taylor swift youngest artist to win a grammy

The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (NARAS).[131] Swift has received ten awards from 29 nominations. She is the youngest person to win the Album of the Year award.[132][133] Swift is the first woman to win Album of the Year more than once as the main credited artist.[134]

List of awards and nominations received by Taylor Swift

Academy of Country Music Awards

American Country Awards

American Country Countdown Awards

American Music Awards

APRA Awards (Australia)

ARIA Music Awards

BBC Music Awards

Billboard Music Awards

Billboard Touring Awards

BMI Country Awards

BMI London Awards

BMI Pop Awards

Canadian Country Music Association

Channel V Thailand Music Video Awards

Country Music Association Awards

Country Music Awards of Australia

CMT Music Awards

Do Something Awards

Elle Style Awards

Golden Globe Awards

Guinness World Records

IFPI Global Recording Artist Award

iHeartRadio Music Awards

Japan Gold Disc Awards

Meteor Music Awards

MTV Europe Music Awards

MTV Video Music Awards

MTV Movie Awards

MTV Italian Music Awards

MTV Video Music Awards Japan

MTV Millennial Awards

mtvU Woodie Awards

Much Music Video Awards

Music Business Association

Myx Music Awards

Nashville Songwriters Association International Award

Nashville Symphony Ball

Neox Fan Awards

American Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards

Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards

Nickelodeon Argentina Kids' Choice Awards

Nickelodeon Colombia Kids' Choice Awards

Nickelodeon Mexico Kids' Choice Awards

Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards

Meus Prêmios Nick

NRJ Music Awards

O Music Awards

People's Choice Awards

Los Premios 40 Principales

Radio Disney Music Awards

SESAC Nashville Music Awards

SiriusXM Indies Awards

Songwriters Hall of Fame

Teen Choice Awards

World Music Awards

Young Hollywood Awards

YouTube Music Awards

American singer-songwriter Taylor Swift has received many awards and nominations for her music work. Swift signed a record deal with Big Machine Records in 2005 and released her eponymous debut album in 2006,[1] which was nominated for an Academy of Country Music Award. At the 50th Annual Grammy Awards, she earned a Best New Artist nomination. Her second album Fearless (2008) produced five singles, including "Love Story", "White Horse", and the MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video-winning song "You Belong with Me". Swift was subsequently nominated for eight categories at the 52nd Grammy Awards, and won four of them, including Album of the Year, becoming the youngest recipient of the award. Fearless became the first album to win the American Music Country Award, Country Music Association, Academy of Country Music Award and Grammy Award for Album of the Year.[2][3]

Swift was awarded the American Music Award for Artist of the Year in 2009. The following year, she was listed in Time 100, an annual list of the 100 most influential people.[4] Her third album Speak Now (2010) won Favorite Country Album at the American Music Awards of 2011, and holds the record for Fastest Selling Digital Album by a Female Artist in Guinness World Records. Its single "Mean" won two Grammy Awards. In late 2011, Swift contributed two original songs to The Hunger Games soundtrack album, including "Safe & Sound", which was awarded the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media.[5] Her fourth album Red (2012) was nominated for the Juno Award and Grammy Award for Album of the Year.

In 2014, Swift won the Billboard Woman of the Year for the second time after being honored in 2011. Her 2014 album—the pop-focused 1989—earned her three awards at the 58th Grammy Awards, including her second Album of the Year win, making her the first woman to win the award twice. She was also nominated at the ceremony for Record of the Year and Song of the Year (for "Blank Space"), categories she was previously nominated in for "You Belong with Me" and "Shake It Off". In 2015, the IFPI Global Recording Artist Award presented her the Global Recording Artist award, and the Billboard Music Awards declared her the recipient of eight accolades. At the 2015 MTV Video Music Awards, Swift won four awards, including Video of the Year for "Bad Blood". At the 64th annual BMI Pop Awards, Swift was honored with the Taylor Swift Award, becoming the second artist after Michael Jackson to be honored by such an award which has been named after the recipient of the award by BMI.[6] She holds the record of most Billboard Music Awards (21),[7] and most Teen Choice Awards (25) by a solo artist.[8]

The Academy of Country Music Awards (ACM) were created by the Academy of Country Music in 1966 to honour the industry's accomplishments during the previous year.[9] Swift has received 8 awards from 29 nominations.

The American Country Awards were created by Fox Network in 2010 to recognize talent in country music.[19] Swift has earned 4 awards from 24 nominations.

The American Country Countdown Awards are awarded to country music artists based on their album sales and radio plays.[24] Swift has received one nomination.

The American Music Awards (AMAs) is an annual music awards show created by Dick Clark in 1973.[26] Swift has received 19 awards from 25 nominations.

The APRA Awards (Australia) are annually held by Australasian Performing Right Association to honor outstanding music artists and songwriters of the year.[37] Swift has been nominated three times.

The Australian Recording Industry Association Music Awards (ARIA) were first held in 1987 in Sydney.[40] Swift has earned three nominations.

The BBC Music Awards are awarded to recognize talent in popular music from the last 12 months.[44] Swift has received two nominations.

The Billboard Music Awards are held to honor artists for commercial performance in the U.S., based on record charts published by Billboard.[47] Swift has received 21 awards from 46 nominations. She currently holds the record of most Billboard Music Awards.[7]

Created in 2006, the Billboard Touring Awards is an annual meeting sponsored by Billboard Magazine to award best live performances.[56] Swift has received 3 awards from 10 nominations.

Billboard Women in Music is an annual event held by Billboard. Its main award is titled Woman of the Year.

The BMI Awards are held annually by Broadcast Music, Inc. to award songwriters in various genres, including country and pop.[65] Swift has received 35 BMI Country Awards, a BMI London Awards, and 30 BMI Pop Awards. Overall, Swift has won 66 BMI Awards.

Established in 1957, the Bravo Otto is a German accolade presented by the Bravo magazine.[85] Swift has received one award.

First awarded in 1977, the Brit Awards are sponsored by MasterCard.[87] Swift has received one award from three nominations.

Established in 1976, the Canadian Country Music Association are held annually to organize, promote and develop a Canadian country music industry.[91] Swift has received five awards.

The Channel V Thailand Music Video Awards were established in 2002 by Channel V Thailand.[94] Swift has received one award.

The Clio Awards is an annual award program that recognizes innovation and creative excellence in advertising, design and communication, as judged by an international panel of advertising professionals.[95] Swift has received two awards.

First awarded in 1967, the Country Music Association Awards are awarded to country music artists.[98] Swift has received 11 awards from 26 nominations.

The Country Music Awards of Australia is an annual awards ceremony to celebrate recording excellence in the country music.[103] Swift has won an award.

Launched in 1967, the CMT Music Awards are held annually in Nashville, Tennessee.[105] Swift has received 6 awards from 22 nominations.

The Do Something Awards were introduced in 1996 to recognize the activism and charity of people under 25 age.[114] Swift has received two nominations.

The Echo Awards were first held in 1992 Cologne.[116] Swift has received one nomination.

The Elle Style Awards are an awards ceremony hosted annually by the ELLE magazine.[118] Swift has received one award.

The Emmy Awards, given annually by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences since 1949, are a set of awards given annually for excellence in the medium of television.[120] Swift has received one award and nomination.

The FiFi Awards are held annually by The Fragrance Foundation which recognize the best in fragrance.[122] Swift has received two awards from three nominations.

The Glamour Awards are presented annually by the Glamour magazine to women in a variety of fields.[126] Swift has won one award.

The Golden Globe Awards were established in 1944 by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association to celebrate the best in film and television.[128] Swift has been nominated twice.

The Guinness World Records is a reference book published annually, containing a collection of world records, both human achievements and the extremes of the natural world.[142] Swift currently holds six records.

The IFPI Global Recording Artist Award honors the year's top artist across physical sales, downloads and streaming worldwide.[148] Swift has received one award.

The IHeartRadio Music Awards is an international music awards show founded by IHeartRadio in 2014.[150] Swift has won seven awards from thirteen nominations.

The Japan Gold Disc Awards are presented by the Recording Industry Association of Japan.[154] Swift has won two awards.

The Juno Awards are Canadian awards to recognize outstanding achievements in record industry.[156] Swift has received four nominations.

Launched in 2001, the Meteor Music Awards are awarded for achievements in the Irish and international record industry.[161] Swift has received one nomination.

The MTV Europe Music Awards was established in 1994 by MTV Europe to award the music videos from European and international artists.[163] Swift has received 5 awards from 27 nominations.

The MTV Video Music Awards was established in 1984 by MTV to award the music videos of the year.[170] Swift has received seven awards from 17 nominations.

The MTV Movie Awards is a film awards show presented annually by MTV.[178] Swift has received one nomination.

The MTV Italian Music Awards, also known as TRL (Total Request Live) Awards, are held annually in Italy by MTV.[180] The ceremony was established in 2006 and awards the best video, performers, and artists of the year. Swift has received four nominations.

The MTV Video Music Awards Japan was established in 2002 to award the music videos from Japanese and international artists.[184] Swift has received six nominations.

The MTV Millennial Awards, held annually in Latin America, were established in 2013 by MTV Latino to award music artists.[188] Swift has received two awards from four nominations.

The mtvU Woodie Awards were created by MTV in 2004 to recognize best in music as voted by college students.[192] Swift has received one award.

The Much Music Video Awards are annual awards presented by the Canadian TV channel Much to honour the year's best music videos.[194] Swift has received one award from eight nominations.

The Music Business Association, a non-profit membership organization established in 1958, advances and promotes music commerce.[200] Swift has received one honour.

The Myx Music Awards is an annual awards show in the Philippines that honors the year's both Filipino and International Music.[202] Swift has received three awards from four nominations.

The Nashville Songwriters Association International Award is presented by Nashville Songwriters Association International to songwriters.[207] Swift has received eight awards.

The Nashville Symphony Ball is an honor presented to people "who exemplify the harmonious spirit of Nashvilleâ€™s music community".[209] Swift has been honored once.

The Neox Fan Awards are presented annually since 2012 by the Spanish media group Atresmedia in association with The Coca-Cola Company, being Fanta the main sponsor of the awards.[210] Swift has received one nomination.

The Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards are annual award shows launched by Nickelodeon in several countries.[212] Swift has received three American Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards out of seventeen nominations, nine nominations from Nickelodeon Australian Kids' Choice Awards, two nominations each from Meus Prêmios Nick and Nickelodeon Argentina Kids' Choice Awards, one nomination each from Nickelodeon Colombia Kids' Choice Awards and Nickelodeon Mexico Kids' Choice Awards and 4 nominations from Nickelodeon UK Kids' Choice Awards.

The NME Awards were created by the NME magazine and was first held in 1953.[231] Swift has received one award and 4 nominations.

The NRJ Music Awards was established in 2000 by the French radio station NRJ to honor the best in the French and worldwide music industry.[234] Swift has received two awards and 4 nominations.

The O Music Awards are presented annually by Viacom.[237] Swift has received two nominations.

The People's Choice Awards are presented annually by Procter & Gamble.[239] Swift has won 10 awards from 21 nominations.

The Q Awards are the UK's annual music awards run by the music magazine Q.[248] Swift has received one nomination.

The Los Premios 40 Principales is an annual awards established in 2006 by the Spanish music radio Los 40 Principales.[250] Swift has received one award.

Premios Juventud is an awards show for Spanish-speaking celebrities in the areas of film, music, sports, fashion, and pop culture, presented by the television network Univision.[253] Swift has received two nominations.

First held in 2002, the Radio Disney Music Awards is an annual awards, which is operated and governed by Radio Disney.[255] Swift has received 8 awards from 17 nominations.

Rockbjörnen is a music prize in Sweden, divided into several categories, which is awarded annually by the newspaper Aftonbladet. The prize was first awarded in 1979, and is mostly centered on pop and rock.

The SESAC Nashville Music Awards are presented by SESAC in the United States.[263] Swift has received four awards.

The Shorty Awards in annual event to award people from social networking websites.[266] Swift has received one award from two nominations.

The SiriusXM Indies Awards are awarded to recognize Canadian and international artists in independent music sector.[268] Swift has received has won award from four nominations.

The Songwriters Hall of Fame was founded in 1969 to honor "those whose work represents a spectrum of the most beloved songs from the world's popular music songbook".[270] Swift has been honoured once.

The Teen Choice Awards are presented annually by Fox Broadcasting Company.[272] Swift has received 25 awards from 52 nominations. She holds the record for most awards won by an individual.[8]

The Telehit Awards are annual award show.

The UK Music Video Awards is an annual award ceremony founded in 2008 to recognise creativity, technical excellence and innovation in music videos and moving images for music.[286]

The World Music Award is an international awards show founded in 1989 that annually honors recording artists based on worldwide sales figures provided by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI).[287] Swift has been nominated eight times.

Established in 1999, the Young Hollywood Awards is an annual award event organised in the United States.[290] Swift has received one award.

The YouTube Music Awards, abbreviated as the YTMA, is an inaugural music award show presented by YouTube.[292] Swift has received two awards from four nominations.


who was the movie frankie and alice based on

Frankie & Alice is a 2010 Canadian drama film directed by Geoffrey Sax starring Halle Berry. Filming began in Vancouver, British Columbia, in November 2008 and ended in January 2009. To qualify for awards season, the film opened in a limited release on December 10, 2010. It is based on a true story about a popular go-go dancer/stripper in the 1970s who suffers from dissociative identity disorder.

Frankie & Alice

The film primarily takes place in Los Angeles in 1973. Frankie, a black female gogo dancer, unknowingly suffers from dissociative identity disorder, caused by a traumatic incident from her childhood (the death of a white man she was in love with, and her mother murdering her newborn when she realized the child's father was her white lover), which she has repressed. The film begins with Frankie performing at a local strip club. She is one of the best strippers at the club, and often demands the attention of wealthy Wall Street businessmen. One night the club's female employees go out for a "Girls Night". As the girls observe all the men at the bar, Frankie gets the attention of a well-known bartender. She agrees to go to his home for casual sex. Before the two can engage in any sexual activity, Frankie switches to an alter ego and cracks the man's head open with a picture frame. Word of Frankie's violent activity spreads to the strip club quickly, and Frankie is fired from the needed job. The same manic episodes occur while Frankie is at the laundromat and a wedding. During a session with the psychiatrist Frankie learns that she has two alters: Genius, a seven-year-old child; and Alice, a Southern white racist woman, whom Frankie struggles to overcome. Through regular psychiatric sessions with her doctor, she begins to recall the traumatic events that led to her split personality. She realizes that a white man with whom she was in love died in a car accident while they were on the road. In the same session, she also uncovers the memory of the birth of her child. Moments after the birth, her mother realizes that the child is half-white and takes it away to kill it, thus triggering her personality to split.

After she watches the taped sessions and puts everything together, she begins the healing process, taking control of her life and semi-integrating the personalities that Dr. Oz assures her will always be present.

It had a limited release in the United States on December 10, 2010 to qualify for awards. The film had a wide theatrical release on April 4, 2014.

Frankie and Alice received negative reviews from critics. It currently holds a 21% rating on Rotten Tomatoes with the consensus: "Halle Berry gives it her all (and then some), but Frankie & Alice is ultimately too narratively strained and clumsily assembled to do her performance justice."

There were positive responses. Following a screening at the Cannes Film Festival, The Hollywood Reporter described the film as "a well-wrought psychological drama that delves into the dark side of one woman's psyche". The review also said Halle Berry was "spellbinding" as Frankie, with "rock-solid" supporting performances.[3]


who sings whiskey supposed to drown the memory

"Drowns the Whiskey" is a song written by Josh Thompson, Brandon Kinney, and Jeff Middleton, and recorded by American country music singers Jason Aldean and Miranda Lambert. It was released in May 2018 as the second single from Aldean's album Rearview Town.

Drowns the Whiskey

The song is a steel guitar-led song with neotraditional country influences. In it, the male narrator sings about his vain attempts to "drown" the memory of a former loved one by drinking whiskey, but instead observes that the memory of said lover "drowns the whiskey."[1]

Aldean said that he was a "big fan" of Lambert, and had wanted to do a second duet with her after "Grown Woman", an album track from his 2007 album Relentless. After she expressed indifference to the first song he had suggested to her, he sent her "Drowns the Whiskey" and she agreed to perform on it.[2][3]

Aldean performed the song at the CMT Music Awards telecast on June 6, 2018. Lambert did not attend the performance, so backing vocalists in his road band performed her part.[4]

The song reached No. 1 on the Country Airplay chart  for chart dated August 25, 2018, where it then stayed for a further week. It is Aldean's 19th, and Lambert's 5th, No. 1 on the Country Airplay chart.[5] It also reached No. 3 on the Hot Country Songs for chart dated September 1, 2018.[6] It has sold 219,000 copies in the United States as of October 2018.[7]

The music video for the song was released on June 18, 2018. It retells the song's story in an "empty Nashville dive bar".[8]


what is the name of the governing body over the cma designation

IMA's CMAÂ® (Certified Management Accountant) certification is a professional certification credential in the management accounting and financial management fields. The certification signifies that the person possesses knowledge in the areas of financial planning, analysis, control, decision support, and professional ethics. The CMA is a U.S.-based, globally recognized certification offered by the Institute of Management Accountants.

Certified Management Accountant

CMA-certified professionals work inside organizations of all sizes, industries, and types, including manufacturing and services, public and private enterprises, not-for-profit organizations, academic institutions, government entities, and multinational corporations. To date, more than 50,000 CMAs have been certified in more than 100 countries. To obtain certification, candidates must pass a rigorous exam, meet an educational requirement, experience requirement, and demonstrate a commitment to continuous learning through continuing professional education (CPE).

Part 1 â€“ Financial Reporting, Planning, Performance, and Control

Part 2 â€“ Financial Decision Making

The Certified Management Accountant Exam is a two part exam that must be passed as a prerequisite to earning the CMA designation..[2][3] Candidates are given three years from registering to pass both parts of the exam. The exams are given during three testing window periods: January/February, May/June and September/October at Prometric centers.

Prior to 2010, the CMA exam was organized into four parts: Business Analysis, Management Accounting and Reporting, Strategic Management. Since 2010, the exam has been condensed into two four-hour parts, covering largely the same material as the former four part exam with added emphasis on financial planning, analysis, control, and decision support; see aside.

Each exam consists of descriptive questions and two 30-minute essay questions. Candidates are given 3 hours to complete the multiple choice section and one hour to complete the essays. Candidates must show their work for the essay questions in order to receive credit. Parts 1 and 2 of the CMA exam are scored on a scale of 0-500 with a candidate's raw score converted to a uniform scaled score against all exam candidates. On this scale, a score of 360 represents the minimum passing scaled score.

The exam is considered very rigorous and pass rates for the CMA exam have historically been low for both parts. Worldwide, the exam had a pass rate of 35% for Part 1 and 49% for Part 2 in 2014. Pass rates for the two part exam are as follows:[4][5][6][7][8]

In addition to successfully passing the exams, CMA candidates must fulfill education and experience requirements in order to be certified:[9]

1. Bachelor's degree from an accredited college or university

2. Two continuous years of professional experience employing the principles of management accounting and financial management including:

3. For certified CMAs, 30 hours of CPE credits, including two hours of ethics, and annual IMA Membership are required to maintain active status.


the proof of having paid the road toll for swiss highways is called

Vignettes are used in Austria, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland. In most of these countries a small, coloured sticker is affixed to a vehicle windscreen, but in Hungary, Romania  and Slovakia[1] these have been superseded by electronic vignettes. In Moldova and Romania vignettes are required for the use of any road, and in Bulgaria are required for the use of any road outside built-up areas.  In the other countries vignettes are required only for the use of motorways and expressways.

Vignette (road tax)

Vignette is a form of road pricing imposed on vehicles, usually in addition to the compulsory road tax, based on a period of time instead of road tolls that are based on distance travelled.  Vignettes are currently used in several European countries. The term originated in France in the 1950s, although vignettes there were not linked to motorway use and no longer exist; it is now used throughout Central Europe, as well as in Italy (vignetta).

Prices for an annual vignette for passenger cars range from €30 to €150, depending on country. In all countries except Switzerland short period vignettes are sold for visiting or transiting vehicles. In Switzerland visiting foreign motorists must buy an annual vignette to use the country's motorways. Vignettes can usually be obtained at border crossings, gas stations and other outlets. Improperly used or lost vignettes are usually not refunded.[2]

Vignette stickers are usually constructed in such a way that detaching and reattaching them is impossible without destruction, ensuring that they cannot be used on more than one vehicle. Road traffic is often monitored by roadside cameras, and vignettes are verified by state officials, such as border guard and national police. Hefty cash fines are often charged to travelers using public roads without a valid and properly affixed vignette. Additional tolls are usually levied for passing through certain motorway tunnels and bridges.[3]

Eurovignette is a road toll for trucks of minimum 12 metric tonnes. The system was adopted in 1999, and is used in Denmark, Luxembourg,  the Netherlands, and Sweden.[4] (Belgium left the Eurovignette scheme on 1 April 2016 in favor of a distance-based tolling system.)[5]

As of 1997, vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on motorways and expressways (prefixed with letters A and S) under federal administration. Vignettes are overseen by the police and toll-sheriff employees of the federal motorway administration. A €240 fine with an additional obligatory payment of a substitute toll are charged to travelers without a valid vignette, and unpaid fines lead to penalties between €300 and €3,000. Furthermore, the vehicle may be confiscated from foreigners to guarantee payment of the penalty.[2]

Additional tolls are charged for certain motorway sections where tollgates and video tolling systems are installed. Several sections require drivers to buy electronic toll cards, while the A-14 section allows travelers to buy a substitute one-day Corridor-Vignette. Vignettes for vehicles of over 3.5 tonnes were replaced with electronic distance-based highway-toll GO-Boxes on January 1, 2004.[3]

Vignettes are required for all (except motorcycles) vehicles driving on all public roads, with the exception of streets in cities, towns and villages. Vignettes are usually valid from the time they are purchased, while some types can be marked to start from a future date. They can be obtained in Bulgaria at most gas stations, at border crossings, or online using a credit card. Cash fines from €150 to €1,500 are charged to drivers without a valid vignette.[6] The vignette sticker is to be replaced by e-vignette from 1 January 2019, and e-toll system is to be introduced in August 2019 for vehicle heavier than 3.5 t.[7]

Vignettes are required for the use of motorways and expressways by all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes. Cash fines for not displaying a valid vignette affixed on a car's windshield range from €80 to €200. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with electronic toll collection in 2007.[8]

Motorways and expressways are a toll-free road network for all lighter vehicles. The Eurovignette system for trucks was abolished in August 2003. A distance-based toll charge was introduced from 1 January 2005 for vehicles of over 12 tonnes, operated by the Toll Collect company.

As of 1 March 2007, all drivers are required to purchase an emission sticker when passing through "environment zones" in several cities and municipalities. Certain "green zones" have completely disallowed entrance to vehicles with higher particle emissions ("yellow" and "red" groups). Travellers passing through these areas without the sticker are charged with a â‚¬80 fine.[2]

Vignettes are required for all travelers using motorways and expressways. Physical toll stickers were replaced with electronic vignettes and video tolling on 1 January 2008, the only physical item the purchaser receives is a control coupon. Motorway usage entitlement is verified by roadside cameras based on license plate numbers, and drivers of vehicles up to 3.5 tonnes without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €50 and €200.[9]

Vignettes are obligatory for personal motor vehicles registered abroad, driving on public roads, and are available for purchase at border customs posts and offices. Foreign drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €125 and €375. Heavier vehicles use existing tax rates, with commercial vehicle drivers paying a single-entry tax and a distance-based charge.[10]

Ecological-tax vignettes were abolished on 31 December 2011. Driving on public roads is generally toll-free, with the exception of passing through certain tunnels and bridges.[11]

With the exception of motorcycles, vignettes are required for all vehicles driving on all national roads and motorways. Physical vignettes have been replaced with electronic ones since 1 October 2010.[12] They can be obtained at most gas stations, border crossings, or online using a credit card. Drivers without a valid vignette are fined with â‚¬100 or more. The fines are dispensed by automatic systems that scan the numberplate of the car when it exits a city.[3]

Vignettes are obligatory for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovak motorways. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €100 and €500. Vignettes for heavier vehicles were replaced with distance-based electronic toll collection using the remote-operated toll-box in force since 2010. Special arrangements are to be sought by the motorbike riders. [3]

From 1 January 2016 Slovak vignettes are purchased and checked electronically via eZnamka.sk without a  sticker.

Vignettes are required for all vehicles of up to 3.5 tonnes, driving on Slovenian motorways as of 1 July 2008. Drivers without a valid vignette are charged with cash fines between €300 and €800. On 1.4.2018, the Republic of Slovenia has implemented an electronic tolling of vehicles whose maximum permissible weight exceeds 3.5 tonnes.[2]

All travelers using motorways and expressways are required to purchase an annual vignette. Vignettes can be obtained in and outside of Switzerland in bordering countries at gas stations and labeled points. Use of motorway networks without a valid vignette is an offense against the Public Highways Act, and is punishable with cash fines of CHF 200, in addition to the obligatory purchase of an annual vignette. Heavier vehicles use a distance-based tax rate on all types of roads.[2]

Switzerland only offers a vignette valid for a year at CHF 40 (â‚¬35.75). Because of this, its vignette is the most expensive in Europe for transiting and visiting passenger cars. Other countries offer short-term vignettes that make a transit or visit less expensive than in Switzerland.[13][14][2]


who sang love don't live here anymore

"Love Don't Live Here Anymore" is a song written by Miles Gregory and originally recorded by Rose Royce. It was produced by former Motown songwriter and producer Norman Whitfield for Whitfield Records. Lead vocals were sung by Gwen Dickey and the song was released as the second single from their third studio album Rose Royce III: Strikes Again! The song was developed as a result of producer Whitfield's interest to work with Paul Buckmaster, the British arranger and composer. Together they asked songwriter Miles Gregory to write a song for them. Gregory was undergoing medications for his deteriorating physical health became the inspiration behind the song. "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine, and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument. The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco's house, where Dickey was present during the recording.

Love Don't Live Here Anymore

After its release, the song was critically appreciated, but was only moderately successful commercially. It reached a peak of 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 and five on the Hot Black Singles chart. It achieved its highest position in both New Zealand and the United Kingdom, where it reached number two. "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" has been covered by a number of artists, including Madonna, Morrissey–Mullen and Faith Evans. Madonna's version was included in her second studio album Like a Virgin (1984), and it was the idea of Michael Ostin, the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records, that Madonna record a cover version of the song to include in the album. A remix of Madonna's cover was included in her 1995 ballad compilation album Something to Remember.

The original and the remixed version of the Madonna song differ in that the latter uses more classical instruments. The 1995 version also received a number of club remix treatments. Critics were not impressed with the version present in Like a Virgin, calling it "awful", while they warmed to the version present in Something to Remember. However, it was a commercial disappointment, reaching a peak of only 78 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was promoted by a music video shot by Jean-Baptiste Mondino, which portrayed Madonna in an empty suite of an abandoned hotel, and was shot in a single take.

Producer Norman Whitfield had always wanted to work with Paul Buckmaster, the British arranger and composer. One day he called Buckmaster and invited him to work on some recordings he had finished.[1] After meeting, they decided to contact songwriter Miles Gregory to use one of his songs for Whitfield's record group Rose Royce. Buckmaster found that Gregory was under medication from overuse of drugs and "was in considerable discomfort, if not in outright pain. He didn't write a song and dance about his pain, but I remember him sitting at the piano and wincing. So before jumping on the thing that Miles was merely indulging himself and writing, one has to remember that the guy was in a lot of pain."[1] Nevertheless, Whitfield and Buckmaster encouraged Gregory to write the song and the result was "Love Don't Live Here Anymore", inspired by Gregory's own situation and his deteriorating physical health.[1][dubious â€“ discuss]

"Love Don't Live Here Anymore" incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine, and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument. LinnDrum had been used sparingly in their previous single "Do Your Dance", but in "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" its use was more spontaneous, which Dave Thompson, author of Funk noted as if "it virtually duetted with Dickey, creating one of the most distinctive records of the yearâ€”and one of the most imitated of the age."[2] The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco's house, where Rose Royce lead singer Gwen Dickey was present during the recording. Buckmaster recalled: "I was over at [Gene's] place almost every day with Norman, and some days I stayed away to write, or to mix the music. Gene had given me the keys to his apartment, and also let me use the piano to record the song. I didn't want to work on at Miles' because his piano was falling to bits."[1]

Kenny Hill from The San Diego Union-Tribune said that the song "was a lasting impression of Rose Royce's brilliance as a group" and it proved that disco and R&B soul music was not dead."[3] Frederick Douglas from The Baltimore Sun complimented the song saying that "with their soul ballad 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore', Rose Royce is poised to take their place in the musical landscape as the greatest soul group."[4] Bob Kostanczuk from Post-Tribune listed "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" as Rose Royce's greatest song.[5] Jim Mortimer from Deseret News felt that "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" was a perfect example of how gospel and soul music can be clubbed together and complimented producer Buckmaster.[6] Shannon Kingly from Los Angeles Daily News felt that "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" is "a tad bit overrated, and is full of shouting."[7] "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100, and made a slow climb, ultimately reaching a peak of 32.[8] It was more successful on the Hot Black Singles chart, where it reached five, and stayed there for four weeks.[8] In Canada, the song debuted at 100 on the RPM Singles Chart on December 23, 1978.[9] The song began a slow climb, and after nine weeks reached a peak of 41 on the chart.[10] It was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart.[11] In the United Kingdom, "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" became Rose Royce's biggest hit, reaching two on the UK Singles Chart while in Ireland it reached a peak of number seven.[12][13] Across Europe, the song failed to chart except in Netherlands, where it reached eleven.[14] The song was successful in Australia and New Zealand, where it reached positions four and two on the charts, respectively.[14][15]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone

An instrumental cover was recorded by the UK jazz-funk duo Morrissey–Mullen at EMI's London Abbey Road Studios in 1979 and was the first digital recording to be made of a non-classical ensemble. It was released as the first of the EMI Digital series in a limited edition 12" single.[21] Jimmy Nail's version was released in 1985 in his native United Kingdom, reaching number three on the UK Singles Chart.[22] British dance music producers Double Trouble released a version of ‘Love Don’t Live Here Anymore’ as a single in 1990. Their arrangement had the vocals mixed over a House-influenced backing track. A reggae version was released in 1997 by dancehall artist Bounty Killer and Swedish singer Robyn.[23] Faith Evans recorded it on her 1995 album Faith.[24] American Hardcore band Lionheart named their fourth and final album which was released in 2016 after that song.[25] Australian band I'm Talking covered the song and released it as the B-side on the 12" single "Lead the Way", before releasing it as an individual single. The song peaked at number 21 on the Australian Kent Music Report.[15]

Madonna had originally covered "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" for her second studio album, Like a Virgin (1984). The idea to cover the song originated from Michael Ostin, the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records.[26] In author Warren Zanes book Revolutions in Sound: Warner Bros. Records, the First 50 Years, he recalled:

"I had the good fortune of finding material that Madonna really responded to, 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore' for instance, which was the old Rose Royce record. I was driving into work one day and heard it on the radio, I called producer Nile Rodgers and Madonna, they were in the studio. I said, 'I have an idea,. You know the old Rose Royce record, 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore'? Why don't you try and record a version of it for Like a Virgin?"[26]

Initially both Rodgers and Madonna were apprehensive of tackling an already well-known ballad, but in the last minute they decided that if Madonna wanted to bring diversity to the album, there could be no better song than "Love Don't Live Here Anymore".[26] According to Rodgers, although Like a Virgin was mainly driven by Madonna, he was instrumental in adding "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" to the track list.[27] The song was a favorite of Madonna, so when in 1995 she released the ballad compilation album Something to Remember, she included a reworked version of "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" produced by David Reitzas. The version was released as the second single from the album in North America and the third single in Europe and Australia.[28] The original 1984 release was included in the 1996 Japanese box set CD Single Collection on 3" CD single and includes the track listing from the 7" vinyl version.[29]

Madonna's version of the song begins with the sound of acoustic guitars and synth strings. Madonna's voice sounds high-pitched, eluding the deeper resonance of the tune.[22] After the first verse, Tony Thompson starts playing the drums, which moves along the rhythm of the song. Towards the end, Madonna sings the song like a soul singer and the song ends with a gasp of breath.[22] The song was recorded at Power Station Studio in Manhattan, New York. Rodgers recalled: "Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before. I was very much into doing everything live, so I just said, 'Madonna, you go out there and sing and we will follow you.' At first Madonna was hesitant, but the live setting ended up producing memorable results. She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying, but I left it on the record."[30]

The 1995 remix was quite different from the 1984 version.[31] It began with the sound of violins and Uilleann pipes, followed by Madonna beginning the first verse. As the song progresses, the sound of the violin fades in and the drum machine starts, and the piano is played along with it.[31] As the chorus is sung the third time, a bass drum is also added in the flow. The violin again fades in as Madonna sings "Through the windmills of my eye, Everyone can see the loneliness inside me." Near the end, she utters the chorus a number of times, emphasizing on the word "anymore" and the phrase "live here anymore".[31] It ends with the Uilleann pipes fading out.[31] The song was also treated with remixes in various formats. SoulShock & Karlin made an R&B styled remix; while Marcus Schulz created a house remix. Madonna's voice was paired with an energetic beat, coupled with vibrant organ lines and blipping synth effects. The remixes were released as promotional 12" and CD singles on May 6, 1996.[32]

Author Rikky Rooksby wrote in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna that Madonna's singing in the song "deserved a commendation for bravery and was a sign that she was going to set herself challenges."[33] Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic, while reviewing Like a Virgin, wrote that the cover of the song was "well worth hearing".[34] Debbie Bull from Rolling Stone, meanwhile, opined that "her torchy ballad 'Love Don't Live Here Anymore' is awful."[35] Larry Flick from Billboard complimented both the versions of the song, calling the first version "a lush slice of symphonic pop", and the other an "old-school, jeep-soul cruiser. Both arrangements perfectly suit her vocal, which is rife with emotional belts and theatrical gasps. [...] David Reitzas string-laden version will please those who never got enough of the previous single 'You'll See'. The bottom line is that this will likely be another smash for an artist whose stock as a credible musical entity deservedly rises with each release."[36] He also complimented the dance remixes of the song, saying that "when combined, [Marcus Schultz house remix] keyboard lines add up to a very pastel, tea-dance ready twirler. His five mixes lean largely towards the middle of the club road."[32] Liz Smith, while reviewing the Something to Remember album in Newsday, felt that all of Madonna's vocal trainings that she received while shooting for the film Evita, had "paid off, because the La M's second single sounds wonderful, and is a step up from the previous haunting 'You'll See'."[37] Dorothy Holmes from Telegram & Gazette said that "'Love Don't Live Here Anymore' sounds like her perfect adult contemporary staple."[38]

In the United States, "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" debuted at the top of the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, a position comparable to 101 on the main Billboard Hot 100.[39] After two weeks, it debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Madonna's 36th entry on the chart, and her first entry with a remake of someone else's single.[40] The song ultimately reached only a peak of 78, and was present for only eight weeks on the chart.[41][42] On June 8, 1996, the song was one of the breakout tracks for the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart.[42] It debuted at 39 on the chart and reached 30 the next week, becoming the Power Pick song of the chart.[43][44] It ultimately reached a peak of 16 on the chart.[45] It debuted on the Hot Adult Contemporary Chart at 30, and reached a peak of 29, the next week.[46] In Canada, the song debuted at 99 on the RPM Singles Chart, on May 6, 1996.[47] After eight weeks, the song reached a peak of 24 on the chart.[48] It was present on the chart for 12 weeks.[49] Across Europe, the song charted in France at 48, and also reached 27 in Australia.[50]

The music video was directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino, who worked with Madonna in her videos for "Open Your Heart", "Justify My Love" and "Human Nature", and shot on March 4, 1996, at the Confitería El Molino in Buenos Aires, Argentina, during her day off from filming Evita.[51] Maria Gallagher was the producer, with Jean-Yves Escoffier serving as director of photography. It was a Bandits Production.[52] In her Evita diaries, published by Vanity Fair magazine in 1996, Madonna made reference to the video shoot. In her writings, she specifically mentioned forgetting the lyrics of the song, suggesting she was having an identity crisis of sorts, trying to juggle her own identity with that of her role of Eva Perón in Evita.[51] Madonna was also in the early stages of her pregnancy with daughter Lourdes while making the video. Hence, she felt great stress while shooting it, which led her to forget the lyrics.[53]

The video features Madonna at the empty suite of an abandoned hotel, a similar setting to her "Like a Virgin" music video. It was shot in a single frame, with the camera approaching Madonna, as she stands behind a pillar. She rotates around it and sings the song, as air blows through the room.[54] The video ends with Madonna looking up towards the camera the last time, and then closing her eyes. It was treated with sepia color.[54] Carol Vernallis, author of Experiencing music video: aesthetics and cultural context felt that the video was a good example of how image can direct the viewer's attention towards the shift in instrumentation and arrangement of the song. She noted the aimless movement of the camera towards her as "bringing focus to the main subject, with the viewer's attention fully captured."[54]

A mashup of "HeartBreakCity", a track from her 13th studio album Rebel Heart, and "Love Don't Live Here Anymore" was performed on Madonna's 2015â€“16 Rebel Heart Tour. It began with the singer dancing with a male back-up dancer as she sang "HeartBreakCity"; then, she chased him up a long spiral staircase and pushed him backwards before merging into "Love Don't Live Here Anymore".[55] Erik Kabik from The Las Vegas Sun, praised the performance for its simplicity.[56]


who killed katie in the movie mystic river

Jimmy and his friends get Dave drunk at a local bar. When Dave leaves the bar, the men follow him out. Jimmy tells Dave that he shot "Just Ray" Harris at that same location for ratting him out and sending him to jail. Jimmy informs Dave that his wife thinks he murdered Katie and tells Dave he will let him live if he confesses. Dave repeatedly tells Jimmy that he did kill someone but it was not Katie: he beat a child molester to death after finding him having sex with a child prostitute in a car. Jimmy does not believe Dave's claim and threatens him with a knife. When Dave finally admits to killing Katie thinking he can escape with his life, Jimmy kills him and disposes of his body in the adjacent Mystic River.

Mystic River (film)

Mystic River is a 2003 American mystery crime drama film directed and scored by Clint Eastwood. It stars Sean Penn, Tim Robbins, Kevin Bacon, Laurence Fishburne, Marcia Gay Harden, and Laura Linney. The screenplay by Brian Helgeland was based on the novel of the same name by Dennis Lehane. The film was produced by Robert Lorenz, Judie G. Hoyt and Eastwood. It is the first film on which Eastwood was credited as composer of the score.

The film opened to widespread critical acclaim. It was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Picture, Best Director, Best Actor, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Supporting Actress, and Best Supporting Actor. Sean Penn won Best Actor and Tim Robbins won Best Supporting Actor, making Mystic River the first film to win both awards since Ben-Hur in 1959.

Three boys, Jimmy Markum, Sean Devine, and Dave Boyle, play hockey in a Boston street in 1975. Spotting wet concrete, they start writing their names into it when a car pulls up and two men, pretending to be police officers, get out, berate the boys for their actions, and tell Dave to get into the car. The men hold Dave captive and sexually abuse him for four days, until he escapes.

Twenty-five years later, the boys are grown and, while they still live in Boston, have drifted apart. Jimmy is an ex-con running a neighborhood store, while Dave is a blue-collar worker, still haunted by his abduction. The two are still neighbors and related by marriage. Jimmy's 19-year-old daughter Katie is secretly dating Brendan Harris, a boy Jimmy despises. She and Brendan are planning to run away together to Las Vegas.

Katie goes out for the night with her girlfriends and Dave sees her at a local bar. That night, Katie is murdered, and Dave comes home with an injured hand and blood on his clothes, which his wife Celeste helps him clean up. Dave claims he fought off a mugger, "bashed his head into the concrete", and possibly killed him. Sean, now a detective with the Massachusetts State Police, investigates Katie's murder. His pregnant wife, Lauren, has recently left him.

Over the course of the film, Sean and his partner, Sergeant Whitey Powers, track down leads while Jimmy conducts his own investigation using his neighborhood connections. Sean discovers that the gun used to kill Katie was also used in a liquor store robbery during the 1980s by "Just Ray" Harris, the father of Katie's boyfriend. Harris has been missing since 1989, but Brendan claims he still sends his family $500 every month. Brendan also feigns ignorance about Ray's gun but Sean believes it was still in the house. Sergeant Powers suspects Dave as a possible perpetrator because he was one of the last people to see Katie alive. He also has a wounded hand and, although he continues to tell his wife he got it while being mugged, he tells the police a different story â€“ soon Jimmy becomes suspicious of it. Dave continues to behave strangely, which upsets his wife to the point she is afraid he will hurt her. While Jimmy and his associates conduct their investigation, Dave's wife eventually tells Jimmy about Dave's behavior, the bloody clothing, and her suspicions.

While Dave is being killed, Brendan (having found out about his father's gun during questioning) confronts his younger brother Ray Jr. and his brother's friend John about Katie's murder. He beats the two boys and threatens to kill them if they do not admit their guilt, but when John takes the gun and is about to shoot him, Sean and Powers arrive just in time to stop it.

The next morning, Sean tells Jimmy the police have Katie's murderers â€“ who have confessed. She was killed by Brendan's brother, "Silent Ray" Harris, and his friend John O'Shea in a violent prank gone wrong: The kids got hold of Just Ray's gun and saw a car coming which happened to be Katie's. John aimed the gun just to scare her but the gun went off by accident. The car veered onto the curb and Katie got out and ran into the park. Silent Ray and John pursued her so she wouldn't tell anyone. The beating Katie received was from Silent Ray, who had a hockey stick. Once she was beaten, John shot her again, killing her. Sean asks Jimmy if he has seen Dave, because he is wanted for questioning in another case, the murder of a known child molester. A distraught Jimmy thanks Sean for finding his daughter's killers, but says, "if only you had been a little faster." Sean asks Jimmy if he's going to "send Celeste Boyle $500 a month too?"

Sean reunites with his wife and his daughter Nora, after apologizing for "pushing her away". Jimmy goes to his wife, Annabeth and confesses. She comforts him and tells him he is a king and kings always make the right decision. At a town parade, Sean sees Jimmy, and mimics shooting him, to let Jimmy know he is watching.

Principal photography took place on location in Boston.[3] Eastwood claimed that the three lead actors were his first choices for the roles.[3]

Mystic River was well received by critics, with the performances and direction receiving widespread acclaim. The film has an 87% approval rating based on 195 reviews from critics at the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes.[4] At the website Metacritic, which utilizes a normalized rating system, the film earned a rating of 84/100 ("universal acclaim") based on 42 reviews.[5] Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote "Clint Eastwood pours everything he knows about directing into Mystic River. His film sneaks up, messes with your head, and then floors you. You can't shake it. It's that haunting, that hypnotic."[6] The Sun wrote that the film was "a haunting masterpiece and probably [Eastwood's] best film to date".[7]

The film earned $156,822,020 worldwide with $90,135,191 in the United States and $66,686,829 in the international box office, which is significantly higher than the film's $30 million budget.[2]

The DVD was released on June 8, 2004 and three editions have been released:

The film has also been released on Blu-ray Disc, both sold separately and as a part of the "Clint Eastwood Collection".


who is first chief minister of uttar pradesh

On 26 January 1950 Govind Ballabh Pant, Premier of United Provinces, became the first Chief Minister of the newly renamed Uttar Pradesh. Including him, 11 out of UP's 21 chief ministers belonged to the Indian National Congress. Among these is V. P. Singh, a future Prime Minister of India, as was Charan Singh of the Rashtriya Lok Dal. UP has also had two women chief ministers—Sucheta Kriplani and Mayawati. On ten occasions, most recently in 2002, the state has come under President's rule, leaving the office of chief minister vacant.

List of Chief Ministers of Uttar Pradesh

The Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh (UP), a North Indian state, is the head of the Government of Uttar Pradesh. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is the state's de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief minister's term is for five years and is subject to no term limits.[1]

Yogi Adityanath of the Bharatiya Janata Party has served as the incumbent chief minister since 19 March 2017.

The United Provinces, headquartered in Allahabad was a province of British India that comprised present day Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Under the Government of India Act, 1935, a bicameral legislature was set up with a legislative assembly and a legislative council.

[[File:Yogi Adityanath.jpg|150px| Yogi Adityanath the 21st chief minister of uttar pradesh,he was elected MP from Gorakhpur (Lok Sabha Constituency) from 1998 to 2017.


the most common type of rock in earth's crust is

About 64.7% of the Earth's crust by volume consists of igneous rocks; making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, and 17% granodiorites and diorites. Only 0.6% are syenites and 0.3% peridotites and dunites. The oceanic crust is 99% basalt, which is an igneous rock of mafic composition. Granites and similar rocks, known as meta-granitoids, form much of the continental crust.[5] Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them having formed beneath the surface of Earth's crust. These have diverse properties, depending on their composition and the temperature and pressure conditions in which they were formed.

Rock (geology)

Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a common rock, is a combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar and biotite. The Earth's outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock.

Rock has been used by humankind throughout history. The minerals and metals in rocks have been essential to human civilization.[1]

Three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is an essential component of geology.

Rocks are composed of grains of minerals, which are homogeneous solids formed from a chemical compound arranged in an orderly manner. The aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by chemical bonds. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which it was formed.

Many rocks contain silica (SiO2); a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74.3% of the Earth's crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock. The proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties.[2]

Rocks are classified according to characteristics such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, texture of the constituent particles, and particle size. These physical properties are the result of the processes that formed the rocks.[3] Over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by a geological model called the rock cycle. This transformation produces three general classes of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Those three classes are subdivided into many groups. There are, however, no hard-and-fast boundaries between allied rocks. By increase or decrease in the proportions of their minerals, they pass through gradations from one to the other; the distinctive structures of one kind of rock may thus be traced gradually merging into those of another. Hence the definitions adopted in rock names simply correspond to selected points in a continuously graduated series.[4]

Igneous rock (derived from the Latin word igneus, meaning of fire, from ignis meaning fire) is formed through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava. This magma may be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes: an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition.

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:

The chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowen's reaction series. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale.[2]

Sedimentary rocks are formed at the earth's surface by the accumulation and cementation of fragments of earlier rocks, minerals, and organisms[6] or as chemical precipitates and organic growths in water (sedimentation). This process causes clastic sediments (pieces of rock) or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate, or for minerals to chemically precipitate (evaporite) from a solution. The particulate matter then undergoes compaction and cementation at moderate temperatures and pressures (diagenesis).

Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolostone).[3] About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%).[5] Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by subjecting any rock type—sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock—to different temperature and pressure conditions than those in which the original rock was formed. This process is called metamorphism; meaning to "change in form". The result is a profound change in physical properties and chemistry of the stone. The original rock, known as the protolith, transforms into other mineral types or other forms of the same minerals, by recrystallization.[3] The temperatures and pressures required for this process are always higher than those found at the Earth's surface: temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C and pressures of 1500 bars.[7] Metamorphic rocks compose 27.4% of the crust by volume.[5]

The three major classes of metamorphic rock are based upon the formation mechanism. An intrusion of magma that heats the surrounding rock causes contact metamorphismâ€”a temperature-dominated transformation. Pressure metamorphism occurs when sediments are buried deep under the ground; pressure is dominant, and temperature plays a smaller role. This is termed burial metamorphism, and it can result in rocks such as jade. Where both heat and pressure play a role, the mechanism is termed regional metamorphism. This is typically found in mountain-building regions.[2]

Depending on the structure, metamorphic rocks are divided into two general categories. Those that possess a texture are referred to as foliated; the remainders are termed non-foliated. The name of the rock is then determined based on the types of minerals present. Schists are foliated rocks that are primarily composed of lamellar minerals such as micas. A gneiss has visible bands of differing lightness, with a common example being the granite gneiss. Other varieties of foliated rock include slates, phyllites, and mylonite. Familiar examples of non-foliated metamorphic rocks include marble, soapstone, and serpentine. This branch contains quartzite—a metamorphosed form of sandstone—and hornfels.[2]

The use of rocks has had a huge impact on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rocks have been used by humans and other hominids for at least 2.5Â million years.[8] Lithic technology marks some of the oldest and continuously used technologies. The mining of rocks for their metal ore content has been one of the most important factors of human advancement, which has progressed at different rates in different places in part because of the kind of metals available from the rocks of a region.

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth, from an ore body, vein or (coal) seam. This term also includes the removal of soil. Materials recovered by mining include base metals, precious metals, iron, uranium, coal, diamonds, limestone, oil shale, rock salt and potash. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Mining in a wider sense comprises extraction of any resource (e.g. petroleum, natural gas, salt or even water) from the earth.[9]

Mining of rock and metals has been done since prehistoric times. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials and finally reclamation of the land to prepare it for other uses once mining ceases.[10]

The nature of mining processes creates a potential negative impact on the environment both during the mining operations and for years after the mine has closed. This impact has led to most of the world's nations adopting regulations to manage negative effects of mining operations.[11]


how much does it cost to get a turkish passport

A Turkish passport has been one of the most expensive passports in the world for many years. As a result of increasing public demands, the cost of ordinary passports was almost halved in June 2010. Despite the massive reduction, the Turkish passport remains the most expensive passport in the world.[13] The passport law was then amended to increase the maximum validity of a passport from 5 to 10 years. It currently costs TRY667.10 (c. USD180) for a 10-year passport, including the compulsory booklet fee. [14] In addition to the expensive passport prices, the Turkish state charges TRY15 (c. USD4) from Turkish passport holders (excluding ship and aircraft crew, those who live abroad and those with dual citizenship) every single time they leave Turkey.

Turkish passport

Turkish Passports are issued in accordance with the Passport Act (No. 5682) from 15 July 1950[2] to Turkish citizens to travel abroad. Citizens of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) are also eligible to apply for a Turkish Passport if they wish to, as well as the TRNC passport or the Republic of Cyprus EU passport.

Passports are issued by the Turkish Police (or by the Embassy of the Republic of Turkey in Nicosia for Turkish Cypriots) and applications are filed at police stations which have a passport office. Passports issued since 1 June 2010 are biometric and valid for up to 10 years (5 years for special passports).

Ranked in the Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index, a Turkish Passport placed 51st in 2016.[3]

Turkish Biometric passports (Turkish: Biyometrik pasaport), compatible with the new ICAO standards, have been available since 1 June 2010.[10] Applications for the new passports can be submitted online through the government's website [2].[11] Passports are then sent via mail.

The biometric passports have different colored covers; regular passports in maroon and diplomatic passports in black, in compliance with ICAO standards.[12]

Holders of an ordinary Turkish passport may travel without a visa, or with a visa received upon arrival, to 104 countries, as of 2014 according to the Visa Restrictions Index.

Turkish Biometric Passport cover since 1 June 2010

Turkish Biometric special passport cover issued in January 2012

Listed chronologically:

1927 - Republic of Turkey, Regular passport, cover

1937&1934 - Republic of Turkey, Diplomatic passports, covers

1943 - Republic of Turkey, Regular passport, cover

1954 - Republic of Turkey, Regular passport, cover

1960 - Republic of Turkey, Special passport, cover & first page

1965 - Republic of Turkey, Regular passport, cover

Republic of Turkey, Regular passport cover until 31 May 2010

Republic of Turkey, Special passport, cover until 31 May 2010


who championed reform and the constitution of 1857 in mexico

Having overthrown the dictatorship of Antonio López de Santa Anna in 1855, liberal leader Juan Nepomuceno Álvarez Hurtado held the presidency for a short period. According to the established in Plan of Ayutla convened the Constituent Congress on October 16 the same year, in order to establish headquarters in Dolores Hidalgo to draft a new constitution of liberal ideology. The following year, the incumbent president, Ignacio Comonfort, endorsed the call for moving the headquarters to Mexico City.[3]

The Federal Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1857 (Spanish: ConstituciÃ³n Federal de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos de 1857) often called simply the Constitution of 1857 is the liberal constitution drafted by 1857 Constituent Congress of Mexico during the presidency of Ignacio Comonfort. It was ratified on February 5, 1857,[1] establishing individual rights such as freedom of speech; freedom of conscience; freedom of the press; freedom of assembly; and the right to bear arms. It also reaffirmed the abolition of slavery, eliminated debtor prison, and eliminated all forms of cruel and unusual punishment, including the death penalty.

Some articles were contrary to the interests of the Catholic Church, such as education free of dogma, the removal of institutional fueros (privileges) and the sale of property belonging to the church. The Conservative Party strongly opposed the enactment of the new constitution and this polarized Mexican society. The Reform War began as a result, and the struggles between liberals and conservatives were intensified with the implementation of the Second Mexican Empire under the support of the church.[2] Years later, with the restored republic, the Constitution was in force throughout the country until 1917.

The Congress was divided between two main factions. The larger being the moderate liberals whose plan was to restore the Constitution of 1824 with some changes. It included prominent figures like Mariano Arizcorreta, Marcelino Castañeda, Joaquín Cardoso and Pedro Escudero y Echánove. The opposition was the pure liberals,[4] who wanted to make a complete new version of the constitution. Among them were Ponciano Arriaga, Guillermo Prieto, Francisco Zarco, José María Mata and Santos Degollado. The discussions were heated and lasted over a year.[3]

President Comonfort interfered, through its ministers in favor of the moderate faction, which he preferred.[5] Despite opposition from the executive branch and to be minority, 'pure liberals ensured that their proposals were included: the prohibition of purchase of property by ecclesiastical corporations, the exclusion of the clergy in public office, the abolition of ecclesiastical and military fueros[a] (JuÃ¡rez Law), and freedom of religion.

These reforms were contrary to the interests of the Catholic Church. During the course of sessions in Congress, an insurrection in favor of the clergy supported by conservative, the staunchest opponents of the Liberals, gathered force in Zacapoaxtla and Puebla. Comonfort sent federal troops, and the rebels were subjected.[6]

Finally, the Constitution was promulgated on February 5, 1857,[7] under the threats of the clergy that who swore the Constitution would be excommunicated.[8]

The Constitution of 1857 consisted of 8 titles and 128 articles, was similar to the 1824 Constitution, federalism and representative republic was again implemented, which consisted of 23 states, a territory and the federal district. Supported the autonomy of municipalities in which each state was divided politically. The most relevant articles were:

Among other things, included a chapter on individual guarantees, and judicial proceedings to protect those rights known as amparo. (created, used and endorsed by the Republic of Yucatán, now, state of Yucatán)[10]

Despite the Texas case, some Deputies proposed a law granting certain rights to foreign colonization arguing that the country needed to be settled, the law was rejected.[3]

At the time of the promulgation of the constitution, the nation was composed of 23 states and one federal territory. Nuevo León merges with Coahuila adopting the latter name, besides, ratified the creation of a new state and admitted three of the four territories as free states of the federation.

The admitted states since the Constitution of 1824 were::[11]

It's created the state of::

Are admitted as states:

The only federal territory was: Baja California, Mexico City was called state of Valley of Mexico, but only if the powers of the Federation to move to another site. On February 26, 1864, Nuevo LeÃ³n was separated from Coahuila and regained its status as free state.[17]

On December, 1856, Pope Pius IX spoke out against the new Constitution, criticizing the Juarez Law and Lerdo Law. In March 1857 the Archbishop José Lázaro de la Garza y Ballesteros, stated that Catholics could not swear allegiance to the Constitution on pain of excommunication.[3][18]

Justice Minister Ezequiel Montes met in the Holy See with Cardinal Secretary of State. The pope accepted the Ley JuÃ¡rez and disposals of Lerdo Law, but demanded the ability to acquire political rights. The negotiations were interrupted by the resignation of President Comonfort.[3]

It began to gestate a coup, General conservative Felix Maria Zuloaga promoted through several writings his repudiation to the Constitution. On December 17, 1857 was proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya which aimed to repeal the Constitution and convene a new Constitutional Congress; in other words, a coup against the Congress and the Constitution. Several ministers of Presidential Cabinet resigned. President of the Supreme Court of Justice of the Nation, Benito Juárez, and the President of Congress, Isidoro Olvera, were taken prisoner.

On December 19, President Ignacio Comonfort adhered to the plan saying: "I just change my legal title of president, by those of revolutionary miserable".[3] States of México, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Tlaxcala and Veracruz annexed to the Plan Tacubaya. This last state changed side, through a revolution and switched to the Liberal side; the event was a major strategic blow against Comonfort. Without alternative, Comonfort had to resort to the pure and released Juarez and other political prisoners. On January 11, 1858, Comonfort decided to resign, with a guard went to Veracruz, and on February 7 sailed to the United States. Benito Juárez took office on January 21, 1858.[19]

The Conservatives refused to recognize Juarez and was forced to move the Liberal government to Guanajuato. Felix Zuloaga established a Conservative Government in Mexico City; through the promulgation of Five Laws (Spanish: Cinco Leyes) repealed the liberal reforms. Thus began Reform War.

States of Jalisco, Guanajuato, Querétaro, Michoacán, Nuevo León, Coahuila, Tamaulipas, Colima and Veracruz supported the liberal government of Benito Juarez and the constitution of 1857. States of México, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Chihuahua, Durango, Tabasco, Tlaxcala, Chiapas, Sonora, Sinaloa, Oaxaca and Yucatán supported the conservative government of Zuloaga.[19]

After the Liberal government won the Reform War, President Juarez and his government added to the Constitution of 1857, the Reform Laws that had been enacted in Veracruz. Because of the war, the Constitution remained without effect on almost all the country until January, 1861, when the Liberals returned to the capital. On 1862, as a result of Franco-Mexican War and the establishment of Second Mexican Empire, the validity of the Constitution was again suspended. On 1867 the government of Juarez overthrew the Empire, restore the Republic[20] and the Constitution took effect in the country again.

On February 5, 1903 in protest against the regime of Porfirio Díaz a liberal group placed on the balcony of the newspaper's offices El hijo de El Ahuizote a great black curly for mourning with the legend "The Constitution is dead," a precursor of many that eventually trigger the Mexican Revolution on 1910, that overthrew Diaz and end with the enactment of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States of 1917 during the government of Venustiano Carranza.


where was once i was a beehive filmed

Once I Was a Beehive was filmed in Payson, Utah and Provo Canyon. The scenes featuring a bear were shot on location with a trained bear named Tank. The film's ark was made by a local woodcrafter and was temporarily lost during transport because it was not properly attached to the vehicle.[2]

Once I Was a Beehive

Once I Was a Beehive is a 2015 American comedy film, directed by Maclain Nelson, about a girl who attends an LDS Young Women's camp. Shot in Utah, it received positive and mixed reviews upon release.

Lane Speer (Paris Warner) is a young girl who enjoys camping with her parents. A year after Lane's father dies of cancer, her mother remarries a Mormon. Before the newlyweds leave for their honeymoon, they inform Lane she will be staying with her new "step aunt" where she is encouraged to attend a week-long girls' Bible camp organized by the LDS Young Women. Lane decides to go on the trip so her phobic stepcousin Phoebe (Mila Smith) will also go.

The girls' first task is to set up their tepees. Most of the girls rush the job to get to the lake, but Lane and Phoebe take their time. It rains the following night, flooding the other girls' tents, and they all crowd into Lane and Phoebe's. Phoebe has secretly brought her dog Roxy to camp, and she tells them to keep it a secret.

After the night in the tent, the girls take a hike to a glacier. On the way, they get lost, going around in circles. Lane takes the map from Bree and discovers she was holding it the wrong way, making Bree look stupid. When they get to the glacier, Bree makes a catty remark to Lane about her "trying to impress everyone" and tells her to just be herself, because people like her better that way. Lane "accidentally" gives Bree a bloody nose by throwing an ice ball at her. The girls make snowcones from the glacier.

After whittling at the fire, Lane tries to make amends with Bree by cooking dinner for her and they eventually make up after Bree throws a tantrum. That night, a bear comes to the camp and causes Roxie to bark, alerting the adults, but the bear had run away before they noticed. As the adults head to Lane and Phoebe's tent, two of the girls claim that they were barking, and Roxy is still a secret.

While the girls prepare for the "Trial of Faith" event, a bear raids the camp and Phoebe becomes convinced that it ate Roxy. They run into the bear and play dead to make it ignore them.

Together, they decide to go through with the "Trial of Faith" activity, described as a Sunday school lesson taught by Indiana Jones. Phoebe uses her knowledge to help the girls solve the various puzzles and they eventually find "Noah's Ark". The bishop arrives and reveals that Roxy is still alive. On the last night of camp, they have a testimony meeting and Phoebe, Lane, and Bree share their experiences. At the final camp talent show, Lane and Phoebe perform their new song "Together".

Sneak-peek screenings aired in various towns in Utah in early August.[2] It was released in Utah on 18 August, and expanded to theaters in Idaho and Arizona in September.[3] It was released by Purdie Distribution and saw a wide release of 32 theaters and grossed a total of $732,655.[1]

The film's soundtrack was released in December[4] and features the following songs:[5]

Based on 8 reviews on Rotten Tomatoes, it has an average rating of 6.2/10.[6] Eric D. Snider gave the film a B+ grade and praised it for being "funny, sweet, AND sincere."[7] Adam Forsgren included Once I Was a Beehive as one of his 10 favorite films of 2015, commending it for deriving its humor from the characters instead of LDS culture.[8] Kerry Legel gave the film a mixed review, praising the acting but criticizing some dialogue.[9]
Kai Elijah Hamilton also praised the film in his review, "Director Maclain Nelson gets extreme praise for making this a film everyone can connect with. It is not a Mormon film. It is a film where the characters happen to be Mormon. Upfront it expects us to understand that these characters are real people with misunderstood beliefsâ€”and in one fell swoop quietly wipes away any taboos. It is a charming film about faith, healing and coming of age. It is not preachy. It is touching. It is as sweet and rich as honey." http://www.blueridgenow.com/article/NC/20151007/News/606018405/HT/

The film was a finalist in the best film category of the 2015 AML Awards, but ultimately lost to Peace Officer.[10]


under night in birth exe late st release

Sega released the arcade version in Japan on September 20, 2012. A major revision of the arcade version, entitled Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late (アンダーナイトインヴァースエクセレイト, Andā naito invāsu ekusereito), was released on September 9, 2013. It was announced by Famitsu that Arc System Works would release the game for PlayStation 3 on July 24, 2014 in Japan,[6] A 2015 release for North America and Europe was later announced.[7] The North American release date, which was set for March 31, 2015, was revealed on the GameStop website. However, Aksys Games revealed the true release date for Exe:Late, they said that the game will be releasing on February 24, 2015 for the PlayStation 3, as well as confirmed there wouldn't be an English dub in Western releases. A further update to the game entitled Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late[st] (アンダーナイトインヴァースエクセレイトエスト, Andā naito invāsu ekusereito esuto) was announced on May 15, 2015 and released on July 23, 2015.[8] Exe:Late was also released on Steam for Microsoft Windows systems on July 12, 2016.

Under Night In-Birth

Under Night In-Birth (アンダーナイトインヴァース, Andā naito invāsu) is a visual novel and 2D fighting game co-developed by Ecole Software and French-Bread, known for the Melty Blood series. It features a brand new cast of characters and a story that spins around modern fantasy.

Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late[st] is planned for release on PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita on July 20, 2017.[9] At Anime Expo 2017, it was confirmed that Exe:Late[st] will be released in North America in late 2017 and Europe in Q4 2017.[10]

Under Night In-Birth takes place in a fictional modern-day setting some time in the 21st century. A phenomenon called the Hollow Night (虚ろの夜 utsuro no yoru) has been enveloping particular regions of Japan once a month for several centuries. Each area engulfed in the Hollow Night is beset by shadow-like creatures called Voids (虚無 kyomu) that utilize and feed upon a power known as "Existence", or EXS (イグジス igujisu). Normal humans cannot see or come into contact with Voids, but certain people have the potential to perceive them. Those who acquire this perception are targeted by Voids and risk either being consumed by them or losing their sanity. Under special circumstances, a person who maintains their sanity after being attacked by a Void can become a being known as an In-Birth (インヴァース invāsu). While this status places a person into a sort of limbo where they are neither living nor dead, they also gain the ability to control Existence. The protagonist, Hyde, is one character who survived a Void attack and became an In-Birth.[11]

Many characters are involved with the Hollow Night phenomenon, and several of them are affiliated with particular organizations. Two rival groups, the Yatō (夜刀) and Licht Kreis, both serve to maintain order in areas affected by the Hollow Night but differ in their methods. The tarnished Yatō primarily hunt Voids, while Licht Kreis uses its lawful order and hierarchy to protect civilians. A third organization, Amnesia, is more chaotically structured and seeks to stop the influence of both the Yatō and Licht Kreis.

The gameplay is similar to that of French Bread's previous Type-Moon based game, Melty Blood and its updates, and Arc System Works's Guilty Gear and Blazblue, with an additional gameplay systems introduced for this game.

These are the characters from the game and within the updates:

The guest characters Sion Eltnam Atlasia (dubbed as Eltnum) (voice: Satomi Akesaka) from Melty Blood and Akatsuki (voice: Shinobu Matsumoto) from Akatsuki Blitzkampf appear in the game.

Development of the game began some time in 2010. In an interview with video game news website 4gamer.net, French-Bread producer Nobuya Narita discussed how the project arose from the development team's experiences working on Melty Blood. French-Bread originally planned to work on a new HD title in the Melty Blood series, but development later stalled while Type-Moon went on to work on Mahōtsukai no Yoru. Early prototypes eventually provided the foundations for Under Night In-Birth. Narita particularly emphasized that they wanted to differentiate the game from Melty Blood, so the lore, visuals, systems, and combat flow are much different from their previous work. It is also the team's first game to run in high definition and features hand-drawn high-resolution sprites.[12]

In March 2013, Sega added support for its ALL.Net P-ras Multi service, a distribution network that allows multiple arcade owners to receive copies of the game without having to provide a dedicated arcade cabinet for each copy. Other games that utilize this service include Arc System Works' Guilty Gear XX Accent Core Plus R and Triangle Service's Game Center Love.[13]

Since its initial arcade release in Japan, Under Night In-Birth has received numerous version updates at an approximately monthly basis, adjusting various system features and character attributes, as well as adding several new playable characters to the roster. The September 2013 update included several major changes, along with updating the game's title to Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late. The PlayStation 3 version of the game is based on these changes.

On December 8, 2015, it was confirmed by publisher Arc System Works that the game would be receiving a port to Valve Corporation's digital store, Steam, to be released in July 12, 2016.

The PlayStation 3 version of Under Night In-Birth Exe:Late received a 29/40 from Famitsu.[18] Destruction said that it was "an intelligent, tactical fighting game that I'll surely be playing for a long time to come." IGN said it was "One good fighting game. Maybe it's not as deep as previous Arc System Works games, but successfully achieves what it is aiming: to let the player enjoy it." Eurogamer concluded "an interesting 2d fighting game with a very unique fighting system. Just try it, and you'll be amazed."

The game has 26,320 owners on Steam.


paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord are called the corticospinal tracts

The corticospinal tract conducts impulses from the brain to the spinal cord. It is made up of a lateral and anterior tract. The corticospinal tract is involved in voluntary movement. The majority of fibres of the corticospinal tract cross over in the medulla oblongata, resulting in muscles being controlled by the opposite side of the brain. The corticospinal tract also contains Betz cells (the largest pyramidal cells), which are not found in any other region of the body.

Pyramidal tracts

The pyramidal tracts include both the corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. These are aggregations of efferent nerve fibers from the upper motor neurons that travel from the cerebral cortex and terminate either in the brainstem (corticobulbar) or spinal cord (corticospinal) and are involved in the control of motor functions of the body.

The corticobulbar tract conducts impulses from the brain to the cranial nerves.[1] These nerves control the muscles of the face and neck and are involved in facial expression, mastication, swallowing, and other functions.

The pyramidal tracts are named because they pass through the pyramids of the medulla oblongata. The corticospinal fibers when descending from the internal capsule to the brain stem, converge to a point from multiple directions giving the impression of an inverted pyramid.

The myelination of the pyramidal fibres is incomplete at birth and gradually progresses in caudo-cranial direction and thereby progressively gaining functionality. Most of the myelination is complete by two years of age and thereafter it progresses very slowly in cranio-caudal direction up to twelve years of age.

The term pyramidal tracts refers to upper motor neurons that originate in the cerebral cortex and terminate in the spinal cord (corticospinal) or brainstem (corticobulbar). Nerves emerge in the cerebral cortex, pass down and may cross sides in the medulla oblongata, and travel as part of the spinal cord until they synapse with interneurons in the grey column of the spinal cord.[2]

There is some variation in terminology. The pyramidal tracts definitively encompass the corticospinal tracts, and many authors also include the corticobulbar tracts.[3]

Nerve fibres in the corticospinal tract originate from pyramidal cells in layer V of the cerebral cortex. Fibres arise from the primary motor cortex (about 30%), supplementary motor area and the premotor cortex (together also about 30%), and the somatosensory cortex, parietal lobe, and cingulate gyrus supplies the rest.[2] The cells have their bodies in the cerebral cortex, and the axons form the bulk of the pyramidal tracts.[4] The nerve axons travel from the cortex through the posterior limb of internal capsule, through the cerebral peduncle and into the brainstem and anterior medulla oblongata. Here they form two prominences called the medulla oblongatary pyramids. Below the prominences, the majority of axons cross over to the opposite side from which they originated, known as decussation. The axons that cross over move to the outer part of the medulla oblongata and form the lateral corticospinal tract, whereas the fibres that remain form the anterior corticospinal tract.[2] About 80% of axons cross over and form the lateral corticospinal tract; 10% do not cross over and join the tract, and 10% of fibres travel in the anterior corticospinal tract.[citation needed]

The nerve axons traveling down the tract are referred to as efferent nerve fibers of the upper motor neurons. These axons travel down the tracts in the white matter of the spinal cord until they reach the vertebral level of the muscle that they will innervate.[5] At this point, the axons synapse with lower motor neurons. The majority of axons do not directly synapse with lower motor neurons, but instead synapse with an interneuron that then synapses with a lower motor neuron. This generally occurs in the anterior grey column.[2] Nerve axons of the lateral corticospinal tract that did not cross over in the medulla oblongata do so at the level of the spinal cord they terminate in.[6]

These tracts contain more than 1 million axons and the majority of the axons are myelinated. The corticospinal tracts myelinate largely during the first and second years after birth. The majority of nerve axons are small (<4μm) in diameter. About 3% of nerve axons have a much larger diameter (16μm) and arise from Betz cells, mostly in the leg area of the primary motor cortex. These cells are notable because of their rapid conduction rate, over 70m/sec, the fastest conduction of any signals from the brain to the spinal cord.[2]

Fibres from the ventral motor cortex travel with the corticospinal tract through the internal capsule, but terminate in a number of locations in the midbrain (cortico-mesencephalic tract), pons (Corticopontine tract), and medulla oblongata (cortico-bulbar tract).[6] The upper motor neurons of the corticobulbar tract synapse with interneurons or directly with the lower motor neurons located in the motor cranial nerve nuclei, namely oculomotor, trochlear, motor nucleus of the trigeminal nerve, abducens, facial nerve and accessory and in the nucleus ambiguus to the hypoglossal, vagus and accessory nerves.[6] These nuclei are supplied by nerves from both sides of the brain, with the exception of the parts of the facial nerve that control muscles of the lower face. These muscles are only innervated by nerves from the contralateral (opposite) side of the cortex.[6]

The nerves within the corticospinal tract are involved in movement of muscles of the body. Because of the crossing-over of fibres, muscles are supplied by the side of the brain opposite to that of the muscle.[2] The nerves within the corticobulbar tract are involved in movement in muscles of the head. They are involved in swallowing, phonation, and movements of the tongue.[6] By virtue of involvement with the facial nerve, the corticobulbar tract is also responsible for transmitting facial expression.[5] With the exception of lower muscles of facial expression, all functions of the corticobulbar tract involve inputs from both sides of the brain.[5]

The term extrapyramidal motor system is used to refer to tracts within the spinal cord involved in involuntary movement but not part of the pyramidal tracts.[2] Their functions include the control of posture and muscle tone.[citation needed]

If fibres of the corticospinal tracts are damaged anywhere along their course from the cerebral cortex to the lower end of the spinal cord, this will give rise to an upper motor neuron syndrome. A few days after the injury to the upper motor neurons, a pattern of motor signs and symptoms appears, including spasticity, hyperactive reflexes, a loss of the ability to perform fine movements, and an extensor plantar response known as the Babinski sign.[7] Symptoms generally occur alongside other sensory problems. Causes of damage may include masses such as strokes, subdural hemorrhage, abscesses and tumours, inflammation such as meningitis and multiple sclerosis, and trauma to the spinal cord, including from slipped discs.[4]

If the corticobulbar tract is damaged on only one side, then only the lower face will be affected, however if there is involvement of both the left and right tracts, then the result is pseudobulbar palsy. This causes problems with swallowing, speaking, and emotional lability.[4]

Dissection of brain-stem. Lateral view.

Superficial dissection of brain-stem. Ventral view.

The motor tract.

Diagram of the principal fasciculi of the spinal cord, from Gray's anatomy