related DNA repair genes purified from lymphocytes.[15] In a study relapse rates of high-risk stage II and III colorectal cancers, XPD (ERCC2) polymorphism 2251A>C was significantly correlated with early relapse after chemotherapeutic treatment.[16] Studies have indicated that the effects of polymorphic NER genes is additive, with greater frequency of variants, greater cancer risk presents.[15][16][17]

In humans and mice, germline mutation in genes employed in NER cause features of premature aging. These genes and their corresponding proteins include ERCC1(ERCC1), ERCC2(XPD), ERCC3(XPB), ERCC4(XPF), ERCC5 (XPG), ERCC6(CSB) and ERCC8(CSA).

DNA repair-deficient ERCC1 mutant mice show features of accelerated aging, and have a limited lifespan.[18] Accelerated aging in the mutant involves numerous organs.

Mutations in the ERCC2(XPD) gene can lead to various syndromes, either xeroderma pigmentosum (XP), trichothiodystrophy (TTD) or a combination of XP and TTD (XPTTD), or a combination of XP and Cockayne syndrome (XPCS).[19] TTD and CS both display features of premature aging. These features may include sensorineural deafness, retinal degeneration, white matter hypomethylation, central nervous system calcification, reduced stature, and cachexia (loss of subcutaneous fat tissue).[19][20] XPCS and TTD fibroblasts from ERCC2(XPD) mutant human and mouse show evidence of defective repair of oxidative DNA damages that may underlie the segmental progeroid (premature aging) symptoms[21] (see DNA damage theory of aging).

Mutations in the ERCC3(XPB) gene can lead, in humans, to xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) or XP combined with Cockayne syndrome (XPCS).[22]

Deficiency of ERCC4(XPF) in humans results in a variety of conditions including accelerated aging.[23]

In humans, mutational defects in the ERCC5(XPG) gene can cause either the cancer-prone condition xeroderma pigmentosum (XP) alone, or in combination with the severe neurodevelopmental disorder Cockayne syndrome (CS) or the infantile lethal cerebro-oculo-facio-skeletal syndrome.[24] An ERCC5(XPG) mutant mouse model presents features of premature aging including cachexia and osteoporosis with pronounced degenerative phenotypes in both liver and brain.[24] These mutant mice develop a multi-system premature aging degenerative phenotype that appears to strengthen the link between DNA damage and aging.[24](see DNA damage theory of aging).

Cockayne syndrome (CS) arises from germline mutations in either of two genes ERCC8(CSA) or ERCC6(CSB). ERCC8(CSA) mutations generally give rise to a more moderate form of CS than ERCC6(CSB) mutations.[25] Mutations in the CSA gene account for about 20% of CS cases.[26] Individuals with CSA and CSB are charactericed by severe postnatal growth and mental retardation and accelerated aging leading to premature death at the age of 12 to 16 years.[27]

As reviewed by Gorbunova et al.,[28] studies of NER in different cells and tissues from young and old individuals frequently have shown a decrease in NER capacity with increasing age. This decline may be due to reduced constitutive levels of proteins employed in the NER pathway.[29]


where is the worlds largest corn maze located

As of 2014, the Guinness World Record for largest corn maze was 60 acres, created by Cool Patch Pumpkins in Dixon, California.[2]

Corn maze

A corn maze or maize maze is a maze cut out of a corn field. The first corn maze was in Annville, Pennsylvania.[1] Corn mazes have become popular tourist attractions in North America, and are a way for farms to generate tourist income. Many are based on artistic designs such as characters from movies. Corn mazes appear in many different designs. Some mazes are even created to tell stories or to portray a particular theme. Most have a path which goes all around the whole pattern, either to end in the middle or to come back out again, with various false trails diverging from the main path. In the United Kingdom, they are known as maize mazes, and are especially popular with farms in the east of England. These mazes are normally combined with other farm attractions of interest to families and day trippers. Some of these attractions include hay rides, a petting zoo, play areas for children, and picnic areas. Each year a few of the mazes are featured in national newspapers and TV. In the U.S., corn mazes typically are cut down circa the first week of November; in the UK typically in September after children return to school.

In order for farmers to create a corn maze they must carefully plan their production, design, and marketing techniques in advance.


what episode did jimmy get shot in degrassi

Part two picks up where it left off in part one where Rick opens the box and finds his father's gun, takes off his glasses, shakes, and intently stares at it. Rick comes back to school, still coated in the feathers and paint, after being humiliated during the "Whack Your Brain" contest. He has become the laughing stock of many people in the school, including JT and Danny. Toby Isaacs and Mr. Raditch tell him to take the afternoon off, but Rick chooses to stay. Having plans to get revenge on his bullies, he goes after Paige first. However, Paige encounters him, and right when Rick was about to pull the gun out to shoot her, she tells him that she thought the prank was sickening and that she was sorry. Because of this, Rick does not take out the gun to shoot her, he apologizes for hurting Terri and leaves. This, supposedly, was to end his rage, and he was not going to shoot anyone. However, while trying to clean himself up in the bathroom, Spinner and Jay trick Rick into thinking the prank was Jimmy's idea, and he recommits to revenge. He sees Jimmy in a now empty hallway afterwards and shoots him in the back, though Jimmy was unaware that Rick thought he set up the prank. The bullet in Jimmy's back severed his spine which paralyzes him.

Time Stands Still (Degrassi: The Next Generation)

Ephraim Ellis as Rick Murray

"Time Stands Still" is a two-part episode of the Canadian teen drama Degrassi: The Next Generation. It aired near the beginning of the fourth season, and originally aired on 5 and 12 October 2004 in Canada, on the CTV Television Network. Despite being a two-part episode, many events were still unresolved until later in the season. The American teen network, The N, which aired first run episodes, was airing episodes two months later at the time.

Part two of the episode earned director Stefan Sciani, an award for "Outstanding Achievement in a Television Series â€“ Family" at the Directors Guild of Canada Awards.

Executive producer Aaron Martin wanted to deal with this subject since Degrassi: The Next Generation started. He said, "It wasn't an issue when the original Degrassi was on, and it's become much more of an issue in the last 10 years. And with any teen shows, there are only so many issues you can cover, and new ones are harder and harder to find."[1] The producers enlisted bullying expert Barbara Coloroso, who worked with the families of survivors of the Columbine High School shooting. "She gave us amazing insights into how (bullies) work and how this cycle of violence keeps happening over and over again", they said. The N aired public service announcements to warn of the episode's content.[2]

The episode starts out with best friends Spinner Mason and Jimmy Brooks bullying Rick, then throwing him into a dumpster. This bullying has been going on since Rick came back to Degrassi a year after putting his then-girlfriend Terri into a coma, with the students disapproving, and showing their disapproval by bullying him. Rick, however, has made friends with Toby and Emma, even developing a crush on her later. He's even on a popular quiz show "Whack Your Brain" with Toby and Emma. However, the bullying by others continue.

Rick gets revenge on Spinner for throwing him in the dumpster the next day, when he spray paints an 'X' on the door of Spinner's car. He also does this on Jay's, another one of his bullies, car. Spinner, Jay, Jay's girlfriend Alex, and their friend Sean meet up and discuss the incident. Spinner says how he's going to tell Mr. Raditch, the principal, though Sean reminds him that if they tell him, he's going to want to know why Rick sprayed their cars. Spinner changes his mind on telling Mr. Raditch and assures his revenge on Rick.

Due to his intelligence, especially in sports, Jimmy is placed on the "Whack Your Brain" team after one of the contestants got sick with mono. Both Jimmy and Rick detest his decision, and Rick tried to go to Mr. Raditch to tell him to get Jimmy off the team. However, he is quickly dismissed by Mr. Raditch who says he can't force Jimmy to be friends with him, and for Rick to try to make a better relationship with him. Rick is discouraged by this, but he and Jimmy soon start to get along. Jimmy even defends him when Spinner, Jay, and Alex tried to bully him. Because of this, Rick mocks them and reminds them it was him who sprayed their cars. Spinner and Jay vow for their revenge.

The next day, Toby meets up with Rick at Rick's house, where Rick informs his mother how he, Toby, Emma, and Jimmy are inseparable, and how they will soon rule the school. Toby, however, does not believe him, but nevertheless hesitantly agrees with him. At school, Rick talks with Emma and compliments her encouraging words, hinting his crush on her. He then meets up with Jimmy and the two playfully talk about the upcoming quiz show. Paige, a popular girl and one of Rick's bullies since he was going out with Terri, insults his outfit, but with his new confidence, he brushes her aside.

At the quiz show, the Degrassi team is neck-to-neck with another school named Northern, but they soon win, mostly due to the help of Rick. For the final round, the team chooses Rick to go up. A short break follows, and Jimmy and Rick head to the bathroom.

In the bathroom, Jimmy compliments Rick's intelligence and they talk. Spinner and Jay enter and also compliment Rick, telling him how they're cool with him now. However, when Rick and Jimmy leave, Spinner and Jay talk about their prank they will put on Rick, Jay saying how Alex will set it up easily with no suspicion, since she is Student Council Vice-President.

In the final round, Rick gets most of the answers correct and beats Northern, thus winning the game. Emma, Toby, and Jimmy compliment him. However, while on stage, the prank including a bucket of yellow paint and feathers fall on Rick, and he is drenched with it. The audience laughs, and Rick stands there, frozen.

While leaving the school still in shock, Emma runs up to him to hand him the trophy. He says how the pranksters (unknown to anyone at the time) are life runners, but Emma assures him he's the smartest guy in school and how no one will forget that. Rick then kisses Emma to her disapproval, and she states she was only friends with him because she felt sorry for him, and for him to get a clue. Rick stands alone, stunned.

Rick goes home and discovers his parents are not there. He then pulls out a box from a drawer, opens it, and finds his father's gun. He takes off his glasses, shakes, and intently stares at it.

Rick then sees Toby, Emma, and Sean, and is mad at Emma because she admits she never had feelings for him. He tells her that he thought she loved him, but she just played him, and that she "made his list". Sean tries to talk him out of shooting her, but to no avail. He points the gun at Emma, but Sean attacks him and tries to point the gun away. However, he accidentally shoots and kills Rick in the process.

The school is put on a lockdown, though the students are unaware of what happened. In Paige, Ellie, and Hazel's classroom, it's discovered that there was a shooting. Right after this, Hazel is pulled out of class and is informed that Jimmy, her boyfriend, was shot.

After a while, the lockdown ends and students are released from school. Jay assures Alex that they will be fine and that nobody will find out, though Alex is very regretful of her involvement. Spinner meets up with them and is filled with guilt and regret, telling Jay they need to know who did it, and how they could have killed Jimmy. Jay tells him not to tell anyone, and that it would be all right.

Toby and Emma leave the school and are greeted by their parents, and Toby finds out that Rick had died. They meet up at Emma's house and watch the news about the shooting, and Toby is so distraught by the fact that his friend shot someone and was going to shoot more people, so he goes to a candlelight vigil for Jimmy at Degrassi with Emma. The two tearfully embrace, and the episode ends.

Part One: The sub-plot starts with Joey, in his home, being told by his Realtor that his open house is the day after tomorrow and that he has to clean. He is desperate to sell his house, asking his realtor Helen, what else he can do besides clean to ensure the sale. While they're discussing the sale, Craig Manning walks down the stairs and says he is too sick for school. Joey agrees and tells Helen that their meeting's gone on too long and that he has to go to work. Helen seems upset that they didn't get to finish discussing the sale and Joey seems frustrated that Helen can't just get the house sold.

After work, Joey comes home to find his ex-girlfriend, Sydney at his house as a result of Craig calling her. Craig has told her about their money problems and Sydney wants to help Joey sell his home. Sydney ends up leaving since Joey seems practically speechless and somewhat upset about her being there suddenly.

The next day, Craig is just as sick but decides to go to school after Joey yells at him for calling Sydney. Joey feels embarrassed about his financial situation. Craig tells Joey that he called Sydney because she would at least sell the house for good money.

Sydney comes back to Joey's house after Joey decides that Craig was right about taking Sydney's help. Joey apologizes about how things ended with them. Sydney brushes his apology off and suggests he make an atmosphere for the open house using music and maybe baking a pie in the oven. Her expertise in real estate is already evident.

While cleaning up the house for the open house, Caitlin comes back from Africa and asks why Sydney's name is on his lawn.

The episode opens with Rick being bullied by Spinner and Jimmy who toss him into a dumpster. Following the opening credits, Spinner pulls up to school in his car and heads inside as the bell rings. Rick comes out from hiding with spray paint and vandalizes Spinner's car. Heading to class, Rick literally runs into Jimmy rounding a corner. They exchange words which Snake Simpson is witness to. Seizing an opportunity, Snake asks Jimmy to name the world's three longest rivers in order and asks a question about the NBA championships. Jimmy answers correctly and, as a result, is now one of Rick's team members for a trivia show called "Whack Your Brain". Heather Sinclair was supposed to be on the team but, according to Snake, she came down with mono.

Later in the day, Emma Nelson runs up to Toby and Rick who are walking together. She has index cards to study from for the contest and is about to quiz Rick on them when he announces that he's quitting. Emma replies that the finals are tomorrow and they discuss the fact that Jimmy has now joined the team. Toby encourages Rick to talk to Snake about the bullying, like he's said before, and to ask Snake to reconsider. But Rick doesn't want Jimmy to guess that it was him who got him kicked off the team. Emma encourages Rick to work with Jimmy on the team since Rick said he came back to Degrassi to show people's he's changed. Rick is not convinced but Emma tells him that they need him on the team and smiles at him before leaving. Rick seems very flattered by this and smiles to himself.

Rick, encouraged by Emma and Toby, tries to talk to Mr. Raditch, the principal, about the fact that Jimmy is harassing him. Mr. Raditch does not take Rick seriously and seems to think that Rick is only upset that Jimmy is less-than-friendly toward him, even though this is not the first time Rick's approached him about it. Mr. Raditch tells Rick he needs to put effort into making friends with Jimmy and asks him to come back if anything serious happens. Throughout this talk, Mr. Raditch does not give Rick much room to tell him what's really happening but Rick is not being forward about it either.

In the parking lot, Spinner and Sean Cameron find the damage done to Spinner's car and Jay and Alex pull up in Jay's also-vandalized car. They guess that the damage was done by Rick and Spinner wants to tell Mr. Raditch about it. Sean retorts that Mr. Raditch will want to know why Rick did it and Jay agrees. They decide to leave the principal out of it and to get Rick back another way.

While drinking at a water fountain, Toby is approached by Spinner, Alex, and Jay, who ask him where they can find Rick. Toby refuses to tell them and Jay pushes his head into the fountain head causing his lip to bleed. Arriving at the preparation for "Whack Your Brain", Toby is confronted by Snake about why he's bleeding but Toby brushes it off as a skateboard accident. Rick and Jimmy argue about who hurt Toby's lip, and Jimmy tells Rick to back off. Rick says he's been suffering for weeks and that no one deserves that. Jimmy seems affected by his words.

As they practice for the contest, Rick is answering all of the questions Snake throws at them until a sports question comes up. He puts his hand over his bell but doesn't answer, to let Jimmy answer the question instead. While leaving practice, Rick and Jimmy exchange compliments about their trivia skills. Alex, Spinner, and Jay approach them and pick on Rick. Jimmy stands up for Rick, telling them to give it a rest. While Rick, Emma, Jimmy, and Toby walk away, Rick turns around and makes an X with his arms, taunting Alex, Jay, and Spinner with what he did.

Toby comes over to Rick's house after school where Rick seems overjoyed over the events of the day. Rick's mom says that Rick told her that him, Jimmy, Emma, and Toby have become practically inseparable. Toby seems confused but goes along with it. Rick is feeling confident about winning Jimmy over.

The next day, Rick approaches Emma and thanks her for her advice about Jimmy, adding that she is his guide. Emma seems uncomfortable but smiles and replies that she's glad things worked out for him. Rick has a friendly talk with Jimmy about the competition when he comes into school and brushes off a tease about his suit from Paige Michalchuk.

During the "Whack Your Brain" contest, Rick answers a sports question that causes them to tie the game. Celebrating their tie, Rick hold Emma's hand too long for it to just be friendly. Emma yanks her hand away but Rick brushes it off. In the bathroom during the break before the tie breaker, Jimmy compliments Rick about knowing so much and Rick asks Jimmy why he didn't answer the sports question. Jimmy says he had a brain fart and that golf is not a sport anyway. While they're about to leave the bathroom, Spinner and Jay come into the bathroom and compliment Rick about how much he knows, asking if Rick will do the lightning round (aka the tie breaker). Rick replies that he will, seeming confident but hesitates as he's about to walk between the two to leave. They tell Rick that things are cool between them now. Once Rick and Jimmy are gone, Spinner asks whether Alex will be able to set up the prank that they've planned for sure. Jay assures him she will have no problem.

Before playing his part of the lightning round, Rick whispers to Emma that it's all for her. Emma, once again, feels uncomfortable. Rick answers enough of the questions to beat the other team and win the game for Degrassi. The crowd cheers and Rick looks like his life is turning around, but while still in the center of the stage, yellow paint and feather drop down on him. The audience cheers turn silent and then turn into laughs. Rick seems mortified.

After the game, Emma approaches him to comfort him about what happened, saying that it just makes the other people look childish and telling him that he's the smartest person in Degrassi and no one will forget that. Already thinking Emma liked him, Rick grabs the back of Emma's head and tries to kiss Emma with more force than necessary. Emma is shocked and ends up telling him she only pitied him.

Rick returns home to an empty house and takes out a wooden box. Inside the box, lying in padding is what is presumed to be his father's gun. He removes his glasses and looks up before the episode ends.

Rick heads to Degrassi, backpack in hand, despite being given permission to go home until everybody has calmed down and the issue has been resolved. Toby tells him this fact, but he responds that this is the one day he wants to be here. Mr. Raditch, the principal, also tells him he can go home. Seeing Paige, he reaches for the gun in his bag until Paige tells him that she thought that the prank was sickening, childish, and out of line. He puts the gun away, apologizes for hurting Terri, and leaves the cafeteria. Rick decides to forget his plans and places the gun in his locker.

Still covered in paint, he goes into a restroom and begins to clean up. When Spinner and Jay walk into the same restroom, Rick hides and Spinner and Jay begin talking about the event. Noticing Rick is in one of the stalls, Jay turns the blame from themselves to Jimmy, and Spinner goes along with it, both of them implying the prank would have been impossible without Jimmy.

Rick approaches Jimmy, backpack back in his arms. He is unaware that Jimmy intends to find whoever did that and bring them to the Principal. Jimmy asks Rick how he's holding up and says he has Rick's back if anyone bothers him again. Rick replies, "You stabbed me in the back." Jimmy is confused, especially as Rick pulls the gun out of his bag. With the gun pointed at him, Jimmy freezes for a second, and backs away slowly. Jimmy turns to run away when Rick turned his head before firing. The bullet hits Jimmy in the back, knocking him to the ground. As other students are running away, Craig walks down the hall to see Jimmy lying on the floor. Rick finds Emma with Toby and Sean, and says that he is sorry he kissed Emma, the gun in his hand at his side. They turn to run away but Rick demands that they don't turn away from him. Rick starts saying how Emma flirted with him and made him think she care when really it was a lie. Sean calmly tries to reason with Rick, and tells Rick that it's just going to make his life worse, but Rick replies that it is too late because he already shot somebody. He lifts the gun, pointing it straight at Emma, but Sean gets in front of her and grabs the gun. While Rick and Sean wrestle with it, the gun goes off. Jimmy, Sean, and Rick are taken to the hospital.

Toby's stepmother, Kate Kerwin, (also Ashley Kerwin's mother), rushes to Degrassi and is allowed into the school to look for Toby and Ashley and is shocked at the sight of Jimmy as she had been entering the building at the time as Jimmy was being taken out. Snake and Mr. Raditch argue that Rick's bullying was not taken seriously enough, while Spike comforts Emma. Emma says that she was horrified that Rick pointed the gun right at her head. Meanwhile, Joey and Caitlin rush over to Degrassi to look for Craig.

In class, Ashley, Paige, Hazel and Ellie remain confused and unnotified about the incident. Paige gets a phone call from her mother saying that she heard that there was a school shooting. Paige informs Ellie, Ashley and Hazel. Hazel glances at Jimmy's empty chair and notices that he is missing. Ms. Sauve suddenly arrives and asks to speak with Hazel. They go into the hall and she tells her that Jimmy had been shot and Hazel starts to panic and says that she needs to go. Ms. Sauve tells her not to leave and that the lockdown will be over soon, while Hazel cries on her shoulder.

Jay, Alex, and a clearly guilt ridden Spinner are in the halls talking about what happened with Jay telling Spinner that he thought it might have been him. Spinner responds that it was Jimmy, and knowing that someone will find out he wants to go tell. But Jay stops him and tells him that he needs to shut up. Into which Spinner responds that Jimmy's is his best friend. Jay tells him that if Jimmy lives or dies he was Spinner's best friend. Spinner tells Jay that they might have killed Jimmy and Rick.

Sean is eventually released with one of his arms in a sling, while Jimmy's condition is unknown. Toby is confronted by a news reporter as he tries to leave Degrassi and, upset about Rick's actions, he responds that he wishes he never met Rick and that there was nothing that he could have done. Not wavering, the reporter asks if Rick said anything before he died. Toby is shocked and has not yet discovered that Rick has died.

Later at their home, Ashley Kerwin, very upset about Jimmy being in the hospital, ends a conversation about Rick with, "...so who is this guy, if not some psycho?!" Toby is upset by this but is still torn between having been friends with Rick and the fact that Rick did something so horrible. Emma stands up for Toby saying that Toby and Rick were friends.

As appeared, Ashley remains upset that Jimmy has been shot, as does Craig. Kate, Spike, Snake, Joey and Caitin all seem to be in horror due to the previous events, Paige and Hazel are distraught as they look at Jimmy in the hospital bed from the window in the hospital. Also, Toby and Emma are upset but mostly shocked, Sean is honored as a hero but feels guilty and shocked, Ellie's feelings are unspecified, but it can be assumed that she is shocked as well, as she is later seen comforting Sean while they watch the news,Darcy Edwards is unseen in either episode therefore her feelings are unclear as well, seeing as she never knew why so many picked on Rick in the first place. JT and Danny are not seen after the shooting, just prior to it, so their reactions are unclear, Jay does not appear to be affected at all, Alex's feelings towards the event are not revealed yet, however, she tells Jay and Spinner that she should never have gotten involved in this, and Spinner is guilt-ridden for Jimmy, as he is seen crying many times.

A service organized by the students is held with candles and pictures of Jimmy and Rick, including a few pictures of Jimmy and Rick together. One picture is a collage of pictures of Jimmy and Rick with a one word statement "Why?," which states the feelings of why any student would shoot another one, and subtly asks why would a student shoot one of his friends. The episode ends with Toby and Emma staring at the collages and crying.

The following characters did not appear in either episodes, despite being regular characters that season.

Part I was rated TV-PG-V in the United States, and Part II was rated TV-14-VL.[citation needed]


in quebec which bill of rights takes precedence that of quebec or that of canada

Introduced by the Liberal government of Robert Bourassa, the charter followed extensive preparatory work that began under the Union Nationale government of Daniel Johnson. The charter ranks among other quasi-constitutional Quebec laws, such as the Charter of the French Language and the Act respecting Access to documents held by public bodies and the Protection of personal information. Having precedence over all provincial legislation (including the latter), the Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms stands at the pinnacle of Quebec's legal system. Only the Constitution of Canada, including the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, enjoys priority over the Quebec charter.

Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms

The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms (French: Charte des droits et libertÃ©s de la personne) is a statutory bill of rights and human rights code passed by the National Assembly of Quebec on June 27, 1975.  It received Royal Assent from Lieutenant Governor Hugues Lapointe, coming into effect on June 28, 1976.

The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms consists of six parts:

The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms is unique among Canadian (and North American) human rights documents in that it covers not only the fundamental (civil and political) human rights, but also a number of important social and economic rights. The protections contained in the charter are inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Furthermore, the list of prohibited grounds of discrimination included in the Quebec charter is extensive; a total of fourteen prohibited grounds are enumerated, including race, colour, ethnic or national origin, sex, pregnancy and age. "Social condition" has been a prohibited ground of discrimination since the charter came into force. Discrimination based on sexual orientation has been prohibited since 1977; with that change, Quebec became the first jurisdiction larger than a city or county to prohibit anti-gay discrimination. In 2016, gender identity or expression was added to the Quebec Charter.[1]

An illicit violation of the charter, whether by a private party or by the provincial Crown, may give rise to a cease-and-desist order and to compensation for damages. Punitive damages may be awarded in case of an intentional and unlawful violation.

The Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms is called quasi-constitutional because, according to section 52, no provision of any other act passed by the Quebec National Assembly may derogate from sections 1 to 38, unless such act expressly states that it applies despite the charter.[2] A total impossibility to adopt derogating laws could be considered incompatible with parliamentary sovereignty, a fundamental principle in political systems following the British tradition; however, Canada, of which Quebec is a province, has a tradition of constitutional supremacy.  Its Constitution, which includes the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, is supreme, binding the federal parliament and the legislative assemblies of Canada's provinces and territories.

The Quebec charter's supremacy under its section 52 applies to the following categories of rights: fundamental rights and freedoms (the right to life, free speech, freedom of religion, the right to privacy, etc.); the right to equality; political rights; and judicial rights.  Economic and social rights do not enjoy supremacy but, according to the Supreme Court of Canada in the 2002 case of Gosselin v. Quebec (Attorney General), failure to respect such a right may give rise to a judicial declaration of violation.

The charter provides for a specific machinery in cases of discrimination (or exploitation of an elderly person or person with a disability). Instead of introducing litigation in court, victims of such a violation may file a complaint with the Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission. The commission will investigate the matter and attempt to foster a settlement between the parties. It may recommend corrective measures. If those are not followed, the commission may introduce litigation before a court (usually, but not necessarily, the Human Rights Tribunal). Victims will be represented free of charge by the commission.

The Quebec charter does not apply to federally regulated activities in Quebec. Those are subject to the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and/or the Canadian Human Rights Act.

Notable cases decided under the Charter include:


the nature of c-sn bond in alkyl tin is

The tetraorgano derivatives are invariably tetrahedral. Compounds of the type SnRR'RR' have been resolved into individual enantiomers.[3]

Organotin chemistry

Organotin compounds or stannanes are chemical compounds based on tin with hydrocarbon substituents. Organotin chemistry is part of the wider field of organometallic chemistry. The first organotin compound was diethyltin diiodide ((C2H5)2SnI2), discovered by Edward Frankland in 1849.[1] The area grew rapidly in the 1900s, especially after the discovery of the Grignard reagents, which are useful for producing Sn-C bonds. The area remains rich with many applications in industry and continuing activity in the research laboratory.[2]

Organotin compounds are generally classified according to their oxidation states. Tin(IV) compounds are much more common and more useful.

Organotin chlorides have the formula R4âˆ’nSnCln for values of n up to 3. Bromides, iodides, and fluorides are also known but less important. These compounds are known for many R groups. They are always tetrahedral. The tri- and dihalides form adducts with good Lewis bases such as pyridine. The fluorides tend to associate such that dimethyltin difluoride forms sheet-like polymers. Di- and especially triorganotin halides, e.g. tributyltin chloride, exhibit toxicities approaching that of hydrogen cyanide.[4]

Organotin hydrides have the formula R4âˆ’nSnHn for values of n up to 4. The parent member of this series, stannane (SnH4), is an unstable colourless gas. Stability is correlated with the number of organic substituents. Tributyltin hydride is used as a source of hydride radical in some organic reactions.

Organotin oxides and hydroxides are common products from the hydrolysis of organotin halides. Unlike the corresponding derivatives of silicon and germanium, tin oxides and hydroxides often adopt structures with penta- and even hexacoordinated tin centres, especially for the diorgano- and monoorgano derivatives. The group Sn-O-Sn is called a stannoxane. Structurally simplest of the oxides and hydroxides are the triorganotin derivatives. A commercially important triorganotin hydroxides is the acaricide Cyhexatin (also called Plictran), (C6H11)3SnOH. Such triorganotin hydroxides exist in equilibrium with the distannoxanes:

With only two organic substituents on each Sn centre, the diorganotin oxides and hydroxides are structurally more complex than the triorgano derivatives.[5] The simple geminal diols (R2Sn(OH)2) and monomeric stannanones (R2Sn=O) are unknown. Diorganotin oxides (R2SnO) are polymers except when the organic substituents are very bulky, in which case cyclic trimers or, in the case of R = CH(SiMe3)2 dimers, with Sn3O3 and Sn2O2 rings. The distannoxanes exist as dimers of dimers with the formula [R2SnX]2O2 wherein the X groups (e.g., chloride, hydroxide, carboxylate) can be terminal or bridging (see Table). The hydrolysis of the monoorganotin trihalides has the potential to generate stannanoic acids, RSnO2H. As for the diorganotin oxides/hydroxides, the monoorganotin species form structurally complex because of the occurrence of dehydration/hydration, aggregation. Illustrative is the hydrolysis of butyltin trichloride to give [(BuSn)12O14(OH)6]2+.

Idealized structure of trimeric diorganotin oxide.

Ball-and-stick model for (t-Bu2SnO)3.

Structure of diorganotin oxide, highlighting the extensive intermolecular bonding.

Unlike carbon(IV) analogues but somewhat like silicon compounds, tin(IV) can also be coordinated to five and even six atoms instead of the regular four. These hypercoordinated compounds usually have electronegative substituents. Numerous examples of hypervalency are provided by the organotin oxides and associated carboxylates and related pseudohalide derivatives.[5] The organotin halides for adducts, e.g. Me2SnCl2(bipyridine.

The all-organic penta- and hexaorganostannates have even been characterized,[6] while in the subsequent year a six-coordinated tetraorganotin compound was reported.[7] A crystal structure of room-temperature stable (in argon) all-carbon pentaorganostannane was reported as the lithium salt with this structure:[8]

In this distorted trigonal bipyramidal structure the carbon to tin bond lengths (2.26 Å apical, 2.17 Å equatorial) are larger than regular C-Sn bonds (2.14 Å) reflecting its hypervalent nature.

Some reactions of triorganotin halides implicate a role for R3Sn+ intermediates. Such cations are analogous to carbocations. They have been characterized crystallographically when the organic substituents are large, such as 2,4,6-triisopropylphenyl.[9]

Tin radicals, with the formula R3Sn, are called stannyl radicals.[2] They are invoked as intermediates in certain atom-transfer reactions. For example, tributyltin hydride (tri-n-butylstannane) serves as a useful source of "hydrogen atoms" because of the stability of the tributytin radical.[10]

Organotin(II) compounds are somewhat rare. Compounds with the empirical formula SnR2 are somewhat fragile and exist as rings or polymers when R is not bulky. The polymers, called polystannanes, have the formula (SnR2)n.

In principle divalent tin compounds might be expected to form analogues of alkenes with a formal double bond. Indeed, compounds with the formula Sn2R4, called distannenes, are known for certain organic substituents. The Sn centres tend to be highly pyramidal. Monomeric compounds with the formula SnR2, analogues of carbenes are also known in a few cases. One example is Sn(SiR3)2, where R is the very bulky CH(SiMe3)2 (Me = methyl). Such species reversibly dimerize to the distannylene upon crystallization:[11]

Stannenes, compounds with tinâ€“carbon double bonds, are exemplified by derivatives of stannabenzene. Stannoles, structural analogs of cyclopentadiene, exhibit little C-Sn double bond character.

Compounds of Sn(I) are rare and only observed with very bulky ligands. One prominent family of cages is accessed by pyrolysis of the 2,6-diethylphenyl-substituted tristannylene [Sn(C6H3-2,6-Et2)2]3, which affords the cubane-type cluster and a prismane. These cages contain Sn(I) and have the formula [Sn(C6H3-2,6-Et2)]n where n = 8, 10.[12] A stannyne contains a carbon to tin triple bond and a distannyne a triple bond between two tin atoms (RSnSnR). Distannynes only exist for extremely bulky substituents. Unlike alkynes, the C-Sn-Sn-C core of these distannynes are nonlinear, although they are planar. The Sn-Sn distance is 3.066(1) Å, and the Sn-Sn-C angles are 99.25(14)°. Such compounds are prepared by reduction of bulky aryltin(II) halides.[13]

Organotin compounds can be synthesised by numerous methods.[14] Classic is the reaction of a Grignard reagent with tin halides for example tin tetrachloride. An example is provided by the synthesis of tetraethyltin:[15]

The symmetrical tetraorganotin compounds, especially tetraalkyl derivatives, can then be converted to various mixed chlorides by redistribution reactions (also known as the "Kocheshkov comproportionation" in the case of organotin compounds):

A related method involves redistribution of tin halides with organoaluminium compounds.

The mixed organo-halo tin compounds can be converted to the mixed organic derivatives, as illustrated by the synthesis of dibutyldivinyltin:[16]

The organotin hydrides are generated by reduction of the mixed alkyl chlorides. For example, treatment of dibutyltin dichloride with lithium aluminium hydride gives the dibutyltin dihydride, a colourless distillable oil:[17]

The Wurtz-like coupling of alkyl sodium compounds with tin halides yields tetraorganotin compounds.

Important reactions, discussed above, usually focus on organotin halides and pseudohalides with nucleophiles. In the area of organic synthesis, the Stille reaction is considered important. It entails coupling reaction with sp2-hybridized organic halides catalyzed by palladium:

and organostannane additions (nucleophilic addition of an allyl-, allenyl-, or propargylstannanes to an aldehydes and imines). Organotin compounds are also used extensively in radical chemistry (e.g. radical cyclizations, Barton–McCombie deoxygenation, Barton decarboxylation, etc.).

An organotin compound is commercially applied as stabilizers in polyvinyl chloride. In this capacity, they suppress degradation by removing allylic chloride groups and by absorbing hydrogen chloride. This application consumes about 20,000 tons of tin each year. The main class of organotin compounds are diorganotin dithiolates with the formula R2Sn(SR')2. The Sn-S bond is the reactive component. Diorganotin carboxylates, e.g., dibutyltin dilaurate, are used as catalysts for the formation of polyurethanes, for vulcanization of silicones, and transesterification.[2]

n-Butyltin trichloride is used in the production of tin dioxide layers on glass bottles by chemical vapor deposition.

"Tributyltins" are used as industrial biocides, e.g. as antifungal agents in textiles and paper, wood pulp and paper mill systems, breweries, and industrial cooling systems. Triphenyltin derivativess are used as active components of antifungal paints and agricultural fungicides. Other triorganotins are used as miticides and acaricides. Tributyltin oxide has been extensively used as a wood preservative.[2][2]

Tributyltin compounds were once widely used as marine anti-biofouling agents to improve the efficiency of ocean-going ships. Concerns over toxicity[18] of these compounds (some reports describe biological effects to marine life at a concentration of 1 nanogram per liter) led to a worldwide ban by the International Maritime Organization.

Organotin complexes have been studied in anticancer therapy.[19]

Tetrabutyltin colorless oil, precursor to the other butyl-tin compounds

Tributyltin oxide, a colorless to pale yellow liquid used in wood preservation

Triphenyltin acetate, an off-white crystalline solid, used as an insecticide and a fungicide

Triphenyltin chloride, a highly toxic white solid, used as a biocide

Trimethyltin chloride, a toxic white solid, once used as a biocide

Triphenyltin hydroxide, an off-white powder, used as a fungicide

Azocyclotin, a white solid, used as a long-acting acaricide for control of spider mites on plants

Cyhexatin, a white solid, used as an acaricide and miticide

Hexamethylditin used as an intermediate in chemical synthesis

Tetraethyltin, boiling point 63–65° /12 mm is a catalyst[20]

Triorganotin compounds can be highly toxic. Tri-n-alkyltins are phytotoxic and therefore cannot be used in agriculture. Depending on the organic groups, they can be powerful bactericides and fungicides. Reflecting their high bioactivity, "tributyltins" were once used in marine anti-fouling paint.[2]

Tetraorgano-, diorgano-, and monoorganotin compounds generally exhibit low toxicity and low biological activity. DBT may however be immunotoxic.[21]