what's the highest level on sims freeplay

In The Sims FreePlay, players "build" and design houses and customize and create (a maximum of 34) virtual people called Sims. Players can control their Sims to satisfy their wishes, and let them complete different kinds of actions to gain Simoleons, Lifestyle Points, and Social Points (all three currencies in the game). The game runs in real-time, and takes real time to complete actions.[3] All actions must be instructed by players, unlike in the Windows version, where Sims have some degree of autonomy. Players can progress through 55 levels to unlock content (such as furniture for the Simsâ€™ houses) that can be purchased with the virtual currencies previously mentioned. Families of Sims can have children, provided there is one adult; there is a limit on the amount of allowable couples[citation needed] due to a limit on the people in the player's town. However, if the player buys items from the online store, they become a VIP that will allow them to increase the number of Sims they can have in their town. In the game, there are "quests" that players are required to complete, as well as optional quests ("discovery quests") that they may choose to pursue. Sims must bake a cake to age, until completion of a certain quota of discovery quests. To make, a cake takes 24 hours and costs 5 Lifestyle Points.

The Sims FreePlay

iOS: December 15, 2011

Android: February 15, 2012

Blackberry 10: July 31, 2013

The Sims FreePlay is a strategic life simulation game developed by EA Mobile and later with Firemonkeys Studios. It is a free version of The Sims for mobile devices; it was released for iOS in December 15, 2011,[1] released for Android in February 15, 2012,[2] released for BlackBerry 10 in July 31, 2013, and released for Windows Phone 8 in September 12, 2013. The game was released for Fire OS in October 2012.

The game is regularly updated with new content,[4] and has many events and competitions announced at FreePlay's official Facebook page. Updates commonly include elements from various expansion packs and stuff packs from the main series.[citation needed]

As of April 2017, Windows Phones no longer receive updates from the game.


where does the constellation orion get its name

Orion's current name derives from Greek mythology, in which Orion was a gigantic, supernaturally strong hunter of ancient times,[10] born to Euryale, a Gorgon, and Poseidon (Neptune), god of the sea in the Graeco-Roman tradition. One myth recounts Gaia's rage at Orion, who dared to say that he would kill every animal on the planet. The angry goddess tried to dispatch Orion with a scorpion. This is given as the reason that the constellations of Scorpius and Orion are never in the sky at the same time. However, Ophiuchus, the Serpent Bearer, revived Orion with an antidote. This is said to be the reason that the constellation of Ophiuchus stands midway between the Scorpion and the Hunter in the sky.[11]

Orion (constellation)

Orion is a prominent constellation located on the celestial equator and visible throughout the world. It is one of the most conspicuous and recognizable constellations in the night sky.[1] It was named after Orion, a hunter in Greek mythology. Its brightest stars are Rigel (Beta Orionis) and Betelgeuse (Alpha Orionis), a blue-white and a red supergiant, respectively.

The earliest depiction that has been linked to the constellation of Orion is a prehistoric (Aurignacian) mammoth ivory carving found in a cave in the Ach valley in West Germany in 1979. Archaeologists have estimated it to have been fashioned approximately 32,000 to 38,000 years ago.[2][3][4] The distinctive pattern of Orion has been recognized in numerous cultures around the world, and many myths have been associated with it. Orion has also been used as a symbol in the modern world.

The Babylonian star catalogues of the Late Bronze Age name Orion MULSIPA.ZI.AN.NA,[note 1] "The Heavenly Shepherd" or "True Shepherd of Anu" - Anu being the chief god of the heavenly realms.[5] The Babylonian constellation was sacred to Papshukal and Ninshubur, both minor gods fulfilling the role of'messenger to the gods'. Papshukal was closely associated with the figure of a walking bird on Babylonian boundary stones, and on the star map the figure of the Rooster was located below and behind the figure of the True Shepherdâ€”both constellations represent the herald of the gods, in his bird and human forms respectively.[6]

In ancient Egypt, the stars of Orion were regarded as a god, called Sah. Because Orion rises before Sirius, the star whose heliacal rising was the basis for the Solar Egyptian calendar, Sah was closely linked with Sopdet, the goddess who personified Sirius. The god Sopdu was said to be the son of Sah and Sopdet. Sah was syncretized with Osiris, while Sopdet was syncretized with Osiris' mythological wife, Isis. In the Pyramid Texts, from the 24th and 23rd centuries BC, Sah was one of many gods whose form the dead pharaoh was said to take in the afterlife.[7]

The Armenians identified their legendary patriarch and founder Hayk with Orion. Hayk is also the name of the Orion constellation in the Armenian translation of the Bible.[8]

The Bible mentions Orion three times, naming it "Kesil" (כסיל, literally - fool). Though, this name perhaps is etymologically connected with "Kislev", the name for the ninth month of the Hebrew calendar (i.e. November–December), which, in turn, may derive from the Hebrew root K-S-L as in the words "kesel, kisla" (כֵּסֶל, כִּסְלָה, hope, positiveness), i.e. hope for winter rains.: Job 9:9 ("He is the maker of the Bear and Orion"), Job 38:31 ("Can you loosen Orion's belt?"), and Amos 5:8 ("He who made the Pleiades and Orion").

In ancient Aram, the constellation was known as Nephîlā′, the Nephilim may have been Orion's descendants.[9]

The constellation is mentioned in Horace's Odes (Ode 3.27.18), Homer's Odyssey (Book 5, line 283) and Iliad, and Virgil's Aeneid (Book 1, line 535)

In medieval Muslim astronomy, Orion was known as al-jabbar, "the giant".[12] Orion's sixth brightest star, Saiph, is named from the Arabic, saif al-jabbar, meaning "sword of the giant".[13]

In China, Orion was one of the 28 lunar mansions Sieu (Xiu) （宿）. It is known as Shen （參）, literally meaning "three", for the stars of Orion's Belt. (See Chinese constellations)

The Chinese character 參 (pinyin shēn) originally meant the constellation Orion (Chinese: 參宿; pinyin: shēnxiù); its Shang dynasty version, over three millennia old, contains at the top a representation of the three stars of Orion's belt atop a man's head (the bottom portion representing the sound of the word was added later).[14]

The Rig Veda refers to the Orion Constellation as Mriga (The Deer).[15] It is said that two bright stars in the front and two bright stars in the rear are The hunting dogs, the one comparatively less bright star in the middle and ahead of two front dogs is The hunter and three aligned bright stars are in the middle of all four hunting dogs is The Deer (The Mriga) and three little aligned but less brighter stars is The Baby Deer. The Mriga means Deer, locally known as Harnu in folk parlance. There are many folk songs narrating the Harnu. The Malay called Orion' Belt Bintang Tiga Beradik (the "Three Brother Star").[citation needed]

In old Hungarian tradition, "Orion" is known as (magic) Archer (Íjász), or Reaper (Kaszás). In recently rediscovered myths, he is called Nimrod (Hungarian "Nimród"), the greatest hunter, father of the twins "Hunor" and "Magor". The "π" and "o" stars (on upper right) form together the reflex bow or the lifted scythe. In other Hungarian traditions, "Orion's belt" is known as "Judge's stick" (Bírópálca).[16]

In Scandinavian tradition, "Orion's belt" was known as Frigg's Distaff (friggerock) or Freyja's distaff.[17]

The Finns call the Orion's belt and the stars below it as Väinämöisen viikate (Väinämöinen's scythe).[18] Another name for the asterism of Alnilam, Alnitak and Mintaka is Väinämöisen vyö (Väinämöinen's Belt) and the stars "hanging" from the belt as Kalevanmiekka (Kaleva's sword).

In Siberia, the Chukchi people see Orion as a hunter; an arrow he has shot is represented by Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri), with the same figure as other Western depictions.[19]

The Seri people of northwestern Mexico call the three stars in the belt of Orion Hapj (a name denoting a hunter) which consists of three stars: Hap (mule deer), Haamoja (pronghorn), and Mojet (bighorn sheep). Hap is in the middle and has been shot by the hunter; its blood has dripped onto Tiburón Island.[20]

The same three stars are known in Spain and most of Latin America as "Las tres MarÃas" (Spanish for "The Three Marys"). In Puerto Rico, the three stars are known as the "Los Tres Reyes Magos" (Spanish for The three Wise Men).[21]

The Ojibwa (Chippewa) Native Americans call this constellation Kabibona'kan, the Winter Maker, as its presence in the night sky heralds winter.[citation needed]

To the Lakota Native Americans, Tayamnicankhu (Orion’s Belt) is the spine of a bison. The great rectangle of Orion are the bison's ribs; the Pleiades star cluster in nearby Taurus is the bison’s head; and Sirius in Canis Major, known as Tayamnisinte, is its tail. Another Lakota myth mentions that the bottom half of Orion, the Constellation of the Hand, represented the arm of a chief that was ripped off by the Thunder People as a punishment from the gods for his selfishness. His daughter offered to marry the person who can retrieve his arm from the sky, so the young warrior Fallen Star (whose father was a star and whose mother was human) returned his arm and married his daughter, symbolizing harmony between the gods and humanity with the help of the younger generation. The index finger is represented by Rigel; the Orion Nebula is the thumb; the Belt of Orion is the wrist; and the star Beta Eridani is the pinky finger.[22]

The imagery of the belt and sword has found its way into popular western culture, for example in the form of the shoulder insignia of the 27th Infantry Division of the United States Army during both World Wars, probably owing to a pun on the name of the division's first commander, Major General John F. O'Ryan.[citation needed]

The defunct film distribution company Orion Pictures used the constellation as its logo.[23]

In J. R. R. Tolkien's mythology surrounding Middle-earth, Orion is known as Menelvagor, which is Sindarin for "The Swordsman of the Sky".[24]

In the movie Blade Runner, the dying replicant Roy Batty introspectively delivers his "Tears in Rain" soliloquy: "I've seen things you people wouldn't believe. Attack ships on fire off the shoulder of Orion. I watched C-beams glitter in the dark near the TannhÃ¤user Gate. All those moments will be lost in time, like tears in rain. Time to die."

In the sci-fi comedy Men In Black, the last words of a dying alien disguised as a human were 'To prevent war, the Galaxy is on Orion's belt'. It was later revealed that 'Orion's belt' referred to the collar of a cat named 'Orion'.

In the sci-fi television series Haven, the Orionid meteor shower is known as the Hunter Meteor Shower. It comes to Haven once every twenty-seven years when the Barn, a space between two worlds, comes to take the mysterious woman away. When the Barn leaves, the Hunter passes safely overhead and The Troubles end, making the town of Haven a haven for the Troubled again.

In artistic renderings, the surrounding constellations are sometimes related to Orion: he is depicted standing next to the river Eridanus with his two hunting dogs Canis Major and Canis Minor, fighting Taurus. He is sometimes depicted hunting Lepus the hare. He sometimes is depicted to have a lion's hide in his hand.

There are alternative ways to visualise Orion. From the Southern Hemisphere, Orion is oriented south-upward, and the belt and sword are sometimes called the saucepan or pot in Australia and New Zealand. Orion's Belt is called Drie Konings (Three Kings) or the Drie Susters (Three Sisters) by Afrikaans speakers in South Africa[25] and are referred to as les Trois Rois (the Three Kings) in Daudet's Lettres de Mon Moulin (1866). The appellation Driekoningen (the Three Kings) is also often found in 17th- and 18th-century Dutch star charts and seaman's guides. The same three stars are known in Spain, Latin America, and the Philippines as "Las Tres MarÃas" (The Three Marys), and as "Los Tres Reyes Magos" (The three Wise Men) in Puerto Rico.[21]

Even traditional depictions of Orion have varied greatly. Cicero drew Orion in a similar fashion to the modern depiction. The Hunter held an unidentified animal skin aloft in his right hand; his hand was represented by Omicron2 Orionis and the skin was represented by the 5 stars designated Pi Orionis. Kappa and Beta Orionis represented his left and right knees, while Eta and Lambda Leporis were his left and right feet, respectively. As in the modern depiction, Delta, Epsilon, and Zeta represented his belt. His left shoulder was represented by Alpha Orionis, and Mu Orionis made up his left arm. Lambda Orionis was his head and Gamma, his right shoulder. The depiction of Hyginus was similar to that of Cicero, though the two differed in a few important areas. Cicero's animal skin became Hyginus's shield (Omicron and Pi Orionis), and instead of an arm marked out by Mu Orionis, he holds a club (Chi Orionis). His right leg is represented by Theta Orionis and his left leg is represented by Lambda, Mu, and Epsilon Leporis. Further Western European and Arabic depictions have followed these two models.[19]

Orion is bordered by Taurus to the northwest, Eridanus to the southwest, Lepus to the south, Monoceros to the east, and Gemini to the northeast. Covering 594 square degrees, Orion ranks twenty-sixth of the 88 constellations in size. The constellation boundaries, as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of 26 sides. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 04h 43.3m and 06h 25.5m, while the declination coordinates are between 22.87° and −10.97°.[26] The constellation's three-letter abbreviation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is "Ori".[27]

Orion is most visible in the evening sky from January to March,[28] winter in the Northern Hemisphere, and summer in the Southern Hemisphere. In the tropics (less than about 8Â° from the equator), the constellation transits at the zenith.

In the period May–July (summer in the Northern Hemisphere, winter in the Southern Hemisphere), Orion is in the daytime sky and thus not visible at most latitudes. However, for much of Antarctica in the Southern Hemisphere's winter months, the Sun is below the horizon even at midday. Stars (and thus Orion) are then visible at twilight for a few hours around local noon, low in the North. At the same time of day at the South Pole itself (Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station), Rigel is only 8° above the horizon, and the Belt sweeps just along it. In the Southern Hemisphere's summer months, when Orion is normally visible in the night sky, the constellation is actually not visible in Antarctica because the sun does not set at that time of year south of the Antarctic Circle.[29][30]

In countries close to the equator (e.g. Kenya, Indonesia, Colombia, Ecuador), Orion appears overhead in December around midnight and in the February evening sky.

Orion is very useful as an aid to locating other stars. By extending the line of the Belt southeastward, Sirius (α CMa) can be found; northwestward, Aldebaran (α Tau). A line eastward across the two shoulders indicates the direction of Procyon (α CMi). A line from Rigel through Betelgeuse points to Castor and Pollux (α Gem and β Gem). Additionally, Rigel is part of the Winter Circle asterism. Sirius and Procyon, which may be located from Orion by following imaginary lines (see map), also are points in both the Winter Triangle and the Circle.[31]

Orion's seven brightest stars form a distinctive hourglass-shaped asterism, or pattern, in the night sky. Four stars—Rigel, Betelgeuse, Bellatrix and Saiph—form a large roughly rectangular shape, in the centre of which lie the three stars of Orion's Belt—Alnitak, Alnilam and Mintaka. Coincidentally, these seven stars are among the most distant that can easily be seen with the naked eye. Descending from the 'belt' is a smaller line of three stars (the middle of which is in fact not a star but the Orion Nebula), known as the hunter's'sword'.

Many of the stars are luminous hot blue supergiants, with the stars of the belt and sword forming the Orion OB1 Association. Standing out by its red hue, Betelgeuse may nevertheless be a runaway member of the same group.

Of the lesser stars, Meissa (or Lambda Orionis) forms Orion's head, whilst Hatsya (or Iota Orionis) forms the tip of Orion's sword. Iota Orionis is also called Nair al-Saif, Arabic for "the brightest in the sword".[31]

Orion's Belt or The Belt of Orion is an asterism within the constellation. It consists of the three bright stars Zeta (Alnitak), Epsilon (Alnilam), and Delta (Mintaka). Alnitak is around 800 light years away from earth and is 100,000 times more luminous than the Sun; much of its radiation is in the ultraviolet range, which the human eye cannot see.[39] Alnilam is approximately 1340 light years away from Earth, shines with magnitude 1.70, and with ultraviolet light is 375,000 times more luminous than the Sun.[38] Mintaka is 915 light years away and shines with magnitude 2.21. It is 90,000 times more luminous than the Sun and is a double star: the two orbit each other every 5.73 days.[37] Looking for Orion's Belt in the night sky is the easiest way to locate the constellation. In the Northern Hemisphere, Orion's Belt is best visible in the night sky during the month of January around 9:00 pm, when it is approximately around the local meridian.[1]

Just southwest of Alnitak lies Sigma Orionis, a multiple star system composed of five stars that have a combined apparent magnitude of 3.7 and lying 1150 light years distant. Southwest of Mintaka lies the quadruple star Eta Orionis.

Three stars compose a small triangle that marks the head. The apex is marked by Meissa (Lambda Orionis), a hot blue giant of spectral type O8 III and apparent magnitude 3.54, which lies some 1100 light years distant. Phi-1 and Phi-2 Orionis make up the base. Also nearby is the very young star FU Orionis.

Stretching north from Betelgeuse are the stars that make up Orion's club. Mu Orionis marks the elbow, Nu and Xi mark the handle of the club, and Chi1 and Chi2 mark the end of the club. Just east of Chi1 is the Mira-type variable red giant U Orionis.

West from Bellatrix lie six stars all designated Pi Orionis (π1 Ori, π2 Ori, π3 Ori, π4 Ori, π5 Ori and π6 Ori) which make up Orion's shield.

Around 20 October each year the Orionid meteor shower (Orionids) reaches its peak. Coming from the border with the constellation Gemini as many as 20 meteors per hour can be seen. The shower's parent body is Halley's Comet.[40]

Hanging from Orion's belt is his sword, consisting of the multiple stars θ1 and θ2 Orionis, called the Trapezium and the Orion Nebula (M42). This is a spectacular object that can be clearly identified with the naked eye as something other than a star. Using binoculars, its clouds of nascent stars, luminous gas, and dust can be observed. The Trapezium cluster has many newborn stars, including several brown dwarfs, all of which are at an approximate distance of 1,500 light-years. Named for the four bright stars that form a trapezoid, it is largely illuminated by the brightest stars, which are only a few hundred thousand years old. Observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory show both the extreme temperatures of the main stars—up to 60,000 kelvins—and the star forming regions still extant in the surrounding nebula.[41]

M78 (NGC 2068) is a nebula in Orion. With an overall magnitude of 8.0, it is significantly dimmer than the Great Orion Nebula that lies to its south; however, it is at approximately the same distance, at 1600 light-years from Earth. It can easily be mistaken for a comet in the eyepiece of a telescope. M78 is associated with the variable star V351 Orionis, whose magnitude changes are visible in very short periods of time.[42] Another fairly bright nebula in Orion is NGC 1999, also close to the Great Orion Nebula. It has an integrated magnitude of 10.5 and is 1500 light-years from Earth. The variable star V380 Orionis is embedded in NGC 1999.[43]

Another famous nebula is IC 434, the Horsehead Nebula, near Î¶ Orionis. It contains a dark dust cloud whose shape gives the nebula its name.

NGC 2174 is an emission nebula located 6400 light-years from Earth.

Besides these nebulae, surveying Orion with a small telescope will reveal a wealth of interesting deep-sky objects, including M43, M78, as well as multiple stars including Iota Orionis and Sigma Orionis. A larger telescope may reveal objects such as Barnard's Loop and the Flame Nebula (NGC 2024), as well as fainter and tighter multiple stars and nebulae.

All of these nebulae are part of the larger Orion Molecular Cloud Complex, which is located approximately 1,500 light-years away and is hundreds of light-years across. It is one of the most intense regions of stellar formation visible within our galaxy.

Orion is located on the celestial equator, but it will not always be so located due to the effects of precession of the Earth's axis. Orion lies well south of the ecliptic, and it only happens to lie on the celestial equator because the point on the ecliptic that corresponds to the June solstice is close to the border of Gemini and Taurus, to the north of Orion. Precession will eventually carry Orion further south, and by AD 14000 Orion will be far enough south that it will become invisible from the latitude of Great Britain.[44]

Further in the future, Orion's stars will gradually move away from the constellation due to proper motion. However, Orion's brightest stars all lie at a large distance from the Earth on an astronomical scale—much farther away than Sirius, for example. Orion will still be recognizable long after most of the other constellations—composed of relatively nearby stars—have distorted into new configurations, with the exception of a few of its stars eventually exploding as supernovae, for example Betelgeuse, which is predicted to explode sometime in the next million years.[45]


what is the center of a trampoline called

The fabric that users bounce on (commonly known as the "bounce mat" or "trampoline bed") is not elastic itself; the elasticity is provided by the springs that connect it to the frame, which store potential energy.

Trampoline

A trampoline is a device consisting of a piece of taut, strong fabric stretched between a steel frame using many coiled springs. People bounce on trampolines for recreational and competitive purposes.

A game similar to trampolining was developed by the Inuit, who would toss blanket dancers into the air on a walrus skin one at a time (see Nalukataq) during a spring celebration of whale harvest. There is also some evidence of people in Europe having been tossed into the air by a number of people holding a blanket. Mak in the Wakefield Second Shepherds' Play and Sancho Panza in Don Quixote are both subjected to blanketing â€“ however, these are clearly non-voluntary, non-recreational instances of quasi-judicial, mob-administered punishment. The trampoline-like life nets once used by firefighters to catch people jumping out of burning buildings were invented in 1887.

The 19th-century poster for Pablo Fanque's Circus Royal refers to performance on trampoline. The device is thought to have been more like a springboard than the fabric-and-coiled-springs apparatus presently in use.[1]

These may not be the true antecedents of the modern sport of trampolining, but indicate that the concept of bouncing off a fabric surface has been around for some time. In the early years of the 20th century, some acrobats used a "bouncing bed" on the stage to amuse audiences. The bouncing bed was, a form of small trampoline covered by bedclothes, on which acrobats performed mostly comedy routines.

According to circus folklore, the trampoline was supposedly first developed by an artiste named du Trampolin, who saw the possibility of using the trapeze safety net as a form of propulsion and landing device and experimented with different systems of suspension, eventually reducing the net to a practical size for separate performance. While trampoline-like devices were used for shows and in the circus, the story of du Trampolin is almost certainly apocryphal. No documentary evidence has been found to support it.

The first modern trampoline was built by George Nissen and Larry Griswold in 1936.[2] Nissen was a gymnastics and diving competitor and Griswold was a tumbler on the gymnastics team, both at the University of Iowa, United States. They had observed trapeze artists using a tight net to add entertainment value to their performance and experimented by stretching a piece of canvas, in which they had inserted grommets along each side, to an angle iron frame by means of coiled springs. It was initially used to train tumblers but soon became popular in its own right. Nissen explained that the name came from the Spanish trampolÃn, meaning a diving board. Nissen had heard the word on a demonstration tour in Mexico in the late 1930s and decided to use an anglicized form as the trademark for the apparatus.[3]

In 1942, Griswold and Nissen created the Griswold-Nissen Trampoline & Tumbling Company, and began making trampolines commercially in Cedar Rapids, Iowa.

The generic term for the trademarked trampoline was a rebound tumbler[4] and the sport began as rebound tumbling. It has since lost its trademark and has become a generic trademark.

Early in their development Nissen anticipated trampolines being used in a number of recreational areas, including those involving more than one participant on the same trampoline. One such game was Spaceballâ€”a game of two teams of two on a single trampoline with specially constructed end "walls" and a middle "wall" through which a ball could be propelled to hit a target on the other side's end wall.[5]

During World War II, the United States Navy Flight School developed the use of the trampoline in its training of pilots and navigators, giving them concentrated practice in spatial orientation that had not been possible before.[6] After the war, the development of the space flight programme again brought the trampoline into use to help train both American and Soviet astronauts, giving them experience of variable body positions in flight.

The first Trampoline World Championships were organised by Ted Blake of Nissen, and held in London in 1964. The first World Champions were both American, Dan Millman and Judy Wills Cline. Cline went on to dominate and become the most highly decorated trampoline champion of all time.

One of the earliest pioneers of trampoline as a competitive sport was Jeff Hennessy, a coach at the University of Louisiana at Lafayette. Hennessy also coached the United States trampoline team, producing more world champions than any other person. Among his world champions was his daughter, Leigh Hennessy. Both Jeff and Leigh Hennessy are in the USA Gymnastics Hall of Fame.

The competitive gymnastic sport of trampolining has been part of the Olympic Games since 2000. On a modern competitive trampoline, a skilled athlete can bounce to a height of up to 10 metres (33Â ft), performing multiple somersaults and twists. Trampolines also feature in the competitive sport of Slamball, a variant of basketball, and Bossaball, a variant of volleyball.

There are a number of other sports that use trampolines to help develop and hone acrobatic skills in training before they are used in the actual sporting venue. Examples can be found in diving, gymnastics, and freestyle skiing. One main advantage of trampolining as a training tool for other acrobatic sports is that it allows repetitive drill practice for acrobatic experience every two seconds or less, compared with many minutes with sports that involve hills, ramps or high platforms. In some situations it can also be safer compared to landings on the ground.

There are two generic types of trampoline, competitive and recreational.

The frame of a competitive trampoline is made of steel and can be made to fold up for transportation to competition venues. The trampoline bed is rectangular 4.28 by 2.14 metres (14 ft 1 in × 7 ft 0 in) in size fitted into the 5.05 by 2.91 metres (17 ft × 10 ft) frame [7] with around 110 steel springs (the actual number may vary by manufacturer). The bed is made of a strong fabric, although this is not itself elastic; the elasticity is provided only by the springs. The fabric can be woven from webbing, which is the most commonly used material. However, in the 2007 World Championships held in Quebec City, a Ross bed (or two-string bed), woven from individual thin strings, was used. This type of bed gives a little extra height to the rebound.

Recreational trampolines for home use are less sturdily constructed than competitive ones and their springs are weaker. They may be of various shapes, though most are circular, octagonal or rectangular. The fabric is usually a waterproof canvas or woven polypropylene material.

As with competitive trampolines, recreational trampolines are usually made using coiled steel springs to provide the rebounding force, but spring-free trampolines also exist.

In 1959 and 1960 it became very popular to have outdoor commercial "jump centres" or "trampoline parks" in many places in North America where people could enjoy recreational trampolining. However, these tended to have a high accident rate, and the public's interest rapidly waned.[8]

In the early 21st century, indoor commercial trampoline parks have made a comeback, with a number of franchises operating across the United States and Canada. ABC News has reported that in 2014 there were at least 345 trampoline parks operating in the United States.[9] Similar parks have more recently been opened in other countries.[10] The International Association of Trampoline Parks (IATP) estimated that park numbers had grown from 35-40 parks in 2011 to around 280 in 2014. The following year, IATP estimated that 345 parks were open by the end of 2014, and that another 115 would open by the end of 2015 in North America. IATP also estimated that at the end of 2014 there were 40 parks outside of North America, and that by the end of 2015 there would be at least 100 indoor trampoline parks open internationally.[11][12] More notable companies include CircusTrix and Sky Zone.

These commercial parks are located indoors, and have wall-to wall-trampolines to prevent people falling off the trampolines on to hard surfaces. Padded or spring walls protect people from impact injuries. Despite these precautions, there has been at least one death recorded due to a head-first landing at a trampoline park.[13] In March 2012, New York Yankees pitcher Joba Chamberlain seriously injured his ankle while jumping at a commercial jump centre in Tampa with his son.[14] In 2018, a man died in a British Columbia trampoline park, which prompted calls for more safety regulations for these popular activities.[15]

Wall running is a sport where the participant uses a wall and platforms placed next to the trampoline bed to do tricks. The basic movement is a backdrop on the trampoline and then the feet touching the wall at the top of the bounce. From there, there is no limit to the acrobatic movements that are possible, similar to regular trampolining. The advantage is that twists and turns can be initiated more forcefully from a solid wall and that the vertical speed can be transferred to rotation in addition to forces from the legs or arms. Additionally, energy can be gained both from the bed at the bottom of the bounce, and from the wall at the top of the bounce.

Using a trampoline can be dangerous. Organized clubs and gyms usually have large safety end-decks with foam pads at each end, and spotters are placed alongside the trampoline to try to break the fall of any athlete who loses control and falls. In 1999, the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission estimated there were 100,000 hospital emergency room visits for trampoline injuries.[16]

Due to the much larger numbers involved and lesser safety standards, the majority of injuries occur on privately owned home trampolines or in commercial trampoline facilities rather than organized gyms.[17] Bouncing off a trampoline can result in a fall of 3–4 metres (10–13 ft) from the peak of a bounce to the ground or a fall into the suspension springs and frame. There has been an increase in the number of home trampolines in recent years and a corresponding increase in the number of injuries reported. Some medical organizations have suggested that the devices be banned from home use.[18][19]

Authorities recommend that only one person should be allowed to jump at a time to avoid collisions and people being catapulted in an unexpected direction or higher than they expect. One of the most common sources of injury is when multiple users are bouncing on the trampoline at one time. More often than not, this situation leads to users bouncing into one another and thus becoming injured; many suffer broken bones as a result of landing badly after knocking into another user.[19]

Another of the most common sources of serious injury is an attempt to perform somersaults without proper training. In some cases, people land on their neck or head, which can cause paralysis or even death.[19] In an infamous incident in the 1960s, pole-vaulting champion Brian Sternberg became paralyzed from the neck down in a trampoline accident.

Danger can be reduced by burying the trampoline so the bed is closer to the surrounding surface to lessen falling distance, and padding that surrounding area. Pads over the spring and frame reduce the severity of impact injuries. Keeping the springs covered also reduces the risk of a limb falling between the gaps in the springs and the rest of the body falling off the trampoline.

Kits are available for home trampolines that provide a retaining net around the trampoline and prevent users from bouncing over the edge. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that there is no epidemiological evidence that these improve safety.[19] The nets do prevent jumpers falling off the trampoline onto the ground, but these falls are not the most common source of injury. Multiple users bouncing in a netted trampoline can still be injured. Safety net enclosures have a larger benefit for safeguarding solo trampolinists, so long as they avoid falling on their head or neck.

Having some training in a gym may be beneficial in alerting people to possible hazards and provide techniques to avoid bad falls.[20]

Family-oriented commercial areas in North America, such as shopping centres, carnivals, and so on, often include closed inflatable trampolines (CITs) as a children's attraction. These have safety nets on the sides to prevent injuries.

A mini-trampoline (also known as a rebounder, trampette, jogging trampoline, or exercise trampoline) is a type of trampoline less than 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) in diameter and about 30 centimetres (12 in) off the ground, often kept indoors and used as part of a physical fitness regime. So-called rebounding provides a form of exercise with a low impact on knees and joints. Mini-trampolines do not give a rebound as high as larger recreational or competitive trampolines.

In co-operation with the University of Bremen and the German Aerospace Center (DLR), the machtWissen.de Corporation from Bremen, Germany developed the weightlessness demonstrator "Gravity Jumper" based on a trampoline. Due to the acceleration during the jump, an acceleration force takes effect in addition to the usual gravitational force. Both forces add up and the person on the trampoline seems to become heavier. As soon as the jumper leaves the trampoline, he is under a free fall condition, which means that the jumper seems weightless and does not feel the acceleration due to gravity. Every person receives a three-axis acceleration sensor, fastened to them with a belt. The sensor transmits the data of the flight path to a monitor; a monitor shows the course of the acceleration, including the weightless phase. The interplay of acceleration due to the trampoline and weightlessness becomes apparent.


why thrissur is called cultural capital of kerala

Thrissur is also known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala because of its cultural, spiritual and religious leanings throughout history.[8] It contains the Kerala Sangeetha Nadaka Academy, Kerala Lalithakala Akademi and Kerala Sahitya Academy.[9] The city hosts the Thrissur Pooram festival, the most colourful and spectacular temple festival in Kerala.[10][11] The festival is held at the Thekkinkadu Maidan in April or May.[8] Thrissur has a large number of well-known temples including the Vadakkumnathan temple, Thiruvambadi Sri Krishna Temple and Paramekkavu temple, and the Guruvayur temple as well as two famous churches, the Our Lady of Lourdes Syro-Malabar Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral and the Our Lady of Dolours Syro-Malabar Catholic Basilica, the largest Christian church in India.[12]

Thrissur

Thrissur  pronunciation (help·info) (originally Thiru Siva Peroor and previously known by its anglicised form as Trichur, is the fourth largest city, the third largest urban agglomeration in Kerala (Pop. 1,854,783) and the 20th largest in India.[3][4] It is also the headquarters of the Thrissur District.[5] The City is built around a 65-acre (26 ha) hillock called the Thekkinkadu Maidan which seats the Vadakkumnathan temple. Thrissur was once the capital of the Kingdom of Cochin. It is located 300 kilometres (186 mi) towards north-west of the state capital Thiruvananthapuram.

The name Thrissur is a shortened form of Thiru-Shiva-Per-Ur (Malayalam: തിരു-ശിവ-പേര്-ഊര്, Lord-Shiva-Name-Town) literally translates to 'The City or Town with the name of the "Lord Shiva"'. The name owes itself to the most prominent feature of the city, that is the Vadakkumnathan Temple, which has Shiva as its presiding deity.[6] Alternately, Thri-Shiva-Perur (Malayalam: ത്രി-ശിവ-പേരൂർ, Three-Shiva-Palace) means the place with three famous Shiva temples which are said to be – the Vadakkumnathan Temple, Kottapuram Shiva temple and the Poonkunnam Siva Temple. Thrissur was known by its anglicised name Trichur until 1990, when the government decided to replace it with its Malayalam name. Thrissur was also known as "Vrishabhadripuram" (Kailasam of the South) in ancient days.[7]

Thrissur has historically been a centre of Hindu scholarship. The city has one of the most important temples of Hindu Shaivism, that is the Vadakunnathan temple. The district is also home of one of the most holiest Hindu Vaishnava temples, the Guruvayur temple. Christianity, Islam and Judaism entered into the Indian subcontinent through the Thrissur District. The works of scholars and Eastern Christian writings claim Thomas the Apostle to have set foot in Muziris near Thrissur 2,000 years ago. (AD 51â€“52)[13][14] India's first mosque, Cheraman Juma Masjid, opened in AD 629.[15][16][16][17][18][19] Thrissur has opened the gates for Arabs, Romans, Portuguese, Dutch and English.

The city has served as an incubator for many Malayali entrepreneurs,[20] and is a major financial and commercial hub of Kerala.[21] It flexes its economic muscle in India as the headquarters of three major scheduled banks, South Indian Bank Ltd, Catholic Syrian Bank and Dhanalakshmi Bank Ltd and a clutch of Chit funds.[22] The city is also a big centre for shopping in Kerala for silks and gold jewellery. Thrissur attracts the largest number of domestic tourists in Kerala.[23]

Apart from being the cultural nerve centre of Kerala, it is also a major academic hub and is home to several educational institutions including the Kerala Kalamandalam, St Thomas College which is more than a century old, Jawahar Bal Bhavan Thrissur, Kerala Police Academy, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala University of Medical and Allied Sciences, College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kerala Institute of Local Administration and Kerala Forest Research Institute.[24][25][26]

[27] The Ramavarmapuram monument is in granite and is of the menhir type. The monument in Ramavarmapuram is 15 feet (4.6 m) in height and 12 feet 4 inches (3.76 m) wide. Since 1944, it has been protected by the Department of Archaeology. The monument is locally known as Padakkallu or Pulachikkallu. These menhirs are memorials put up at burial sites for the departed souls. They belong to the Megalithic Age of Kerala, which is roughly estimated between 1000 BCE and 500 CE.[28] All such monuments have not been dated exactly. Some experts are of the view that these are the remnants of the Neolithic Age in the development of human technology. The Ramavarmapuram menhir is also believed to be a monument belonging to the Sangam period in the South Indian history.[29]

Another monolithic monuments like Dolmens and rock-cut caves are at Porkulam, Chiramanengad, Eyyal, Kattakambal and Kakkad. According to historians, the dolmens are burial sites. Though most of the monuments were well protected, the dolmen at Porkulam was in a neglected condition. The monument excavated under eminent Archaeologist B. K. Thapar, between 1949 and 1950, was under the Department of Archaeology.[27] Another megalithic monument is situated at Ariyannur in Thrissur. This place has unravelled monuments such as the Kudakkallu or Thoppikkallu (Mushroom stones or Umbrella stones) and 'Munimada' (Saint's abode).[30] The laterite hillocks of Ariyannur rise to about 50 metres. Another reference in Ariyannur dates back to the early 15th century in the poem Chandrotsavam.[30]

The region can claim to have played a significant part in fostering the trade relations between Kerala and the outside world in the ancient and medieval period. The early political history of Thrissur is interlinked with that of the Chera Dynasty of the Sangam age, who ruled over vast portions of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. After the Cheras, the place was later ruled by the Kingdom of Cochin (Perumpadapu Swaroopam). Later, a powerful dynasty known as Zamorins of Calicut captured most of the Thrissur in 14th and 15th century.

Next was the turn of Portuguese who ruled Thrissur in the 16th century. In the beginning of the 17th century the Portuguese power was reduced and Dutch became the main power. With the help of Dutch, Cochin Royal Family recaptured Thrissur from Samoothiri in 1710.[31]

The modern City of Thrissur rose to importance after Sakthan Thampuran ascended the throne of Kingdom of Cochin (1769â€“1805). He changed the capital of Cochin Royal Family to Thrissur from Mattancherry and abolished the power of Namboothiri community, which controlled most of the temples of Thrissur district. The maharaja destroyed the forest around the Thekkinkadu Maidan which seats the Vadakkumnathan temple, and started the most spectacular cultural festival called Thrissur Pooram. Sakthan Thampuran laid the modern foundation stone of Thrissur and made the city into a major financial and commercial hub of South India, by inviting Syrian Christian families and Brahmins from adjoining areas.[31]

However, during 1750â€“60 Hyder Ali, the Sultan of Mysore, attacked Thrissur and became tributary of the Kingdom of Mysore. Tipu Sultan, his son led another invasion in 1786 to Thrissur, where he destroyed the churches of Syrian Malabar Nasrani community and Hindu temples. Tipu Sultan's Army set fire to the church at Palayoor and attacked the Ollur church.[32] The economy of Thrissur totally collapsed because of this invasion.[33] Later he made a retreat from Thrissur, which served as the headquarters of Kerala region, after the Srirangapattanam war. In the meantime, Rama Varma X, the successor of Sakthan Thampuran signed a treaty with East Indian Company, and made Cochin a subsidiary of the British.

The Indian freedom movement struggle also grew in momentum in Thrissur after a Committee was formed in 1919 of the Indian National Congress. In 1921, the Civil Disobedience Movement also attracted a large number of people into the freedom struggle. In 1927 Mahatma Gandhi visited Vivekodayam School in the city.[34] In 1934, father of the nation, again visited the city for the housewarming of Barrister Krishna Menon. The house afterwards was known "Gandhi Mandiram" in Chembukkavu.[35] In the mean time, R. K. Shanmukham Chetty, the controversial Diwan of Cochin Kingdom from 1935 to 1941, was developing City by constructing Thrissur Town Hall and Ramanilayam. Even now also two monuments remain as the epicentre of Kerala politics. DR M R Menon, a minister in Government of Kochi was instrumental in building the Municipal Corporation Building, Thrissur and the Municipal Office Road. He even concerted Swaraj Round and other peripheries of the city road.[36][37]

In 1947, when India gained independence from the British rule, Thrissur was under Kingdom of Cochin. Thrissur district was formed on 1 July 1949, with the headquarters at Thrissur City. The city is usually referred to as the Cultural Capital of Kerala. The city had been a breeding ground of famous politicians and bureaucrats like R. K. Shanmukham Chetty, P.C. Rao, C. Achutha Menon, K. Karunakaran, Joseph Mundassery, Vinod Rai etc. after the independence. These individuals have changed the trajectory of Thrissur City afterwards.

P.S. Rao, advisor to the Rajapramukh and acting Governor of Kerala, is another person who Thrissurian is indebted to. He expanded Thrissur City by shifting all the administrative and government offices like Thrissur Collectorate to Ayyanthole from Chembukavu.[36] Government Engineering College, Thrissur, is another gift from Joseph Mundassery, the controversial former education minister who introduced Kerala Education Act. C. Achutha Menon, the former Chief Minister of Kerala gifted Kerala Agricultural University in 1971, a university for all agricultural related activities.[36]

K. Karunakaran, the Bhishma of Kerala politics started his career in Thrissur as a painter. Later on he became the "Leader" of city. During his regime Thrissur-Guruvayur Section and Poonkunnam Over Bridge was built.[38][39] Vinod Rai, the Comptroller and Auditor General of India, is another person who turned fortunes of the city by building Sakthan Thampuran Nagar (S.T.Nagar) when he was collector of Thrissur district. He is also known as the second Sakthan Thampuran of Thrissur by shifting the Municipal Stand near the M.O. Road to Shaktan Thampuran Nagar, now known as Shaktan Thampuran Private Bus Stand, Thrissur.[40] Another IAS officer who made remarkable contributions to the development of Trichur is Raju Narayana Swamy. He single-handedly widened five roads of the city- Pattalom Road, Inner Ring Road, Ragam Theatre Road, Padinjare Kotta and Chemputti Lane â€“ thereby changing the face of the town.

The city of Thrissur is situated in Thrissur District of Central Kerala in India. The city is located at 10°31′N 76°13′E / 10.52°N 76.21°E / 10.52; 76.21 and has an average altitude of 2.83 metres. The city is 75 km north-east of Kochi, 133 km south-west of Coimbatore, 144 km south-east of Kozhikode and 151 km north of Changanacherry.[41] The city is located in a hillock called Thekkinkadu Maidan which is the second highest point in city after the Vilangan Hills. From the hillock, the geography of the city move towards middle land where Thrissur Kole Wetlands is situated. The Kole Wetlands act as a natural drainage for the city where the water is carried out to river and from there to the Laccadive Sea, thus keeping Thrissur city safe from flood waters which affect most of the other cities in Kerala. [42][43][44][45] Different ponds, rivers and canals also keep the ground water safe from salt waters. The city is located in midland regions of Kerala, with an extended part of Palakkad plains.[46] The city geologically is composed of Archaean gneisses and crystalline schists. Major parts of city is covered by Archaeans rocks.[47] The city lies near the centre of the Indian tectonic plate (the Indian Plate) and is subject to comparatively little seismic or volcanic activity.

Under the Köppen climate classification, City of Thrissur features a Tropical monsoon climate. Summer lasts from March to May which is the hottest time of the year. Summer months are uncomfortable due to higher levels of heat and humidity. Daytime temperatures can rise up to 36- 38°C coupled with excessive humidity. Summer is followed by the South-west monsoon from June to September. October and November form the post monsoon or retreating monsoon season. Winter from December through February is cooler, and windy, due to winds from the Western Ghats. Winter months are generally dry and less humid compared to other months of the year. Morning temperatures are usually cool and daytime temperatures hover around 30°C.[48]

The City is drained in the monsoonal season by heavy showers. The average annual rainfall is 300Â cm. The South-west monsoon generally sets in during the last week of May. After July the rainfall decreases. On an average, there are 124 rainy days in a year. The maximum average temperature of the City in the summer season is 36-degree Celsius while the minimum temperature recorded is 27degrees Celsius. The winter season records a maximum average of 31-degree Celsius and a minimum average of 20-degree Celsius.[48]

Thrissur is home to many leading Malayali entrepreneurs,[20] and is a major financial and commercial hub of Kerala.[21] Historians say that King Sakthan Thampuran had invited several Syrian Christian families and Brahmins to settle in Thrissur city from their business centres in adjoining areas. Soon, Thrissur became a flourishing centre of internal trade in Kerala. Thrissur is one of the major manufacturing centres of plain gold and rolled gold jewellery in South India; up to 70% of Kerala's jewellery is manufactured in Thrissur. There are around 3,000 gold ornaments manufacturing units in the city and 40,000-odd artisans and others work in these units.[49][50] The industry provides direct and indirect employment to 200,000 people in Thrissur.[51][52] The artisans based in these units, craft nearly 85 percent of one tonne gold which is used per day in Kerala. About 90 tonnes of gold was being used annually in Kerala for manufacturing of ornaments daily.

According to Reserve Bank of India, the city in the 1930s boasted of head offices of 58 banks and was recognised by RBI as 'Banking Town'. Even now also it's the headquarters of major banks like South Indian Bank, Catholic Syrian Bank, Dhanalakshmi Bank, Lord Krishna Bank and non-banking institutions like Manappuram General Finance and Leasing Ltd, Kerala State Financial Enterprise and ESAF Microfinance and Investments.[53][54][55] The city's financial capabilities also saw the rise of Chit fund. According to All Kerala Kuri Foreman's Association, Kerala have around 5,000 chit companies, with Thrissur District accounting for the maximum of 3,000. These chit companies provide employment to about 35,000 persons directly and an equal number indirectly.[56][57]

The city is also emerging as the largest hub for Ayurvedic drug manufacturing industry in India. Out of the 850 ayurvedic drug-manufacturing units in Kerala, about 150 units, including some of the major ayurvedic drug manufacturers in the Kerala state are located in and around the city. Of these, some of the companies like the Oushadhi, Vaidyaratnam Oushadhasala, KP Namboodiris, Sitaram Ayurvedic Pharmacy Ltd, Kandamkulathy Vaidyasala, SNA Oushadhasala etc. are among the leading ayurvedic drug manufacturers in the state.[58] Thrissur Ayurveda Cluster, anonther initiative by a group of Ayurvedic manufacturers of Thrissur, has developed a cluster in KINFRA Park in Koratty in Thrissur District.[59][60][61][62][63][64]

Modern retailing is a big business and revenue earner for the city. Jewellery and textile retailing occupies a major part of the retailing business in Thrissur. The city is considered as hub of jewellery and textile business in Kerala. Most of the jewellery groups have outlets in Thrissur and provide jobs to thousands of people. Kalyan Group, Jos Alukka & Sons, Joyalukkas and Josco Group have their bases in city.[65] InfoPark Thrissur, the fourth technology park in Kerala after Thiruvananthapuram and Kochi and Kozhikode is situated in Thrissur District.[66][67][68] Tourism has also contributed heavily to the economy of Thrissur. Domestic tourists generally use the city as a hub to explore the highly promoted tourism industry of the state of Kerala. The city with its temples, old churches and its culture, is ranked first in the number of domestic tourists visiting Kerala.[23]

Thrissur city functioned as a municipality since 1921 under the Cochin Municipal Regulations.[69][70] In 1932, the new corporation building was constructed, and in 1972 new areas from other Panchayats were added to the municipality.[69] On 1 October 2000, the municipal town was upgraded to the level of a Municipal Corporation with the Panchayats of Ayyanthole, Koorkkenchery, Nadathara, Vilvattom (part), Ollur and Ollukkara. The Corporation comprises three legislative assemblies Thrissur, Ollur and Cherpu.[71] The city is administered by the Thrissur Municipal Corporation, headed by a mayor. The corporation is the second-largest city corporation in the state of Kerala in India. The city is the only local body in Kerala which directly controls power, water supply and solid waste management system in the city.

For administrative purposes, the city is divided into 52 wards, from which the members of the corporation council are elected for five years. The corporation has its headquarters in Thrissur city.[69][72] The Thrissur Urban Development Authority and Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD) are the agencies that prepare development plan for the city.[73][74][75][76]

The city is the headquarters of Thrissur City Police and Thrissur Rural Police. The Thrissur City Police is headed by a Police Commissioner, an Indian Police Service (IPS) officer. The city is divided into two sub divisions, Thrissur and Guruvayur. It also operates 14 police stations, including a woman police station and a traffic police station.[77][78][79]

The Thrissur City Police Commissionerate operates out of the erst-while District Armed Police headquarters at Ramavarmapuram. The Thrissur Rural Police has its headquarters at the District Collectorate complex at Ayyanthole. The city is also the headquarters of Inspector General of Police, Thrissur Range, which looks after the law and order of Thrissur District, Palakkad District and Malappuram district. All the Superintendent of Police of these three districts come under his jurisdiction. The city also contains the Kerala Police Academy,[80] Central Prison, Viyyur,[81] Police Dog Training Centre and Excise Academy and Research Centre. India Reserve Battalion, new commando unit of Kerala Police is headquartered in Ramavarmapuram.[82] Border Security Force (148 battalion) have its first centre in Kerala in Thrissur only.[83][84]

As of 2011[update] India census, Thrissur city had a population of 315,957.[85] Males constitute 48.2% and females constitute 51.8% of the total population numbering 152,296 and 163,661 respectively.[85] The density of population is 3,130/km2. The sex ratio is 1,092/1,000 male. The total number of the households in the city is 66,827. The average family size in the city is 4.27 members. The city has a slum population equivalent to 0.30% of the total city population and 0.37% of the Kerala's slum population. The city has an average literacy rate of 95.5%: male literacy rate is 97% whereas female literacy rate is 94.6%.

Thrissur Municipal Corporation is spread over an area of 101.42 km2. The city alone accounts for 38% of the urban population in the Thrissur District. Thrissur Urban Development Authority area encompasses the municipal corporation area and adjoining panchayats. The total area under municipal corporation jurisdiction is 101.42 km2, and the area under the Panchayats is 18.83 km2 Together, these constitute an area covering 120.25 km2.

Hindus constitute the majority with 54.2% of the population and numbering 171,252.[85] Christians constitute 40% of the population with 126,443 members.[85] Muslims constitute 5.4% of the population with 17,375 members.[85]

Thrissur has played a significant part in the political history of South India. The city of Thrissur is represented in the Kerala State Assembly by two elected members, one from Thrissur Assembly Constituency and another from Ollur Assembly Constituency. Adv V.S Sunilkumar is the representative of Thrissur Assembly Constituency and K.Rajan from Ollur Assembly Constituency. Thrissur city is also a part of the Thrissur Lok Sabha constituency and elects a member to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, once every five years. The current MP is C. N. Jayadevan. The Lok Sabha seat has been held by the Indian National Congress for six terms (1951–1957, 1984–1989, 1989–1991, 1991–1996, 1999–2004 and 2009–2014) and the Communist Party of India for ten terms (1957–1962, 1962–1967, 1967–1970, 1971–1977, 1977–1979, 1980–1984, 1996–1997, 1998–1999, 2004–2009 and 2014-present).

The city is connected to the North-South Corridor National Highway (India) via the four-lane National Highway 47.[86] The highway traverses through the entire length and breadth of the city from different points and provides access to the nearby cities such of Kochi, Palakkad and Coimbatore. NH 47 provides two main exit points at Mannuthy and which is bypass to the Thrissur city and Thalore. The city is largely dependent on private buses, Taxis and auto rickshaws (called autos) for public transport. A transit terminal mobility hub situated in Puzhakkal is also under wraps to be made on lines of Vyttila Mobility Hub to reduce traffic congestion is recently approved to be realised soon.[87]

State-owned Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) runs inter-state, inter-district and city services. Thrissur has three bus stations, the Shaktan Thampuran Private Bus Stand, Thrissur in Sakthan Thampuran Nagar, Vadakke Stand (Northern Bus Stand) and the Thrissur KSRTC Bus Station near the Thrissur Railway Station. State Highway (SH 69) Thrissur-Kuttippuram Road, SH 22 Kodungallur – Shornur Road, SH 75 Thrissur – Kanjani – Vadanappally Road are the three state highways which connect city with its suburbs and municipalities.

The Southern Railway Zone of the Indian Railways operates the main rail transport system in Thrissur. There are four railway stations in Thrissur city. Thrissur Railway Station, one of the four A+ railway station in Kerala provides trains to three directions and lies on the busy Shoranur-Cochin Harbour section. It has a satellite station, Punkunnam railway station[88] and two minor stations, Ollur Railway Station and Mulankunnathukavu Railway Station. Thrissur Railway Station also connects to the temple town of Guruvayur by Thrissur-Guruvayur Section. In addition, Southern Railways is running a suburban railway system connecting Thrissur to Kochi and Palakkad using Mainline Electrical Multiple Unit services (MEMU).[89][90][91]

The city is served by Cochin International Airport (Nedumbassery), which is about 55 kilometres away. Direct domestic flights are available to major Indian cities like New Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Chennai, Bangalore and Kolkata. International flights to Middle East cities like Dubai, Kuwait, Bahrain, Muscat, Sharjah, Jeddah, Riyadh, Doha and to Southeast Asian cities Singapore and Kuala Lumpur are available here. It has a dedicated Heli-taxi service and Chartered flights. Calicut International Airport at Karipur, is 80 kilometers from the city and Coimbatore Airport, which is 114 kilometers from the city also can be used by travellers.[92]

Known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala, the city enjoys a thriving cultural tradition dating back to centuries, and being the centre of Kerala's cultural activities. Thrissur Pooram also called as 'the pooram of all poorams' is celebrated in every year in the month of Medam (mid-April to mid-may) as per the malayalam calendar. It is the biggest of all poorams held in Kerala. The city plays host, for 36 hours from the wee hours of the pooram day, to one of the most largest collection of people and elephants.[93][94][95][96] Puli Kali also known as Kavakali is another festival, which attracts thousands of people to the city. It is performed by trained artists to entertain people on the occasion of Onam, an annual harvest festival, celebrated mainly in Kerala.[97][98] The most important festivals celebrated in the City include Christmas, Onam, Easter, Eid and Vishu. The City is widely acclaimed as the land of elephant lovers.[99][100] Aanayoottu (feeding of elephants), is the world largest elephant feeding ceremony held in Vadakkunnathan Temple in the City annually. The ceremony is conducted on the first day of the Malayalam month of Karkidakam.[101][102][103]

Literary lineage of city dates back to early history of Kerala but it came to prominence after Kerala Government set up Kerala Lalita Kala Akademi, Kerala Sahitya Academy, Kerala Sangeetha Nadaka Academy and College of Fine Arts, Thrissur for promoting literature, music and arts in Kerala. After the Indian Independence, Thrissur became the literary capital of Kerala as turned to the playground of novelist, poets and orators. In 1952 when Current Books set its first shop in Thrissur by former education Minister Professor Joseph Mundassery, it become the abode of writer's like O. V. Vijayan, Kovilan, V. K. N., Uroob, Edasseri Govindan Nair, M. T. Vasudevan Nair, K. G. Sankara Pillai and Sarah Joseph. The area was later known as Current Moola ("Current Corner").[104] The building that housed the Current Books bookshop was demolished in 2011.[105]

Thrissur is home to prominent malayalam literary figures like Kovilan, Kunhunni Mash, Sukumar Azhikode, K. Satchidanandan, Mullanezhi, Sarah Joseph, Attoor Ravi Varma, Lalitha Lenin, P. Bhaskaran, Joseph Mundassery.[106]

Temples The Vadakkunnathan temple, believed to have been founded by the legendary saint Parasurama, is a classic example of the Kerala style of architecture and houses several sacred shrines and with beautiful murals delineating graphically, various episodes from the Mahabharata. Thiruvambadi Sri Krishna Temple, one of the largest Sree Krishna temples in Kerala and Paramekkavu Bagavathi Temple which is one of the largest Bagavathi temples in Kerala is also situated in the city. Sree Guruvayurappan Temple, is located in Guruvayur (municipal town), Thrissur District. It is also referred to as Bhuloka Vaikunta which means "Holy Abode of Vishnu on Earth".

Churches Asia's tallest church, the Our Lady of Dolours Syro-Malabar Catholic Basilica (Puthan Pally), Our Lady of Lourdes Syro-Malabar Catholic Metropolitan Cathedral which has an underground shrine, is a masterpiece of architecture. Mart Mariam Cathedral, the oldest church in the city, which belongs to the Assyrian Church of the East also known as Chaldean Syrian Church of the East, is situated in Thrissur. The St. Anthony's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, also known as Chinna Roma (Small Rome) are also in Thrissur.

Mosques The Chettiyangadi Hanafi Mosque in Thrissur City is one of the oldest mosque in Thrissur. Kalathode Mosque (Kalathode Juma Masjid) in Thrissur city has the facility of cemetery. Kokkalai Juma Masjid, Westfort Sunni Juma Masjid (West Fort), Salafi Juma Masjid near Railway Station, MIC Juma Masjid near Shakthan Bus Stand, Ayyanthole Juma Masjid (Ayyanthole), Olari Juma Masjid(Olari) are other mosques in Thrissur City. Cheraman Juma Mosque in Kodungalloor, ( 40Â km from Thrissur ) is the First Mosque in India.

The cuisine of Thrissur is linked to its history, geography, demography and culture. Rice is the staple food. Achappam and Kuzhalappam are popular snacks. Vellayappam, a kind of rice hopper is another dish which is special to the city.

Already known as the Cultural Capital of Kerala, it is also fast developing as an education hub.[107][108] The City has traditionally been a centre of learning from ancient times. With the decline of Buddhism and Jainism and due to the growing supremacy of Brahminism during the revival of Hinduism, the City became an important centre of Sanskrit learning.[109][110] Schools in city are either run publicly by the Kerala Government or privately, some with financial aid from the Government. The medium of education is either English or Malayalam, with the former being the majority. Most schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board or Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) or the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE) or the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) or the Montessori system.[110][111] There are 93 lower primary schools; 34 upper primary schools;[112][113] and 78 high schools;[114] and 157[115] higher secondary schools in the city.

With universities like Kerala Kalamandalam, Kerala Police Academy, Kerala Agricultural University, Kerala University of Medical and Allied Sciences, National Research Institute for Panchakarma, Cheruthuruthy and Kerala Institute of Local Administration, the City would add another feather in its crown by having 'World Class University' and a 'Science City'. The Raj Kovu institute of Agriculture was made in 2012 to teach farmers about modern techniques of agriculture and better farming practices. The college currently has 300 students.[116][117][118] With the three medical colleges, Government Medical College, Thrissur, Jubilee Mission Medical College and Research Institute, Amala Institute of Medical Sciences and a medical university Kerala University of Medical and Allied Sciences, the city has become synonymous with medical education in Kerala there are has 2 kendriya vidyalayas.

The city serves as a centre for healthcare in the Central Kerala. The portion covers Thrissur District, Palakkad District, Malappuram District and northern part of Ernakulam District. Most of the people in these districts come to city of Thrissur for their medical care. There are three medical colleges, Government Medical College, Thrissur, Amala Institute of Medical Sciences and Jubilee Mission Medical College and Research Institute, and few other hi-tech hospitals.

The city has an ancient tradition of Ayurvedic treatment. From the Ashtavaidya tradition, Oushadhi, Vaidyaratnam Oushadhasala, Sitaram Ayurvedic Pharmacy Ltd and SNA Oushadhasala is located in city of Thrissur,[64] All these firms have been instrumental in spreading the fame of Kerala Ayurvedic treatment, as thousands of overseas patients visit the Ayurvedic treatment facilities in and around Thrissur, every year. Vaidyaratnam runs a medical college and Chikitsalayam, with global standards. Sitaram have a 100 bedded eight storied super speciality hospital in the city of Thrissur, envisaged as the first of its kind Ayurveda super speciality hospital in the country.[64]

The city has been the breeding ground for the Kerala footballers, and Football is the most popular sport in the city. There are two football stadiums in the city, Thrissur Municipal Corporation Stadium and Thope Stadium. Famous international players and former Indian captains C. V. Pappachan, I. M. Vijayan and Jo Paul Ancheri belong to Thrissur. The N.I. David Memorial Trophy, an annual inter-club football tournament is held in Thrissur every year. The football championship was started in 1996 by the then Superintendent of Police, Thrissur.[119][120][121][122][123] The city has a floodlit stadium, known as Thrissur Municipal Corporation Stadium.[124] It also has two indoor stadiums, V.K.N. Menon Indoor Stadium and a Sports Authority of India (SAI) maintained Thrissur Aquatic Complex with international facilities. Thrissur has contributed many national and international bodybuilding stars to India such as TV Poly and VM Basheer.[124] Chess prodigy Nihal Sarin is from Thrissur.

The first Malayalam newspaper which published from Thrissur was Lokamanyan in 1920. Then came Deenabandhu edited by V. R. Krishnan Ezhuthachan. Ezhuthachan started publishing as a weekly in 1941 from Thrissur. It was one of the first periodicals that supported the national movement. As soon as the Quit India movement was started, its editor and staff were sent to jail and publications were banned.[125] Later Lokamanyan (1920); Kerala Chintamani (1905); Kerala Kesari (1924); Mahatma (1930); Gomathy (1930) and Navajeevan of Joseph Mundassery was also published from Thrissur.[126][127][128]The Express started in 1944 from Thrissur with K Krishanan as the editor is very popular in Central Kerala for its nationalist and socialist views.[125] Major Malayalam newspapers published in Thrissur include Malayala Manorama, Mathrubhumi, Madhyamam, Deepika, Kerala Kaumudi, Deshabhimani, Mangalam, Veekshanam, Metro Vaartha and Janayugom. A number of evening papers, like General in Malayalam and City Journal in English, are also published from the City. Newspapers in other regional languages like Hindi, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are also available in city.

The first cinema hall in Kerala, with a manually operated film projector, was opened in Thrissur by Jose Kattookkaran in 1907. In 1913, the first electrically operated film projector was established in city again by Jose Kattookkaran and was called the Jose Electrical Bioscope now famously known as Jose Theatre.[129][130][131]

A film festival, known as ViBGYOR Film Festival, is held in the city every year. It is an international short and documentary film festival. Telephony services are provided by various players like Aircel, Airtel, Idea cellular, Vodafone, Reliance Infocomm, Tata Docomo, MTS, Uninor, Tata Indicom and the state owned BSNL. BSNL is also offering 3G services in Thrissur.[132] The city also have Broadband wireless services on WiMAX platform.[133][134]

Private FM radio stations in the Thrissur are Club FM 104.8 MHz, Radio Mango 91.9  MHz,[135] BEST FM 95 by (Asianet Communications Limited), Red FM 91.1 MHz.[136] All India Radio has an AM (630 kHz) and an FM (101.1 MHz) station for the city.[137] The transmitter of the All India Radio (630 kHz) was commissioned on 4 November 1956. The station started independent broadcasting in 1974.[138][139] Thrissur has a Doordarshan studio with a low power transmitter located near the studio.[140][141][142]

2017 is being celebrated by the United Nation Organisation as the year of sustainable development of tourism. Keeping this in mind, DTPC, Thrissur, under the department of tourism, Kerala has launched Tourism Circuits all across the District, with a view to promote and uplift these cherished hopes. In order to full fill the goals, six (06) Tourism Circuits have been formed in Thrissur District, namely,

These circuits were conceptualised by the Assistant Collector Under Trainee Mr. M.V.R Krishna Teja IAS under the aegis of the District Collector Dr. A. Kowsigan IAS. They were inaugurated by the Honb Minister of Industries Sri A.C. Moideen and Honb Agriculture Minister Sri V.S. Sunil Kumar on 7 April.

Entrance gate of Thrissur Zoo

Archaeological Museum, Thrissur

Shakthan Thampuran Palace

Shakthan Thampuran Palace

St. Thomas College, Thrissur

Thrissur Town Hall

Mural Art Museum


what is the normal size of human testis

A length of a testicle can be measured with an orchidometer. Its volume is 15 to 25 ml.Template:Needs reference There is some evidence to suggest that average human testicle size and weight has been progressively diminishing in recent years among younger cohorts in Western industrialized nations. This may be associated with a decline in sperm counts. The recent changes suggest involvement of environmental or lifestyle factor(s) such as increasing exposure to endocrine disruptors.[1]

Testicle

The testicle or testis is the male reproductive gland in all animals, including humans. It is homologous to the female ovary. The functions of the testes are to produce both sperm and androgens, primarily testosterone. Testosterone release is controlled by the anterior pituitary luteinizing hormone; whereas sperm production is controlled both by the anterior pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone and gonadal testosterone.

Males have two testicles of similar size contained within the scrotum, which is an extension of the abdominal wall. Scrotal asymmetry is not unusual: one testicle extends further down into the scrotum than the other due to differences in the anatomy of the vascululature.

In healthy European adult humans, average testicular volume is 18 cm³ per testis, with normal size ranging from 12 cm³ to 30 cm³.[2] The average testicle size after puberty measures up to around 2 inches long, 0.8 inches in breadth, and 1.2 inches in height (5 x 2 x 3 cm). Measurement in the living adult is done in two basic ways:

The volume is then calculated using the formula for the volume of an ellipsoid: 4/3 π × (length/2) × (width/2) × (depth/2).

The size of the testicles is among the parameters of the Tanner scale for the maturity of male genitals, from stage I which represents a volume of less than 1.5 ml, to stage V which represents a testicular volume of greater than 20 ml.

The testes are covered by a tough membranous shell called the tunica albuginea. Within the testes are very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules. The tubules are lined with a layer of cells (germ cells) that develop from puberty through old age into sperm cells (also known as spermatozoa or male gametes). The developing sperm travel through the seminiferous tubules to the rete testis located in the mediastinum testis, to the efferent ducts, and then to the epididymis where newly created sperm cells mature (see spermatogenesis). The sperm move into the vas deferens, and are eventually expelled through the urethra and out of the urethral orifice through muscular contractions.

Within the seminiferous tubules

Between tubules (interstitial cells)

Blood supply and lymphatic drainage of the testes and scrotum are distinct:

Many anatomical features of the adult testis reflect its developmental origin in the abdomen. The layers of tissue enclosing each testicle are derived from the layers of the anterior abdominal wall. Notably, the cremasteric muscle arises from the internal oblique muscle.

Large molecules cannot pass from the blood into the lumen of a seminiferous tubule due to the presence of tight junctions between adjacent Sertoli cells. The spermatogonia are in the basal compartment (deep to the level of the tight junctions) and the more mature forms such as primary and secondary spermatocytes and spermatids are in the adluminal compartment.

The function of the blood–testis barrier (red highlight in diagram above) may be to prevent an auto-immune reaction. Mature sperm (and their antigens) arise long after immune tolerance is established in infancy. Therefore, since sperm are antigenically different from self tissue, a male animal can react immunologically to his own sperm. In fact, he is capable of making antibodies against them.

Injection of sperm antigens causes inflammation of the testis (auto-immune orchitis) and reduced fertility. Thus, the bloodâ€“testis barrier may reduce the likelihood that sperm proteins will induce an immune response, reducing fertility and so progeny.

Spermatogenesis is enhanced at temperatures slightly less than core body temperature.[6] The spermatogenesis is less efficient at lower and higher temperatures than 33 °C.[6] This is presumably why the testes are located outside the body.[6] There are a number of mechanisms to maintain the testes at the optimum temperature.[6]

The cremasteric muscle is part of the spermatic cord. When this muscle contracts, the cord is shortened and the testicle is moved closer up toward the body, which provides slightly more warmth to maintain optimal testicular temperature. When cooling is required, the cremasteric muscle relaxes and the testicle is lowered away from the warm body and is able to cool. Contraction also occurs in response to stress (the testicles rise up toward the body in an effort to protect them in a fight). There are persistent reports that relaxation indicates approach of orgasm.[citation needed] There is a noticeable tendency to also retract during orgasm.[citation needed]

The cremaster muscle can reflexively raise each testicle individually if properly triggered. This phenomenon is known as the cremasteric reflex. The testicles can also be lifted voluntarily using the pubococcygeus muscle, which partially activates related muscles.

The human genome includes approximately 20,000 protein coding genes: 80% of these genes are expressed in adult testes.[7] The testes have the highest fraction of tissue type-specific genes compared to other organs and tissues:[8] about 1000 of them are highly specific for the testes,[9] and about 2,200 show an elevated pattern of expression here. A majority of these genes encode for proteins that are expressed in the seminiferous tubules and have functions related to spermatogenesis.[10][11] Sperm cells express proteins that result in the development of flagella; these same proteins are expressed in the female in cells lining the fallopian tube, and cause the development of cilia. In other words, sperm cell flagella and Fallopian tube cilia are homologous structures. The testis-specific proteins that show the highest level of expression are protamines.

There are two phases in which the testes grow substantially; namely in embryonic and pubertal age.

During mammalian development, the gonads are at first capable of becoming either ovaries or testes.[12] In humans, starting at about week 4 the gonadal rudiments are present within the intermediate mesoderm adjacent to the developing kidneys. At about week 6, sex cords develop within the forming testes. These are made up of early Sertoli cells that surround and nurture the germ cells that migrate into the gonads shortly before sex determination begins. In males, the sex-specific gene SRY that is found on the Y-chromosome initiates sex determination by downstream regulation of sex-determining factors, (such as GATA4, SOX9 and AMH), which leads to development of the male phenotype, including directing development of the early bipotential gonad down the male path of development.

Testes follow the "path of descent" from high in the posterior fetal abdomen to the inguinal ring and beyond to the inguinal canal and into the scrotum. In most cases (97% full-term, 70% preterm), both testes have descended by birth. In most other cases, only one testis fails to descend (cryptorchidism) and that will probably express itself within a year.

The testes grow in response to the start of spermatogenesis. Size depends on lytic function, sperm production (amount of spermatogenesis present in testis), interstitial fluid, and Sertoli cell fluid production. After puberty, the volume of the testes can be increased by over 500% as compared to the pre-pubertal size.[citation needed] Testicles are fully descended before one reaches puberty.

Testicular enlargement is an unspecific sign of various testicular diseases, and can be defined as a testicular size of more than 5 cm (long axis) x 3 cm (short axis).[17]

Blue balls is a slang term for a temporary fluid congestion in the testicles and prostate region caused by prolonged sexual arousal.

Testicular prostheses are available to mimic the appearance and feel of one or both testicles, when absent as from injury or as treatment in association to gender dysphoria. There have also been some instances of their implantation in dogs.[18]

To some extent, it is possible to change testicular size. Short of direct injury or subjecting them to adverse conditions, e.g., higher temperature than they are normally accustomed to, they can be shrunk by competing against their intrinsic hormonal function through the use of externally administered steroidal hormones. Steroids taken for muscle enhancement (especially anabolic steroids) often have the undesired side effect of testicular shrinkage.

Similarly, stimulation of testicular functions via gonadotropic-like hormones may enlarge their size. Testes may shrink or atrophy during hormone replacement therapy or through chemical castration.

In all cases, the loss in testes volume corresponds with a loss of spermatogenesis.

Testicles of a male calf or other livestock are cooked and eaten in a dish sometimes called Rocky Mountain oysters.[19]

As early as 330 BC, Aristotle prescribed the ligation (tying off) of the left testicle in men wishing to have boys.[20] In the Middle Ages, men who wanted a boy sometimes had their left testicle removed. This was because people believed that the right testicle made "boy" sperm and the left made "girl" sperm.[21]

One theory about the etymology of the word testis is based on Roman law. The original Latin word "testis", "witness", was used in the firmly established legal principle "Testis unus, testis nullus" (one witness [equals] no witness), meaning that testimony by any one person in court was to be disregarded unless corroborated by the testimony of at least another. This led to the common practice of producing two witnesses, bribed to testify the same way in cases of lawsuits with ulterior motives. Since such "witnesses" always came in pairs, the meaning was accordingly extended, often in the diminutive (testiculus, testiculi).[citation needed]

Another theory says that testis is influenced by a loan translation, from Greek parastatÄ“s "defender (in law), supporter" that is "two glands side by side".[22]

In sharks, the testicle on the right side is usually larger, and in many bird and mammal species, the left may be the larger. The primitive jawless fish have only a single testis, located in the midline of the body, although even this forms from the fusion of paired structures in the embryo.[23]

In seasonal breeders, the weight of the testes often increases during the breeding season.[24] The testicles of a dromedary camel are 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in) long, 4.5 cm (1.8 in) deep and 5 cm (2.0 in) in width. The right testicle is often smaller than the left.[25] The testicles of a male red fox attain their greatest weight in December–February.[26] Spermatogenesis in male golden jackals occurs 10–12 days before the females enter estrus and, during this time, males' testicles triple in weight.[27]

The basal condition for mammals is to have internal testes.[28] The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen.[not in citation given][29] There are also some marsupials with external testes[30] and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros.[31] Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes.[32] As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.[33][34] The testes of the non-boreotherian mammals, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, and elephants, remain within the abdomen.[not in citation given][35] There are also some marsupials with external testes[30] and Boreoeutherian mammals with internal testes, such as the rhinoceros.[36] Cetaceans such as whales and dolphins also have internal testes.[37] As external testes would increase drag in the water they have internal testes which are kept cool by special circulatory systems that cool the arterial blood going to the testes by placing the arteries near veins bringing cooled venous blood from the skin.[38][39]

Boreoeutherian land mammals, the large group of mammals that includes humans, have externalized testes.[40] Their testes function best at temperatures lower than their core body temperature. Their testes are located outside of the body, suspended by the spermatic cord within the scrotum.

There are several hypotheses why most boreotherian mammals have external testes which operate best at a temperature that is slightly less than the core body temperature, e.g. that it is stuck with enzymes evolved in a colder temperature due to external testes evolving for different reasons, that the lower temperature of the testes simply is more efficient for sperm production.

1) More efficient. The classic hypothesis is that cooler temperature of the testes allows for more efficient fertile spermatogenesis. In other words, there are no possible enzymes operating at normal core body temperature that are as efficient as the ones evolved, at least none appearing in our evolution so far.

The early mammals had lower body temperatures and thus their testes worked efficiently within their body. However it is argued that boreotherian mammals have higher body temperatures than the other mammals and had to develop external testes to keep them cool. It is argued that those mammals with internal testes, such as the monotremes, armadillos, sloths, elephants, and rhinoceroses, have a lower core body temperatures than those mammals with external testes.[citation needed]

However, the question remains why birds despite having very high core body temperatures have internal testes and did not evolve external testes.[41] It was once theorized that birds used their air sacs to cool the testes internally, but later studies revealed that birds' testes are able to function at core body temperature.[41]

Some mammals which have seasonal breeding cycles keep their testes internal until the breeding season at which point their testes descend and increase in size and become external.[42]

2) Irreversible adaptation to sperm competition. It has been suggested that the ancestor of the boreoeutherian mammals was a small mammal that required very large testes (perhaps rather like those of a hamster) for sperm competition and thus had to place its testes outside the body.[43] This led to enzymes involved in spermatogenesis, spermatogenic DNA polymerase beta and recombinase activities evolving a unique temperature optimum, slightly less than core body temperature. When the boreoeutherian mammals then diversified into forms that were larger and/or did not require intense sperm competition they still produced enzymes that operated best at cooler temperatures and had to keep their testes outside the body. This position is made less parsimonious by the fact that the kangaroo, a non-boreoeutherian mammal, has external testicles. The ancestors of kangaroos might, separately from boreotherian mammals, have also been subject to heavy sperm competition and thus developed external testes, however, kangaroo external testes are suggestive of a possible adaptive function for external testes in large animals.

3) Protection from abdominal cavity pressure changes. One argument for the evolution of external testes is that it protects the testes from abdominal cavity pressure changes caused by jumping and galloping.[44]

4) Protection against DNA damage. Mild, transient scrotal heat stress causes DNA damage, reduced fertility and abnormal embryonic development in mice.[45] DNA strand breaks were found in spermatocytes recovered from testicles subjected to 40°C or 42°C for 30 minutes.[45] These findings suggest that the external location of the testicles provides the adaptive benefit of protecting spermatogenic cells from heat-induced DNA damage that could otherwise lead to infertility and germline mutation.

Testicular size as a proportion of body weight varies widely. In the mammalian kingdom, there is a tendency for testicular size to correspond with multiple mates (e.g., harems, polygamy). Production of testicular output sperm and spermatic fluid is also larger in polygamous animals, possibly a spermatogenic competition for survival. The testes of the right whale are likely to be the largest of any animal, each weighing around 500 kg (1,100 lb).[46]

Among the Hominidae, gorillas have little female promiscuity and sperm competition and the testes are small compared to body weight (0.03%). Chimpanzees have high promiscuity and large testes compared to body weight (0.3%). Human testicular size falls between these extremes (0.08%).[47]

Testis weight also varies in seasonal breeders like deer and horses.[citation needed] The change is related to changes in testosterone production.{{Citation needed|date=October 2013

Human testicles are smaller than chimpanzee testicles but larger than gorilla testicles.[48]

Under a tough membranous shell called the tunica albuginea, the testis of amniotes, as well as some teleost fish, contains very fine coiled tubes called seminiferous tubules.

Amphibians and most fish do not possess seminiferous tubules. Instead, the sperm are produced in spherical structures called sperm ampullae. These are seasonal structures, releasing their contents during the breeding season, and then being reabsorbed by the body. Before the next breeding season, new sperm ampullae begin to form and ripen. The ampullae are otherwise essentially identical to the seminiferous tubules in higher vertebrates, including the same range of cell types.[23]

Testicle hanging on cremaster muscle. These are two healthy testicles. Heat causes them to descend, allowing cooling.

A healthy scrotum containing normal size testes. The scrotum is in tight condition. The image also shows the texture.

Testicle of a cat: 1: Extremitas capitata, 2: Extremitas caudata, 3: Margo epididymalis, 4: Margo liber, 5: Mesorchium, 6: Epididymis, 7: testicular artery and vene, 8: Ductus deferens

Testis cross section

The right testis, exposed by laying open the tunica vaginalis.

Microscopic view of Rabbit testis 100Ã—


who does the voice of mr herbert on family guy

John Herbert (generally referred to simply as Herbert, sometimes referred to as Herbert the Pervert, and referred to as Mr. Herbert by Chris and sometimes other characters) is a fictional character in the animated television series Family Guy. He is voiced by Mike Henry, who also designed the character. Herbert is a World War II veteran who is an elderly neighbor of the Griffin family. He first appeared in the season 3 episode "To Love and Die in Dixie". He is attracted to young boys, and harbors unrequited love for underage teenager Chris Griffin, though most other citizens of Quahog are oblivious to his sexuality. Henry defines Herbert as a pedophile, although speaking in clinical terms this is not the case.[1]

Herbert (Family Guy character)

Herbert has received mixed reviews from critics, who have expressed varying opinions on the pedophilia-related humor involving the character. Herbert has appeared in various Family Guy merchandise and has made several crossover appearances in The Cleveland Show, a Family Guy spin-off.

Herbert lives in the fictional town of Quahog, Rhode Island, which is modeled after Cranston, Rhode Island.[2][3][4] He is an elderly man who dresses in a baby blue robe and requires a walking frame; his dog Jesse is similarly decrepit.[5]

In his first appearance, "To Love and Die in Dixie" (season 3, 2001), Herbert tries to get Chris inside the house by offering him a popsicle. In the episode "The Courtship of Stewie's Father" (season 4, 2005), Chris breaks Herbert's window and, to pay off the debt, Chris helps him with chores around the house. Herbert later invites him to dinner.[6][7] When Chris gets a new job in "Movin' Out (Brian's Song)" (season 6, 2007), his baby brother Stewie takes over his paper route; Herbert tries to seduce him but is rebuffed by Stewie, who shouts, "Piss off, you perverted old freak".[8] In the episode "Play It Again, Brian" (season 6, 2008), Herbert is hired by Peter and Lois to babysit their children Chris, Stewie and Meg.[9][10] He says that he has no interest in Meg because of her age and gender,[8] and is disappointed when she is the one of the three who volunteers to bathe him.[9] Herbert has a grand-niece, Sandy, whom he helps attract Chris in the style of Cyrano de Bergerac in the episode "Valentine's Day in Quahog" (season 11, 2013).[11]

In the episode "Padre de Familia" (season 6, 2007), Herbert is revealed to be a war veteran and sings "God Bless the USA" in the Veterans Day parade.[12] This is furthered in the season 9 (2011) episode "German Guy", in which Herbert reveals he was a member of the United States Army Air Forces during World War II and was captured by Wehrmacht forces when he was shot down over Germany while escorting a bombing raid. Although the Nazis could have placed Herbert into a prisoner-of-war camp, they instead threw him into a concentration camp because they found several pictures of young boys in his wallet and thought he was gay. He then finds that his tormentor, Franz, is living in Quahog, and becomes jealous of his new friendship with Chris.[13]

Herbert has appeared on various occasions in Family Guy spinoffs, as in a cutaway in "A Cleveland Brown Christmas", an episode of The Cleveland Show.[14] In Laugh It Up, Fuzzball: The Family Guy Trilogy,[15][16] Herbert appears as Obi-Wan Kenobi.[17]

Herbert was created by writer and voice actor Mike Henry. Henry met Family Guy creator Seth MacFarlane when his brother Patrick was a classmate of MacFarlane's at the Rhode Island School of Design. Henry was invited to write and create characters for Family Guy after the show was picked up. The first character he created was Cleveland Brown,[1] and he later created Herbert.[1]

Herbert was not originally a pedophile; Henry pitched the idea to the writers of the show, leading to the decision to make him one.[1] As with most of the other characters he created, Henry voices Herbert.[1] Henry based Herbert's voice and appearance on an elderly man he met when he worked in a grocery store when he was in high school. In an interview Henry described that man as a sweet person.[1]

IGN, an American entertainment website, has generally commented positively on him. They pointed out that Herbert is one of the most popular recurring characters in the series,[5][18] referring to him (with his dog Jesse) as one of the characters that stuck out from the rest.[18] They also noted that one of the reasons Herbert is funny is because of his "soft, high-pitched whistling voice".[5]

Although IGN has praised Herbert in general they have criticized some aspects of him.[5][18] In their review of "Blue Harvest", a retelling and parody of the 1977 film Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, recasting the show's characters into Star Wars roles, IGN criticized the choice of putting Herbert in the role of Obi-Wan Kenobi, stating that it never creates any actual humor.[19] They also criticized the constant use of Herbert, commenting that it was entertaining for the first two times, but that it quickly became overused.[5][18] In their list of "What Else Should Family Guy Make Fun Of?", IGN commented that Herbert would be perfect to play Major Toht and Hogwarts' new Defence Against the Dark Arts instructor should Family Guy ever decides to make parodies of Raiders of the Lost Ark and Harry Potter, respectively.[20]

A February 2015 article written by Hanh Nguyen for TV Guide listed pedophilia among the 12 biggest taboos shown on Family Guy, naming Herbert as the "creepiest of all" references to the disorder.[21] Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club criticized the character as an example of how the series occasionally fails in its deliberately offensive humor. He called him "a black hole of shittiness whose every appearance brings out the worst tendencies of Family Guy", adding that his "appearance brings every episode he's in to a screeching halt".[22]

Herbert, along with his dog Jesse, ranked spot number 16 in IGN's "Top 25 Family Guy Characters".[5] Herbert also ranked number five on IGN's "The Cleveland Show Casting Couch", which showed characters that IGN would find interesting to put in The Cleveland Show.[18]

In 2004, the first series of Family Guy toy figurines was released by Mezco Toyz. Each member of the Griffin family and other characters (including Herbert) had their own toy, with the exception of Stewie, of whom two different figures were made.[23] Over the course of two years, four more series of toy figures have been released.[24] Herbert is also featured on the Family Guy: Live in Vegas CD.[25]