who won the indiana state fair band contest

During the 2009-2010 school year the Anderson Community School board voted to close Highland High School. That summer the Anderson, and Anderson Highland bands merged, keeping the name Marching Highlanders but now representing Anderson High School. Going into Band Day the Muncie Southside Spirit of South was the favorite to win the championship, they won every competition they entered that year, but they finished 3rd in prelims behind Anderson and Richmond. Southside moved to second in finals and the combined Anderson High School Marching Highlanders won the championship. Becoming the fourth school to win 6 championships previously winning in 1957, 1958, 1959, 1985, and 1986. In 2011 Doug Fletcher left Anderson to become the director at Winchester Community High School where he was director from 1994-1998. In finals that year The Force of Winchester, competing as a small band, won their second championship by a mere.05 of a point of the Red Devil Marching Band from Richmond, the closest finish in Band Day history. In 2012 the three classes were renamed Class AAA, Class AA, and Class A. That year The Force moved up to Class AAA and won their 2nd consecutive championship, and their 3rd overall. In 2013 Winchester won once again becoming the fifth band to win 3 championships in a row and having the second highest score ever with a 92.70. In 2014 the contest was moved to the second day of the fair as many schools began going to school earlier. In November 2013 the Muncie Community School board voted to close Muncie Southside High School. Much like with Anderson in 2010 the bands from Muncie Central High School and Muncie Southside High School combined for the 2014 season with a new name, Spirit of Muncie. Going into Band Day The Force was undefeated and appeared that they would win their fourth consecutive championship, however the Spirit of Muncie scored a 91.6 in prelims, the highest score ever in prelims, and beat Winchester by.65 of a point. In finals the Spirit of Muncie scored a 92.35 to bring the championship back to Muncie for the first time since 2008 and the first time for Muncie Central since 1953. The Spirit of Muncie will not defend their title in 2015. In 2015 Winchester Community High School went undefeated for a second time and ended their season with a championship for the first time and the second highest score State Fair Band Day history. Winchester would go on to win their sixth championship the following year, 2016. In 2017, The Marching Millers from Noblesville High School won their 2nd championship (1952).[2][3][4][5][6][7]

Indiana State Fair Band Day

The Indiana State Fair Band Day is a marching band competition held at the Indiana State Fair in Indianapolis every August. The contest serves as the Championship for the Central Indiana Track Show Association, an organization that governs marching band contests in Indiana during the Summer. First held in 1947 it is one of, if not, the oldest high school marching band contests in the United States. The 71st Indiana State Fair Band Day competition was held on August 5, 2017.[1]

The first musical contest at the Indiana State Fair was held in 1926, however there was no marching involved. Whiteland High School was initially declared the champion, but they were disqualified when it was discovered they used students from other Johnson County schools. Ligonier High School was then given the title. The idea of a high school band contest faded, but in 1939 the State Fair held a parade for high school marching bands in front of the grandstands. This parade continued until 1941 when the state fair was cancelled due to World War II.

In 1946 the state fair resumed and the first State Fair Band Day Competition was held on September 2, 1947. Less than 25 bands competed in 3 classes. Under the direction of Fred Reiter the Grant County Combined Band won the Class A championship using students from Van Buren, Jefferson Township[disambiguation needed], Swayzee, Gas City, Jonesboro, Sweetser, and Fairmount. Rochester won Class B and Francesville won Class C. In 1948 the contest switched to a single class format. Gary Frobel High School won the championship that year.

In the early years of the contest musical repertoires consisted almost entirely of conventional marching songs. There was no time limit, but there wasn't much for the bands to do other than just march past the grandstands. There was a rule that no band could take a backwards step. Odon Madison Township was the first band to do something other than just marching forward, they did a right flanking movement, then a left movement to straighten up. Noblesville was the first band to do backwards marching in their 1952 championship program.

In 1952, to celebrate the centennial of the State Fair, the contest was moved to North Meridian Street in Downtown Indianapolis, near the War Memorial Building. The contest was held there once again in 1953. The Marching Millers from Noblesville and The Bearcat Pride from Muncie Central won the championship those years. The contest returned to the fairgrounds in 1954.

The fifties saw rapid growth in participation from 39 bands competing in 1951 to 83 bands in 1955. In the beginning the contest was a parade contest, with bands marching in parade formation in front of the grandstands. Eventually the format progressed to the bands playing off the starting line, marching down the field then playing in concert formation, and then playing as they cross the finish line, much like the drum and bugle corps of the day.

1962 saw the greatest number of participating bands with 107 bands registered and 92 participating. 1967 was the first year for a prelims-finals format. Initially the top 15 of the 69 bands in prelims were to return that night for finals, however a scoring error left Madison Heights in 20th place. Rather than removing a band, 16 bands competed in finals.

The 70s saw a decline in participation from 59 bands in 1970 to just 32 in 1979. Initially school consolidations affected the number of competing bands, later the All State Marching Band field contest in the fall lowered participation further. In 1970 the Marching Giants from Ben Davis won the World Music Contest in Kerkrade, The Netherlands, but placed second at Band Day to the Anderson Highland Marching Highlanders.

By the 1980s bands did not do a concert standstill portion of their show, but they still had to begin the show at the start line and end at the finish line. To encourage participation of smaller bands a new class structure was introduced in 1982. Bands were divided into two classes, based on band size and school enrollment, Large Bands and Small Bands. In 2007 a class for even smaller bands called Espirit de Corps was added. The class champions are determined in prelims with the top sixteen bands, regardless of class, moving on to finals. The Marching Eagles of Delta High School won the first Small Bands Championship. In 1989 the contest was moved to the opening day of the state fair. That year, under the direction of Doug Fletcher, the Marching Bears of Monroe Central High School became the first band competing as a small band to win the Indiana State Fair Band Day Championship, they repeated in 1990 and 1991and were runners up in 1992.

The 1990s saw one of the greatest decades of dominance in Band Day history. The Marching Flashes from Franklin Central won 6 championships, the first band to do so. They are also the only band to win 4 championships in a row, winning from 1993-1996 and again in 1998 and 1999. Additionally they went undefeated in all of their championship seasons, except for 1993. In 1997 The Force of Winchester Community High School pulled off an upset victory over the Marching Flashes becoming only the second small band to win the championship. In 1995 a rule change allowed the shows to start and finish anywhere on the track, much like a field show.

Franklin Central began competing exclusively in fall field competitions in 2000. Going in to Band Day that year the Marching Patriots of Jay County High School were the favorites to win the championship. They had won every contest that season, winning over the Spirit of South from Muncie Southside High School. Jay County won prelims by a margin of 1.5 over Southside, but the Spirit of South, with only 59 members edged by the Marching Patriots, who had nearly 100 more members, by a mere tenth of a point, the closest finish ever at the time. Jay County won in 2001 and Muncie Southside began a streak of 3 consecutive championships from 2002-2004 setting the record for the highest scoring show at the Indiana State Fair Band Day with a 93.25. In 2004 the Marching Highlanders returned to Band Day for the first time since 1975 and Finished in 2nd place 8.25 points behind first. From 2005-2009 Anderson Highland and Muncie Southside traded the championship with the Marching Highlanders winning in 2005, 2007, and 2009, and the Spirit of South winning in 2006, and 2008. In 2008 Muncie Southside became the second school to win 6 championships, previously winning in 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, and 2006. Anderson Highland became the third band to win 6 championships in 2009, previously winning in 1968, 1970, 1971, 2005, and 2007.

Between 40 and 50 bands participate every year. They are separated into three classes Class AAA, Class AA, and Class A, based on band size. The preliminary competition takes place in the morning and the top 16 bands regardless of class compete in the finals competition at night. Each band is allowed 4â€“6 minutes to perform 2 minutes for entry and one minute to exit.[2][8]

â€ Grant County Combined Band consisted of students from seven schools- Van Buren, Jefferson Township, Swayzee, Gas City, Jonesboro, Sweetster, and Fairmount.[9]

††Finals rained out in 1995. Preliminary scores used


what is the salary of the prime minister of the uk

The basic annual salary of an MP in the House of Commons was increased to £74,000 as of 31 July 2015.[2] Many MPs (ministers, the Speaker, senior opposition leaders, opposition chief whip, etc.) receive a supplementary salary for their specific responsibilities. As of 1 April 2015 these additional entitlements range from £15,025 for Select Committee Chairs[3] to £74,990 for the Prime Minister.[4] On 24 May 2015 David Cameron announced that he intended to freeze ministerial pay for the next five years.[5] However, on 2 June 2015 the Daily Mail reported that ministerial pay was to increase at the same time as MP's basic pay was increased to £74,000. The Prime Minister's total salary would therefore increase from £142,500 to £149,440. The total salary for Cabinet Ministers would increase from £134,565 to £141,505. The total salary for ministers would increase from £89,740 to £96,375. And the total salary for parliamentary under secretaries would increase from £89,435 to £96,375.[6] Full details of current ministerial pay at all levels have yet to be published on either the UK Parliament website or that of the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority.

Salaries of Members of the United Kingdom Parliament

The basic annual salary for an MP was increased from £67,060 to £74,000 on 31 July 2015, backdated to 8 May 2015.[1] In addition, MPs are able to claim allowances to cover the costs of running an office and employing staff, and maintaining a constituency residence and a residence in London.[2] Additional salary is paid for appointments or additional duties, such as ministerial appointments, being a whip, chairing a select committee or chairing a Public Bill committee.

MPs also receive extensive allowances and expenses. These expenses and allowances are listed below;

MPs are entitled to claim Â£9,000 a year for postage and stationery (financial year 2015-16). This amount is in addition to any stationery and postage costs which Members may have reimbursed under the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority's expenses Scheme.[7]

MPs receive allowances towards having somewhere to live in London and in their constituency, and travelling between Parliament and their constituency.

MPs will normally receive a pension of either 1/40th or 1/50th of their final pensionable salary for each year of pensionable service depending on the contribution rate they will have chosen. Members who made contributions of 13.75% of their salary gain an accrual rate of 1/40th.[8] According to a 2009 report in the Daily Mail, state contributions for MPs are more than four times higher than the average paid out by companies for final-salary schemes, but they are not significantly more generous than most public-sector pensions.[9]

If an MP stands down during the course of a Parliament for ill health reasons, an ill health retirement grant is payable, calculated in the same way as the Resettlement Grant (as well as an immediate pension based on the service the MP would have accrued if he or she had continued to serve until age 65).[10]

On leaving the House of Commons, an MP will be entitled to what is essentially severance pay.

The Resettlement Grant is the name given to the MPs' severance pay package. It may be claimed to help former MPs with the costs of adjusting to life outside parliament. It is payable to any Member who ceases to be an MP at a General Election. The amount is based on age and length of service, and varies between 50% and 100% of the annual salary payable to a Member of Parliament at the time of the Dissolution.[11]

In the UK the first £30,000 of severance pay is tax free. As stated above, the amount retiring MPs, or those who lose their seats receive, depends on how old they are and how long they have served in the House. For example, an MP who stays in office for one term (say 5 years) and then leaves office will currently receive tax-free severance pay of 50% of his current salary, or £32,383 at current rates – equivalent to an annual salary increment of over £12,000 at current tax rates and pay scales.[12]

For the 2010–15 Parliament, only MPs defeated in their attempt to be re-elected will get one month’s salary for each year served, up to a maximum of six months or over £33,000. From the start of the 2015 Parliament, it will be replaced by a "Loss of Office Payment", at double the statutory redundancy payment. "For the 'average' MP, who leaves office with 11 years' service, this may lead to a payment of around £14,850."[13]

Winding-up Allowance

There is also up to Â£42,000 on offer to pay for winding up staff contracts and office rent.[14] An allowance of up to one third of the annual Office Costs Allowance was paid for the reimbursement of the cost of any work on Parliamentary business undertaken on behalf of a deceased, defeated or retiring Member after the date of cessation of Membership. On 5 July 2001 the House agreed to change the allowance to one third of the sum of the staffing provision and Incidental Expenses Allowance in force at the time of cessation of Membership.[15]

Parliament takes a break of around 45 days for the summer. This is not only for holiday, but so that MPs can spend more time away from Parliament in their constituencies to do work there.

Members of the House of Lords can opt to receive a £300 per day attendance allowance, plus travel expenses and subsidised restaurant facilities. Peers may also choose to receive a reduced attendance allowance of £150 per day instead.[16]

Before the twentieth century, members of parliament were unpaid as it was assumed they would have another income.[11]

The first regular salary was £400 per year, introduced in 1911. Some subsequent salary levels were £1,000 in 1946, £3,250 in 1964, £11,750 in 1980, and £26,701 in 1990.[11] The increases in MPs' basic salaries since 1996 have been:[17][18]

In December 2013, the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority recommended that pay be increased to Â£74,000 per annum, linked "to the pay of the people they represent". At the same time, pensions benefits would be reduced, resettlement payments scrapped and expenses tightened. In July 2015, this was implemented (backdated to 8 May 2015, the day after the general election), with annual changes now "linked to changes in average earnings in the public sector".[19]

In 2010, the payment of MPs' salaries and allowances, and many staff, was moved from the Fees Office, which was effectively self-policing by MPs of their expenses, to a more autonomous body, the Independent Parliamentary Standards Authority.[20] In 2010 the IPSA was also given the responsibility of setting MPs' salary levels. It is accountable to the Speaker's Committee for the IPSA, comprising the Speaker, the Leader of the House, the Chair of the Standards and Privileges Committee and five MPs selected by the Speaker (one of whom is the Shadow Leader of the House).

The National Audit Office, another independent parliamentary body, has some audit authority.[citation needed]


who laid the foundation of the chola empire

The Cholas are also known as the Choda.[15] There is very little information available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature and in inscriptions. Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature (c. 150 CE)[a] indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE. Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South.[citation needed]

Chola dynasty

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, of the Maurya Empire. As one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE.

The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River, but they ruled a significantly larger area at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century till the beginning of the 13th century. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more.[4] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.[5] The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the naval raids on cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[6] The Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power.

During the period 1010â€“1153, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh.[7] Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia.[8] The Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall.[9][10]

The Cholas left a lasting legacy. Their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture.[5] The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity.[11][12] They pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.[13][14]

A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the name of the ruling family or clan of immemorial antiquity. The annotator Parimelazhagar said: "The charity of people with ancient lineage (such as the Cholas, the Pandyas and the Cheras) are forever generous in spite of their reduced means". Other names in common use for the Cholas are Killi (கிள்ளி), Valavan (வளவன்) and Sembiyan (செம்பியன்). Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil (கிள்) meaning dig or cleave and conveys the idea of a digger or a worker of the land. This word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with "valam" (வளம்) – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country. Sembiyan is generally taken to mean a descendant of Shibi – a legendary hero whose self-sacrifice in saving a dove from the pursuit of a falcon figures among the early Chola legends and forms the subject matter of the Sibi Jataka among the Jataka stories of Buddhism.[16] In Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country.[17]

There is very little written evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples. During the past 150 years, historians have gleaned significant knowledge on the subject from a variety of sources such as ancient Tamil Sangam literature, oral traditions, religious texts, temple and copperplate inscriptions. The main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period.[b] There are also brief notices on the Chola country and its towns, ports and commerce furnished by the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei), and in the slightly later work of the geographer Ptolemy. Mahavamsa, a Buddhist text written down during the 5th century CE, recounts a number of conflicts between the inhabitants of Ceylon and Cholas in the 1st century BCE.[19] Cholas are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 BCEâ€“232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him.[c]

The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: the Early Cholas of the Sangam literature, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas and the rise of the Imperial medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya (c. 848), the dynasty of Vijayalaya, and finally the Later Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I from the third quarter of the 11th century.[d]

The earliest Chola kings for whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars generally agree that this literature belongs to the second or first few centuries of the common era. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them.[22]

The Sangam literature also records legends about mythical Chola kings.[23] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.[citation needed] Two names are prominent among those Chola kings known to have existed who feature in Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan.[24][25][26][27] There are no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of around the same period.[28][e] Urayur (now a part of Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital.[23] Kaveripattinam also served as an early Chola capital.[29] The Mahavamsa mentions that an ethnic Tamil adventurer, a Chola prince known as Elara, invaded the island Sri Lanka and conquered it around 235 BCE with the help of a Mysore army.[23][30]

There is not much information about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c.Â 300) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominated the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras invaded Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled during that time.[31][32][33] They were displaced by the Pallava dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty in the 6th century.[25][34] Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th century.[35]As per inscriptions found in and around Thanjavur shows that the kingdom was ruled by Mutharaiyars for three centuries which was ended by Vijayalaya chola by Capturing Thanjavur from Ilango Mutharaiyar somewhere between 848-851.

Epigraphy and literature provide few glimpses of the transformations that came over this line of kings during this long interval. It is certain that when the power of the Cholas fell to its lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose to the north and south of them,[26][36] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.[37][f] The Cholas continued to rule over a diminished territory in the neighbourhood of Uraiyur, but only in a minor capacity. In spite of their reduced powers, the Pandayas and Pallavas accepted Chola princesses in marriage, possibly out of regard for their reputation.[g] Numerous Pallava inscriptions of this period mention their having fought rulers of the Chola country.[h] Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Uraiyur, their old capital, as Vijayalaya, when he rose to prominence hailed from that area.[38][40]

Around the 7th century, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh.[38] These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas. However, it is not known if they had any relation to the early Cholas.[42] It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.[i] The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639â€“640 writes about the "kingdom of Culi-ya", in an apparent reference to these Telugu Cholas.[35][44]

Vijayalaya was the founder of the Imperial Chola dynasty which was the beginning of one of the most splendid empires in Indian history.[45] Vijayalaya, possibly a feudatory of the Pallava dynasty, took an opportunity arising out of a conflict between the Pandya dynasty and Pallava dynasty in c.Â 850, captured Thanjavur from Muttarayar, and established the imperial line of the medieval Chola Dynasty.[46][47] Thanjavur became the capital of the Imperial Chola Dynasty.[48]

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period.[49] Through their leadership and vision, Chola kings expanded their territory and influence. The second Chola King, Aditya I, caused the demise of the Pallava dynasty and defeated the Pandyan dynasty of Madurai in 885, occupied large parts of the Kannada country, and had marital ties with the Western Ganga dynasty. In 925, his son Parantaka I conquered Sri Lanka (known as Ilangai). Parantaka I also defeated the Rashtrakuta dynasty under Krishna II in the battle of Vallala.[50]

Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I were the greatest rulers of the Chola dynasty, extending it beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom.[37] At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari-Krishna river basin in the north, up to the Konkan coast in Bhatkal, the entire Malabar Coast in addition to Lakshadweep, Maldives, and vast areas of Chera country. Rajaraja Chola I was a ruler with inexhaustible energy, and he applied himself to the task of governance with the same zeal that he had shown in waging wars. He integrated his empire into a tight administrative grid under royal control, and at the same time strengthened local self-government. Therefore, he conducted a land survey in 1000 CE to effectively marshall the resources of his empire.[51] He also built the Brihadeeswarar Temple in 1010 CE.[52]

Rajendra Chola I conquered Odisha and his armies continued to march further north and defeated the forces of the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and reached the Ganges river in north India.[53] Rajendra Chola I built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram to celebrate his victories in northern India.[54] Rajendra Chola I successfully invaded the Srivijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia which led to the decline of the empire there.[55] This expedition had such a great impression to the Malay people of the medieval period that his name was mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu.[56][57][58] He also completed the conquest of the island of Sri Lanka and took the Sinhala king Mahinda V as a prisoner, in addition to his conquests of Rattapadi (territories of the Rashtrakutas, Chalukya country, Talakkad, and Kolar, where the Kolaramma temple still has his portrait statue) in Kannada country.[59] Rajendra's territories included the area falling on the Ganges-Hooghly-Damodar basin,[60] as well as Sri Lanka and Maldives.[46] The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty.[61] Three diplomatic missions were sent to China in 1016, 1033, and 1077.[46]

The Western Chalukya Empire under Satyashraya and Someshvara I tried to wriggle out of Chola domination from time to time, primarily due to the Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.[62] The Western Chalukyas mounted several unsuccessful attempts to engage the Chola emperors in war, and except for a brief occupation of Vengi territories between 1118–1126, all their other attempts ended in failure with successive Chola emperors routing the armies of the Chalukyas at various places in many wars. Virarajendra Chola defeated Someshvara II of the Western Chalukya Empire and made an alliance with Prince Vikramaditya VI.[63] Cholas always successfully controlled the Chalukyas in the western Deccan by defeating them in war and levying tribute on them.[64] Even under the emperors of the Cholas like Kulothunga I and Vikrama Chola, the wars against the Chalukyas were mainly fought in Chalukya territories in Karnataka or in the Telugu country like Vengi, Kakinada, Anantapur, or Gutti. Then the former feudatories like the Hoysalas, Yadvas, and Kakatiyas steadily increased their power and finally replaced the Chalukyas.[65] With the occupation of Dharwar in North Central Karnataka by the Hoysalas under Vishnuvardhana, where he based himself with his son Narasimha I in-charge at the Hoysala capital Dwarasamudra around 1149, and with the Kalachuris occupying the Chalukyan capital for over 35 years from around 1150–1151, the Chalukya kingdom was already starting to dissolve.[66]

The Cholas under Kulothunga Chola III collaborated to the herald the dissolution of the Chalukyas by aiding Hoysalas under Veera Ballala II, the son-in-law of the Chola monarch, and defeated the Western Chalukyas in a series of wars with Someshvara IV between 1185–1190. The last Chalukya king's territories did not even include the erstwhile Chalukyan capitals Badami, Manyakheta or Kalyani. That was the final dissolution of Chalukyan power though the Chalukyas existed only in name since 1135–1140. But the Cholas remained stable until 1215, were absorbed by the Pandyan empire and ceased to exist by 1279.[67]

On the other hand, throughout the period from 1150–1280, the staunchest opponents of the Cholas were Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories. This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Cholas also fought regular wars with the Eastern Gangas of Kalinga, protected Vengi though it remained largely independent under Chola control, and had domination of the entire eastern coast with their feudatories the Telugu Cholas, Velananti Cholas, Renandu Cholas etc. who also always aided the Cholas in their successful campaigns against the Chalukyas and levying tribute on the Kannada kingdoms and fought constantly with the Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, but until the time of the Later Chola king Kulottunga I the Cholas had firm control over Lanka. A Later Chola king, Rajadhiraja Chola II, was strong enough to prevail over a confederation of five Pandya princes who were aided by their traditional friend, the king of Lanka, this once again gave control of Lanka to the Cholas despite the fact that they were not strong under the resolute Rajadhiraja Chola II. However, his successor, the last great Chola monarch Kulottunga Chola III reinforced the hold of the Cholas by quelling rebellion and disturbances in Lanka and Madurai, defeated Hoysala generals under Veera Ballala II in Karuvur, in addition to holding on to his traditional territories in Tamil country, Eastern Gangavadi, Draksharama, Vengi and Kalinga. After this, he entered into a marital alliance with Veera Ballala II (with Ballala's marriage to a Chola princess) and his relationship with Hoysalas seems to have become friendlier.[64][j]

During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the Chola armies invaded Sri Lanka, the Maldives and parts of Southeast Asia like Malaysia, Indonesia and Southern Thailand[69] of the Srivijaya Empire in the 11th century. Rajaraja Chola I launched several naval campaigns that resulted in the capture of Sri Lanka, Maldives and the Malabar Coast.[70] In 1025, Rajendra Chola launched naval raids on ports of Srivijaya and against the Burmese kingdom of Pegu.[71] A Chola inscription states that he captured or plundered 14 places, which have been identified with Palembang, Tambralinga and Kedah among others.[72] A second invasion was led by Virarajendra Chola, who conquered Kedah in Malaysia of Srivijaya in the late 11th century.[73]

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukyas began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married Chalukya prince Vimaladitya[74] and Rajendra Chola's daughter Ammanga Devi was married to the Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.[75] Virarajendra Chola's son, Athirajendra Chola, was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070, and Kulothunga CholaÂ I, the son of Ammanga Devi and Rajaraja Narendra, ascended the Chola throne. Thus began the Later Chola dynasty.[76]

The Later Chola dynasty was led by capable rulers such as Kulothunga Chola I, his son Vikrama Chola, other successors like Rajaraja Chola II, Rajadhiraja Chola II, and Kulothunga Chola III, who conquered Kalinga, Ilam, and Kataha. However, the rule of the later Cholas between 1218, starting with Rajaraja Chola II, to the last emperor Rajendra Chola III was not as strong as those of the emperors between 850–1215. Around 1118, they lost control of Vengi to the Western Chalukya and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the Hoysala Empire. However, these were only temporary setbacks, because immediately following the accession of king Vikrama Chola, the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola I, the Cholas lost no time in recovering the province of Vengi by defeating Chalukya Someshvara III and also recovering Gangavadi from the Hoysalas. The Chola Empire, though not as strong as between 850–1150, was still largely territorially intact under Rajaraja Chola II (1146–1175) a fact attested by the construction and completion of the third grand Chola architectural marvel, the chariot-shaped Airavatesvara Temple at Dharasuram on the outskirts of modern Kumbakonam. Chola administration and territorial integrity until the rule of Kulothunga Chola III was stable and very prosperous up to 1215, but during his rule itself, the decline of the Chola power started following his defeat by Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II in 1215–16.[77] Subsequently, the Cholas also lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power.[citation needed]

In continuation of the decline, also marked by the resurgence of the Pandyan dynasty as the most powerful rulers in South India, a lack of a controlling central administration in its erstwhile-Pandyan territories prompted a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. Details of the Pandyan civil war and the role played by the Cholas and Sinhalas, are present in the Mahavamsa as well as the Pallavarayanpettai Inscriptions.[78][79]

The Cholas, under Rajaraja Chola III and later, his successor Rajendra Chola III, were quite weak and therefore, experienced continuous trouble. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held Rajaraja Chola III as hostage for sometime.[80][81] At the close of the 12th century, the growing influence of the Hoysalas replaced the declining Chalukyas as the main player in the Kannada country, but they too faced constant trouble from the Seunas and the Kalachuris, who were occupying Chalukya capital because those empires were their new rivals. So naturally, the Hoysalas found it convenient to have friendly relations with the Cholas from the time of Kulothunga Chola III, who had defeated Hoysala Veera Ballala II, who had subsequent marital relations with the Chola monarch. This continued during the time of Rajaraja Chola III the son and successor of Kulothunga Chola III[77][82]

The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power who ultimately banished the Hoysalas from Malanadu or Kannada country, who were allies of the Cholas from Tamil country and the demise of the Cholas themselves ultimately was caused by the Pandyas in 1279. The Pandyas first steadily gained control of the Tamil country as well as territories in Sri Lanka, Chera country, Telugu country under Maravarman Sundara Pandiyan II and his able successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan before inflicting several defeats on the joint forces of the Cholas under Rajaraja Chola III, his successor Rajendra Chola III and the Hoysalas under Someshwara, his son Ramanatha[77] Rajendra III tried to survive by aligning with the Kadava Pallavas and the Hoysalas in turn in order to counter the constantly rising power of the Pandyans who were the major players in the Tamil country from 1215 and had intelligently consolidated their position in Madurai-Rameswaram-Ilam-Cheranadu and Kanniyakumari belt, and had been steadily increasing their territories in the Kaveri belt between Dindigul-Tiruchy-Karur-Satyamangalam as well as in the Kaveri Delta i.e., Thanjavur-Mayuram-Chidambaram-Vriddhachalam-Kanchi, finally marching all the way up to Arcot—Tirumalai-Nellore-Visayawadai-Vengi-Kalingam belt by 1250.[83]

The Pandyas steadily routed both the Hoysalas and the Cholas.[84] They also dispossessed the Hoysalas, by defeating them under Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan at Kannanur Kuppam.[85] At the close of Rajendra's reign, the Pandyan empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers.[86] The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince.[87][88] The Hoysalas were routed from Kannanur Kuppam around 1279 by Kulasekhara Pandiyan and in the same war the last Chola emperor Rajendra III was routed and the Chola empire ceased to exist thereafter. Thus the Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire and sank into obscurity and ceased to exist by the end of the 13th century.[81][88]

According to Tamil tradition, the Chola country comprised the region that includes the modern-day Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District, Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and Karaikal District. The river Kaveri and its tributaries dominate this landscape of generally flat country that gradually slopes towards the sea, unbroken by major hills or valleys. The river, which is also known as the Ponni (Golden) river, had a special place in the culture of Cholas. The annual floods in the Kaveri marked an occasion for celebration, known as Adiperukku, in which the whole nation took part.[citation needed]

Kaveripoompattinam on the coast near the Kaveri delta was a major port town.[23] Ptolemy knew of this, which he called Khaberis, and the other port town of Nagappattinam as the most important centres of Cholas.[89] These two towns became hubs of trade and commerce and attracted many religious faiths, including Buddhism.[k] Roman ships found their way into these ports. Roman coins dating from the early centuries of the common era have been found near the Kaveri delta.[91][pageÂ needed][92]

The other major towns were Thanjavur, Uraiyur and Kudanthai, now known as Kumbakonam.[23] After Rajendra Chola moved his capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur lost its importance.[93]

In the age of the Cholas, the whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government.[l]

The Cholas' system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age.[25] However, there was little in common between the local chiefdoms of the earlier period and the imperial-like states of Rajaraja Chola and his successors.[95] Aside from the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which occasional courts were held. The king was the supreme leader and a benevolent authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king's orders dependent on his morality and belief in Dharma. The Chola kings built temples and endowed them with great wealth. The temples acted not only as places of worship but also as centres of economic activity, benefiting the community as a whole.[96] Some of the output of villages throughout the kingdom was given to temples that reinvested some of the wealth accumulated as loans to the settlements.[97] The Chola Dynasty was divided into several provinces called Mandalams which were further divided into Valanadus and these Valanadus were sub-divided into units called Kottams or Kutrams.[98] According to Kathleen Gough, during the Chola period the Vellalar were the "dominant secular aristocratic casteÂ ... providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the kingdom's bureaucracy, and the upper layer of the peasantry".[99]

Before the reign of Rajaraja Chola I huge parts of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and local princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Thereafter, until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133 CE when the Chola power was at its peak, these hereditary lords and local princes virtually vanished from the Chola records and were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. Through these dependent officials the administration was improved and the Chola kings were able to exercise a closer control over the different parts of the empire.[100] There was an expansion of the administrative structure, particularly from the reign of Rajaraja Chola I onwards. The government at this time had a large land revenue department, consisting of several tiers, which was largely concerned with maintaining accounts. The assessment and collection of revenue were undertaken by corporate bodies such as the ur, nadu, sabha, nagaram and sometimes by local chieftains who passed the revenue to the centre. During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, the state initiated a massive project of land survey and assessment and there was a reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus.[101]

The order of the King was first communicated by the executive officer to the local authorities. Afterwards the records of the transaction was drawn up and attested by a number of witnesses who were either local magnates or government officers.[102]

At local government level, every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottam, depending on the area.[103][104][105] A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu.[106] These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.[107]

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level.[105] Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or confiscation of property.[108]

The Chola dynasty had a professional military, of which the king was the supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps, several divisions of infantry and a navy.[109] There were regiments of bowmen and swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most permanent and dependable troops. The Chola army was spread all over the country and was stationed in local garrisons or military camps known as Kodagams. The elephants played a major role in the army and the dynasty had numerous war elephants. These carried houses or huge Howdahs on their backs, full of soldiers who shot arrows at long range and who fought with spears at close quarters.[110]

The Chola rulers built several palaces and fortifications to protect their cities. The fortifications were mostly made up of bricks but other materials like stone, wood and mud were also used.[111][112] According to the ancient Tamil text Silappadikaram, the Tamil kings defended their forts with catapults that threw stones, huge cauldrons of boiling water or molten lead, and hooks, chains and traps.[113][114][need quotation to verify]

The soldiers of the Chola dynasty used weapons such as swords, bows, javelins, spears and shields which were made up of steel.[115] Particularly the famous Wootz steel, which has a long history in south India dating back to the period before the Christian era, seems also be used to produce weapons.[116] The army consisted of people from different castes but the warriors of the Kaikolar and Vellalar castes played a prominent role.[117][118]

The Chola navy was the zenith of ancient India sea power.[110] It played a vital role in the expansion of the empire, including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Srivijaya.[119] The navy grew both in size and status during the medieval Cholas reign. The Chola admirals commanded much respect and prestige. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas fought land battles subjugating the Chalukyas of the Andhra-Kannada area in South India.[120]

A martial art called Silambam was patronised by the Chola rulers. Ancient and medieval Tamil texts mention different forms of martial traditions but the ultimate expression of the loyalty of the warrior to his commander was a form of martial suicide called Navakandam. The medieval Kalingathu Parani text, which celebrates the victory of Kulothunga Chola I and his general in the battle for Kalinga, describes the practice in detail.

Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income.[121] The Chola rulers issued their coins in gold, silver and copper.[122] The Chola economy was based on three tiersâ€”at the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns nagaram, which acted as redistribution centres for externally produced items bound for consumption in the local economy and as sources of products made by nagaram artisans for the international trade. At the top of this economic pyramid were the elite merchant groups (samayam) who organised and dominated the regions international maritime trade.[123][clarification needed]

One of the main articles which were exported to foreign countries were cotton cloth.[124] Uraiyur, the capital of the early Chola rulers, was a famous centre for cotton textiles which were praised by Tamil poets.[125][126] The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue from it.[127] During this period the weavers started to organise themselves into guilds.[128] The weavers had their own residential sector in all towns. The most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the Saliyar and Kaikolar.[127] During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree and Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.[129][130]

Metal crafts reached its zenith during the 10th to 11th centuries because the Chola rulers like Chembian Maadevi extended their patronage to metal craftsmen.[131] Wootz steel was a major export item.[132]

The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society.[133] These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group.[133][134] Agriculture was the principal occupation for many people. Besides the landowners, there were others dependent on agriculture.[135] The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry.[99]

In almost all villages the distinction between persons paying the land-tax (iraikudigal) and those who did not was clearly established. There was a class of hired day-labourers who assisted in agricultural operations on the estates of other people and received a daily wage. All cultivable land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure which can be distinguished as peasant proprietorship called vellan-vagai, service tenure and eleemosynary tenure resulting from charitable gifts.[136] The vellan-vagai was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern times, having direct relations with the government and paying a land-tax liable to revision from time to time.[123] The vellan-vagai villages fell into two broad classes- one directly remitting a variable annual revenue to the state and the other paying dues of a more or less fixed character to the public institutions like temples to which they were assigned.[137] The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the Chola rulers threw mighty stone dams across the Kaveri and other rivers, and cut out channels to distribute water over large tracts of land.[138] Rajendra CholaÂ I dug near his capital an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers.[137]

There existed a brisk internal trade in several articles carried on by the organised mercantile corporations in various parts of the country. The metal industries and the jewellers art had reached a high degree of excellence. The manufacture of sea-salt was carried on under government supervision and control. Trade was carried on by merchants organised in guilds. The guilds described sometimes by the terms nanadesis were a powerful autonomous corporation of merchants which visited different countries in the course of their trade. They had their own mercenary army for the protection of their merchandise. There were also local organisations of merchants called "nagaram" in big centres of trade like Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram.[139][137]

Hospitals were maintained by the Chola kings, whose government gave lands for that purpose. The Tirumukkudal inscription shows that a hospital was named after Vira Chola. Many diseases were cured by the doctors of the hospital, which was under the control of a chief physician who was paid annually 80 Kalams of paddy, 8 Kasus and a grant of land. Apart from the doctors, other remunerated staff included a nurse, barber (who performed minor operations) and a waterman.[140]

The Chola queen Kundavai also established a hospital at Tanjavur and gave land for the perpetual maintenance of it.[141][142]

During the Chola period several guilds, communities and castes emerged. The guild was one of the most significant institutions of south India and merchants organised themselves into guilds. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds though other guilds such as Anjuvannam and Valanjiyar were also in existence.[143] The farmers occupied one of the highest positions in society. These were the Vellalar community who formed the nobility or the landed aristocracy of the country and who were economically a powerful group.[133][134] The Vellalar community was the dominant secular aristocratic caste under the Chola rulers, providing the courtiers, most of the army officers, the lower ranks of the bureaucracy and the upper layer of the peasantry.[99] The Vellalar were also sent to northern Sri Lanka by the Chola rulers as settlers.[144] The Ulavar community were working in the field which was associated with agriculture and the peasants were known as Kalamar.[133]

The Kaikolar community were weavers and merchants but they also maintained armies. During the Chola period they had predominant trading and military roles.[145] During the reign of the Imperial Chola rulers (10th-13th century) there were major changes in the temple administration and land ownership. There was more involvement of non-Brahmin elements in the temple administration. This can be attributed to the shift in money power. Skilled classes like the weavers and the merchant-class had become prosperous. Land ownership was no longer a privilege of the Brahmins (priest caste) and the Vellalar land owners.[146]

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign[147] The stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a productive and contented life. However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.[148]

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a high level of literacy and education. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children,[149] although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses.[150] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning and received government support.[151]

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia.[152] Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity.[153] The south Indian guilds played a major role in interregional and overseas trade. The best known of these were the Manigramam and Ayyavole guilds who followed the conquering Chola armies.[143] The encouragement by the Chola court furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as the Ayyavole and Manigramam guilds into Southeast Asia and China.[154] The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures.[155][156] The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Baghdad were the main trading partners.[157]

Some credit for the emergence of a world market must also go to the dynasty. It played a significant role in linking the markets of China to the rest of the world. The market structure and economic policies of the Chola dynasty were more conducive to a large-scale, cross-regional market trade than those enacted by the Chinese Song Dynasty. A Chola record gives their rationale for engagement in foreign trade: "Make the merchants of distant foreign countries who import elephants and good horses attach to yourself by providing them with villages and decent dwellings in the city, by affording them daily audience, presents and allowing them profits. Then those articles will never go to your enemies."[158]

Song dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in 1077,[159][160] and that the king of the Chulian at the time, Kulothunga I, was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with copper coins in exchange for articles of tribute, including glass and spices.[161] Probably, the motive behind Rajendra's expedition to Srivijaya was the protection of the merchants' interests.[162]

There was tremendous agrarian expansion during the rule of the imperial Chola Dynasty (c.Â 900-1270 AD) all over Tamil Nadu and particularly in the Kaveri Basin. Most of the canals of the Kaveri River belongs to this period e.g., Uyyakondan canal, Rajendran vaykkal, Sembian Mahadegvi vaykkal. There was a well-developed and highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of devadana and bramadeya lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam(tank-committee) and totta-variam(garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra Chola built a huge tank named Solagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Solapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory. About 16 miles long, it was provided with sluices and canals for irrigating the lands in the neighbouring areas. Another very large lake of this period, which even today seems an important source of irrigation was the Viranameri near Kattumannarkoil in South Arcot district founded by Parantaka Chola. Other famous lakes of this period are Madurantakam, Sundra-cholapereri, Kundavai-Pereri (after a Chola queen).[163]

Under the Cholas, the Tamil country reached new heights of excellence in art, religion, music and literature.[164] In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas.[165] Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[166]

The Chola conquest of Kadaram (Kedah) and Srivijaya, and their continued commercial contacts with the Chinese Empire, enabled them to influence the local cultures.[167] Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe much to the legacy of the Cholas. For example, the great temple complex at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian architecture.[168][169]

According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire.[170][full citation needed] Chola rule is remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak.[171][full citation needed][172][full citation needed]

The Cholas continued the temple-building traditions of the Pallava dynasty and contributed significantly to the Dravidian temple design.[173] They built a number of Shiva temples along the banks of the river Kaveri. The template for these and future temples was formulated by AdityaÂ I and Parantaka.[174][175][176] The Chola temple architecture has been appreciated for its magnificence as well as delicate workmanship, ostensibly following the rich traditions of the past bequeathed to them by the Pallava Dynasty.[177] Architectural historian James Fergusson says that "the Chola artists conceived like giants and finished like jewelers".[177] A new development in Chola art that characterised the Dravidian architecture in later times was the addition of a huge gateway called gopuram to the enclosure of the temple, which had gradually taken its form and attained maturity under the Pandya Dynasty.[177] The Chola school of art also spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.[178][179]

Temple building received great impetus from the conquests and the genius of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola I.[180] The maturity and grandeur to which the Chola architecture had evolved found expression in the two temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram. The magnificent Shiva temple of Thanjavur, completed around 1009, is a fitting memorial to the material achievements of the time of Rajaraja. The largest and tallest of all Indian temples of its time, it is at the apex of South Indian architecture. The temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram at Gangaikondacholapuram, the creation of Rajendra Chola, was intended to excel its predecessor. Completed around 1030, only two decades after the temple at Thanjavur and in the same style, the greater elaboration in its appearance attests the more affluent state of the Chola Empire under Rajendra.[173][181][page needed] The Brihadisvara Temple, the temple of Gangaikondacholisvaram and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram were declared as World Heritage Sites by the UNESCO and are referred to as the Great living Chola temples.[182]

The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.[183][184][185] Among the existing specimens in museums around the world and in the temples of South India may be seen many fine figures of Shiva in various forms, such as Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi, and the Shaivite saints.[173] Though conforming generally to the iconographic conventions established by long tradition, the sculptors worked with great freedom in the 11th and the 12th centuries to achieve a classic grace and grandeur. The best example of this can be seen in the form of Nataraja the Divine Dancer.[186][m]

The Imperial Chola era was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola records cite many works, including the Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam.[188]

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Shaiva and Vaishnava devotional literature.[189] Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries.[190] Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkatevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable works by non-Hindu authors.[191][192][193] The grammarian Buddhamitra wrote a text on Tamil grammar called Virasoliyam.[194] Commentaries were written on the great text

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III. His Ramavataram (also referred to as Kambaramayanam) is an epic of Tamil literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki's Ramayana, it is generally accepted that his work is not a simple translation or adaptation of the Sanskrit epic.[199][page needed] He imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.[193][200][page needed][201]

Jayamkondar's masterpiece, Kalingattuparani, is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I's war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field.[201][202] The Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga CholaÂ I and served at the courts of three of Kulothunga's successors.[203][204] Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Cholan Ula, a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king.[205]

Nannul is a Chola era work on Tamil grammar. It discusses all five branches of grammar and, according to Berthold Spuler, is still relevant today and is one of the most distinguished normative grammars of literary Tamil.[206]

Of the devotional literature, the arrangement of the Shaivite canon into eleven books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of the 10th century.[207][208] However, relatively few Vaishnavite works were composed during the Later Chola period, possibly because of the rulers' apparent animosity towards them.[209]

Chola rulers took an active interest in the development of temple centres and used the temples to widen the sphere of their royal authority. They established educational institutions and hospitals around the temple, enhanced the beneficial aspects of the role of the temple, and projected the royalty as a very powerful and genial presence.[210] A record of Virarajendra Chola's reign relates to the maintenance of a school in the Jananamandapa within the temple for the study of the Vedas, Sastras, Grammar, and Rupavatara, as well as a hostel for students. The students were provided with food, bathing oil on Saturdays, and oil for pups.[clarification needed] A hospital named Virasolan was provided with fifteen beds for sick people. The items of expense set apart for their comforts are rice, a doctor, a surgeon, two maid servants for nursing the patients, and a general servant for the hospital.[211]

In general, Cholas were followers of Hinduism. They were not swayed by the rise of Buddhism and Jainism as were the kings of the Pallava and Pandya dynasties. Kocengannan, an Early Chola, was celebrated in both Sangam literature and in the Shaivite canon as a Hindu saint.[27]

While the Cholas did build their largest and most important temple dedicated to Shiva, it can be by no means concluded that either they were followers of Shaivism only or that they were not favourably disposed to other faiths. This is borne out by the fact that the second Chola king, Aditya I (871–903 CE), built temples for Shiva and also for Vishnu. Inscriptions of 890 refer to his contributions to the construction of the Ranganatha Temple at Srirangapatnam in the country of the Western Gangas, who were both his feudatories and had connections by marriage with him. He also pronounced that the great temples of Shiva and the Ranganatha temple were to be the Kuladhanam of the Chola emperors.[212]

Parantaka II was a devotee of the reclining Vishnu (Vadivu Azhagiya Nambi) at Anbil, on the banks of the Kaveri river on the outskirts of Tiruchy, to whom he gave numerous gifts and embellishments. He also prayed before him before his embarking on war to regain the territories in and around Kanchi and Arcot from the waning Rashtrakutas and while leading expeditions against both Madurai and Ilam (Sri Lanka).[213] Parantaka I and Parantaka Chola II endowed and built temples for Shiva and Vishnu.[214] Rajaraja Chola I patronised Buddhists and provided for the construction of the Chudamani Vihara, a Buddhist monastery in Nagapattinam, at the request of Sri Chulamanivarman, the Srivijaya Sailendra king.[215][216]

During the period of the Later Cholas, there are alleged to have been instances of intolerance towards Vaishnavites[217] especially towards their acharya, Ramanuja.[218] Kulothunga Chola II, a staunch Shaivite, is said to have removed a statue of Vishnu from the Shiva temple at Chidambaram, though there are no epigraphical evidences to support this theory. There is an inscription from 1160 that the custodians of Shiva temples who had social intercourses with Vaishnavites would forfeit their property. However, this is more of a direction to the Shaivite community by its religious heads than any kind of dictat by a Chola emperor. While Chola kings built their largest temples for Shiva and even while emperors like Rajaraja Chola I held titles like Sivapadasekharan, in none of their inscriptions did the Chola emperors proclaim that their clan only and solely followed Shaivism or that Shaivism was the state religion during their rule.[219][220][221]

The Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors.[222] The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy.[223] Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola, dealing with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola to the Chola throne. Kalki had used the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Parantaka CholaÂ II.[224] The book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid-1950s.[225] The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.[226]

Kalki's earlier historical romance, Parthiban Kanavu, deals with the fortunes of the imaginary Chola prince Vikraman, who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king NarasimhavarmanÂ I during the 7th century. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in decline before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortunes.[227] Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.[citation needed]

Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga CholaÂ I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom after he was denied the throne. It speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work, Yavana Rani, written in the early 1960s, is based on the life of Karikala Chola.[228] More recently, Balakumaran wrote the novel Udaiyar, which is based on the circumstances surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.[229]

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973 Sivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of a play titled Rajaraja Cholan. The Cholas are featured in the History of the World board game, produced by Avalon Hill.[citation needed]

The Cholas were the subject of the 2010 Tamil-language movie Aayirathil Oruvan.


where do you have to use afci breakers

Starting with the 1999 version of the National Electrical Code in the United States, and the 2002 version of the Canadian Electrical Code in Canada, the national codes require AFCIs in all circuits that feed outlets in bedrooms of dwelling units. As of the 2014 NEC, AFCI protection is required on all branch circuits supplying outlets or devices installed in dwelling unit kitchens, family rooms, dining rooms, living rooms, parlors, libraries, dens, bedrooms, sunrooms, recreation rooms, closets, hallways, laundry areas, and similar rooms and areas. They are also required in dormitory units. This requirement may be accomplished by using a "combination type" breaker—a specific kind of circuit-breaker defined by UL 1699—in the breaker panel that provides combined arc-fault and overcurrent protection or by using an AFCI receptacle for modifications/extensions, as replacement receptacles or in new construction, at the first outlet on the branch. Not all U.S. jurisdictions have adopted the NEC's AFCI requirements so it is important to check local code requirements.

Arc-fault circuit interrupter

An Arc Fault Circuit Interrupter (AFCI) is a circuit breaker that breaks the circuit when it detects an electric arc in the circuit it protects to prevent electrical fires. An AFCI selectively distinguishes between a harmless arc (incidental to normal operation of switches, plugs, and brushed motors), and a potentially dangerous arc (that can occur, for example, in a lamp cord which has a broken conductor).

AFCI breakers have been required for circuits feeding electrical outlets in residential bedrooms by the electrical codes of Canada and the United States since the beginning of the 21st century; the U.S. National Electrical Code has required them to protect most residential outlets since 2014,[1] and the Canadian Electrical Code has since 2015.[2]

Arc faults are one of the leading causes for residential electrical fires.[3] Each year in the United States, over 40,000 fires are attributed to home electrical wiring. These fires result in over 350 deaths and over 1,400 injuries each year.[4]

Conventional circuit breakers only respond to overloads and short circuits, so they do not protect against arcing conditions that produce erratic, and often reduced current. An AFCI is selective so that normal arcs do not cause it to trip. The AFCI circuitry continuously monitors the current and discriminates between normal and unwanted arcing conditions. Once detected, the AFCI opens its internal contacts, thus de-energizing the circuit and reducing the potential for a fire to occur.[5]

The electronics inside an AFCI breaker detect electrical current alternating at characteristic frequencies, usually around 100 kHz, known to be associated with wire arcing, which are sustained for more than a few milliseconds. A combination AFCI breaker provides protection against parallel arcing (line to neutral), series arcing (a loose, broken, or otherwise high resistance segment in a single line), ground arcing (from line, or neutral, to ground), overload protection and short circuit protection.

AFCI receptacles contain electronic components to monitor a circuit for the presence of dangerous arcing conditions. Based upon an established threshold in the sine wave, the AFCI can be triggered to quickly react and de-power a circuit if dangerous arcing is detected.

When installed as the first outlet on a branch circuit, AFCI receptacles provide series arc protection for the entire branch circuit. They also provide parallel arc protection for the branch circuit starting at the AFCI receptacle. Unlike AFCI breakers, AFCI receptacles may be used on any wiring system regardless of the panel.

The AFCI is intended to prevent fire from arcs. AFCI circuit breakers are designed to meet one of two standards as specified by UL 1699: "branch" type or "combination" type (note: the Canadian Electrical Code uses different terminology but similar technical requirements). A branch type AFCI trips on 75 amperes of arcing current from the line wire to either the neutral or ground wire. A combination type adds series arcing detection to branch type performance. Combination type AFCIs trip on 5 amperes of series arcing.

AFCI receptacles are an alternative solution to AFCI breakers. These receptacles are designed to address the dangers associated with both types of potentially hazardous arcing: parallel and series. AFCI receptacles offer the benefit of localized test and reset with such buttons located on the face of the device. This is very convenient and saves a journey to the breaker panel.

In 2002, the NEC removed the word "receptacle", leaving "outlets", with the effect that lights and other wired-in devices such as ceiling fans within bedrooms were added to the requirement. The 2005 code made it clearer that all outlets must be protected despite discussion in the code-making panel about excluding bedroom smoke detectors from the requirement. "Outlets" as defined in the NEC includes receptacles, light fixtures and smoke alarms, among other things. Basically, any point where electricity is used to power something is an outlet.

As of January 2008, only "combination type" AFCIs meet the NEC requirement. The 2008 NEC requires the installation of combination-type AFCIs in all 15 and 20 ampere residential circuits with the exception of laundries, kitchens, bathrooms, garages, and unfinished basements, though many of which require GFCI protection. The 2014 NEC adds kitchens and laundry rooms to the list of rooms requiring AFCI circuitry, as well as any devices (such as lighting) requiring protection.[6]

AFCIs are designed to protect against fires caused by electrical arc faults. While the sensitivity of the AFCIs helps in the detection of arc faults, these breakers can also indicate false positives by identifying normal circuit behaviors as arc faults. For instance, lightning strikes provide voltage and current profiles that resemble arc faults. This nuisance tripping reduces the overall effectiveness of AFCIs. Research into advancements in this area is being pursued.[7]

Also, AFCIs provide no specific protection against glowing connections also known as a High Resistance Connection, excess current, high line voltages or low line voltages. AFCI circuit breakers include a standard inverse-time circuit breaker. Glowing connections occur when relatively high current exists in a relatively large resistance object. Heat comes from power dissipation. This energy, when dissipated in a small junction area, can generate temperatures above 1000 °C (1800 °F) and can ignite most flammable materials.[8]

Bad wiring junctions can occur in utilization equipment, cords, or in-situ wiring and especially in a defective switch, socket, plug, wiring connection and even at the circuit breaker or fuse panels. Terminal screws loosened by vibration, improper tightening or other causes offer increased resistance to the current, with consequent heating and potential thermal creep, which will cause the termination to loosen further and exacerbate the heating effect. In North America, high resistance junctions are sometimes observed at the terminations of aluminum wire circuits, where oxidation has caused increased resistance, resulting in thermal creep. No technology located in a circuit breaker or fuse panel could detect a high-resistance wiring fault as no measurable characteristic exists that differentiates a glow fault from normal branch circuit operation. Power Fault Circuit Interrupters (PFCI) located in receptacles are designed to prevent fires caused by glowing connections in wiring or panels.[citation needed] From the receptacle a PFCI can detect the voltage drop when high current exists in a high resistance junction. In a properly designed and maintained circuit, substantial voltage drops should never occur.[citation needed] Proper wire terminations inside utilization equipment, such as appliances, and cords prevent high-resistance connections that could lead to fires.

An AFCI does not detect high line voltage due to an open neutral in a multiwire branch circuit. A multiwire branch circuit has both energized wires of a 120-240V split phase service. If the neutral is broken, devices connected from a 120 V leg to the neutral may experience excess voltage, up to twice normal.

AFCIs do not detect low line voltage. Low line voltage can cause electromechanical relays to repeatedly turn off and on. If current is flowing through the load contacts it causes arcing across the contacts as they open. The arcing can oxidize, pit and melt the contacts. This process can increase the contact resistance, superheat the relay and lead to fires. Power fault circuit interrupters are designed to prevent fires from low voltage across loads.[citation needed]

AFCIs are also known to be sensitive (false tripping) to the presence of radio frequency energy, especially within the so-called high frequency spectrum (3-30 MHz) which include legitimate Citizens Band and Amateur Radio operations. Sensitivities and mitigation have been known since 2013.[9]

AFCIs may interfere with the operation of some power line communication technologies.[10]

GFCI (Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter)

DFCI (Dual Function Circuit Interrupter) -Dual function circuit interrupters utilize both GFCI and AFCI detection technology.