who wrote it's the end of the world

"The End of the World" is a country pop song written by Arthur Kent and lyricist Sylvia Dee, for American singer Skeeter Davis. It had success in the 1960s and spawned many covers.

The End of the World (Skeeter Davis song)

"The End of the World" was written by Arthur Kent and Sylvia Dee; the latter drew on her sorrow from her father's death.

Davis recorded her version with sound engineer Bill Porter on June 8, 1962, at the RCA Studios in Nashville, produced by Chet Atkins, and featuring Floyd Cramer.[1] Released by RCA Records in December 1962, "The End of the World" peaked in March 1963 at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 (behind "Our Day Will Come" by Ruby & the Romantics), No. 2 on the Billboard country singles,[2] No. 1 on Billboard's easy listening, and No. 4 on Billboard's rhythm and blues.[3] It is the first, and, to date, only time that a song cracked the Top 10 on all four Billboard charts.[4] Billboard ranked the record as the No. 2 song of 1963.

In the Skeeter Davis version, after she sings the whole song through in the key of B-flat, the song modulates up by a half step to the key of B, where Skeeter speaks the first two lines of the final stanza, before singing the rest of the stanza, ending the song.

Davis's recording of "The End of the World" was played at Atkins's funeral in an instrumental by Marty Stuart, and at Davis's own funeral at the Ryman Auditorium. Her version has been featured in several films, TV shows, and video games (see "Appearances in media" below).

In 1975, American pop music duo Carpenters released a cover of "The End of the World" as a promotional single from their live album Live in Japan. It was recorded at the Festival Hall, Osaka, Japan.

In 1990, British singer Sonia covered "End of the World". The fifth and final single from her debut album, Everybody Knows, it reached number 18 in the UK,[7] the same chart position as the original.[5] The single's B-side "Can't Help the Way That I Feel" also appeared on Sonia's debut album. This was her final single with Stock Aitken Waterman.

7" single

CD single and 12" vinyl single

A No. 2 hit in Sweden in September 1966 via a local cover by Mike Wallace & the Caretakers, "The End of the World" has also been remade by a number of other artists including Jessica Andersson on her 2009 album Wake Up[9], Anika (as B-side to her single "Yang Yang" and on her album Anika), Eddy Arnold, Best Coast, Debby Boone, Brilliant, Carola (in Finnish as "Maailmain"), Chantal Pary (in French "Le jour se lèvera), the Carpenters, Rivers Cuomo, Bobby Darin, Lana Del Rey, Barbara Dickson, Dion, Mary Duff, Allison Durbin, Judith Durham, Exposé, Agnetha Fältskog, Rosie Flores, Emi Fujita, Girls, Nina Gordon, Herman's Hermits (as the B-side of "I'm Henery the Eighth, I Am"), Grethe & Jørgen Ingmann (released on the b-side to Eurovision Song Contest winner song 1963; Dansevise), Satoko Ishimine, Joni James, Cyndi Lauper, Brenda Lee, Vic Dana, Lobo, Julie London, Claudine Longet, Loretta Lynn, Al Martino, Johnny Mathis, Anne Mattila (in Finnish as "Maailmain"), Imelda May, Maywood, John Mellencamp, Anita Meyer, the Mills Brothers, Ronnie Milsap, Dorothy Moore, Mud, Anne Murray, Leigh Nash, Nomeansno, Patti Page, Helen Shapiro, Anne Shelton, Vonda Shepard, Nancy Sinatra, Sonia, the Tokens, Twiggy, Twinkle, Sharon Van Etten, the Vanguards, Bobby Vinton, Jeff Walker, Dottie West, Lena Zavaroni, and Tracy Huang (黃鶯鶯). In 2009 Susan Boyle remade "The End of the World" for her debut album, I Dreamed a Dream.

Herman's Hermits covered the song.  It was released in June 1965 as the B-Side to I'm Henry The VIII, I Am.

Anna-Lena Löfgren recorded the song in Swedish, as "Allt är förbi"[10], scoring a Svensktoppen hit for seven weeks between 9 October–19 November 1966.[11]

A cover version by Allison Paige peaked at number 72 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart in May 2000.[12]

The Brazilian band Roupa Nova made a cover version in Portuguese, in 1997, named "O Sonho Acabou".

There have been three Cantonese versions covered by three different Hong Kong singers, namely "長相思" by Pauline Chan (陳寶珠) in 1968, "含羞草" by Annabelle Lui (雷安娜) in 1987 and "冬戀" by Danny Chan (陳百強) in 1988.

For the Mandarin version, the first one "打不動你的心" was covered by Hong Kong veteran female singer Rebecca Pan (潘迪華) in 1965 while the second one "後會無期" by another Hong Kong female singer G.E.M. Tang (鄧紫棋) in 2014. Subsequently, there was the third one titled "星夢之光", lyrics written by an SNH48 member, Wu Yanwen (吳燕文), and performed by SNH48 themselves in 2015.

Cyndi Lauper covered the song in 2016, the cover is part of the album Detour.


how many grams in a pinch of salt

One pinch of fine salt is approximately 1⁄4 gram (20–24 pinches per teaspoon), while one pinch of sugar is 1⁄3 – 1⁄2 gram.[citation needed]

Pinch (cooking)

A pinch in cooking (pn) is an amount of an ingredient, typically salt, sugar, or spice. Traditionally it was defined as "an amount that can be taken between the thumb and forefinger".[1] Historically the pinch was more precisely defined by some U.S. cookbooks as approximately 1⁄8 teaspoon.[2] Other sources define a pinch as 1⁄24 tsp.[3]

In the early 2000s some companies began selling measuring spoons that defined (or redefined) a tad as 1⁄4 teaspoon, a dash as 1⁄8 teaspoon, a pinch as 1⁄16 teaspoon, and a smidgen as 1⁄32 teaspoon.[1][4] Based on these spoons, there are two pinches in a dash and two smidgens in a pinch.


summary of the novel such a long journey

Such a Long Journey takes place in Mumbai, Maharashtra, in the year 1971. The novel's protagonist is a hard-working bank clerk Gustad Noble, a member of the Parsi community and a devoted family man struggling to keep his wife Dilnavaz, and three children out of poverty. But his family begins to fall apart as his eldest son Sohrab refuses to attend the prestigious Indian Institute of Technology to which he has gained admittance and his youngest daughter, Roshan, falls ill. Other conflicts within the novel involve Gustad's ongoing interactions with his eccentric neighbours and his relationship with his close friend and co-worker, Dinshawji. Tehmul, a seemingly unimportant and mentally disabled character, is essential in Gustad's life, as he brings out the tender side of him and represents the innocence of life. A letter that Gustad receives one day from an old friend, Major Bilimoria, slowly draws him into a government deception involving threats, secrecy and large amounts of money. He then, begins the long journey, that sheds new light on all aspects of Gustad's personal and political life. The novel not only follows Gustad's life, but also India's political turmoil under the leadership of Indira Gandhi.

Such a Long Journey (novel)

Such a Long Journey is a 1991 novel  by Rohinton Mistry. It was shortlisted for the Booker Prize and won several other awards. In 2010 the book made headlines when it was withdrawn from the University of Mumbai's English syllabus after complaints from the family of the Hindu nationalist politician Bal Thackeray.[1]

When it was published in 1991, it won the Governor General's Award, the Commonwealth Writers Prize for Best Book, and the W.H. Smith/Books in Canada First Novel Award.[2] It was shortlisted for the prestigious Booker Prize and for the Trillium Award. It has been translated into German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and Japanese, Korean and has been made into the 1998 film Such a Long Journey.

Such a Long Journey was withdrawn from the syllabus of Mumbai University since it contained, in the perspective of some character in the book, discriminatory and derogatory remarks about Maharashtrians and abusive languages about Bal Thackeray, leader of Shiv Sena, a political party from Maharashtra. In the book, the character Dinshawji angrily recounts an incident with a dabbawala who's rude to him, stating "What to do with such low-class people? No manners, no sense, nothing. And you know who is responsible for this attitude — that bastard Shiv Sena leader who worships Hitler and Mussolini. He and his 'Maharashtra for Maharashtrians' nonsense. They won’t stop till they have complete Maratha Raj....Wait till the Marathas take over, then we will have real Gandoo Raj."[3]

Aditya Thackeray, grandson of Bal Thackeray, a final-year Arts student at St. Xavier's College, complained to the vice chancellor that the book contains abusive language about his grandfather and the Maharashtrian community and demanded its withdrawal from the syllabus.

The book was prescribed for the second year Bachelor of Arts (English) in 2007â€“08 as an optional text, according to University sources. It was also confirmed that Dr. Rajan Welukar, University of Mumbai's Vice-Chancellor (V-C) used the emergency powers under Section 14 (7) of the Maharashtra Universities Act, 1994, to withdraw the book from the syllabus. Based on a complaint, the Board of Studies (English), which had recommended the book earlier, resolved that it must be withdrawn with effect from September 15.[1]

Following this incidence the book entered public debate. The teachers' union wanted the Vice Chancellor to defend academic freedom,[4][5] claiming that the book was selected for literary reasons. Their point of view was that the author, Rohinton Mistry, did not think poorly of Marathi-speakers, and that the passages were perspectives of a character in the book, namely Kapur.[6] The Chief Minister of Maharashtra Ashok Chavan (Member of Congress Party) stated that the book is "highly abusive and objectionable".[7] Former Vice-Chancellor of Mumbai University and Member of the Planning Commission of India Bhalchandra Mungekar stated that "I'm fully convinced, even giving the benefit of the doubt to the book being a piece of fiction, that some sentences are certainly objectionable...there is a difference between dissenting with the political and social philosophy of an individual or organisation, and abusing the individual by name".[8] Faculty have complained of pressure tactics being used to coerce their support of the vice chancellor's decision.[9] The book is unlikely to be reintroduced in the short term on account of possibility of law and order problems.[10] Mistry has also expressed disappointment in a statement regarding the withdrawal.[11][12]

â€“ Indira Gandhi (prime minister)


who is the current agriculture minister of india

The Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (formerly Ministry of Agriculture), a branch of the Government of India, is the apex body for formulation and administration of the rules and regulations and laws related to agriculture in India. The three broad areas of scope for the Ministry are agriculture, food processing and co-operation. The agriculture ministry is headed by Minister of Agriculture Radha Mohan Singh. Gajendra Singh Shekhawat, Krishna Raj and Parsottambhai Rupala are the Ministers of State.

Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare

Agriculture is the principal source of livelihood for more than half population of India. Agriculture provides the bulk of wage goods required by non-agriculture sectors and most of the raw materials for the industries sector. India is a largely agrarian economy - with 52.1% of the population estimated to directly or indirectly employed in agriculture and allied sectors in 2009-10.[3] The combined efforts of Central Government, State Governments and the farming community have succeeded in achieving record production of 244.78 million tonnes of foodgrains during 2010-11. This record production has been achieved through effective transfer of newly developed crop production technologies to farmers under various crop development schemes, such as the Agriculture MMP, which is run under the direction of the Department of Agriculture & Cooperation. Other causes behind record production include remunerative prices for various crops through enhanced minimum support prices.[4] Agriculture in India is of significance because of this as well as a history of food shortages and a growing population.

Department of Revenue and Agriculture and Commerce was set up in June 1871 to deal with all the agricultural matters in India. Until this ministry was established, matters related to agriculture were within the portfolio of the Home Department.[5]

In 1881, Department of Revenue & Agriculture was set up to deal with combined portfolios of education, health, agriculture, revenue. However, In 1947, Department of Agriculture was redesignated as Ministry of Agriculture.[5]

The Ministry of Agriculture and farmers Welfare consists of the following three Departments.[6]

The administrative head of the Ministry are the Secretaries of the three departments.

A leading program of the Ministry is the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, which was launched in 2007 on the recommendations of the National Development Council of India. This program sought to improve the overall state of agriculture in India by providing stronger planning, better co-ordination and greater funding to improve productivity and overall output. The total budget for this program in 2009-10 was just over INR 38,000 crore.[10]

The Ministry publishes an annual report titled "Agricultural Statistics At a Glance". This gives a detailed picture of the state of the India's agriculture including demographics of the agrarian sector, crop production (including state-wise and crop-wise break-ups), rural economic indicators such as credit, etc. The latest report has been published for 2014.[11]


what does the armed services committee do in the senate

The Committee on Armed Services (sometimes abbreviated SASC for Senate Armed Services Committee on its Web site) is a committee of the United States Senate empowered with legislative oversight of the nationâ€™s military, including the Department of Defense, military research and development, nuclear energy (as pertaining to national security), benefits for members of the military, the Selective Service System and other matters related to defense policy. The Armed Services Committee was created as a result of the Legislative Reorganization Act of 1946 following U.S. victory in the Second World War. It merged the responsibilities of the Committee on Naval Affairs (established in 1816) and the Committee on Military Affairs (also established in 1816).

United States Senate Committee on Armed Services

Considered one of the most powerful Senate committees, its broad mandate allowed it to report some of the most extensive and revolutionary legislation during the Cold War years, including the National Security Act of 1947. The committee tends to take a more bipartisan approach than other committees, as many of its members formerly served in the military or have major defense interests located in the states they come from.[1]

According to the Standing Rules of the United States Senate, all proposed legislation, messages, petitions, memorials, and other matters relating to the following subjects are referred to the Armed Services Committee:[2]

Source: 2010 Congressional Record, Vol. 156, Page S6226

Source: 2011 Congressional Record, Vol. 157, Page S557

Source: 2013 Congressional Record, Vol. 159, Page S296


where was the opening scene of cliffhanger filmed

The large majority of the film's scenes were shot in Cortina d'Ampezzo, Dolomites, Italy. For example, the bridge scene was shot on Monte Cristallo in the via ferrata VF Ivano Dibona, which was reconstructed immediately after the movie. The climbing was mostly on the Tofane cliffs, and in some scenes toward the end of the movie the audience clearly sees the three Tofane, the Croda da Lago, the village of Cortina; the location of this is on top of mount Faloria, at the arrival of the funivia Faloria. In other scenes viewers may recognize the sentiero ferrato Astaldi, over the Rifugio Dibona. The small house has been constructed on the sand of the river Boite, in Fiames, close to the heliport.  Little filming took place in Durango, Colorado. The credits of the film also thank the Ute Tribe for filming in the Ute Mountain reservation.[13]

Cliffhanger (film)

Cliffhanger is a 1993 American action adventure film directed by Renny Harlin and starring Sylvester Stallone, John Lithgow, Michael Rooker and Janine Turner. Based on a concept by climber John Long, the film follows Gabe (played by Stallone, who co-wrote the screenplay), a mountain climber who becomes embroiled in the failed heist of a U.S. Treasury plane flying through the Rocky Mountains. The film earned $255 million worldwide.

Rangers Gabriel "Gabe" Walker and Jessie Deighan are dispatched to rescue their friend Hal Tucker and his girlfriend, Sarah, after Hal suffered a knee injury and stranded them on a peak in the Colorado Rockies. As they try to rescue Sarah, part of her harness breaks, and though Gabe is able to grab her, her gloved hand slips out, and she falls to her death. Hal blames Gabe for Sarah's death and Gabe is overcome with guilt, taking an extended leave.

Eight months later, Gabe returns to the ranger station to gather his remaining possessions and persuade Jessie to leave with him. While there, they receive a distress call from a group of stranded climbers. Hal goes to locate the climbers and Jessie is able to persuade Gabe to help out. Hal remains bitter towards Gabe over Sarah's death, at one point threatening to push Gabe off a ledge. When they find the climbers, they discover the distress call was a ruse and are taken prisoner by former Military Intelligence operative Eric Qualen and several mercenaries. Qualen, along with turncoat U.S. Treasury agent Richard Travers, were able to steal three suitcases full of uncirculated bills valuing over $100 million. Their escape plan backfired, sending their plane crashing into the mountain, and they now require Gabe and Hal's help to locate the cases with the help of beacon locators.

At gunpoint, Gabe leads them to the first case, located at the top of a steep rock face. They force Gabe to tether himself to reach it, and Gabe uses the opportunity to escape. The mercenaries attempt to fire on Gabe, which causes an avalanche that kills one of their members. When they see the money from the first case fluttering away, Qualen believes Gabe is dead, and orders Hal to lead them onward. Gabe races ahead to find Jessie at an abandoned cabin. They recover old mountaineering gear to reach the second case before Qualen does. By the time Qualen arrives, Gabe and Jessie have emptied the case and left only a single bill with the taunting message "Want to trade?" on it. Qualen orders his men to split up, allowing Gabe to dispatch two more of Qualen's men. Gabe attempts to call for help from Frank, their rescue helicopter pilot, on one of the mercenaries' radios, but Hal alerts him to explosives Qualen has rigged above them on the mountain. Gabe and Jessie escape the falling debris in time. Elsewhere, when Hal sees two friends, Evan and Brett, he warns them away before Qualen orders his men to open fire. Brett is killed while Evan is wounded, though he manages to ski off the mountain and parachute to safety. Night falls on the mountain and both groups take shelter. Frank, having not heard from Gabe or the others, scouts the mountain in the helicopter, spots Evan's parachute, and is able to get him to safety while contacting the authorities.

When morning breaks, Gabe and Jessie beat Qualen to the last case. Meanwhile, the mercenaries flag down Frank in the helicopter, and by the time he realizes it's a trap it is too late. He is shot by one of the mercenaries and dies, but not before slipping Hal a knife. As the mercenaries split up to look for the other case, Hal is able to use the knife to wound one of the mercenaries, kill him with his own gun, and escape. Elsewhere Hal finds Gabe, and together they kill Travers. However, at the same time, Qualen takes Jessie hostage when she waves down the helicopter, believing that Frank was flying it. Qualen tells Gabe and Hal over the radio that he is holding Jessie captive on board the helicopter, demanding Gabe and Hal to surrender the money from the third case at a high elevated rendezvous point and threatens to kill her should they refuse to cooperate.

Gabe and Hal agree, and they meet at a cliff side bridge. However, Qualen tries to challenge Gabe into throwing the case into the helicopter, but when he also threatens to kill Jessie again, Gabe orders Qualen to free her at a safe distance away from the cliff. Qualen reluctantly agrees, and uses a winch to lower Jessie to the ground. Once Jessie is safely down, however, Gabe throws the bag of money into the helicopter's rotors, shredding the money. Enraged, Qualen attempts use the helicopter to kill Gabe, but Gabe has used the winch cable to tether the helicopter to a steel ladder up the cliff face. The ladder snaps and leaves Gabe and Qualen atop the wreckage of the helicopter hanging by the cable. Gabe fights Qualen and manages to climb to safety as the wreckage snaps off the cable, sending Qualen to his death. Gabe reunites with Jessie and Hal as federal agents arrive in helicopters to offer their assistance.

Carolco Pictures had originally signed Sylvester Stallone to appear opposite John Candy in a comedy about feuding neighbors titled Bartholomew Vs. Neff, which was going to be written and directed by John Hughes. When that project was dropped, Stallone became involved in another two Carolco projects. The first one was futuristic science fiction horror Isobar, which was about a genetically created monster who gets loose on a high speed runaway train. Between 1987, when Carolco first bought the original script by Jim Uhls for $400,000, and 1991, directors Ridley Scott and Roland Emmerich were each at different points in time attached to direct the film which would have $90 million budget and Stallone and Kim Basinger were going to play the main roles. However, due to disagreements between them and Carolco and producer Joel Silver about the script changes and lack of artistic freedom, both Scott and Emmerich gave up on the project, which in the end was cancelled.[2][3][4]

The second Carolco project in which Stallone was involved was an action disaster thriller Gale Force, described as "Die Hard in a hurricane", which Renny Harlin was going to direct, and in which Stallone would play an ex Navy SEAL who has to fight against a group of modern pirates who attack some coastal town during a large hurricane. The first version of the script for the film was written by David Chappe in 1984, he wrote six more drafts between 1987 and 1989, and after his final draft received some praise and following the bidding war between several studios for it in 1989, Carolco bought his final draft for $500,000, with a promise of an additional $200,000 if the movie gets made. Harlin was paid $3 million for directing the film, but because his contract also gave him full control of the project, he demanded many re-writes of the script to, amongst other things, increase the action sequences and make them bigger. Between 1990 and 1991 while they were working on the project, Carolco spent over $4 million on all the different screenwriters and versions of the script. One of the screenwriters who worked on it was Joe Eszterhas who was paid $500,000 to write his version of the script. However he re-wrote it into an erotic thriller, similar to his previous screenplays, so it was rejected. Because they thought that intended $40 million budget would be too big, and since they couldn't figure out how to make special effects for the film, Carolco cancelled the project two weeks before production was supposed to begin, but Harlin still kept his $3 million, and he and Stallone and everyone else involved in it then moved to Cliffhanger, another Carolco project, which had a budget of $70 million, almost double that of Gale Force.[5][6][7][8][9][10]

Half of the film's budget was provided by TriStar Pictures in exchange for complete distribution rights in North America, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, and France.[11] Other funding was provided by Rizzoli-Corriere della Sera, Le Studio Canal+, and Pioneer Electric Corporation. The financing arrangement was the result of Carolco's serious debt issues, and as a result, the studio would ultimately receive very little of the box office gross.[12]

Cliffhanger is in the Guinness Book of World Records for the costliest aerial stunt ever performed. Stuntman Simon Crane was paid $1 million to perform the aerial transfer scene, where he crossed between two planes at an altitude of 15,000 feet (4,600Â m).[14]

The principal climbing doubles were Ron Kauk and Wolfgang Güllich. The latter performed as Stallone's climbing double before he died in a car accident in 1992.[15]

The orchestral score to Cliffhanger was composed by film score veteran Trevor Jones.  In his review for the Cliffhanger soundtrack, Filmtracks.com reviewer Christian Clemmensen said its similarities to Jones's previous work on The Last of the Mohicans, stating: "with Cliffhanger would come a title theme strikingly similar to that of Last of the Mohicans, possibly too reminiscent in fact for some listeners to tolerate."  However, his review was still positive, giving the Cliffhanger score four out of a possible five stars concluding, "No matter your view of whether or not composers should recycle their own material, Jones' main identity for Cliffhanger stands on its own as a remarkable piece, and an often enjoyable action underscore will maintain your interest in between the theme's statements."[17] The soundtrack has been released twice; through Scotti Bros./BMG Music on 23 May 1993 and an extended version through Intrada Records on 21 February 2011.[17]

Stallone later said "the director's cut was met with a lot of disapproval at the screening and received some alarmingly low scores. Mainly because the stunts were absurdly overblown. For example, the average man can jump maybe twelve feet across a gorge, and the stunts had me leaping maybe three hundred feet or more, so situations like that had to be pared down and still then were fairly extreme… so you’re probably better off with this cut. By the way, the 2nd unit crew that filmed the majority of the action was extraordinary."[18]

The film was screened in out of competition at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival.[19] The film was nominated for three Academy Awards, Best Sound (Michael Minkler, Bob Beemer, and Tim Cooney), Best Sound Effects Editing (Gregg Baxter), and Best Visual Effects all losing to Jurassic Park.[20]

The film received a 68% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 49 reviews, based on 50 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "While it can't escape comparisons to the movies it borrows from, Cliffhanger is a tense, action-packed thriller and a showcase for the talents that made Sylvester Stallone a star."[21] It was nominated for Worst Picture, Worst Supporting Actor (John Lithgow), Worst Supporting Actress (Janine Turner), and Worst Screenplay at the 14th Golden Raspberry Awards.[22][23] Although most people enjoyed Lithgow's performance, he was criticized for his inauthentic-sounding English accent, especially when next to native English actors Fairbrass and Goodall.[24][25][26]

The film has been criticized for its unrealistic portrayal of rock climbing. One example is the feature of the bolt-gun which fires bolts directly into rock, forgoing the usual rock-drilling and bolt-hammering used in rock-climbing. This ignores certain material properties of rock that should cause the bolt-gun's impact site to shatter and explode with flaky projectiles. The bolt gun is considered the most serious of the film's technical inaccuracies. Further examples are showing athletic moves, which have no use in real climbing, or free soloing with – then also completely useless – gear.[27][28]

Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.[29]

The film was a box office hit.[30]
For its British cinema release, the film was cut by over a minute, then by a further 16 seconds on video and DVD to gain a '15' certificate. Chief victim was the scene where Delmar beats up Tucker, but other cuts included aggressive strong language and other moments of violence. However, the 2008 DVD release was passed '15' with no cuts made.[31]

The scene where Hal's girlfriend, Sarah, falls to her death, was spoofed in the films Ace Ventura: When Nature Calls and Spy Hard.

Around 1994, TriStar Pictures planned to make a sequel of the film titled The Dam (or Cliffhanger 2: The Dam), which would have Stallone's character Gabe Walker fighting against terrorists who took over Hoover Dam, but it never went beyond development stage. In 2008, once again there were plans to make this sequel, and even Stallone was interested, but it was cancelled.[32]

In May 2009, it was announced that StudioCanal would be overseeing a remake of Cliffhanger. Neal H. Moritz was set to produce, with filming due to begin in 2010.[33] In May 2014, Joe Gazzam was set to write the script for the film.[34]

In 2015 on his official Instagram, Stallone stated he would love to make a sequel to Cliffhanger, which puts doubt on whether a reboot will actually happen.[35]


who plays zoey how i met your mother

Jennifer Marie Morrison (born April 12, 1979) is an American actress, producer, director, and former child model. She is known for her roles as Dr. Allison Cameron in the medical-drama series House (2004–2012) and Emma Swan in the ABC adventure-fantasy series Once Upon a Time (2011–2017). She also has portrayed Zoey Pierson, one of Ted Mosby's love interests on the comedy series How I Met Your Mother; Winona Kirk, mother of James T. Kirk in the 2009 science-fiction film Star Trek; and Tess Conlon in the 2011 sports drama film Warrior.

Jennifer Morrison

Morrison was born in Chicago, Illinois, and grew up in Arlington Heights, Illinois. She is the oldest of three children; her sister, Julia, is a singer-songwriter and music therapist, and her brother, Daniel, is a high school band director.[1] Her father, David L. Morrison, is a retired music teacher and high school band director who was named Teacher of the Year by the Illinois State Board of Education in 2003.[2]

Morrison attended South Middle School, and then graduated from Prospect High School (where her parents worked) in 1997. She was friends with writer Ian Brennan. She was an All-State clarinet player in the school's marching band, sang in the choir, and was a cheerleader in the school pep squad.[3] She attended Loyola University Chicago where she majored in Theatre and minored in English, graduating in 2000. She studied at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company before moving to Los Angeles, California to pursue a career in acting.[citation needed]

Morrison started her career as a child model, appearing in print advertisements for JCPenney and Montgomery Ward, and commercials for Rice Krispies and Mondo. She was featured on the cover of Sports Illustrated for Kids with basketball star, Michael Jordan, in May 1992.[4] Morrison made her feature film debut at the age of 14 in the 1994 film Intersection, and later appeared as Samantha in Stir of Echoes (1999).

Morrison's first leading role came in the 2000 film Urban Legends: Final Cut, and she has since gone on to appear in films including Grind (2003), Surviving Christmas (2004), and Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005).

In 2004, Morrison won the role of immunologist Dr. Allison Cameron on House. She played this role for the first six seasons of the show, from 2004 to 2009. Morrison's character left in 2009 in an episode called "Teamwork",[5] but returned in the 2010 episode "Lockdown". Cameron's story concluded at this point. Morrison returned in Season 8 for the series finale "Everybody Dies" in 2012.

In 2006, Morrison starred in and produced the independent film Flourish.[citation needed] She is also one of the producers that found Glee during its early draft and brought it to attention of writer Ryan Murphy, who adapted it into a television series. Morrison did not stay involved creatively, but is credited as an associated producer on the first season for her involvement in finding it and helping it get into the right hands.[6]

In 2007, Morrison appeared as Kirce James in the computer game Command & Conquer 3: Tiberium Wars, a character who frequently interacts with the player during the course of the GDI campaign.[citation needed] Her film projects that year included Big Stan and The Murder of Princess Diana, a television film based on the book of the same name by Noel Botham. Produced by Lifetime and Working Title Television, Morrison portrays an American journalist, Rachel, who witnesses the car crash which took the life of Diana, Princess of Wales.

In 2009, Morrison returned to the big screen, appearing in the opening scene of J. J. Abrams' Star Trek reboot as James T. Kirk's mother, Winona. After her contract on House was not renewed, it was announced in December 2009[7] that Morrison had won the role of Kate Keller, Helen Keller's mother, in the Broadway-bound revival of The Miracle Worker.[8]

In the fall of 2010 Morrison appeared as a guest-star in the fourth episode of NBC's Chase. She played the role of Faith, a single mother-turned-fugitive, who embarks on a bloody killing spree across Texas with her little daughter.[9] She then joined the cast of CBS's How I Met Your Mother as recurring character Zoey Pierson, a mischievous architecture nerd and love interest of main character Ted Mosby, and "the biggest female character we've maybe ever added to the show in Ted's life", according to executive producer Craig Thomas.[10][11][12]

In 2011, Morrison appeared in Warrior, a film about two estranged brothers who enter a mixed martial arts tournament and are forced to confront their struggling relationship with each other and with their father. Morrison plays the wife of Joel Edgerton's character, struggling to keep her family together.[6] Since October 2011, Morrison had a starring role in ABC's Once Upon a Time. She played the role of Emma Swan, a bail bonds collector who turns out to be the missing daughter of Snow White and Prince Charming.

In April 2016 Morrison launched her own film production company, Apartment 3C Productions,[13] named after the apartment she shared with her friends during her time at Loyola University Chicago.[14] She directed her first feature film, Sun Dogs, under this label during the summer of 2016.[13]

In March 2017, it was announced that Morrison was cast as Stephanie in an off-Broadway revival of the play The End of Longing.[15] The performance lasted from May 18 to July 1, 2017.[16]

On May 8, 2017, Morrison announced via social media that she will not be returning to Once Upon a Time as a series regular for season seven, while also noting that she has agreed to return as a guest for one episode.[17][18][19]

Morrison began dating her House co-star, Jesse Spencer, in 2004.[20] Spencer proposed to Morrison at the Eiffel Tower on December 23, 2006 but in August 2007 they called off their engagement.[21]


who convinced odysseus to stop at the isle of helios the sun god

Tiresias and Circe both warn Odysseus to shun the isle of Helios. When Eurylochus begs to be allowed to land to prepare supper, Odysseus grudgingly agrees on condition that the crew swear that if they come upon a herd of cattle or a great flock of sheep, no one will kill any of them. They are held on the isle for a month by an unfavorable storm sent by Poseidon.

The Cattle of Helios

In Greek mythology, the Cattle of Helios (Greek: Ἠελίοιο βόες, Ēelíoio bóes[1]), also called the Oxen of the Sun, are cattle pastured on the island of Thrinacia (believed to be modern Sicily).[2]

Helios, also known as the sun god, is said to have had seven herds of oxen and seven flocks of sheep, each numbering fifty head.[3] In the Odyssey, Homer describes these immortal cattle as handsome (ἄριστος), wide-browed, fat (εúρυμέτωπος) and curved-horned (ὀρθόκραιρος).[4] The cattle were guarded by Helios’ daughters, Phaëthusa and Lampetië, and it was known by all that any harm to any single animal was sure to bring down the wrath of the god.

When Odysseus goes up the island to pray to the gods and ask for help, Eurylochus convinces the crew to drive off the best of the cattle of Helios and sacrifice them to the gods: "if he be somewhat wroth for his cattle with straight horns, and is fain to wreck our ship, and the other gods follow his desire, rather with one gulp at the wave would I cast my life away, than be slowly straitened to death in a desert isle." When he returns to the ship, Odysseus rebukes his companions for disobeying his orders. But it is too late, the cattle are dead and gone.

Lampetie tells Helios that Odysseus' men have slain his cattle. In turn, Helios orders the gods to take vengeance on Odysseus' men. He threatens that if they do not pay him full atonement for the cattle, he will take the sun to the Underworld and shine it among the dead. Zeus promises Helios to smite their ship with a lightning bolt and cleave it in pieces in the midst of the ocean.

Soon the gods show signs and wonders to the Odysseus' men. The skins begin creeping and the flesh bellowing upon the spits, both the roast and raw, and there is a sound like the voice of cattle. For six days, Odysseus's company feast on the kine of Helios. On the seventh day, the wind changes. After they set sail, Zeus keeps his word and the ship is destroyed by lightning during a storm and all of his men die. Odysseus escapes by swimming to Calypso's island.


what happened to genesis at the end of preacher

At the Alamo, Jesse's great quest finally comes to an end. He enlists the Saint of Killers to murder God, realizing it is the only way to free the world from His oppressive and selfish machinations. In order to set God up for the Saint, Jesse must release Genesis, and the only way to do this is to die himself. To achieve this, Jesse arranges a final showdown between himself and Cassidy at the Alamo. Beforehand, he tips off Starr, who has decided to kill Jesse out of revenge for the various mutilations he has suffered trying to recruit him for the Grail.

List of Preacher story arcs

This article is a list of story arcs in the Vertigo comic book series Preacher.

Reverend Jesse Custer, a tough and principled Texan preacher who has lost his faith, is possessed by a mysterious entity called Genesis — a conscienceless offspring of an angel and a demon whose power may rival that of God Himself. Through insight granted him by Genesis, now lodged in Jesse's mind in a sort of supernatural symbiosis, Jesse learns that God has left Heaven and abandoned his responsibilities. Soon, Jesse becomes aware that he has been given the power of The Word Of God—depicted in the comic through the use of red text (a reference to the printing method often used for indicating Jesus' speech in the Bible)—allowing him to deliver irresistible commands to any being, including God Himself, whereupon the commanded cannot help but to comply fully. (This power bears somewhat ironic linguistic and physical limitations, explored occasionally throughout the series.) Armed with these newfound attributes, he sets out on a quest to find God and make Him answer for His dereliction of duty.

Accompanying Jesse on his journey are Tulip O'Hare, Jesse's former girlfriend who has long thought that he abandoned her, and Cassidy, a 100-year-old Irish vampire who prefers a pint in the pub to the blood of the innocentâ€”though his unavoidable, unnatural hunger is something of a sticking point for the ethical Custer.

Meanwhile, in Heaven, a quorum of angels, trying desperately to keep things from falling apart, decide to send the Saint of Killers—an immortal, unstoppable killing machine——to Earth with orders to recapture Genesis at any cost.

While waiting for his flight to France, Jesse meets Billy Baker, a retired Vietnam veteran who was best friends with John Custer, Jesse's dad. Baker, nicknamed Spaceman, tells Jesse the story of how he and John fragged an obnoxious superior who caused the death of another soldier, and gives Jesse a photograph of John from his Vietnam days.

Jesse and Tulip journey to France to rescue Cassidy from the Grail's heavily guarded secret fortress ('Masada'), where Cassidy is being held by Herr Starr and tortured by a gelded, sadistic Mafioso named Frankie the Eunuch with a Lee–Enfield bolt-action rifle. The Saint of Killers follows them, but promises to spare Custer if Custer can use Genesis' memories to tell the Saint the story behind his family's death in the late 19th century. Herr Starr, unable to convince Custer to aid him in his quest for Armageddon and world order, initiates his coup against the All-Father of the Grail, resulting in the total destruction of Masada and most of the Grail infantry.

Upon their return to the States, a grateful Cassidy tells Jesse his life's story: how he fought in the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland, how he was assaulted by a bog-hag outside of Dublin and turned into a vampire, and how he began his long love affair with New York City.

Upon Jesse and Cassidy's return to New York, Cassidy drunkenly proclaims his love for Tulip, beginning an arc of betrayal that lasts the rest of the series. On Cassidy's advice, the three decide to visit New Orleans and use voodoo to unlock the secrets of Genesis, although Cassidy fails to mention his previous run-in with a group of goth wannabe vampires who want him to change them into the undead (this story is revealed to the reader).

The trio arrive in New Orleans, where an old friend of Cassidy's — a voodoo priest — agrees to help Jesse unlock the secrets locked deep within Genesis, including the story of the Saint of Killers. Unfortunately, a variety of threats (Arseface, a pack of vengeful vampires, and an ex-girlfriend whom Cassidy physically abused and caused to lose an eye) threaten the ritual, which leaves Jesse unable to help his friends. Ultimately the trio leave New Orleans without answers and decide to travel to the American Southwest, but not before the priest warns Tulip that Cassidy is thoughtless and weak, and not to be trusted.

Jesse and company head to Monument Valley, Utah as they seek to corner God in the valley. However, the Saint of Killers and Herr Starr are waiting for Jesse, with Starr having a U.S. Army tank battalion and an atom bomb on "loan" from the US Government to deal with the Saint as he attempts to capture Jesse.

In the ensuing struggle, the A-Bomb goes off and while it fails to kill the Saint, it knocks Jesse out of the airplane in which he, Cassidy and Tulip had escaped. Miraculously, he survives, and is found by a strange hermit while wandering through the desert, delirious and missing an eye (how Jesse survived is revealed at end of the "Salvation" storyline). Afterwards, Jesse finds that Cassidy and Tulip, believing him dead, have begun an affair, which Cassidy perpetuates by playing on Tulip's drug-dazed mourning. Disillusioned and alone, Jesse abandons his quest and allows Cassidy and Tulip to think he is dead.

Meanwhile, Starr (also separated from his forces) is found by a clan of cannibal inbreds who cut off his leg and plan on killing Starr and eating his corpse. Starr kills them and escapes, reuniting with the Grail.

Presumed dead and feeling betrayed by both his true love and his best friend, Jesse takes a job as sheriff of the tiny town of Salvation, Texas, where he and his Deputy Cindy Dagget deal with domestic disputes, the KKK, and the robber baron of the town, the psychotic Odin Quincannon. He also discovers that the acerbic, one-armed owner of the local bar is his long lost (and presumed dead) mother, Christina (known in the town as Jodie). Before he leaves, having broken Quincannon's hold on the town and restoring it to freedom, Christina gives Jesse the one possession of his father's that she has kept: his Medal of Honor.

Later, Jesse ingests peyote, which causes him to remember the events in Monument Valley after his fall: God saved him from death and asked him outright to give up his quest. Jesse refused and went so far as to begin to command God, incurring the Almighty's wrath and losing his eye. Just as God was about to kill Jesse, the Saint of Killers appeared, scaring God off. Jesse awakens from his vision armed with God's weakness.

Before returning to his quest, Jesse reunites with Spaceman at the Vietnam Memorial, to hear the story of the Medal of Honor his father received; inspired by his father's heroism, Jesse rediscovers his sense of purpose.

Tulip, who leaves Cassidy in a moment of clarity, reunites with Jesse and the two sever ties with Cassidy. Unable to shake Cassidy's betrayal, Jesse finds the truth from someone who knew him. He then meets with the Saint of Killers, and the two form an unlikely alliance in their mutual quest for revenge on the Lord. Jesse and Tulip travel to the Alamo, where the stage is set for his final confrontation with Cassidy, the Grail, and God.

Meanwhile, Arseface becomes a music sensation when a record producer recruits him and convinces him to release a cover of the Alanis Morissette song "You Oughta Know". However, a rash of suicides from fans of Arseface and the corrupt antics of the producer ultimately end with Arseface losing all of the money he made off of his singing career and universally reviled by the media.

Finally, Herr Starr kills Eisenstein, the remaining figure standing between him and complete control over the Grail, but at the cost of his genitals.

In the end, Starr kills Jesse, and then is killed by Tulip. Cassidy, having earned Jesse's forgiveness and friendship, commits suicide via the morning sun. However, unknown to everyone, Cassidy had struck a deal with God prior to the confrontation wherein He would resurrect Jesse. God does so and returns to heaven, where he finds the Saint of Killers waiting for him, having murdered all of the angels who "got in his way." After a short standoff, the Saint guns God down, ending His tyranny. He then goes to sleep on God's throne.

While Tulip and Jesse ride off into the sunset, it is revealed to the reader that God resurrected Cassidy as well (as a mortal), and the final page of the series shows Cassidy throwing away his sunglasses and vowing to "act like a man."

The "Saint of Killers" (art by Steve Pugh and Carlos Ezquerra) tells the origin of the Saint of Killers. Originally a retired gunfighter in the mold of William Munny, his wife and daughter were stricken with fever in their remote mountain cabin ten years after he gave up his life as a ruthless bounty hunter and murderer. His attempts to bring medicine to them were delayed by a gang of scalpers in the town of Ratwater, Texas, resulting in his family's death. He returns to Ratwater, but is killed before he can take his vengeance; finding himself in Hell, however, does nothing to quell his hatred, making him immune to the Devil's torture. The Angel of Death, in the area for a poker game and weary of his position, offers the gunfighter the job of Saint of Killers, under the command of none but God. He accepts and returns to Earth to take his revenge, though not before gunning down the Devil himself. The Saint kills every living being in Ratwater, including women and children, allowing his hatred and rage to consume him totally.

This entire sequence of events is later revealed to be the work of God, who put the outlaws in his way in order to turn his already intemperate disposition into the all-encompassing rage needed for a Saint of Killers.

The Story of You-Know-Who (art by Richard Case), features the origin of Arseface, detailing the sadistic abuse he suffered at the hands of his father and the events leading up to Arseface's botched suicide attempt.

The Good Old Boys is a tale starring Jody and T.C. from the "All in the Family" storyline. (art by Carlos Ezquerra)

Cassidy: Blood and Whiskey tells the story of Cassidy's only encounter with another vampire who is worshipped by a New Orleans-based gothic cult, Les Enfants du Sang.

A story focusing on who Herr Starr is, where he came from, and how he got involved in the Grail conspiracy. (art by Peter Snejbjerg)

A tale of Jesse and Tulip's wild early experiments in car theft.


where was black mirror season 4 episode 3 filmed

Filmed in Iceland, the episode centres on Mia (Andrea Riseborough) who is distressed about having helped her friend Rob (Andrew Gower) cover up a hit-and-run death. Fifteen years later, Rob wants to confess their crime, leading Mia to kill him and dispose of his body. Shortly after, Mia witnesses a road accident between a pedestrian and self-driving vehicle. Shazia (Kiran Sonia Sawar) meanwhile is hired to investigate the accident, and uses a Recaller device that allows her to see the recent memories of those she interviews.

Crocodile (Black Mirror)

"Crocodile" is the third episode of the fourth series of anthology series Black Mirror. It was written by Charlie Brooker and directed by John Hillcoat. The episode first aired on Netflix, along with the rest of series four, on 29 December 2017.

Mia Nolan (Andrea Riseborough) and Rob (Andrew Gower) go to a club together. While driving home, a drunken Rob hits and kills a cyclist on a mountain road. He convinces Mia to help him cover up the death by throwing the cyclist's body and bicycle into a lake.

Fifteen years later, Mia is happily married with a son and successful career. When she goes on a business trip, Rob meets her at her hotel. He shows her a news article about the dead cyclist, whose wife believes he is alive and is still looking for him. A newly sober Rob wants to make amends by writing an anonymous letter telling the truth, but Mia is afraid the letter will be traced. An argument ensues and she kills Rob. She is further shaken upon seeing a road accident outside, where a self-driving pizza delivery truck hits a pedestrian. Mia rents a pay per view porn movie to provide herself with an alibi, then disposes of Rob's body.

The man who was hit by the pizza delivery truck contacts his insurance company and is visited by Shazia (Kiran Sonia Sawar), an insurance investigator. She uses a device known as a Recaller to scan a claimant's and witnesses' memories to verify the claims, despite memory being acknowledged as unreliable. Shazia follows a chain of witnesses near the accident without determining liability as none had witnessed it directly, but one witness's memories show Mia looking out of her hotel room window at the time of the accident. Shazia is hopeful that Mia's testimony will allow her to prove the caseâ€”which would also allow the insurance company to pursue a lucrative negligence suit against the owners of the pizza truck. Before Shazia sets off to test Mia, she tells her husband that she hopes Mia will submit to the test.

Mia admits to witnessing the accident, and initially refuses to let Shazia in her house, but eventually relents after Shazia tells her of a legal requirement to submit to the test. Shazia mistakes Mia's reluctance as being due to embarrassment over watching a porn movie, and assures her that she is not interested in her personal activities. Mia tries to prepare her mind to focus away from Rob's murder before Shazia uses the Recaller on her, but she cannot stop memories of the road collision and the homicide surfacing during the scan. Recognizing what she has seen, Shazia tries to leave, but Mia incapacitates her and ties her up. Shazia promises that she will delete the Recaller data and will not tell anyone what happened if Mia lets her go, but Mia believes she will be incriminated. Mia scans Shazia's memories with the Recaller to learn that her husband Anan knew Shazia was going to see Mia that day. Mia kills Shazia and drives to her home to kill Anan. Upon realising that Shazia's baby son is also in the house and has seen her face, Mia reluctantly kills him too.

Police investigating the murders reveal that Shazia's son was blind and would have been unable to identify the killer; they instead use the Recaller on the family guinea pig to dredge its memories for evidence. Meanwhile, Mia cries in the audience as she watches her son's school production of Bugsy Malone; the audience begins to clap. The police are seen waiting at the back of the auditorium. As the camera continues lingering on Mia, in tears, the screen abruptly cuts to black.

Some critics have suggested that the title is a reference to the metaphor "crocodile tears", a phrase that could be referring to Mia's insincere expressions of sorrow while committing a series of violent crimes.[1][2] Jason Koebler of Vice notes that Mia does not read the End-User License Agreement (EULA) for the Recaller. Koebler suggests that Mia reading the EULA would have allowed her to avoid using the Recaller, and thus prevent her later murders from being necessary.[3]

Whilst series one and two of Black Mirror were shown on Channel 4 in the UK, in September 2015 Netflix commissioned the series for 12 episodes,[4] and in March 2016 it outbid Channel 4 for the rights to distributing the third series, with a bid of $40Â million.[5] The 12 episode order was divided into two series of six episodes each.

The episode was inspired by the series one episode, "The Entire History of You", which featured a personal implant that one could use privately to review their memories. For "Crocodile", they considered what the situation would be like if these memories were not private, developing a "cat-and-mouse type drama" that would highlight the importance of memories, and to what lengths one with a secret would go to hide those memories.[6]

The episode was initially conceived as having a male protagonist with Andrea Riseborough reading the script with another part in mind. However, after Riseborough liked the journey of the protagonist and asked if the part could be rewritten as a woman, the script was altered in order to accommodate Riseborough.[7] Both Brooker and executive producer Annabel Jones described the change as interesting, with Jones noting that "How often do you see a mother reduced to this level of desperation?" on television.[7][8]

The episode was shot in Iceland and includes scenes filmed in the Harpa concert hall.[7] Brooker had originally called out for filming in Scotland in his script, but Netflix suggested Iceland as a "more stunning backdrop", according to Brooker. During filming, Iceland had its largest snowfall in forty years, which required them to add one line of dialogue to comment on the change of weather to account for the sudden snow accumulation.[9]

In May 2017, a Reddit post unofficially announced the names and directors of the six episodes in series 4 of Black Mirror.[10] The first trailer for the series was released by Netflix on 25 August 2017, and contained the six episode titles.[11][12]

Beginning on 24 November 2017, Netflix published a series of posters and trailers for the fourth series of the show, referred to as the "13 Days of Black Mirror".[13] On 6 December, Netflix published a trailer featuring an amalgamation of scenes from the fourth series, which announced that the series would be released on 29 December.[14]

The episode received mixed reviews. The cinematography of the Icelandic landscape was widely praised, along with Riseborough's and Sawar's performances.[15] Two critics criticised the violence and described it as unnecessarily bleak.[16][17]

At the 2018 Consumer Electronics Show in January 2018, Toyota announced its customisable self-driving delivery vehicle, the e-Palette, with one of their first partners being Pizza Hut to create a self-driving pizza delivery truck. Commentators pointed out the coincidence of this announcement shortly after the first broadcast of "Crocodile",[18] and the official Twitter account for Black Mirror commented on the announcement, "We know how this goes."[19]


how many kinds of judges are there in georgia

The highest judiciary power in Georgia is the Supreme Court, which is composed of nine justices.[11] The state also has a Court of Appeals made of 15 judges.[11] Georgia is divided into 49 judicial circuits, each of which has a Superior Court consisting of local citizens numbering between two and 19 members depending on the circuit population. Under the 1983 Constitution, Georgia also has magistrate courts, probate courts, juvenile courts, state courts; the General Assembly may also authorize municipal courts.[12] Other courts, including county recorder's courts, civil courts and other agencies in existence on June 30, 1983, may continue with the same jurisdiction until otherwise provided by law.[12]

Judiciary of Georgia (U.S. state)

The Judiciary of Georgia is a branch of the government of the State of Georgia established in Article Six of the Georgia constitution.[1] This Article contains ten Sections which discuss the different courts, their powers and jurisdictions, and the role of the district attorney in Georgia's justice system.[2]

The structure of the state judiciary is as follows:

Each county in Georgia has at least one superior court, magistrate court, probate court, and where needed a state court and a juvenile court; in the absence of a state court or a juvenile court, the superior court exercises that jurisdiction.[12]

All serving judges are elected by popular vote either from the entire state in the cases of the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals or from a given circuit in the case of Superior Courts. Judges of the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals serve for terms of six years. Judges of other courts serve for terms of four years.


what physical quantity is a measure of the amount of inertia and object has

Inertia comes from the Latin word, iners, meaning idle, sluggish. Inertia is one of the primary manifestations of mass, which is a quantitative property of physical systems. Isaac Newton defined inertia as his first law in his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which states: [1]

Inertia

Inertia is the resistance of any physical object to any change in its state of motion. This includes changes to the object's speed, direction, or state of rest.

Inertia is also defined as the tendency of objects to keep moving in a straight line at a constant velocity. The principle of inertia is one of the fundamental principles in classical physics that are still used to describe the motion of objects and how they are affected by the applied forces on them.

The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of resisting by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to preserve its present state, whether it be of rest or of moving uniformly forward in a straight line.

In common usage, the term "inertia" may refer to an object's "amount of resistance to change in velocity" (which is quantified by its mass), or sometimes to its momentum, depending on the context. The term "inertia" is more properly understood as shorthand for "the principle of inertia" as described by Newton in his First Law of Motion: an object not subject to any net external force moves at a constant velocity. Thus, an object will continue moving at its current velocity until some force causes its speed or direction to change.

On the surface of the Earth, inertia is often masked by the effects of friction and air resistance, both of which tend to decrease the speed of moving objects (commonly to the point of rest), and gravity. This misled the philosopher Aristotle to believe that objects would move only as long as force was applied to them:[2][3]

...it [body] stops when the force which is pushing the travelling object has no longer power to push it along...

Prior to the Renaissance, the most generally accepted theory of motion in Western philosophy was based on Aristotle who around about 335 BC to 322 BC said that, in the absence of an external motive power, all objects (on Earth) would come to rest and that moving objects only continue to move so long as there is a power inducing them to do so. Aristotle explained the continued motion of projectiles, which are separated from their projector, by the action of the surrounding medium, which continues to move the projectile in some way.[4] Aristotle concluded that such violent motion in a void was impossible.[5]

Despite its general acceptance, Aristotle's concept of motion was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over nearly two millennia. For example, Lucretius (following, presumably, Epicurus) stated that the "default state" of matter was motion, not stasis.[6] In the 6th century, John Philoponus criticized the inconsistency between Aristotle's discussion of projectiles, where the medium keeps projectiles going, and his discussion of the void, where the medium would hinder a body's motion. Philoponus proposed that motion was not maintained by the action of a surrounding medium, but by some property imparted to the object when it was set in motion. Although this was not the modern concept of inertia, for there was still the need for a power to keep a body in motion, it proved a fundamental step in that direction.[7][8][9] This view was strongly opposed by Averroes and by many scholastic philosophers who supported Aristotle. However, this view did not go unchallenged in the Islamic world, where Philoponus did have several supporters who further developed his ideas.

In the 14th century, Jean Buridan rejected the notion that a motion-generating property, which he named impetus, dissipated spontaneously. Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the resistance of the air and the weight of the body which would oppose its impetus.[10] Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of momentum. Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other peripatetic views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest. Buridan also believed that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle.

Buridan's thought was followed up by his pupil Albert of Saxony (1316â€“1390) and the Oxford Calculators, who performed various experiments that further undermined the classical, Aristotelian view. Their work in turn was elaborated by Nicole Oresme who pioneered the practice of demonstrating laws of motion in the form of graphs.

Shortly before Galileo's theory of inertia, Giambattista Benedetti modified the growing theory of impetus to involve linear motion alone:

"â€¦[Any] portion of corporeal matter which moves by itself when an impetus has been impressed on it by any external motive force has a natural tendency to move on a rectilinear, not a curved, path."[11]

Benedetti cites the motion of a rock in a sling as an example of the inherent linear motion of objects, forced into circular motion.

The principle of inertia states it is the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion. According to Newton, an object will stay at rest or stay in motion (i.e. "maintain its velocity") unless acted on by a net external force, whether it results from gravity, friction, contact, or some other force. The Aristotelian division of motion into mundane and celestial became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of Nicolaus Copernicus in the 16th century, who argued that the earth (and everything on it) was in fact never "at rest", but was actually in constant motion around the sun.[12] Galileo, in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially as a result, included a restatement of Aristotle's description of motion in a void as a basic physical principle:

A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.[13]

Galileo writes that "all external impediments removed, a heavy body on a spherical surface concentric with the earth will maintain itself in that state in which it has been; if placed in movement towards the west (for example), it will maintain itself in that movement."[14] This notion which is termed "circular inertia" or "horizontal circular inertia" by historians of science, is a precursor to, but distinct from, Newton's notion of rectilinear inertia.[15][16] For Galileo, a motion is "horizontal" if it does not carry the moving body towards or away from the centre of the earth, and for him, "a ship, for instance, having once received some impetus through the tranquil sea, would move continually around our globe without ever stopping."[17][18]

It is also worth noting that Galileo later (in 1632) concluded that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against.[19] This observation ultimately came to be the basis for Einstein to develop the theory of Special Relativity.

The first physicist to completely break away from the Aristotelian model of motion was Isaac Beeckman in 1614.[20]

Concepts of inertia in Galileo's writings would later come to be refined, modified and codified by Isaac Newton as the first of his Laws of Motion (first published in Newton's work, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in 1687):

Unless acted upon by a net unbalanced force, an object will maintain a constant velocity.

Note that "velocity" in this context is defined as a vector, thus Newton's "constant velocity" implies both constant speed and constant direction (and also includes the case of zero speed, or no motion). Since initial publication, Newton's Laws of Motion (and by inclusion, this first law) have come to form the basis for the branch of physics known as classical mechanics.[21]

The term "inertia" was first introduced by Johannes Kepler in his Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae[22] (published in three parts from 1617â€“1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the Latin word for "idleness" or "laziness") was not quite the same as its modern interpretation. Kepler defined inertia only in terms of a resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation. It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term "inertia" could be applied to these concepts as it is today.[citation needed]

Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term "inertia" to refer to his First Law. In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by "innate forces" inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration. Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton attributed the term "inertia" to mean "the innate force possessed by an object which resists changes in motion"; thus, Newton defined "inertia" to mean the cause of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself. However, Newton's original ideas of "innate resistive force" were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms. As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it is now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term "inertia" has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism. Thus, ultimately, "inertia" in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now considered to be equivalent.

Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity, as proposed in his 1905 paper entitled "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" was built on the understanding of inertia and inertial reference frames developed by Galileo and Newton. While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as mass, energy, and distance, Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact, the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia). However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in special relativity: the principle of relativity could only apply to reference frames that were inertial in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present). In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his general theory of relativity ("The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity," 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both inertial and noninertial (accelerated) reference frames. However, in order to accomplish this, in general relativity, Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental concepts (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of "curvature" of space-time, instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton.[23]

As a result of this redefinition, Einstein also redefined the concept of "inertia" in terms of geodesic deviation instead, with some subtle but significant additional implications. The result of this is that, according to general relativity, inertia is the gravitational coupling between matter and spacetime.

When dealing with very large scales, the traditional Newtonian idea of "inertia" does not actually apply and cannot necessarily be relied upon. Luckily, for sufficiently small regions of spacetime, the special theory can be used and inertia still means the same (and works the same) as in the classical model.[dubious â€“ discuss]

Another profound conclusion of the theory of special relativity—perhaps the most well known—was that energy and mass are not separate things but are, in fact, interchangeable. But this new relationship also carried with it new implications for the concept of inertia. The logical conclusion of special relativity was that if mass exhibits the principle of inertia, then inertia must also apply to energy. This theory, and subsequent experiments confirming some of its conclusions, have also served to radically expand the meaning of inertia to apply more widely and to include inertia of energy.[citation needed]

Physicists and mathematicians appear to be less inclined to use the popular concept of inertia as "a tendency to maintain momentum" and instead favor the mathematically useful definition of inertia as the measure of a body's resistance to changes in velocity or simply a body's inertial mass.

This was clear at the beginning of the 20th century, before the advent of the theory of relativity. Mass, m, denoted something like an amount of substance or quantity of matter. At the same time, mass was the quantitative measure of inertia of a body.

The mass of a body determines the momentum,

p

{\displaystyle p}

, of the body at given velocity,

v

{\displaystyle v}

; it is a proportionality factor in the formula:

The factor m is referred to as inertial mass.

But mass, as related to the "inertia" of a body, can also be defined by the formula:

Here, F is force, m is inertial mass, and a is acceleration.

By this formula, the greater its mass, the less a body accelerates under given force. Masses

m

{\displaystyle m}

 defined by formula (1) and (2) are equal because formula (2) is a consequence of formula (1) if mass does not depend on time and velocity. Thus, "mass is the quantitative or numerical measure of a bodyâ€™s inertia, that is of its resistance to being accelerated".

This meaning of a body's inertia therefore is altered from the popular meaning as "a tendency to maintain momentum" to a description of the measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of a body, but it is consistent with the fact that motion in one reference frame can disappear in another, so it is the change in velocity that is important.

There is no measurable difference between gravitational mass and inertial mass. The gravitational mass is defined by the quantity of gravitational field material a mass possesses, including its energy. The "inertial mass" (relativistic mass) is a function of the acceleration a mass has undergone and its resultant speed. A mass that has been accelerated to speeds close to the speed of light has its "relativistic mass" increased, and that is why the magnetic field strength in particle accelerators must be increased to force the mass's path to curve. In practice, "inertial mass" is normally taken to be "invariant mass" and so is identical to gravitational mass without the energy component.

Gravitational mass is measured by comparing the force of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of gravity of a known mass. This is typically done with some sort of balance. Equal masses will match on a balance because the gravitational field applies to them equally, producing identical weight. This assumption breaks down near supermassive objects such as black holes and neutron stars due to tidal effects. It also breaks down in weightless environments, because no matter what objects are compared, it will yield a balanced reading.

Inertial mass is found by applying a known net force to an unknown mass, measuring the resulting acceleration, and applying Newton's Second Law, m = F/a. This gives an accurate value for mass, limited only by the accuracy of the measurements. When astronauts need to be measured in the weightlessness of free fall, they actually find their inertial mass in a special chair called a body mass measurement device (BMMD).

At high speeds, and especially near the speed of light, inertial mass can be determined by measuring the magnetic field strength and the curvature of the path of an electrically-charged mass such as an electron.

No physical difference has been found between gravitational and inertial mass in a given inertial frame. In experimental measurements, the two always agree within the margin of error for the experiment. Einstein used the fact that gravitational and inertial mass were equal to begin his general theory of relativity, in which he postulated that gravitational mass was the same as inertial mass, and that the acceleration of gravity is a result of a "valley" or slope in the space-time continuum that masses "fell down". Dennis Sciama later showed that the reaction force produced by the combined gravity of all matter in the universe upon an accelerating object is mathematically equal to the object's inertia,[24] but this would only be a workable physical explanation if, by some mechanism, the gravitational effects operated instantaneously.

At any non-zero speed, relativistic mass always exceeds gravitational mass. If the mass is made to travel close to the speed of light, its "inertial mass" (relativistic) as observed from a stationary frame would be very great while its gravitational mass would remain at its rest value, but the gravitational effect of the extra energy would exactly balance the measured increase in inertial mass.

In a location such as a steadily moving railway carriage, a dropped ball (as seen by an observer in the carriage) would behave as it would if it were dropped in a stationary carriage. The ball would simply descend vertically. It is possible to ignore the motion of the carriage by defining it as an inertial frame. In a moving but non-accelerating frame, the ball behaves normally because the train and its contents continue to move at a constant velocity. Before being dropped, the ball was traveling with the train at the same speed, and the ball's inertia ensured that it continued to move in the same speed and direction as the train, even while dropping. Note that, here, it is inertia which ensured that, not its mass.

In an inertial frame, all the observers in uniform (non-accelerating) motion will observe the same laws of physics. However, observers in another inertial frame can make a simple, and intuitively obvious, transformation (the Galilean transformation), to convert their observations. Thus, an observer from outside the moving train could deduce that the dropped ball within the carriage fell vertically downwards.

However, in reference frames which are experiencing acceleration (non-inertial reference frames), objects appear to be affected by fictitious forces. For example, if the railway carriage were accelerating, the ball would not fall vertically within the carriage but would appear to an observer to be deflected because the carriage and the ball would not be traveling at the same speed while the ball was falling. Other examples of fictitious forces occur in rotating frames such as the earth. For example, a missile at the North Pole could be aimed directly at a location and fired southwards. An observer would see it apparently deflected away from its target by a force (the Coriolis force), but in reality, the southerly target has moved because earth has rotated while the missile is in flight. Because the earth is rotating, a useful inertial frame of reference is defined by the stars, which only move imperceptibly during most observations. Newton's first law of motion is known as the principle of inertia.

In summary, the principle of inertia is intimately linked with the principles of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum.

Another form of inertia is rotational inertia (â†’ moment of inertia), the property that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform rotational motion. Its angular momentum is unchanged, unless an external torque is applied; this is also called conservation of angular momentum. Rotational inertia depends on the object remaining structurally intact as a rigid body, and also has practical consequences. For example, a gyroscope uses the property that it resists any change in the axis of rotation.

A gas or liquid in a container will also resist changes in rotational rate.

Various efforts by notable physicists such as Ernst Mach (see Mach's principle), Albert Einstein, Dennis William Sciama, and Bernard Haisch have been put towards the study and theorizing of inertia.