who won the war between spain and france

The Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) was a military conflict that was the result of French involvement in the Thirty Years' War. After the German allies of Sweden were forced to seek terms with the Holy Roman Empire, the French first minister, Cardinal Richelieu, declared war on Spain because French territory was surrounded by Habsburg territories. The conflict was a continuation of the aims of the War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–31) in which France invaded northern Italy to take possession of territory claimed by the Spanish Habsburgs. The Franco-Spanish War ended inconclusively in 1659 with the Treaty of the Pyrenees.[3][4][5][6][7][8]

Franco-Spanish War (1635–59)

Flanders and Northern France

Northern Spain and Southern France

For years, the Kingdom of France, under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties, had been the rival of the House of Habsburg, whose two branches ruled the Holy Roman Empire and Spain, respectively. For much of the 16th and 17th centuries, France faced Habsburg territory on three sides: the Spanish Netherlands to the north, the Franche-Comté on its eastern border, and Spain to the south. The Habsburgs thus stood in the way of French territorial expansion, and France faced the possibility of invasion from multiple sides. France therefore sought to weaken Habsburg control over its possessions.

During the Thirty Years' War, in which various Protestant forces battled Imperial armies, France provided subsidies to the enemies of the Habsburgs. France generously financed the  Swedish invasion of the Empire after 1630. After a period of extraordinary success, the Swedish-led Protestant forces were decisively defeated in 1634 by a combined Catholic Imperial-Spanish army in the Battle of Nördlingen, leading many of Sweden's allies to defect to the Imperial side. Although Sweden itself continued to fight, it was seriously weakened.

Seeking to ensure that its major ally remained in the war and ensure an outcome favourable to France, the First Minister of France, Cardinal Richelieu, decided in 1635 to involve his kingdom in the active fighting and declared war on Spain.

The open war with Spain started with a promising victory for the French at Les Avins in 1635 as part of a combined Franco-Dutch assault on the Spanish Netherlands. But after defeating the Franco-Dutch invasions, the Spanish forces under Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria hit back with devastating lightning campaigns in northern France the following year, leaving French forces reeling. The Spanish looked set to invade Paris just as their vast commitments forced them to suspend their offensive. The lull in the Spanish attacks gave the French a chance to regroup and force the Spanish back towards the northern border. They also sent forces through Lorraine into Alsace to cut the Spanish Road, the vital supply line connecting the Spanish Netherlands to Spain through the Mediterranean port of Genoa.

In 1640 internal political tensions caused by the burden of the Thirty Years' War led to simultaneous revolts in Catalonia and Portugal against the Spanish Habsburgs. Spain was now fighting two major wars of secession in addition to a great international conflict; the total collapse of the Spanish Empire appeared imminent. The institutions of Catalonia proclaimed the Catalan Republic allied with France in January 17, ostensibly to help the rebels. In 1643, the French defeated one of Spain's best armies at Rocroi, northern France; the myth of Spanish invincibility was at an end.

During the last decade of the Thirty Years' War, the Spanish forces in the Spanish Netherlands were sandwiched between French and Dutch forces. The French won a major victory at Lens, but Franco-Dutch forces could not decisively crush the embattled Army of Flanders. When the peace treaty was negotiated, France insisted upon Spain being excluded, but the demand was rejected by other parties to the talks. In the Peace of Westphalia, France gained territory in Alsace, thus interrupting the Spanish Road. At the signing of the treaty, Spain recognized the independence of the Dutch republic but gave up little else; indeed the Spanish had to be paid to leave positions they had seized on the Rhine.

In Italy, France fought with the more or less reluctant support of its client state Piedmont against the Spanish in the Duchy of Milan. Confusion was added from 1639–1642 by the Piedmontese Civil War. The siege of Turin in 1640 was a famous event in both this war and the Franco-Spanish conflict.[9] In 1646 a French fleet commanded by Jean Armand de Maillé-Brézé (18 October 1619 – 14 June 1646) was defeated in the Battle of Orbetello on the Tuscan coast, and the army it was sent to support was repulsed by Spain's Tuscan presidios; Milan remained firmly under Spanish dominance.

In 1648 a major revolt against royal authority, known as the Fronde, erupted in France. Civil war continued until 1653, when royal forces prevailed. At the conclusion of the Fronde, the whole country, weary of anarchy and disgusted with the nobles, came to look to the king's party as the party of order and settled government, and thus the Fronde prepared the way for the absolutism of Louis XIV.[10] The general war that had been initiated by the French nobles continued in Flanders, Catalonia and Italy, wherever a Spanish and a French garrison were face to face, and CondÃ©, with the wreck of his army, openly and definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. This "Spanish Fronde" was almost purely a military affair and, except for a few outstanding incidents, dull to boot.[10] Along with this uprising, Spain was also fighting in Italy and still battling the revolt in Portugal and the French-backed Catalan Revolt. The Spanish focused their main efforts on recovering the Principality of Catalonia and various Italian territories for strategic reasons, which helped the Portuguese to consolidate their rebellion.

In Italy, the war along the border between Piedmont and the Spanish-held Duchy of Milan continued. Twice, in 1647–1649 and 1655–1659, France managed to open a second front against Milan by gaining the alliance of Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena, but this never achieved the desired result of breaking the Spanish defence.  In the south, the Neapolitan revolt collapsed, and the French forces backing it were driven out by the Spanish army and naval forces in 1648. However, a Franco-Portuguese fleet captured Piombino and Porto Longone, which encouraged the Duke of Modena to become allied with the French Crown and gave the French a new base for operations against the Spanish in the Italian peninsula. Practically every French campaign in Italy during the war was intended to cut the Spanish Road, but all failed.[11]

The French, weakened by the Fronde, were unable to hold Catalonia against reconquest by the Spanish forces; the French cause was undermined when the Catalans discovered that the French were even more overbearing than their former Spanish Habsburg masters, and many switched their loyalty back to the chastened regime in Madrid. Taking advantage of French divisions,  Spanish forces, under Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, sallied forth from the Netherlands on two occasions: the first met a spirited defence assisted by local peasantry; the second successfully seized several northern French forts in Februaryâ€“March 1652. Having lost support from the Catalans, weakened by internal squabbles, and threatened by the Spanish from the north once again, the French were obliged to withdraw most of their forces from south of the Pyrenees. The remnants of Catalan resistance and the depleted French forces in Barcelona surrendered to Spanish Habsburg forces in October 1652. The Spanish remained distracted by the Portuguese Restoration War, and although they carried the war north, across the Pyrenees into the old Catalan county of Roussillon, the fighting was desultory and the front stabilised, with the Pyrenees as the effective border.

By 1653 general exhaustion had reached the point that "neither invaders nor defenders were able to gather supplies to enable them to take the field until July.[10] At one moment, near Péronne, Condé had Turenne at a serious disadvantage, but he could not galvanize the Spanish general, Count Fuensaldaña, who was more solicitous to preserve his master's soldiers than to establish Condé as mayor of the palace to the King of France, and the armies drew apart again without fighting.[10] In 1654 the principal incident was the Siege and Relief of Arras. On the night of the August 24–August 25 the lines of circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were brilliantly stormed by Turenne's army, and Condé won equal credit for his safe withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover of a series of bold cavalry charges led by himself, as usual, sword in hand.[10]

In 1655, the French suffered another major blow in Italy with their defeat at Pavia, but the attempt of Spanish forces based in Milan to conquer Modena failed to break a skillful defense led by the Duke of Modena. Under Turenne, the French captured the fortresses of Landrecies and Saint-Ghislain.[10] In 1656, the prince of CondÃ© revenged himself for the defeat at Arras by storming Turenne's circumvallation around Valenciennes (July 16), but Turenne drew off his forces in good order.[10]

Since England was already at war with Spain, an Anglo-French alliance against Spain was established when the Treaty of Paris was signed in March 1657. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful and is only memorable because 3,000 civil war hardened English infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alliance with Mazarin, took part. The presence of the English contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a new Calais, to be held perpetually by England, gave the next campaign a character of certainty and decision that had been entirely wanting in the latter stages of the war."[10]

Dunkirk was besieged promptly and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Condé appeared with the relieving army from Veurne, Turenne advanced boldly to meet them. The Battle of the Dunes, fought on June 14, 1658, was the first real trial of strength since the Battle of the Faubourg St Antoine.[10] The battle resulted in an Anglo-French triumph over the forces of Spain, Condé and the English royalists. Dunkirk fell to French forces for the second time in the war and was handed over to England as had been promised. It would remain under English rule until 1662 when it was sold by  Charles II to Louis XIV.

A last desultory campaign followed, which ended when the Spanish again repelled French advances in Italy and Catalonia. The last battle was fought at CamprodÃ³n, Catalonia, in 1659, resulting in a Spanish victory.

The Peace of the Pyrenees was signed on November 5, 1659. France gained the territories of Artois, Roussillon and smaller areas along its border with the Spanish Netherlands. In return, France agreed to end its support for the breakaway kingdom of Portugal in the Portuguese Restoration War. On January 27, 1660 the Prince de Condé asked and obtained at Aix-en-Provence the forgiveness of Louis XIV. The later careers of Turenne and Condé as great generals were as obedient subjects of their sovereign.


what is the meaning of mbbs and md

Historically, Australian medical schools have followed the British tradition by conferring the degrees of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) to its graduates whilst reserving the title of Doctor of Medicine (MD) for their research training degree, analogous to the PhD, or for their honorary doctorates. Although the majority of Australian MBBS degrees have been graduate programs since the 1990s, under the previous Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) they remained categorized as Level 7 Bachelor's degrees together with other undergraduate programs.

Doctor of Medicine

A Doctor of Medicine (MD from Latin Medicinae Doctor) is a medical degree, the meaning of which varies between different jurisdictions. In countries that follow the United States system, the MD denotes a first professional graduate degree awarded upon initial graduation from medical school.[1] In countries following the tradition of the United Kingdom, the MD denotes an academic research doctorate, higher doctorate, honorary doctorate or advanced clinical coursework degree restricted to medical graduates; the equivalent first professional degree is typically titled Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery.[2]

In 1703, the University of Glasgow's first medical graduate, Samuel Benion, was issued with the academic degree of Doctor of Medicine.[3]

University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the MD, until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American medical schools switched to the tradition of the ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the MoD title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American university to grant the MD degree instead of the MB.[4]

Early medical schools in North America that granted the Doctor of Medicine degrees were Columbia, Penn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill.[5] These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland.

A feminine form, "Doctress of Medicine" or Medicinae Doctrix, was also used by the New England Female Medical College in Boston in the 1860s.[6][7][8] In most countries having a Doctor of Medicine degree does not mean that the individual will be allowed to practice medicine. Typically a doctor must go through a residency for at least four years and take some form of licensing examination in their jurisdiction.

In Afghanistan, medical education begins after high school. No pre-medicine courses or bachelor's degree is required. Eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam held every year throughout the country. Entry to medical school is competitive, and only students with the highest ranks are accepted into medical programs. The primary medical degree is completed in 7 years. According to the new medical curriculum (from 2016), during the 12th semester, medical students must complete research on a medical topic and provide a thesis as part of their training. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, regarded "MD" and validated by the "Ministry of Higher Education of Afghanistan". All physicians are to obtain licensing and a medical council registration number from the "Ministry of Public Health" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications. After graduation, students may complete residency.

In Argentina, the First Degree of Physician or Physician Diplomate (Spanish: Título de Médico)[9] is equivalent to the North American MD Degree with six years of intensive studies followed by usually three or four years of residency as a major specialty in a particular empiric field, consisting of internships, social services and sporadic research. Only by holding a Medical Title can the postgraduate student apply for the Doctor degree through a Doctorate in Medicine program approved by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation.[10]

The latest version of the AQF includes the new category of Level 9 Master's (Extended) degrees which permits the use of the term 'Doctor' in the styling of the degree title of relevant professional programs. As a result, various Australian medical schools have replaced their MBBS degrees with the MD to resolve the previous anomalous nomenclature. With the introduction of the Master's level MD, universities have also renamed their previous medical research doctorates. The University of Melbourne was the first to introduce the MD in 2011 as a basic medical degree, and has renamed its research degree to Doctor of Medical Science (DMedSc).[11][11]

Before the civil wars in Afghanistan, medical education used to be taught by foreign professors or Afghan professors who studied medical education abroad. The Kabul medical institute certified the students as "Master of Medicine". After the civil wars, medical education has extremely changed, and the MD certification has been reduced to "Medicine Bachelor".

At the end of the six-year medical programs from Bulgarian medical schools, medical students are awarded the academic degree Master in Medicine and the professional title Physician - Doctor of Medicine (MD).[12][13]

After 6 years of general medical education (a foundation year plus 5 years), all students will graduate with a Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc, Khmer: បរិញ្ញាប័ត្រ វិទ្យាសាស្រ្តវេជ្ជសាស្ត្រ), equivalent to Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS). This degree does not allow graduates to work independently as a physician, but it is possible for those who wish to continue to master's degrees in other fields relating to medical sciences such as public health, epidemiology, biomedical science, and nutrition.

Medical graduates, who wish to be fully qualified as physicians or specialists must follow the process as below:

All medical graduates must complete a Thesis Defense and pass the National Exit Exam (Khmer: ប្រឡងចេញថ្នាក់ជាតិក្នុងវិស័យសុខាភិបាល) to become either GPs or medical or surgical specialists.

In China, the degree system is very similar to the UK. Students can enter medical schools after graduating from high school. Lengths of the studies vary, there are 5-year Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS), 6-year Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) with one year of hospital internship, 7-year (Masters of Medicine), and 8-year (Doctor of Medicine) programs. After a degree is acquired, one needs to pass the certification exam to be allowed to practice.

In Denmark, basic medical education and training is available at four universities: the University of Copenhagen, Aarhus University, the University of Southern Denmark and Aalborg University. The duration of basic medical education and training is six years and the course leads to the degree of Candidate of Medicine (rated equally to master's degree). Students are qualified as  "medical doctor" (MD) after swearing the Hippocratic Oath upon graduation.[14]

Medical school is usually followed by a year of residency called basic clinical training (Danish: Klinisk basisuddannelse or KBU) which upon completion grants the right to practice medicine without supervision.

After graduating from high school with a Baccalaureat, any student can register at a university of medicine (there are about 30 of them throughout the country). At the end of first year, an internal ranking examination takes place in each of these universities in order to implement the numerus clausus. First year consists mainly of theoretical classes such as biophysics and biochemistry, anatomy, ethics or histology. Passing first year is commonly considered very challenging, requiring hard and continuous work. Each student can only try twice. For example, the Université René Descartes welcomes about 2,000 students in first year and only 300 after numerus clausus.

The second and third year are usually mainly quite theoretical although the teachings are often accompanied by placements in the field (e.g., internships as nurses or in the emergency room, depending on the university).

During fourth, fifth and sixth years, medical students get a special status called "externe" (In some universities, such as Pierre et Marie Curie, the externe status is given starting in the third year). They work as interns every morning at the hospital plus a few night shifts a month and study in the afternoon. Each internship lasts between three and four months and takes place in a different department. Med students get five weeks off a year.

At the end of the sixth year, they need to pass a national ranking exam, which will determine their specialty. The first student gets to choose first, then the second, et cetera. Usually, students work hard during fifth and sixth years in order to train properly for the national ranking exam. During these years, actual practice at the hospital and some theoretical courses are meant to balance the training.
Such externs' average wage stands between 100 and 300 euros a month.

After that ranking exams, students can start as residents in the specialty they have been able to pick. That is the point from which they also start getting paid.

Towards the end of the medical program, French medical students are provided with more responsibilities and are required to defend a thesis; however, unlike a PhD thesis, no original research is actually necessary to write an MD thesis.  At the conclusion of the thesis defense, French medical students receive a State Diploma of Doctor of Medicine (MD, French: diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médecine). Every new doctor must then proceed to a Diploma of Specialised Studies (DES, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées) to mark their specialty.  Some students may also receive a Diploma of Complementary Specialized Studies (DESC, French: diplôme d'Etudes spécialisées complémentaires).[15]

After at least six years of medical school, the students graduate with a final federal medical exam (Dritter Abschnitt der ärztlichen Prüfung). Graduates receive their license to practice medicine and the professional title of physician (Arzt). About 80% of them additionally obtain the academic MD-like degree Doctor of Medicine (Dr. Med.).[16] The corresponding "doctoral" dissertations are often written alongside undergraduate study and are comparable to a master's thesis in science;[16] but students are only allowed to finish the dissertation process after their studies. Obtaining the title is a practical necessity because many ordinary people incorrectly assume that only a doctor is allowed to practice medicine. The European Research Council decided in 2010 that those Dr. med. doctorates do not meet the international standards of a PhD research degree.[17][18]

The MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine/Bachelor of Surgery) degree represents the first (undergraduate) level of training required to be licensed as a physician (other degrees in alternative medicine are present like BAMS, BHMS, BSMS etc.) and the MS or MD degree is a postgraduate degree, representative of specialty training. The equivalent training in the US or Canada would be the completion of a medical (post-graduate) degree. Eligibility for the MS or MD course is restricted to medical graduates holding the MBBS degree.

The MBBS course is for five and a half years, and training imparted is as follows:

After three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, in a pre-clinical or clinical subject of a non-surgical nature [e.g. Anatomy (since the subject deals with study of anatomy through dissecting cadavers, thus given an MD degree), Physiology, Pharmacology, Internal Medicine, Pediatrics, Pathology, Microbiology, Pharmacology] the candidate receives MD degree, whereas in a clinical subject of a surgical nature (e.g. General Surgery, Orthopaedics, Obstetrics/Gynaecology, Ophthalmology), the candidate receives the equivalent degree Master of Surgery (MS).

A second alternate qualification termed DNB [Diplomate of National Board], is considered equivalent to the MD and MS degrees. This can be obtained by passing the exam conducted by the National Board of Examinations after completing 3 years of post-MBBS residency training in teaching hospitals recognised by the board. The College of Physicians & Surgeons of Bombay, India (Established 1912) also awards higher postgraduate degrees in clinical and pre-clinical specialties, called FCPS; it involves three years of study and the successful completion of an examination, which includes both theoretical and practical elements, and a research thesis and a viva. The FCPS is representative of specialty clinical training, and equivalent to MD/MS/DNB/Ph.D Medical  in Medical Doctorate in other parts of the world. Until 2007, the Government of India and the Medical Council of India recognised the FCPS qualification - since then, this is being done by State Medical Councils.

After obtaining the first postgraduate degree, that is MD/MS/FCPS/DNB/Ph.D Medical, one can go for further specialisation in medical or surgical fields. This involves a highly competitive entrance examination. This course has three years of additional training and requires the submission of a dissertation (thesis). This is considered a clinical doctorate as the focus is on preapring a super-specialist with adequate clinical as well as research training. After the dissertation is approved and the exit examination (theory and practical) is cleared, the degree awarded is DM (Doctor of Medicine), Ph.D Medical. Based on the specific field of training, the degree awarded is DM in Cardiology, Neurology, Nephrology, Gastroenterology, Neuroradiology, Critical Care, Pulmonology, Hematology, Medical Oncology, Cardio-anaesthesia, Clinical Pharmacology, Pediatric Critical Care, Pediatric Neurology, Neonataology, Pediatric Gastroenterology, Neuroanaesthesia, etc. For surgical superspecialities the degree awarded is MCh (Magister Chirurgiae), like MCh in Cardio-thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Endocrine Surgery, Neurosurgery, Surgical Gastroenterology, Urology, Plastic Surgery, Pediatric Surgery etc. DM and MCh are the clinical equivalent of a Doctorate degree.  A third alternate qualification is DNB (superspecialties), offered by National Board of Examinations, like DNB in Cardiology, Neurology, Cardiac Surgery, Neurosurgery.

Following DM or MCh, one can further go for postdoctoral fellowship programs of one-year duration in specific subspecialties like Cardiac Electrophysiology, Invasive cardiology, Pediatric cardiology, Epilepsy, stroke, electroencephalography, movement disorders, neuromuscular disorders, cerebrovascular surgery, skull base surgery, neurocritical care, pediatric cardiac surgery etc. offered by prestigious government institutes and abroad.

In Indonesia, the title of "dokter" (dr.) is awarded after a Medical student received their Bachelor in Medicine (Sarjana Kedokteran; S. Ked) after 3-3.5 years of study (at least) and 1.5â€“2 years of clinical course in university hospitals. After a medical student finished those five years of study, they need to take "Uji Kompetensi Mahasiswa Program Profesi Dokter" (UKMPPD). If they pass the test, they can take Hippocrates Oath and the title of Dokter (dr.) is entitled before their name. Then they need to take a year-long internship course in primary health care clinics (also known as Puskesmas) or primary hospitals all over the country to practice as general practitioner under supervision of senior doctors. Those who wished to further their study into specialties can take graduate course of medicine of their preference and will be entitled with "Specialist of..." after their name (e.g.: Sp.A for Spesialis Anak = Pediatrician). Graduate course of medicine is equal with residency program which is required the candidates to study for four years and hospital internship. Note that "dr." is used for medical graduates, while Dr. (or wrongfully DR., Doktor) is used for PhD holders.

In Iran, Medical education begins after high school. No pre-med course or BSc degree is required. The eligibility is determined through the rank applicants obtain in the public university entrance exam being held every year throughout the country. The entry to medical school is competitive and only students with the highest rank are accepted into medical program. The primary medical degree is completed in 7–7.5 years. On the final years (last 1–2 years) medical students need to do a research on a medical topic and provide thesis as part of their trainings. Medical graduates are awarded a certificate in general medicine, called "Professional Doctorate in Medicine" validated by the "Ministry of Health and Medical Education of Iran". All physicians will obtain license and medical council registration number from the "Medical Council of Iran" before they officially begin to practice. They may subsequently specialize in a specific medical field at medical schools offering the necessary qualifications.

There are five university medical schools in Israel, including the Technion in Haifa, Ben Gurion University in Be'er Sheva, Tel Aviv University, the Hebrew University in Jerusalem and the Medical school of the Bar-Ilan University in Safed. They all follow the European 6-year model except Bar-Ilan University, which has a four-year program similar to the US system.[19] However, as of 2009, Tel Aviv University has introduced a four-year program similar to the US system for students with a bachelor's degree in certain biological sciences. The entrance requirements of the various schools of medicine are very strict. Israeli students require a high school Baccalaureate average above 100 and psychometric examination grade over 740. The demand for medical education is strong and growing, and there is a lack of doctors in Israel.[citation needed] The Technion Medical School, Ben Gurion University, and Tel Aviv University Sackler Faculty of Medicine[20] offer 4-year MD programs for American students who have American college degrees and have taken the MCAT interested in completing rigorous medical education in Israel before returning to the US or Canada. In Israel, the degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD) is considered to be equivalent to a Master's degree academically and legally.[21]

In Latvia, the duration of basic medical education is six years and the course leads to the degree of Doctor of Medicine.[22]

In Malaysia, MD are awarded by both private and public universities, mostly are trained as a 5-year course, however with the establishment of Perdana University, it became the first university in Malaysia to provide a 5-year graduate entry course. Examples of universities in Malaysia offering the M.D degree are University Sains Malaysia, National University of Malaysia, University Putra Malaysia, UCSI University, etc.

In the Netherlands and Belgium, medical students receive six years of university education prior to their graduation.

In the Netherlands specifically, prospective students can apply for medical education directly after finishing the highest level of secondary school, vwo; previous undergraduate education is not a precondition for admittance.
Medical students receive three years of preclinical training, followed by three years of clinical training (co-assistentschappen, or co-schappen) in hospitals. At one medical faculty (Utrecht University), clinical training already begins in the third year of medical school. After 6 years, students graduate as Basisartsen ("base physician"). As a result of the Bologna process, medical students in the Netherlands receive a bachelor's degree (BSc) concluding successfully three years of medical university curriculum, and a master's degree (MSc) upon successful graduation. After graduation, physicians can apply for, and complete a R&D based doctorate, earning them a PhD in Medicine. Contrary to popular (international) daily use, the title "MD" does not exist, is not granted, nor recognised for Dutch physicians. Furthermore, no specific notation signifying board registration exists for physicians in the Netherlands.

Belgian medical education is much more based on theoretical knowledge than the Dutch system. In the first three years, which are very theoretical and lead to a university bachelor's degree, general scientific courses are taken such as chemistry, biophysics, physiology, biostatistics, anatomy, virology, etc. To enter the bachelor course in Flanders, prospective students have to pass an exam, as a result of the numerus clausus.

After the bachelor courses, students are allowed to enter the'master in medicine' courses, which consist of three years of theoretical and clinical study. In general, the first two master years are very theoretical and teach the students human pathology, diseases and pharmacology.  The third year is a year full of internships in a wide range of specialities in different clinics. The seventh, final year serves as a kind of 'pre-specialization' year in which the students are specifically trained in the specialty they wish to pursue after medical school. This contrasts with the Dutch approach, in which graduates are literally 'basic doctors' (basisartsen) who have yet to decide on a specialty.

In Pakistan the MD is a higher doctorate, awarded by medical universities based on successful completion of a residency program of four to six years' duration in a university hospital.Many universities are offering MD. Parallel to MD, MS is a higher doctorate awarded on successful completion of four to six years' duration of a residency program in surgical field

In the Philippines, the MD is a first professional degree in medicine. It is attained by either completing a 4-year degree or a 5-year degree (with internship included) from an accredited institution by the Association of Philippine Medical Colleges and the Commission on Higher Education. An MD degree does not permit the practice of medicine but qualifies the degree-holder to apply for registration to the Professional Regulatory Commission. Registration to the Commission through completion of internship and examinations will grant the privilege of practicing medicine in the Philippines.

Romanian medical programs last for 6 years (including clinical practice), which is the long-cycle first professional degree and concludes with a final licensing examination (licenÈ›a), based on the dissertation of the student's original research. The degree awarded is 'Doctor-Medic' and graduates are entitled to use the title "Dr."[23]

The American Duke University has a medical school based in Singapore (Duke-NUS Medical School), and follows the North-American model of styling its first professional degree "Doctor of Medicine" ("MD"), consid.[24] By contrast, the Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine at the National University of Singapore confers MB BS as the first professional degree.

In South Korea, there is a Medical Doctor (MD) license.

The medical educations in South Korea (Republic of Korea) are 6 or 4 years in duration, 6-year courses starting right after high schools, and 4-year course starting after 4-year's university education(To start the 4-year course, the student needs a bachelor's degree). The first 2 years in the 6-year system is composed of basic sciences and liberal art courses.

In Sri Lanka, the MD degree is a higher postgraduate degree that is awarded by the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after completion of a postgraduate course, examinations and speciality training. The MD degree in Sri Lanka is representative of specialty training in clinical, para clinical, and preventive medicine (e.g., general medicine, cardiology, nephrology, oncology, para clinical such as microbiology, haematology and preventive such as community medicine). Entry for the MD course is open only for medical graduates holding the MBBS degree (with a duration of five and a half years), and training is obtained in medical disciplines that are non-surgical in nature (e.g., internal medicine, radiology, pathology, etc.) After three or four years of study and the successful completion of an examination with written as well as cases and via examinations, the MD degree in the respective field of study is awarded. In community medicine and medical administration, part I examination consists of a theoretical exam while the degree is conferred after completion of a thesis as a PhD. This thesis has to be completed within a period of five years. After successfully defending the academic thesis, the MD degree is conferred to the candidate. The MD degree holder is certified as a board certified specialist by the respective board of study of the Postgraduate Institute of Medicine after he or she undergoes 2â€“4 years of local and foreign training depending on the specialty/subspecialty selected.

In Ayurveda, Bachelor of Ayurveda, Medicine and Surgery B.A.M.S in Unani, Bachelor of Unani Medicine and Surgery BUMS in Sidha, Bachelor of Sidha Medicine and Surgery BSMS are the basic qualification for practicing Ayurveda, Unani,&Sidha. The B.A.M.S, B.U.M.S, and B.S.M.S are 6-year degree (including internship) courses accepted by the University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka). M.D (Ayu)(Ayurveda vachaspati) can be done after B.A.M.S, as a specialty, and it takes 3 years (including submission of a thesis) to complete the course. Ayurveda M.D (Ayu) (Ayurveda vachaspati) is a master's degree accepted by University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka), after completion of MPhil can follow Ph.D. level programmes in Sri Lanka.

Medical education in Sweden begins with a five-and-a-half-year undergraduate university program leading to the degree "Master of Science in Medicine" (Swedish: Läkarexamen). Following this, the National Board of Health and Welfare requires a minimum of 18 months of clinical internship (Swedish: Allmäntjänstgöring) before granting a medical license (Swedish: Läkarlegitimation) to be fully qualified as the Swedish equivalent to Medical Doctor (MD).[25]

This internship consists of surgery (3–6 months), internal medicine (3–6 months), psychiatry (three months) and family medicine (six months). Upon receiving a license to practice, a physician is able to apply for a post to start specialist training. There are currently 52 recognised medical specialties in Sweden. The specialist training has a duration of minimum five years, which upon completion grants formal qualification as a specialist.

In Taiwan, the MD is a first professor awarded professional degree that goes up and beyond the limits of upper education.[26]

The Thai medical education is 6 years system, consisting of 1 year in basic-science, 2 years in pre-clinical training, and 3 years for clinical training. Upon graduation, all medical students must pass national medical licensing examinations and a university-based comprehensive test. After medical school, newly graduated doctor are under contract to spend a year of internship and 2 years of tenure in rural areas before they are eligible for any other residency positions or specialized training. The students will receive Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree. However, the degree is equivalent to master's degree in Thailand. Specialty training after the MD degree requires at least 4â€“6 years residency program in the training university hospitals and must pass the board examination. Board certified specialized degree is equivalent to doctorate degree.

In Tunisia, education is free for all Tunisian citizens and for foreigners who have scholarships. The oldest Medical school is a faculty of the University of Tunis.  There are four medicine faculties situated in the major cities of Tunis, Sfax, Sousse and Monastir. Admission is bound to the success and score in the baccalaureate examination. Admission score threshold is very high, based on competition among all applicants throughout the nation. Medical school curriculum consists of five years.  The first two years are medical theory, containing all basic sciences related to medicine, and the last three years consists of clinical issues related to all medical specialties.  During these last three years, the student gets the status of "Externe". The student has to attend at the university hospital every day, rotating around all wards. Every period is followed by a clinical exam regarding the student's knowledge in that particular specialty.  After those five years, there are two years on internship, in which the student is a physician but under the supervision of the chief doctor; the student rotates over the major and most essential specialties during period of four months each. After that, student has the choice of either passing the residency national exam or extending his internship for another year, after which he gains the status of family physician. The residency program consists of four to five years in the specialty he qualifies, depending on his score in the national residency examination under the rule of highest score chooses first. Whether the student chooses to be a family doctor or a specialist, he has to write a doctoral thesis, which he will be defending in front of a jury, after which he gains his degree of Doctor of Medicine (MD).

The entry-level first professional degree in these countries for the practice of medicine is that of Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS, MB, MB BCh BAO, BMBS, MBBChir, or MBChB). This degree typically requires between four and six years of study and clinical training, and is equivalent to the North American MD degree. Due to the UK code for higher education, first degrees in medicine comprise an integrated programme of study and professional practice spanning several levels. These degrees may retain, for historical reasons, "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" and are abbreviated to MBChB, MBBS or BMBS.[27]

In the UK, Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, the MD is a postgraduate research degree in medicine. At some universities, this takes the form of a first doctorate, analogous to the Ph.D., awarded upon submission of a thesis and a successful viva. The thesis may consist of new research undertaken on a full- or part-time basis, with much less supervision (in the UK) than for a Ph.D., or a portfolio of previously published work.[28]

In order to be eligible to apply for an MD degree from a UK or Commonwealth University one must hold either a "Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery" (MBBS, MBChB, BMBS for example) degree, or an equivalent U.S.-MD degree and must usually have at least five years of postgraduate experience. Therefore, graduates from the MBBS/MBChB/BMBS degrees do not hold doctorates; however, physicians holding these degrees are referred to as "doctor" as they are fully licensed as medical practitioners. In some commonwealth nations, these interns are designated as "house officers".

At some other universities (especially older institutions, such as Oxford, Dublin, Cambridge and St Andrews), the MD is a higher doctorate (similar to a DSc) awarded upon submission of a portfolio of published work representing a substantial contribution to medical research.[29] The University of Cambridge has introduced a new degree of MedScD (more akin to the ScD degree) awarded on the basis of a career's contribution to the science or art of medicine, rather than a thesis, for which a candidate may be awarded the MD degree.[30] Oxford did not do the same but instead demoted the rank of the degree the same level as the DPhil but retaining its original academic dress.

In the case where the MD is awarded (either as a first or higher doctorate) for previously published research, the candidate is usually required to be either a graduate or a full-time member of staff, of several years' standing of the university in question.[31]

In the United States, MDs are awarded by medical schools as "Professional Doctorate"[32][33] (as opposed to the Doctor of Philosophy degree which requires additional studies) and are accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), an independent body sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges, and the American Medical Association (AMA).[34][35]

Admission to medical school in the United States and Canada is highly competitive, and in the United States about 17,800 out of approximately 47,000 applicants (~38%)[citation needed] received at least one acceptance to any medical school in recent application years.[vague] Before entering medical school, students are required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT); however, some combined undergraduate-medical programs exist. Before graduating from a medical school and being awarded the Doctor of Medicine degree, students are required to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and both the clinical knowledge and clinical skills parts of Step 2. The MD degree is typically earned in four years. Following the awarding of the MD, physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. In order to receive board eligible or board accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, physicians undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the MD. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years.[citation needed]

In Canada, the MD is the basic medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada that continues to award the M.D., C.M. degrees (abbreviated M.D.C.M.). M.D.C.M. is from the Latin Medicinae Doctorem et Chirurgiae Magistrum meaning "Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery". Upon graduation, students enter into a residency phase of training. Prior to obtaining an independent practicing license from a provincial regulatory body, students must complete the Medical Council of Canada Qualifying Examination to obtain the Licentiate of the Medical Council of Canada (LMCC) qualifications.[citation needed]

Even though the MD is a professional degree and not a research doctorate (i.e., a Ph.D.), many holders of the MD degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation; an academic physician whose work emphasizes basic research is called a physician-scientist. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting an MD-PhD. The National Institutes of Health (NIH), through its Medical Scientist Training Program, funds MD-PhD training programs at many universities. Some MDs choose a research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.[36] The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the MD or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.[37][38]

There is also a similar advanced professional degree to the postgraduate MD: the Master of Surgery (usually ChM or MS, but MCh in Scotland, Ireland, Wales and at Oxford and MChir at Cambridge). The equivalence of these degrees, but their differing names, prevents the need for surgeons (addressed as Mr. in the UK) having to revert to the title Dr., which they once held as new MBBS graduates.

In Ireland, where the basic medical qualification includes a degree in obstetrics, there is a similar higher degree of Master of the Art of Obstetrics (MAO). A Master of Midwifery was formerly examined by the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries of London (hence MMSA) but fell into abeyance in the 1960s; in this case, the term Master referred not to a university degree but rather a professional rank that is common among craft guilds.

In East Africa, the medical schools in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda award the degree of Master of Medicine (MMed) degree in both surgical and medical specialty disciplines following a three to six-year period of instruction.

In West Africa, the West African College of Physicians and the West African College of Surgeons award the Fellowship of the West African College of Physicians (FWACP) and the Fellowship of the West African College of Surgeons (FWACS) in medical and surgical disciplines respectively after a minimum of four-year residency training period.

The Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or DO degree allows the same practice rights in the United States and Canada to the MD degree and Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine are fully licensed physicians. Holders of the MD degree must pass MD level board exams while DO holders can pass either the DO (COMLEX) exam or MD exam (USMLE).[45] Similarly, MDs must attend MD rated residency and fellowship programs while DOs can attend either MD programs or Osteopathic (DO) programs. As a result of this, the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) are currently transitioning to a single accreditation system for medical residencies in the U.S.[46] On average, MD matriculants score 510 on MCAT examinations and have an average GPA of 3.70  while DO matriculants score 504 and have an average GPA of 3.56.[citation needed] The American MD degree is also recognized by most countries in the world. While DO physicians are only licensed to practice the full scope of medicine and surgery in 65 countries.[47][not in citation given]


who is on the $10 note australia

The polymer note features Andrew Barton (Banjo) Paterson on the obverse with a horse from the Snowy Mountains region, and a wattle plant, also included is his signature. His poetry is in the background. Dame Mary Gilmore is on the reverse with 19th-century heavy transport with horse and cart and verses from her poetry. Her signature is included. A windmill is in the clear window with the raised wavy lines.[5] The $10 note of 2017 retains the themes of the original, with this issue featuring the Bramble Wattle (Acacia victoriae) and the Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita).[6]

Australian ten-dollar note

The Australian ten dollar banknote was issued when the currency was changed from the Australian pound to the Australian dollar on 17 February 1966; it replaced the Â£5 note which had similar blue colouration. There have been three different issues of this denomination, a paper banknote, a commemorative hipolymer note to celebrate the bicentennial of Australian settlement (the first polymer banknote of its kind), and from 1993 a polymer banknote.

According to Reserve Bank of Australia statistics, as at June 2016 there were 120 million $10 notes in circulation, with a net value of $1.196 billion. This was 2% of the cash value of all banknotes in circulation, and 8% of the number of all banknotes in circulation.[2]

Since the start of issue of $10 notes, there have been eleven signature combinations, of which the 1967 issue is the most valued. It was issued for one year only, along with the Coombs/Wilson issue of 1966.

Following the issue of a new $5 note in September 2016, the RBA revealed the design for the $10 note and will be issued in 20 September 2017.[3]

From 1966â€“1974 the main title identifying the country was Commonwealth of Australia; there were 470,000,000 notes issued in this period. This was subsequently changed to Australia until the end of issue of paper currency for this denomination in 1993, with 1,265,959,091 of these notes being printed. In the 1988 polymer issue 17,500,000 banknotes were printed and was the new Australia's 10 dollar note.

The people depicted on the paper note issue were Francis Greenway on the obverse along with public building he helped construct, and Henry Lawson on the reverse with his poetry and scenes of the outback gold mining town of Gulgong in the 19th century including the Times Bakery.[4]

1988 Commemorative note

Obverse design included the sailing ship HMS Supply anchored at Sydney Cove with the early colony in the background. Above are people who symbolise all who have contributed to Australia, from left the early settlers to right the modern working man.

Reverse includes portraits of the aboriginal population, the main picture is a young native youth with ceremonial paint, and in the background is a Morning Star Pole, other Aboriginal artworks commissioned by the Bank and a human like figure from Dreamtime.[7]

The paper design included a watermark in the white field of Captain James Cook, the watermark was also used in the last issue of pound banknotes. A metallic strip, first near the centre of the note, then from 1976 moved to the left side on the obverse of the note. Polymer issue includes a shadow image of the coat of arms which is printed over. Embossing or a raised image in the clear window of wavy lines. Also for this issue fluorescent colouring was added to the serial numbers. A star with four points on the obverse and three on the reverse which join under light. Raised print and micro printing of the poem The Man from Snowy River and the denomination value are included.[8][9]

1988 Commemorative This issue includes an optically variable device of Captain James Cook, who first mapped Botany Bay.


where does lily go in how i met your mother

During the final season, set during the weekend of Barney and Robin's wedding, Lily learns of Marshall's new job, and they get into a huge fight.[30] She storms out, but returns and reconciles with Marshall upon learning that she is pregnant. Marshall turns the job down, and agrees to go to Italy with her. A flash forward scene reveals that Lily gives birth to a girl, Daisy.[31]

Lily Aldrin

Lily Aldrin is a fictional character in the CBS television series How I Met Your Mother. Lily is portrayed by American actress Alyson Hannigan. She is the wife of Marshall Eriksen and the best friend of Ted Mosby, Robin Scherbatsky and Barney Stinson. Lily is a kindergarten teacher and an amateur painter. In the eighth season, she gets a job as an art consultant. Lily is also the only member of the original main cast of the series who has not appeared in every episode, due to Alyson Hannigan taking leave after giving birth to her first child.

Series creator Craig Thomas explained that he based Marshall and Lily on himself and his wife Rebecca. Rebecca had been upset after learning this, but (as she is a fan of Buffy the Vampire Slayer) was consoled when Alyson Hannigan was put in the role.[1][2] Hannigan was looking to do more comedy work after having worked on the American Pie series and was available for the show.[3]

Lily Aldrin, born March 22, 1978, grew up in Park Slope, Brooklyn, New York.[4] She is the daughter of Janice Aldrin, whom Lily describes as a feminist and who worked two jobs to support the family.[5] The creators stated in commentary that there is no evidence to the contrary that Lily's grandfather is astronaut Buzz Aldrin – and like Buzz Aldrin, her grandfather is said to have fought in the Korean War. Lily's father, Mickey, is an unsuccessful board game creator living in his parents' basement. Janice and Mickey divorced when Lily was a child. Lily is estranged from her father – an absentee parent who she claims "broke my heart every day for 20 years"[5] – until he promises to be there for her following the birth of her son.[6]

During her high school and college years, she was a part of the goth subculture, dying her hair and wearing stereotypical "goth" clothes. She dumped her high school boyfriend, Scooter, on prom night, admitting she only dated him because he looked like Kurt Cobain.[7] He remains obsessed with her for years afterward. She met Marshall during her freshman year at Wesleyan University in 1996 and dated him throughout college.

As of 2010, Lily is 32 years old, meaning she was born circa 1978.[8] According to her résumé, she is fluent in Italian, certified in teaching English as a Second Language, and proficient in Photoshop, Quark, and Java.[9]

Lily frequently states her need for regular sex, saying that if she went without for too long she'd be "out there selling it for a nickel". She has a more than passing sexual interest in other women, suggesting she may be bisexual. In particular, she has confessed several times, albeit in a seemingly joking fashion, that she finds Robin sexually attractive, and has been the subject of some sexually "confusing dreams".[10] Robin at one point says that she won't go near Lily after she's been drinking martinis, as she is prone to flirt quite strongly with her and even try to get the guys to dare them to make out.[11] Well aware of Lily's sexual attraction to her, Robin tends to alternate between ignoring, and being disturbed by them whenever they show themselves.

Lily is adept at manipulating people and situations to get what she wants; she is especially talented at engineering breakups between couples she knows are not right for each other.[12] Barney calls her a "diabolical puppet master" and "pure evil",[13] while Ted calls her a "psychopath".[14]

Lily and Marshall get engaged in the fall of 2005, as portrayed in the series pilot. Towards the end of the first season, she reveals to Robin that she has been having second thoughts about getting married without having experienced much else of life before Marshall.[7] Those doubts intensify, and she acts upon them, applying for a painting fellowship in San Francisco.[15] She is accepted and, after arguing with Marshall on and off – with several pause breaks in between for drinks, dinner at Red Lobster, and sex – Lily finally says that she cannot promise Marshall that she would return to him after the three-month fellowship. They break up, and she goes to San Francisco.[16]

She returns to New York three months later, and confesses that leaving had been a mistake. She begs Marshall to take her back, but Marshall can't get over his wounded pride, and refuses.[17] They eventually get back together, however, and resume their engagement.[18] They finally get married at the end of the season.[19]

In the third season, it is revealed that Lily is a shopaholic, and goes shopping whenever something bad happens. She keeps her multiple credit cards in a "box of shame". She and Marshall struggle with her credit card bills, especially when they were about to buy an apartment, which leaves Marshall no choice but to abandon his dreams of being an environmental lawyer and take a job at a big corporate firm.[20] They eventually get the house, only to find out that the neighborhood is situated near a water sewage treatment plant and that the floor of their apartment is crooked.[21]

Lily, along with Ted and Marshall, occasionally indulge in "sandwiches" (Future Ted's euphemism for marijuana) during college and at their 20th college reunion.

Out of all of the characters, she is the only one Barney chooses to confide in when he realizes that he is in love with Robin.[22] In the fifth season, Lily forces Robin and Barney to confess to being a couple. She does this by detaching the doorknob of Robin's room at the apartment and waits for them to have "the talk". Robin and Barney pass a few notes under the door with vague explanations, none of which satisfy her. To convince Lily to let them out, they lie about being boyfriend and girlfriend, but after they leave the apartment hand-in-hand, Lily tells Ted "they didn't realize they weren't lying."[23]

Lily and Marshall are both ecstatic to have another couple to hang out with. They invite Robin and Barney for an evening together, which goes awry; Lily and Marshall become clingy and dependent, prompting Barney and Robin to "break up" with them. Eventually, Barney and Robin realize they miss Lily and Marshall, and they all profess their desire to be a foursome.[24] When Barney and Robin's relationship starts to falter, Lily "coming out of retirement" to break them up. She executes an elaborate plan to get them into a big argument; this fails, but they finally realize they don't work as a couple.[25]

The group discovers that Lily has a doppelgänger named Jasmine, a Russian stripper. Lily is especially excited about this, and is so enthralled by her stripper twin that she and Marshall get a private dance. At the end of the night, Lily switches place with Jasmine and dances with much difficulty on stage, eventually falling into the crowd, to Marshall's horror.[26]

Throughout the sixth season, Marshall and Lily try to get pregnant. Their first attempts are unsuccessful, however, and they worry that they will not be able to conceive. In the season finale, Lily finally gets pregnant.[27] At the end of the seventh season, she gives birth to a son, Marvin.[6]

In the eighth season, Lily takes a job as an art consultant to a millionaire called "The Captain", who eventually offers to move her to Italy. She turns the promotion down, however, as it conflicts with Marshall's job as an environmental lawyer. Marshall convinces her to take it, however, and the two prepare to move to Rome.[28] In the season finale, Marshall accepts a judgeship without telling her, putting her plans in jeopardy.[29]

On the day of the wedding, Lily and Marshall renew their vows to each other.[32]

The series finale, "Last Forever", reveals that, a few years later, Lily gives birth to a third child, a baby girl whose name is unknown. Even as the group drifts apart over the years, Lily is there for all the important moments of their lives: Robin and Barney's divorce, the birth of Barney's daughter and that of Ted's two children, and Ted's wedding to The Mother (whose real name is Tracy McConnell). She remains happily married to Marshall, who eventually becomes a State Supreme Court judge.[33]

Alyson Hannigan won the People's Choice Award for Favorite TV Comedy Actress in 2010 and 2012 for this role.


what is the exclusionary rule and how does it relate to the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine

The "fruit of the poisonous tree" doctrine is an extension of the exclusionary rule, which, subject to some exceptions, prevents evidence obtained in violation of the Fourth Amendment from being admitted in a criminal trial. Like the exclusionary rule, the fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine is intended to deter police from using illegal means to obtain evidence.

Fruit of the poisonous tree

Fruit of the poisonous tree is a legal metaphor in the United States used to describe evidence that is obtained illegally.[1] The logic of the terminology is that if the source (the "tree") of the evidence or evidence itself is tainted, then anything gained (the "fruit") from it is tainted as well. The fruit of the poisonous tree doctrine was first described in Silverthorne Lumber Co. v. United States, 251 U.S. 385 (1920).[2][3][4] The term's first use was by Justice Felix Frankfurter in Nardone v. United States (1939).

Such evidence is not generally admissible in court.[5] For example, if a police officer conducted an unconstitutional (Fourth Amendment) search of a home and obtained a key to a train station locker, and evidence of a crime came from the locker, that evidence would most likely be excluded under the fruit of the poisonous tree legal doctrine. The testimony of a witness who is discovered through illegal means would not necessarily be excluded, however, due to the “attenuation doctrine”, which allows certain evidence or testimony to be admitted in court if the link between the illegal police conduct and the resulting evidence or testimony is sufficiently attenuated. It is believed that a witness who freely and voluntarily testifies is enough of an independent intervening factor to sufficiently “attenuate” the connection between the government’s illegal discovery of the witness and the witness's voluntary testimony itself. (United States v. Ceccolini, 435 U.S. 268 (1978))

The doctrine is subject to four main exceptions. The tainted evidence is admissible if:

This doctrine was also used by the European Court of Human Rights in Gäfgen v. Germany. In certain cases continental European countries have similar laws (e.g. in cases of torture), while the doctrine itself is generally not known. Illegally obtained evidence is used by the courts to ensure that the judgment is factually correct, however the person obtaining the illegal evidence typically faces independent consequences.


where is the united states grand prix being held

The United States Grand Prix is a motor race which has been held in the U.S. on and off since 1908, when it was known as the American Grand Prize. The race later became part of the Formula One World Championship. As of 2017[update], the race has been held 47 times, and it has taken place at 10 different locations in total. Since 2012, it has been held every year at the Circuit of the Americas in Elroy, Texas (12 miles (19Â km) south of Austin).

United States Grand Prix

Inspired by the Gordon Bennett Cup and Circuit des Ardennes races he had competed in, William Kissam Vanderbilt founded a series of road races in the United States to showcase American road racing to the world. The Vanderbilt Cup soon became an institution on New York's Long Island, attracting American and European competitors alike. However, the race was plagued by crowd control problems, which led to spectator deaths and injuries, and the cancellation of the 1907 event. Upon its return for 1908, the American Automobile Association did not adopt the new Grand Prix regulations agreed upon by the Association Internationale des Automobiles Clubs Reconnus (AIACR).[1][2] This led the rival Automobile Club of America, an enthusiasts group with strong ties to Europe, to sponsor the American Grand Prize, using the Grand Prix rules.[3] The Savannah Automobile Club of Savannah, Georgia about 2 hours north of Jacksonville, Florida had staged a successful stock car race in the spring, won the rights to stage the event.[4]

The Savannah Automobile Club laid out a lengthened version of their stock car course, totaling 25.13 mi (40.44 km). Georgia Governor M. Hoke Smith authorized the use of convict labor to construct the circuit of oiled gravel. The Governor also sent state militia troops to augment local police patrols in keeping the crowd in check, hoping to avoid the pitfalls of the Vanderbilt Cup races.[4] The entry for the inaugural race featured 14 European and six American entries, including factory teams from Benz, Fiat, and Renault.[5] In the race, held on Thanksgiving Day, Ralph DePalma led early in his Fiat, before falling back with lubrication and tire problems. The race came down to a three-way battle between the Benz of Victor Hémery and the Fiats of Louis Wagner and Felice Nazzaro. Wagner won the race by the close margin of 56 seconds.[6]

Despite the success of the Savannah event, it was decided that the 1909 race would be held on Long Island, in conjunction with the Vanderbilt Cup. However, only the Vanderbilt race was held and the Grand Prize pushed back to the next year. After the 1910 Vanderbilt Cup saw more issues, including the deaths of two riding mechanics and several serious spectator injuries, the Grand Prize was cancelled once again. A last-minute request by the Savannah club saved the race for the year, but only gave one month to prepare the course. A shorter 17-mile (27 km) course was laid out, but due to the short notice, most European teams were not able to make the trip. The leading trio from 1908 did make it and American David Bruce-Brown joined the Benz squad. Bruce-Brown won another incredibly tight race over teammate Hémery, this time by only 1.42 seconds.[7] The 1911 event returned to Savannah, and this time the Vanderbilt Cup came with it; the Cup and Grand Prize were to be held together until 1916. Despite the success of the events, public pressure started to mount on the organizers. The use of convict labor and the militia drew criticism, as did the nuisance of closing roads for the event.[8] Two accidents on the open roads in practice, one resulting in the death of Jay McNay, cast a shadow over the event. The American entries dominated the support events and ran well throughout the Grand Prize, after poor showings in past years and once again Bruce-Brown triumphed, this time driving a Fiat.[9]

For 1912, Savannah succumbed to public pressure, and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, won the bid for the race. A narrow, 7.88-mile (12.68Â km) trapezoidal course was set up on the outskirts of the city, in Wauwatosa. As in 1911, tragedy struck in practice when David Bruce-Brown was killed after a puncture sent him off the road. On the final lap of the race, Ralph DePalma collided with eventual winner Caleb Bragg, seriously injuring DePalma and his mechanic and ending any chance of a second race at Milwaukee.[10]

The Grand Prize was not held in 1913, after Long Island's bid was rejected and Savannah refused to provide sufficient prize money. Oval racing on board tracks had taken off in the United States, to the detriment of road racing. For 1914, the Grand Prize and Vanderbilt Cup were staged in Santa Monica, California near Los Angeles, on an 8.4-mile (13.5 km) course, with the start/finish straight along the Pacific Ocean. The field was primarily American entries (twelve, against five European entries), and the Americans dominated, with Eddie Pullen's Mercer winning by over 40 seconds.[11] In 1915, the race shifted to San Francisco, in conjunction with the Panama–Pacific International Exposition. With the outbreak of World War I in Europe, almost all of the drivers and cars were American, except for a few cars imported earlier. The 3.84-mile (6.18 km) course was set up around the Exposition grounds and nearby oval track with a boarded main straightaway. Heavy rain began two hours into the race, covering the circuit in mud from the extensive flower arrangements, and warping the main straight's boards. Dario Resta in a Peugeot cruised to a seven-minute victory, and followed up a week later by winning the Vanderbilt Cup.[12] For 1916, the Grand Prize returned to Santa Monica. The race would be a part of the AAA National Championship, which carried a 4.91-liter displacement limit. Although the limit for the Grand Prize was 7.37 liters, no large-displacement cars would enter. The race was the penultimate round of the championship, with Dario Resta leading Johnny Aitken after his Vanderbilt Cup win. However, both cars would be out before halfway. Although Aitken took over teammate Howdy Wilcox's car for the win, the AAA awarded points only to Wilcox, and Resta took the championship.[13][14]

The Grand Prize was discontinued after the 1916 event. Between a lack of European participation due to World War I and the growing American interest in oval racing, road racing fell by the wayside. The two Santa Monica events were the only road races on the 1916 championship, and the aborted 1917 National Championship was slated to feature 8 events, all ovals and six of them board tracks.[15] The Vanderbilt Cup was revived in 1936 and 1937 and run to Grand Prix regulations; these races were run at the Roosevelt Park Autodrome near New York City but a lack of competition and domination by German Bernd Rosemeyer and Italian Tazio Nuvolari led to the races being a commercial failure.

The Indianapolis 500 kept a connection to European racing, running to Grand Prix regulations between 1923 and 1930,[1] and from 1938 until 1953.[16] In the late 1920s, efforts were made to refer to the 500 as the American Grand Prize.[17] The Grand Prize trophy was awarded to the winner of the Indianapolis 500 between 1930[18] and 1936, when it was replaced by the Borg-Warner Trophy. The race was included in the World Championship from 1950 through 1960.

Riverside International Raceway opened in Riverside, California, in 1957 and one of its first events was an SCCA National sports car race. For 1958, the race moved to the new, professional, USAC Road Racing Championship, and was billed as the "United States Grand Prix".[16][19] The race attracted over 50 cars and drivers from sports car series in the U.S. and Europe, as well as USAC and NASCAR. Chuck Daigh won in a Scarab, beating Dan Gurney's Ferrari in second place.[20][21]

Russian-born Alec Ulmann staged the first 12 Hours of Sebring endurance race in 1952 at the airport (converted over from World War II use) of the rather isolated central Florida town of Sebring, located 1 1/2 hours south of Orlando and Tampa, and 3 hours north of Miami. The track was formed using service roads and runways of Sebring's airport, and it became a round of the World Sportscar Championship in 1953. Buoyed by the success of the 12 Hours, the Riverside sports car race and Formula Libre events at Watkins Glen and Lime Rock Park, Ulmann decided to stage a Formula One race at Sebring International Raceway in 1959. The race was billed as the "II United States Grand Prix",[22] cementing the Riverside race as a part of the Grand Prix's heritage. The race was originally scheduled for March 22, the day after the 12 Hour-race, but rescheduled for December 12, the final round of the season.[23] The race took place 3 months after the previous round at Monza. The starting grid included seven American drivers, but New Zealand's Bruce McLaren, in a Cooper, took his first win in F1 and was, at the time, the youngest driver ever to win a Grand Prix. McLaren took the lead on the last lap of the race when his team-mate, Jack Brabham, ran out of fuel. Brabham had to push his car over the line to finish fourth. By virtue of Ferrari's Tony Brooks finishing third, Brabham and Cooper took the Drivers' and Constructors' championships, respectively.[24] Despite providing an exciting climax to the season, the race was not successful from the hosts' standpoint, the race's isolated location did not help the event's success as the promoters barely broke even. When prize money checks bounced, Charles Moran and Briggs Cunningham paid the money to save face for their country.[16]

Ulmann moved the race to the Riverside International Raceway in Riverside, California an hour east of Los Angeles for 1960. Stirling Moss put on quite a show in his privately entered Lotus by winning from pole position. However, while the driver's purse was enormous (as at Sebring), the event was no better received than the previous year's due to a lack of promotion, and proximity to the successful Times Grand Prix.[19] Again Moran and Cunningham would pay the prize money.[16]

Through most of 1961, Ulmann was listed as the promoter of the USGP, and contacted organizers in Miami and Bill France of the Daytona International Speedway but was unable to reach agreements. In August, racing promoter Cameron Argetsinger, owner of the 2.35-mile (3.78Â km) Watkins Glen Grand Prix Race Course located in the central Finger Lakes region of upstate New York, offered his circuit to the Automobile Competition Committee for the United States (ACCUS) to host the Grand Prix. He succeeded and Watkins Glen would host the United States Grand Prix for the next 20 years. Over this time, the event became a tradition among the fans as loyal crowds gathered each autumn on the spread out hills of Upstate New York. It was one of the season's most popular events with the teams and drivers as well, receiving the Grand Prix Drivers' Association award for the best organized and best staged Grand Prix of the season in 1965, 1970, and 1971. The isolated, very peaceful and quiet location of the track gave it a vacation-type atmosphere (it was and is at least 2 and a half hours from a major city in every direction, Buffalo was the closest city to Watkins Glen and the track was 4 and a half hours from New York City and Philadelphia) and there was often a festive atmosphere that celebrated the end of each season of Formula One that included the Glen on its calendar- and because the race was held in early October, these races were set against the beautiful changing tree leaves, making the very scenic landscape of upstate New York even more so. Watkins Glen has the longest hosting record of any American Formula One race in history; the considerably challenging track became known as the "Mecca" of American road racing and it eventually wove itself into European Grand Prix racing culture.[25]

Watkins Glen had hosted a series of Formula Libre events that attracted international entries. ACCUS accepted on August 28, leaving only six weeks to organize the event on October 8. Argetsinger assembled the field, but was unable to convince Scuderia Ferrari to make the trip, leaving Richie Ginther and recently crowned World Champion Phil Hill out of their home Grand Prix.[16] Innes Ireland took a surprise win, his first and the first for Team Lotus. Dan Gurney's Porsche was second, and Tony Brooks was third in his final Grand Prix. Stirling Moss, in his final Grand Prix, retired with engine problems. Unlike the previous two races, the race was well attended (over 60,000) and turned a profit. The Watkins Glen circuit had similarities to the British Brands Hatch circuit, in that a number of corners were banked and very fast and that the circuit was located in a very green part of the world.[26] The race purse was paid in cash, a popular move with the teams after the previous two years payment issues.[16] Due to its position on the calendar near the end of the season, often either the final or penultimate round, championships were often decided before the event. In part to offset this, race organizers offered large sums of prize money; in 1969 the purse totaled $200,000 (with $50,000 for the winner),[27] and when in 1972 it was raised to $275,000, the Tyrrell team earned a record $100,000.[28]

1962 saw Briton Jim Clark win in a Lotus; the next three races were won by fellow-Briton Graham Hill, each time in a BRM. Hill's 1964 win was crucial to him as he carried a points advantage into the next and final race in Mexico. 1966 and 1967 saw Clark win; the '66 win was the only Formula One race he won that year, driving a Lotus with an overweight BRM H16 engine. Both the Drivers' and Constructors' championships were clinched by Australian Jack Brabham and his Brabham team. Clark dominated the 1967 event, leading comfortably from his teammate Hill and American Dan Gurney in an Eagle. In 1968 Mario Andretti put his Lotus 49 on pole position in his first ever Formula One race on a track he had never seen before. Andretti retired, and Briton Jackie Stewart won the race in a Ford/Cosworth powered Matra. Austrian Jochen Rindt won in 1969 â€“ his first Formula One race. He took advantage of Stewart's mechanical problems to pull a huge gap out on the rest of the field. Graham Hill had a much worse day, however. He punctured his car's rear right tire and the rubber came off the rim. The rubber exploded, sending Hill's Lotus cartwheeling off the course, and Hill was thrown out of the car at a very awkward angle, breaking both legs. 1970 was a memorable event, Brazilian newcomer Emerson Fittipaldi won the race, which was his fourth start in a Formula One race. Stewart retired his new Tyrrell and Fittipaldi, driving a Lotus, held off a charge from Mexican Pedro Rodriguez in a BRM. It was a very emotional win for Colin Chapman's Lotus team, as team leader Rindt had been killed while practicing for the Italian Grand Prix at Monza. Lotus had not run the Canadian Grand Prix, but because the next closest championship contender Jacky Ickx did not score enough points to keep him in contention, the Drivers' Championship was won by Rindt posthumously at this race. Team Lotus also won the Constructors' Championship at the 1970 event.

In 1971, the course was changed considerably. The entire lower section of the track was torn up and re-drawn, and there was a whole new "boot" section which added more than a mile to the course, lengthening it to 3.377 miles (5.435 km). It also saw a new pitlane and pit straight and three new corners (a new first, second-to last and last corners). The improvements cost nearly $2.5 million ($13 million in 2010 dollars).[29] The alterations considerably heightened the driving challenge of the track, and it became even more popular than it had been with drivers, teams and fans. Watkins Glen had been transformed from a quick, small circuit into a fast, scenic and very tough up-and-down circuit where just about every corner was banked and long; uncommonly hard driving and maximum effort was required for almost every part of a lap. 1971 was the first running on the completed full circuit (the circuit was not completed in time for previous races, so the completed short circuit was used) and it saw popular Frenchman François Cevert win his only Grand Prix for Tyrrell, and the biggest cash prize in Formula One- $267,000. 1972 saw Jackie Stewart win after Emerson Fittipaldi had already won the championship at the previous race, the Italian Grand Prix at Monza. Cevert made it a Tyrrell 1–2. The race was at this point attracting lots of entries; 30 drivers entered and qualified for the 1972 race.

But from 1973 to 1975, the event reached its probable low. The 1973 Grand Prix was to become a memorable event for all the wrong reasons. Stewart, unknown to almost everyone (even his wife Helen) had planned to retire after this race. He had already won his third Drivers' Championship two races previously at Monza and he would be running his 100th and final Grand Prix. But during qualifying, Stewart's teammate and friend Cevert was killed. Going into the nearly flat out uphill Esses, Cevert went into the first right-hander too fast, clipped the steep curb on the left hand side, lost control, hit Watkins Glen's trademark sky blue Armco on the right side (which on both sides was (and still is) situated right next to the track) and then the Tyrrell started to spin uncontrollably. The car then struck the barrier on the left side nearly head on at 150 mph. The car vaulted and went over the barriers. The barriers cut Cevert in half and he was killed instantly. The Tyrrell was completely destroyed and the right rear tire was sticking over the Armco barriers. South African driver Jody Scheckter tried to get him out- but it was no use; Cevert was so clearly dead. The marshals just left Cevert in the car and threw a cover over the cockpit. A distraught Stewart and his team's manager Ken Tyrrell withdrew the team, handing the Constructors' Championship to Lotus. The illustrious Scotsman never raced competitively again. The race, however, was an exciting one. Swede Ronnie Peterson in a Lotus beat Briton new boy James Hunt in a Hesketh-entered March to the finish by 0.6 of a second. American Peter Revson finished fifth at his home race at his home track.[30] The 1974 event was to decide the world championship between Fittipaldi and Swiss Clay Regazzoni. Both drivers had the same number of points and Regazzoni, driving a Ferrari, ran into a host of problems during the race and finished out of the points. Fittipaldi finished fifth which won him his second Drivers' Championship. The event was marred by yet another fatal accident. The young Austrian Helmut Koinigg crashed at the fast, long Outer Loop corner, the bend after the extended back straight on Lap 10. Koinigg's Surtees went straight on and the car went under the barriers and decapitated Koinigg, killing him instantly.[31] The race was a Brabham 1–2, with Argentine Carlos Reutemann winning with Brazilian Carlos Pace second. 1975 saw a medium speed chicane added to the Esses to slow the cars down, but it did not ruin the flow of the track. The race however, was a politically charged event. Regazzoni held up Fittipaldi's second placed McLaren for six laps to try to help his teammate and leader of the race Niki Lauda get ahead; Fittipaldi eventually lapped the Swiss. However, Regazzoni was black flagged by Clerk of the Course Berdie Martin and this irked the ire of Ferrari team manager Luca di Montezemolo. The thin and wiry Montezemolo actually got into a bit of a scuffle with the large Martin; and Montezemolo withdrew Regazzoni in protest. It was not a complete disaster for Ferrari- Austrian and recently crowned Drivers' Champion Lauda went on to win from Fittipaldi.

1976 saw James Hunt win crucially in a McLaren while his closest championship contender Lauda finished third. At this point, Hunt was only three points behind Lauda for the final race at Fuji, Japan. The race also saw Jacky Ickx crash hugely at the Chute, the Belgian survived but was injured. 1977 saw rain throughout the race. Hunt won again on a very wet track as he held off home favorite Mario Andretti in a Lotus 78 to win by two seconds. 1978 saw the heavy-hearted circus arrive after the death of Ronnie Peterson at Monza two weeks before. Andretti had already accumulated enough points to win the Drivers' Championship before coming to Watkins Glen. Mechanical problems forced Andretti to retire early from the race, which was won by Carlos Reutemann in a Ferrari 312T3. 1979 saw Ferrari driver Gilles Villeneuve win a very wet race after Australian Alan Jones retired after dominating much of the race.

But by this time, Watkins Glen had deteriorated from its earlier splendor. Drivers began complaining about the bumpy track surface, and the teams and press were concerned over facilities and rowdy fans.[32] The event started to be attended by drunken, rowdy people who knew little about motor racing and often went to the infamous "Bog", located inside the Boot to set fire to objects and do other destructive things; the Bog was a place where cars and even a Greyhound bus in 1974 were burned just for enjoyment. Even though the Bog was made into a parking lot in 1975, things still did not improve sufficiently over the years. In 1978, the European motorsports governing body, FISA, demanded that the track owners make safety improvements to the track, which were made; and then the event was due to be cancelled for the 1980 season, but it was given a reprieve by FISA after promising to upgrade facilities over the winter.[33] After initially being given an April 13 date on the calendar, the race was moved to October 5.[34][35] Organizers were finally able to secure funding for circuit improvements in late August, and the track was resurfaced.[36] But they still needed a $750,000 loan from FOCA to pay prize money and other expenses.[37] Alan Jones won the exciting 1980 race for Williams after he went off at the first corner on the first lap and charged through the field into second place from 17th, and he ended up taking the checkered flag after pole sitter Bruno Giacomelli retired with electrical problems near the Chute. Reutemann would make it a Williams 1â€“2, followed by Frenchman Didier Pironi in a Ligier. But this would prove to be the final United States Grand Prix at the Glen. It was initially included on the 1981 calendar, but cancelled after the debts could not be paid and government loans were denied.[37][38]

In addition to the United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen, another race called the United States Grand Prix West in Long Beach, California just outside Los Angeles was first held in 1976. After Watkins Glen's demise, other Formula One Grand Prixs in the United States were briefly held on street circuits in Detroit and Dallas, and a car park in Las Vegas. The Detroit Grand Prix was the longest lasting, from 1982 to 1988; plans to continue Formula One races in the Detroit area at the nearby Belle Isle Park did not materialize, and in 1989, Formula One moved to the Sonoran Desert city of Phoenix, Arizona, bringing the United States Grand Prix name back for the first time since 1980.[39] The Phoenix street circuit in the centre of the city was unpopular with drivers and the event was largely ignored by the local populace. Phoenix, like many American cities was designed on the grid system, the circuit was made up entirely of 2nd gear 90-degree corners and provided nearly no driving challenge or exciting corners to watch cars go around. Although the circuit was far less bumpy and a lot wider than Detroit and the circuits long straights made it easy to overtake and difficult to judge braking, which produced some good racing.

The inaugural event in 1989 was held at short notice and it could only be held in June (Detroit's former date), one of the hottest months of Phoenix – a city with summer temperatures regularly going past 110 °F (43 °C). And of course, temperatures neared 100 °F (38 °C) on that weekend. Out of 40,000 capacity 34,441 tickets were sold. Ecclestone expected the event to be sold out but was told that local populace avoids outdoor events during summer.[40] The race was moved to March for 1990, as the opening round of the season, for the next two years. The McLaren team dominated all three years, with Alain Prost winning in 1989 and Ayrton Senna in 1990 and 1991. The 1989 race saw Prost win his only ever Grand Prix in the United States by taking advantage of Senna's engine electronics woes and 1990 race was notable in that emerging French star Jean Alesi harried Senna for a number of laps; the Tyrrell driver went on to finish second behind Senna. The circuit had to be changed for 1991 race due to the construction of a new Phoenix Suns basketball arena, and the revised circuit was generally seen to be an improvement. And this time Senna won the race from pole position. On October 7, 1991, members of International Auto Sport Federation (FISA) met to discuss the agenda for the 1992 Formula One season, where they voted to cancel the contract with city of Phoenix. That same year, Phoenix assistant city manager David Garcia said the city has already invested $1.3 million dollars preparing for 1992 race and was in negotiations with Ecclestone on contract cancelation.[41] Ecclestone was asked if poor attendance was to blame for the Phoenix race pull out, he said that attendance was never a problem but ability to place more than 20,000 seats in a way where fans can have a better view.[42] There were rumors of a race on the streets of the Manhattan borough of New York City for 1992 and a race on the streets of the Las Vegas strip for 1995 but these never materialized and a Formula 1 event would not be held in United States for the next 9 years.

It was not until 2000 that another United States Grand Prix took place, this time at the legendary Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Indiana. Indianapolis was rumored to have been considering a Formula One race since the USGP left Phoenix; with a proposed street race for the 1990 season in downtown Indianapolis.[43] The 2.606-mile (4.194 km) infield road course uses about a mile of the oval, but in a clockwise direction. The crowd at the 2000 race was estimated at over 225,000, perhaps the largest ever in F1.[44] Michael Schumacher's win was his second of four straight to end the season as he overtook Mika Häkkinen for his third Championship. In 2001, the race took place less than three weeks after the events on September 11, 2001 in the US, and many teams and drivers featured special tributes to the USA on their cars and helmets. The 2002 edition was known for Schumacher and teammate Rubens Barrichello trading places near the finish line after Schumacher's failed bid to end the race into a dead heat with Barrichello. Held in September its first four years (in order to distance it from the "500" and NASCAR's Brickyard 400), the USGP at Indianapolis was moved to an early summer date in 2004 in late June, 3 weeks after the Indy 500 so it could be paired with the Canadian Grand Prix and to make room for new Asian rounds. In 2005, problems with Michelin tires led to seven teams withdrawing from the race after the formation lap. Only the three teams (six cars) with Bridgestone tires started the 2005 United States Grand Prix, and the event was considered a farce.[45] Many commentators questioned whether a United States Grand Prix would be held in Indianapolis again, but the 2006 United States Grand Prix was held the next year, on July 2, 2006, without controversy.

On July 12, 2007, Formula One and the Indianapolis Motor Speedway announced that the 2007 U.S. Grand Prix would be the last one held at IMS for the foreseeable future, as both sides could not agree on the terms for the event.[46] It was thought that the race would return to Indianapolis for 2009 on the track configuration that was used for the 2008 race in the MotoGP championship.[47] Then-Indianapolis Motor Speedway CEO, Tony George, claimed that the USGP would not return to Indianapolis unless it made financial sense. Due to the expensive fees paid to host a Grand Prix, the race would require a title sponsor to be economically viable.[48] Ultimately, the United States Grand Prix was not on the Formula One calendar for 2009.

In August 2009, Formula One president Bernie Ecclestone remarked that there was no immediate plan to return Formula One to the US, vowing "never to return" to Indianapolis.[49] Nevertheless, shortly before the first race of the 2010 season, Ecclestone continued to fuel speculation that a return to Indianapolis was not out of the question.[50] In March 2010, Ecclestone announced plans to bring a Formula One race to New York City for the 2012 season. Ecclestone was quoted as saying the race would take place across the Hudson River in New Jersey, with the Manhattan skyline overlooking the circuit.[51] In May 2010, plans emerged for a circuit to be built in Jersey City's Liberty State Park,[52][53] but those plans were abandoned shortly thereafter.[54] A race in West New York and Weehawken was later announced in October 2011. In May 2010, it was announced that Monticello Motor Club in upstate New York – a circuit complex modeled on a private country club near Monticello – had submitted a bid for the rights to host the race.[55]

On May 25, 2010, Austin, Texas, was awarded the race on a ten-year contract, as Ecclestone and event promoter Full Throttle Productions agreed to a deal beginning in 2012. The event is being held on a purpose-built new track, which was named Circuit of the Americas.[56] German architect and track designer Hermann Tilke designed the new track on 800 acres (320Â ha) of land to the east of the city.[57] In July 2010, promoter Tavo Hellmund promised that the circuit would be one of the "most challenging and spectacular in the world" and that it would include a selection of corner sequences inspired by "the very best circuits" in the world.[58]

On November 15, 2011, it was reported that construction of the circuit had been temporarily halted as the owners had not yet been awarded the contract to stage the race in 2012,[59] following reports that Bernie Ecclestone had cast doubt on the race taking place.[60][61][62] After Tavo Hellmund's contract was found in breach by Ecclestone[63] and a new contract was entered into between Formula 1 and the original track investors, Red McCombs and Bobby Epstein, the U.S. Grand Prix was confirmed to be held at the Circuit of the Americas in Austin on the original scheduled date in 2012.[64][65] Reigning champion Sebastian Vettel took pole for the 1st race at the Texas circuit but it was 2007 winner Lewis Hamilton who kept his unbeaten run in the USA as the two finished almost 40 seconds ahead of third.

The Grand Prix in Austin has proven to be a considerable success, thanks to the Texas capital's growing reputation as a center of music and culture, its friendly citizens and unique atmosphere during the race weekend. It has been lauded from all quarters of Formula One.[66]

On November 11, 2015, the Texas government cut nearly $6 million of the required $25 million in funding to host the event.[67] Attendance numbers dropped to 224,011 during the 2015 United States Grand Prix event after heavy rain from a much calmer Hurricane Patricia.[68] On March 9, 2016, it was confirmed the race would continue to run in Austin, despite the funding cuts. 2016 turned out to be the best-attended Grand Prix in Austin: boosted by a heated World Drivers' Championship battle between Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg, good weather, and the allure of a Saturday night concert from pop singer Taylor Swift, just shy of 269,889 people went through the turnstiles during the race weekend.[69] On October 22, 2017 Lewis Hamilton won the race. Former US president Bill Clinton awarded the winning trophy. Justin Timberlake's concert helped boost the Grand Prix attendance by 40,000 more than last year.[70]

The United States Grand Prix is the longest running, most frequent and best known of the Formula One World Championship events to be held outside of Europe and in the United States of America, and the only US event to appear on the 2017 calendar. Previously, however, there were additionally four other separate F1 events in the USA.

From 1976 until 1983, the Long Beach circuit hosted a newly created United States Grand Prix West, which ran in the same seasons as the United States Grand Prix (East). The United States was thus the first nation since Italy in 1957 to hold two Formula One Grands Prix in the same season. During the years 1976–1980 when both Grands Prix ran, the United States Grand Prix was also referred to as the United States Grand Prix East. The Caesars Palace Grand Prix ran as a Formula One World Championship race in Las Vegas in 1981 and 1982 (after which it continued two further years as an event in the CART series). 1982 saw the inaugural Detroit Grand Prix in the center of Detroit, Michigan, which ran until 1988. The 1982 Formula One season thus featured three Grands Prix in the USA – a first time in World Championship history that a country hosted more than two Grands Prix. Finally, a one-off Dallas Grand Prix in Fair Park, Texas was held in 1984, which was plagued by problems with the track surface, exacerbated by extremely hot 104 °F (40 °C) July weather.[71] After these short-lived events, the historical United States Grand Prix returned in 1989 at Phoenix and has since remained the only Grand Prix on the F1 calendar to be held in the USA, despite changing locations a few times since.

A potential new Grand Prix in the New York City area was announced for the 1983 season, to be held either at the Meadowlands Sports Complex, Meadow Lake in Flushing Meadows, or Mitchel Field in Hempstead, Long Island (on the same site as the 1936 and 1937 Vanderbilt Cups).[72][73] However, the race was first postponed and then cancelled,[74] as CART started their own race at the Meadowlands, and titled it the "United States Grand Prix".[75]

Events which were not part of the Formula One World Championship are indicated by a pink background.

Embolded drivers are still competing in the Formula One championship
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Embolded teams are still competing in the Formula One championship
A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Sebring (1959)

Riverside (1960)

Watkins Glen (1961â€“1970)

Watkins Glen (1971â€“1974)

Watkins Glen (with Esses chicane) (1975â€“1980)

Phoenix (1989â€“1990)

Phoenix (1991)

Indianapolis Motor Speedway (2000â€“2007)