what is the medical term for neck pain

Neck pain (or cervicalgia) is a common problem, with two-thirds of the population having neck pain at some point in their lives.[1]

Neck pain

Neck pain, although felt in the neck, can be caused by numerous other spinal problems. Neck pain may arise due to muscular tightness in both the neck and upper back, or pinching of the nerves emanating from the cervical vertebrae. Joint disruption in the neck creates pain, as does joint disruption in the upper back.

The head is supported by the lower neck and upper back, and it is these areas that commonly cause neck pain. The top three joints in the neck allow for most movement of the neck and head. The lower joints in the neck and those of the upper back create a supportive structure for the head to sit on. If this support system is affected adversely, then the muscles in the area will tighten, leading to neck pain.

Neck pain affects about 5% of the global population as of 2010.[2]

Neck pain may come from any of the structures in the neck including: vascular, nerve, airway, digestive, and musculature / skeletal, or be referred from other areas of the body.[3]

Major and severe causes of neck pain (roughly in order of severity) include:

More common and lesser neck pain causes include:

Although the causes are numerous, most are easily rectified by either professional help or using self help advice and techniques.

More causes can include: poor sleeping posture, torticollis, head injury, rheumatoid arthritis, Carotidynia, congenital cervical rib, mononucleosis, rubella, certain cancers, ankylosing spondylitis, cervical spine fracture, esophageal trauma, subarachnoid hemorrhage, lymphadenitis, thyroid trauma, and tracheal trauma.

Treatment of neck pain depends on the cause. For the vast majority of people, neck pain can be treated conservatively. Recommendations in which it helps alleviate symptoms include applying heat or cold.[6] Other common treatments could include medication, body mechanics training, ergonomic reform, and physical therapy.

Exercise plus joint mobilization and/or joint manipulation (spinal adjustment) has been found to be beneficial in both acute and chronic mechanical neck disorders.[7] Both cervical manipulation and cervical mobilization produce similar immediate-, and short-term changes.[8] Multiple cervical manipulation sessions may provide better pain relief and functional improvement than certain medications at immediate to long-term follow-up.[8] Thoracic manipulation may also improve pain and function.[8][9] Low level laser therapy has been shown to reduce pain immediately after treatment in acute neck pain and up to 22 weeks after completion of treatment in patients that experience chronic neck pain.[10]

Analgesics such as acetaminophen or NSAIDs are recommended for pain.[11][12] Muscle relaxants are often prescribed and are known to be effective. However, one study showed that one muscle relaxant called cyclobenzaprine was not effective for treatment of acute cervical strain (as opposed to neck pain from other etiologies or chronic neck pain).[13] Over the counter topical creams and patches may be effective for some patients.

Surgery is usually not indicated for mechanical causes of neck pain. If neck pain is the result of instability, cancer, or other disease process surgery may be necessary. Surgery is usually not indicated for "pinched nerves" or herniated discs unless there is spinal cord compression or pain and disability have been protracted for many months and refractory to conservative treatment such as physical therapy.

Neck pain affects about 330Â million people globally as of 2010 (4.9% of the population).[14] It is more common in women (5.7%) than men (3.9%).[14] It is less common than low back pain.[15]

About one-half of episodes resolve within one year.[1] About 10% of cases become chronic.[1]


where is right to dream academy located in ghana

Starting on a small scale, training just a few boys on a dust pitch in Accra, the Academy has evolved over the last 16 years[2] to become a fully residential, centre of excellence, with over 90 students on scholarship from 7 African countries, at a purpose-built campus on the banks of the River Volta.[3]

Right to Dream Academy

Founded in 1999, Right to Dream is an African football academy.[1]

Right to Dream Academy in Ghana was founded in 1999 by British social entrepreneur, Tom Vernon to provide children from extreme poverty with the opportunity to build a better life for themselves and their families.[4] It started on a small-scale, training just a few boys on a dust pitch in Accra.[5] It has grown to become a fully residential international school, offering scholarships to talented children drawn from all over West Africa. It is currently ranked as one of the best youth academies in the world by bleacherreport.com.[6] In March 2010, the new Right to Dream Academy was opened, a $2.5million purpose-built facility, located 20 km south of Akosombo in the Eastern Region of Ghana.[7][8] A girls’ programme was introduced in 2013.[9] In 2014, Right to Dream Academy launched the first Right to Dream school programme in Takoradi.[10][11]

Since 2007, Right to Dream has produced over 20 graduates playing professional football in Europe. Some Right to Dream graduates have also received call ups into Ghana’s National teams, from the Black Starlets(U17) to the Black Stars.[12][13] Right to Dream has over 30 graduates studying at High Schools and Universities in the USA and UK.[14] In all, Right to Dream has helped to develop over 160 talented, young footballers – through a combination of football, education and character development.

In May 2013, Right to Dream opened the first residential girls’ football academy in Africa.[15] In April 2014, Right to Dream student Fuseina Mumuni, was a member of the Ghana U-17 team at the FIFA Women’s U-17 World Cup held in Costa Rica.[16]

Right to Dream squads travel to Europe regularly to compete in tournaments against the very best youth teams in the world.[17]

Since 2008, Right to Dream has had the most successful African U-15 team. In 2015, Right to Dream U18 and U15 were unbeaten for a combined total of 42 matches on their European Tours.[18][19]

Right to Dream U15s won the 26th edition of the Marveld Tournament in the Netherlands[20]

The U15 team of Right to Dream Academy won the 2015 TopC-RKMSV tournament in the Netherlands.[21][22]

The Academy participated in the 2013 and 2014 editions of the Gothia Cup, placing third in 2013 and winning in 2014.[23] In 2015, Right to Dream returned to the Gothia Cup and successfully defended their title, making the Academy the first team to win the Gothia Tipselit Trophy in two successive years.[24]

The Academy has won the African championship and thus retained the right to represent Africa each year since the 2008 edition.[25] Right to Dream has achieved five top-eight finishes in the World Finals of the Manchester United Premier Cup, playing the best football teams from Manchester United, Juventus, Paris Saint Germain and Real Madrid.[26][27] It placed a best of 3rd in 2009,[28] and in 2014, the Academy placed 4th.[29] In 2015, Right to Dream won the Manchester United Premier Cup world finals for the first time in their history.[30][31]

In 2010, Right was Dream were named Peace Ambassadors and have been invited to participate in a tournament during that year's Nobel Peace Prize Weekend.[32]

Scholarships are granted to young talented Africans by Right to Dream to study at the purpose-built Academy, located on the banks of the Volta River.[33] Students are taken through football, education and character development.

Right to Dreamâ€™s International School is an accredited centre for the Cambridge International Examination.[34] The Academy also offers a combination of local and international curriculums.

Right to Dream has established Africa’s first residential Football Programme for girls, based on the Academy’s talent development model for boys. 16 West African girls have been enrolled on scholarships at Right to Dream.[35] The Academy expects that female graduates will secure student-athlete scholarships at leading private schools, colleges and universities in the USA, while some will pursue professional careers in football in Europe.[36]

Right to Dream manages the most rigorous talent identification process in West Africa. Every two years, 15â€“20 students are selected out of 30,000 trialists to study and train at the Academy on 100% scholarships.[37]

The first Right to Dream School opened in Takoradi in September 2015.[38] The schoolâ€™s programme is a partnership between Right to Dream and a leading private school in each identified location.[39]

Right to Dream USA is registered as a 501(c)(3) organisation in the United States and is overseen by Chairman John Powers and a Board of Directors.

Right to Dream partner schools in the U.S. include:[40]

Partners include:

• Tullow Oil Ghana-Headline Sponsor[41][42]
• Mantrac Ghana[43][44]
• Ashoka[45]
• Laureus Sport For Good Foundation [46]

Right to Dream Academy has approximately 60 Ghanaian and international staff members working across the following departments: Football and Recruitment, Education, Pastoral, Development, Accounts and Facilities.


what was the last episode of the ghost whisperer

"The Children's Parade" is an episode of Ghost Whisperer. It is the 107th episode overall and the 22nd in season 5. It originally aired on May 21, 2010 on CBS in United States. It is the fifth season finale and also the last original new episode to air due the show's cancellation on May 18, 2010.[1] The last episode that aired on CBS was a rerun of "Living Nightmare" the week after this episode aired.[2]

The Children's Parade

The hospital where Jim works is shown to be haunted by ghosts. Then the scene cuts to Melinda and Jim sleeping. Melinda wakes up and hears Aiden talking to somebody. They go into his room and see that he is merely playing. Then he goes to bed, telling them that he feels better when now he knows that ghosts do not exist. Melinda and Jim talk about if this is right or not--and meanwhile the Shadows get into the house.

In the morning when Aiden goes to school, he complains about losing his soldier toy. Then Jim mentions to Melinda about a problem with the plumbing and Melinda gets angry for it being her job to call a plumber which causes confusion between both Jim and Aiden. The next scene shows Melinda in Delia's office. Delia asks her how is everything at the store, and Melinda answers that she hates Same As It Never Was and never wants to go there again. Then she suddenly smiles and says everything is alright.

In the hospital Jim and Melinda talk about the haunting there, then Melinda sees a boy who is trying to buy a drink from a machine but had forgotten his money. Melinda buys him a drink, and as she gives it to him, she realizes that he is actually a ghost. Then she talks to Eli about how she could tell the difference and feel them before. Then Melinda goes out and the plumber comes to her house.

Melinda sees Carl the Watcher when she is with Aiden, but for his sake, she does not answer him. Then Carl goes to the dentist, where Eli is, and Eli explains why Melinda refuses to talk to him. Then Carl realizes that he was under the control of the Shadows, and that what they made him say to Melinda was really dangerous. Then, in the hospital, Melinda sees ghosts marching around with the boy who had asked Melinda for a drink ahead of them. The next scene shows Eli under control of the Shadows, in which state he sends Melinda a message saying that she should not believe Carl because the Shadows are controlling him too. When Melinda gets the message, Carl appears beside her and starts explaining the problem to her. But she believes that he is now being controlled, and that the Shadows are trying to make her commit a mistake of some sort. Then her conviction that everyone is telling her what to do with her, and Aiden's, lives angers her, and she yells at him.

In the hospital, Melinda mistakes a living person for a ghost. After that. Melinda sees the ghost boy in the hospital, and he says that if Melinda brings his parents to him, then he will cross over. Melinda goes to the gas station where the boy had told her his father was. But once there, she realizes that he is not Pete's father. The scene cuts to Jim telling Melinda that Pete had died in the hospital, to which the Grandview Youth Home had sent him when he was 13, and that he is an orphan. Jim mentions to Melinda that the plumber is not ready yet. Then the Shadows come into their room.

The next day Melinda goes at the Orphan Home, where she learns that Pete had been adopted by many families, and that then he had become sick. His birth mother had given him up the day he was born. Then Melinda discovers that there was a polio ward years ago and Jim tells her where in the hospital they may be. She finds them, and Pete explains to her that he had made them believe they were alive, that the others were dead, and that they are more important. He teaches them to be brave because the Shadows will be unable to get to them that way.

Then Carl goes into Eli's house and bids him look up the Book of Changes for something new. In so searching, Eli finds a sign that reads: "And the darkness will come and swallow them all. Unless the family of Light (which he thinks is Melinda and her family) turns night into day." The scene cuts to Melinda talking to Jim about the plumber still working, and Jim says that he has not even seen the plumber, but Melinda thinks he had called him. Then she realizes that the plumber is a ghost. When he confesses to this, he takes out Aiden's soldier out of the tub, which was the reason for the plumbing problem. Then at night Aiden is shown talking to Cassidy; then Carl arrives. They talk about the Shinies being children and how the Shinies would win in case of a war breaking out between them and the Shadows.

Jim calls Melinda, whom he tells that he had conducted research and found out that Pete's mother had died giving birth, and that her death was the reason he was an orphan. She had also told the doctors that if anything happened, then she wanted the child to live even if this caused her death. Melinda listens quietly, then simply hangs up on him without reaction because Delia is knocking on the door in the store, which Melinda had locked. Melinda comes to the door with an empty look and says, "Melinda's not here." With that, she closes the blinds. Later in the night, Carl comes into Aiden's room and tells him to save Melinda and to start a war between the Shinies and the Shadows. Meanwhile Delia, Ned, and Eli come into the house, telling Jim that something is wrong with Melinda. Aiden comes down and tells Jim, Delia, Ned, and Eli that they have to take him to where Melinda is before something bad happens to her. They go to the store and Aiden knocks on the door. Melinda shows up saying that she is not his mother. Aiden answers that he knows that and that he wants her back. Melinda says, "We're busy." She then goes back into the dark. Aiden starts calling Cassidy and asks her to call all the Shinies to destroy the Shadows. Cassidy takes Aiden's hand and continues the line of Shinies which goes through the whole town turning night into day. The Shinies then, as one, all make their way into the Same As It Never Was antique store and destroy the Shadows, restoring Melinda to her real self. Everyone comes in and Melinda asks where Aiden is. She hugs him and tells him that he is her hero. The scene cuts to the hospital, where Pete and the other ghost children talk to Melinda and Aiden. Melinda explains to him why he was in the Youth Home. Aiden convinces him to go into the Light. All the children go into the Light with a Shiny beside every single one of them.

Later Jim and Melinda talk to Aiden. Jim tells him that he should not deny his gift, and Melinda tells Aiden that it is called a gift for a reason and that it is neither something they should hide from each other nor something from which they should run away. As Jim and Melinda leave, Melinda turns to Aiden and tells him that she really meant it when she said he was her hero. He smiles and answers, "Just like you are, Mom. Every day." As the series concludes, we see Melinda smile back at Aiden.

Isabelle Carreau commented the episode as a surprise because of the "happy ending and no cliffhangers", although there still were unfinished storylines, for example President Bedford. She also commented on how quick the Shadows were destroyed without fulfilling the promise of an action packed episode and an epic battle, although the promising line "Melinda's not here".[4]


the belief in social economic and political equality for women is referred to as

Egalitarianism (from French égal, meaning 'equal') – or equalitarianism[1][2] – is a school of thought that prioritizes equality for all people.[3] According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all humans are equal in fundamental worth or social status.[4] According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, the term has two distinct definitions in modern English:[5] either as a political doctrine that all people should be treated as equals and have the same political, economic, social and civil rights;[6] or as a social philosophy advocating the removal of economic inequalities among people, economic egalitarianism, or the decentralization of power. Some sources define egalitarianism as the point of view that equality reflects the natural state of humanity.[7][8][9]

Egalitarianism

Some specifically focused egalitarian concerns include communism, legal egalitarianism, luck egalitarianism, political egalitarianism, gender egalitarianism, racial equality, equality of outcome and Christian egalitarianism. Common forms of egalitarianism include political and philosophical.

One argument is that liberalism provides democratic societies with the means to carry out civic reform by providing a framework for developing public policy and thus providing the right conditions for individuals to achieve civil rights.[10]

The English Bill of Rights of 1689 and the United States Constitution use only the term "person" in operative language involving fundamental rights and responsibilities, except for (a) a reference to "men" in the English Bill of Rights regarding men on trial for treason; and (b) a rule of proportional Congressional representation in the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution.

As the rest of the Constitution, in its operative language the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution uses the term "person" stating, for example, that "[...] nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws".

An example of this form is the Tunisian Constitution of 2014 which provides that "men and women shall be equal in their rights and duties".

The motto "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" was used during the French Revolution and is still used as an official motto of the French government. The 1789 Rights of Man and of the Citizen French Constitution is framed also with this basis in equal rights of men, but not of women.[citation needed] This was satirized by Olympe de Gouges during this time with her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen.

The Declaration of Independence of the United States might be an example of an assertion of equality of men, but not of women[citation needed] under natural rights, with its language "all men are created equal". This assertion may be understood by the use of "man" or "men" as a proper noun in the sense of "mankind". John Locke is sometimes considered the founder of this form.

Some of the framers of the United States Constitution, most notably John Dickinson, refused to sign the Declaration of Independence in part because of this use of "rights of man" rather than "rights of person".[citation needed]

Many state constitutions in the United States also use "rights of man" language rather than "rights of person" (see the Kentucky State Constitution).

It is generally accepted by egalitarians that some feminists have given up equal thinking and only focused on women's rights and the exclusion of other gender rights.[citation needed] By the original definition, feminism falls under egalitarianism and some feminists identify as egalitarian.

At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are socialism, communism, social anarchism, libertarian socialism, left-libertarianism, and progressivism, some of which propound economic egalitarianism. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among intellectuals and in the general populations of many countries. However, whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice remains a controversial question. A position of opposition to egalitarianism is antiegalitarianism.[11]

An early example of equality of outcome economic egalitarianism is Xu Xing, a scholar of the Chinese philosophy of agriculturalism, who supported the fixing of prices and in which all similar goods and services, regardless of differences in quality and demand, are set at exactly the same, unchanging price.[12]

In socialism, social ownership of means of production is sometimes considered to be a form of economic egalitarianism because in an economy characterized by social ownership, the surplus product generated by industry would accrue to the population as a whole as opposed to a class of private owners, thereby granting each individual increased autonomy and greater equality in their relationships with one another. Although the economist Karl Marx is sometimes mistaken to be an egalitarian, Marx eschewed normative theorizing on moral principles altogether. However, Marx did have a theory of the evolution of moral principles in relation to specific economic systems.[13]

The American economist John Roemer has put forth a new perspective of equality and its relationship to socialism. Roemer attempts to reformulate Marxist analysis to accommodate normative principles of distributive justice, shifting the argument for socialism away from purely technical and materialist reasons to one of distributive justice. Roemer argues that according to the principle of distributive justice, the traditional definition of socialism based on the principle that individual compensation be proportional to the value of the labour one expends in production is inadequate. Roemer concludes that egalitarians must reject socialism as it is classically defined in order for equality to be realized.[14]

Many philosophers, including Ingmar Persson,[15] Peter Vallentyne,[16] Nils Holtug,[17] and Lewis Gompertz[18] have argued that egalitarianism implies that the interests of non-human animals must be taken into account as well. Philosopher Oscar Horta has further argued that "Egalitarianism implies rejecting speciesism, and in practice it prescribes ceasing to exploit nonhuman animals as well as assisting them [ in nature ]."[19] Furthermore, Horta argues that "because [nonhuman animals] are worse off in comparison to humans, egalitarianism prescribes giving priority to the interests nonhuman animals."[20]

The Sikh faith was founded upon egalitarian principles, reaffirming the notion of equality not only based upon race, but also between the genders. This equality led to denunciation of sati, the practice of widows sacrificing themselves on the funeral pyres of deceased husbands, albeit being very rare at the time, but occurred due to the wives of warriors preferring to commit self-immolation than becoming the bounty of war for the marauding jihadists that were waging wars in India and Afghanistan during the early Ghazni wars. The scriptural injunction is often ascribed as providing women in the Sikh faith equal rights to practice their faith and be regarded as created equal in the eyes of God. Whilst the noble premise to strive for egalitarianism, many Sikhs still practice strong tribal casteism, with greater rigidity than the Hindu archetype from which the practice was inherited.[21] Despite the rhetoric of equality, scholars have "found contradictions in the Sikh rhetoric of equality and widespread discrimination against Sikh's of low castes".[21] Furthermore, despite many Sikh scholars decreeing the egalitarian tenets of Sikhism, denouncing sexism, female infanticide, dowry, sati or the condemning of widows to a life of solitude and isolationâ€”the reality is these practices have remained prevalent whilst they have long fallen out of favour with the other ethnocultural religious groups in the Indian continent, like Hindus, Buddhists and Jains.[22]

The Christian egalitarian view holds that the Bible teaches the fundamental equality of women and men of all racial and ethnic mixes, all economic classes and all age groups, but within the teachings and example of Jesus Christ, God and the overarching principles of scripture.[23]

Within the wide range of Christianity there are dissenting views to this from opposing groups, some of which are complementarians and patriarchalists. There are also those who may say that whilst the Bible encourages equality, it also encourages law and order and social structure (for example, parents having authority over their children and the view that wife should submit to her husband and husband's should in return love their wives.[Eph. 5:22–33] These ideas are considered by some to be contrary to the ideals of egalitarianism. At its foundation, Galatians 3:28 holds: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus" – defining all as equal in the sight of God. Similarly, Colossians 3:11 says: "Here there is no Gentile or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all", defining all as equal in the sight of God in relationship to faith in Jesus Christ. Various Christian groups have attempted to hold to this view and develop Christian oriented communities. In Acts, chapter 2, members of the early Christian community sell their possessions, give the proceeds to a common fund overseen by the disciples, then take "according to their need". One of the most notable of present-day communities are the Hutterite groups of Europe and North America, living in agricultural and collective communities.

Judaism is not a universalist religion and teaches that Jews (defined as either the biological descendants of Jacob "Israel", the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham or someone who converted) have a specific covenant with God as a chosen people (Deutoronomy 7:6 "chosen as God's treasured people") to serve as an example of God's light to the rest of the world. The oral Torah and Rabbinic literature codified in the Talmud makes key distinctions in religious and legal contexts between Jews and the gentiles (literally, "the nations"). However, Judaism teaches that all people are the creations of God and are commanded in the seven universal moral laws known as the Seven Laws of Noah. In this aspect, Judaism is universalist in its divine message, but not in its religious obligations. In reform and conservative Judaism, egalitarian refers to nullification of religious gender separations. Synagogues that identify as egalitarian allow mixed seating (i.e. no mechitza) and allow women to lead services with men in attendance as well as read publicly from the Torah.

The Islamic stance on equality is not similar to that of Christianity it doesn't stress that all humans are equal in the eyes of God, regardless of gender, class and race. The Quran states: "O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you. Indeed, Allah is Knowing and Acquainted".[24] Louise Marlow's Hierarchy and Egalitarianism in Islamic Thought compares the egalitarianism of early Islam to current practice.[25]

Military egalitarianism has been noted since ancient times, such as with Shakespeare's St Crispin's Day Speech. This occurs in spite of the distinctions military forces attempt to make between officers and enlisted men. For example, former Major General Charles J. Dunlap, Jr. said that United States Air Force culture included an egalitarianism bred from officers as warriors who work with small groups of enlisted airmen either as the service crew or onboard crew of their aircraft.[26]

Modern egalitarianism is a theory that rejects the classic definition of egalitarianism as a possible achievement economically, politically and socially. Modern egalitarianism theory (or  "new egalitarianism") outlines that if everyone had the same opportunity cost, then there would be no comparative advances and no one would gain from trading with each other. In essence, the immense gains people receive from trading with each other arise because they are unequal in characteristics and talents—these differences may be innate or developed so that people can gain from trading with each other.[27]

The cultural theory of risk holds egalitarianism as defined by (1) a negative attitude towards rules and principles; and (2) a positive attitude towards group decision-making, with fatalism termed as its opposite.[28] The theory distinguishes between hierarchists, who are positive towards both rules and groups; and egalitarianists, who are positive towards groups, but negative towards rules.[28] This is by definition a form of "anarchist equality" as referred to by Berkman. The fabric of an "egalitarianist society" is thus held together by cooperation and implicit peer pressure rather than by explicit rules and punishment. However, Thompson et al. theorise that any society consisting of only one perspective, be it egalitarianist, hierarchist, individualist, fatalist or autonomist, will be inherently unstable: the claim is that an interplay between all these perspectives are required if each perspective is to be fulfilling. For instance, although an individualist according to cultural theory is aversive towards both principles and groups, individualism is not fulfilling if individual brilliance cannot be recognised by groups, or if individual brilliance cannot be made permanent in the form of principles.[28] Accordingly, egalitarianists have no power except through their presence, unless they (by definition, reluctantly) embrace principles which enable them to cooperate with fatalists and hierarchists. They will also have no individual sense of direction in the absence of a group. This could be mitigated by following individuals outside their group: autonomists or individualists.

Alexander Berkman suggests that "equality does not mean an equal amount but equal opportunity [...] Do not make the mistake of identifying equality in liberty with the forced equality of the convict camp. True anarchist equality implies freedom, not quantity. It does not mean that every one must eat, drink, or wear the same things, do the same work, or live in the same manner. Far from it: the very reverse in fact [...] Individual needs and tastes differ, as appetites differ. It is equal opportunity to satisfy them that constitutes true equality [...] Far from levelling, such equality opens the door for the greatest possible variety of activity and development. For human character is diverse".[29]

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that a revolution would bring about a socialist society which would then eventually give way to a communist stage of social development, which would be a classless, stateless, humane society erected on common ownership and the principle of "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs".

However, Marxism rejected egalitarianism in the sense of greater equality between classes, clearly distinguishing it from the socialist notion of the abolition of classes based on the division between workers and owners of productive property. Marx's view of classlessness was not the subordination of society to a universal interest (such as a universal notion of "equality"), but was about the creation of the conditions that would enable individuals to pursue their true interests and desiresâ€”thus Marx's notion of communist society is radically individualistic.[30]

Marx was a proponent of two principles, the first applied to socialism and the second to an advanced communist society: "To each according to his contribution" and "From each according to their ability, to each according to their needs". Although Marx's position is often confused or conflated with distributive egalitarianism in which only the goods and services resulting from production are distributed according to a notional equality, in reality Marx eschewed the entire concept of equality as abstract and bourgeois in nature, preferring to focus on more concrete principles such as opposition to exploitation on materialist grounds and economic logic.[31]


why did the phoenicians built the trading post of carthage in north africa

Elissa's brother, Pygmalion of Tyre, had murdered Elissa's husband, the high priest. Elissa escaped the tyranny of her own country, founding the "new city" of Carthage and subsequently its later dominions. Details of her life are sketchy and confusing, but the following can be deduced from various sources. According to Justin, Princess Elissa was the daughter of King Belus II of Tyre. When he died, the throne was jointly bequeathed to her brother, Pygmalion, and her. She married her uncle Acerbas, also known as Sychaeus, the High Priest of Melqart, a man with both authority and wealth comparable to the king. This led to increased rivalry between the religious elite and the monarchy. Pygmalion was a tyrant, lover of both gold and intrigue, who desired the authority and fortune enjoyed by Acerbas.[9] Pygmalion assassinated Acerbas in the temple and kept the misdeed concealed from his sister for a long time, deceiving her with lies about her husband's death. At the same time, the people of Tyre called for a single sovereign.

Ancient Carthage

Carthage (/Ëˆk

Phoenicians founded Carthage in 814 BC.[4][5] Initially a dependency of the Phoenician state of Tyre, Carthage gained independence around 650 BC and established its political hegemony over other Phoenician settlements throughout the western Mediterranean, this lasting until the end of the 3rd century BC. At the height of the city's prominence, it served as a major hub of trade, with trading stations extending throughout the region.

For much of its history, Carthage was on hostile terms with the Greeks in Sicily and with the Roman Republic; tensions led to a series of armed conflicts known as the Sicilian Wars (c. 600–265 BC) and the Punic Wars (264–146 BC) respectively. The city also had to deal with potentially hostile Berbers, the indigenous inhabitants of the area where Carthage was built.[6] In 146 BC, after the third and final Punic War, Roman forces destroyed Carthage then redesigned and occupied the site of the city.[7] Nearly all of the other Phoenician city-states and former Carthaginian dependencies subsequently fell into Roman hands.

According to Roman sources, Phoenician colonists from modern-day Lebanon, led by Dido (also known as Queen Elissa), founded Carthage circa 814 BC.[8] Queen Elissa (also known as "Alissar") was an exiled princess of the ancient Phoenician city of Tyre. At its peak, the metropolis she founded, Carthage, came to be called the "shining city",[citation needed] ruling 300 other cities around the western Mediterranean Sea and leading the Phoenician world.

In the Roman epic of Virgil, the Aeneid, Queen Dido, the Greek name for Elissa, is first introduced as a highly esteemed character. In just seven years, since their exodus from Tyre, the Carthaginians have rebuilt a successful kingdom under her rule. Her subjects adore her and present her with a festival of praise. Her character is perceived by Virgil as even more noble when she offers asylum to Aeneas and his men, who have recently escaped from Troy. A spirit in the form of the messenger god, Mercury, sent by Jupiter, reminds Aeneas that his mission is not to stay in Carthage with his new-found love, Dido, but to sail to Italy to found Rome. Virgil ends his legend of Dido with the story that, when Aeneas tells Dido, her heart broken, she orders a pyre to be built where she falls upon Aeneas' sword. As she lay dying, she predicted eternal strife between Aeneas' people and her own: "rise up from my bones, avenging spirit" (4.625, trans. Fitzgerald) she says, an invocation of Hannibal. The details of Virgil's story do not, however, form part of the original legend and are significant mainly as an indication of Rome's attitude towards the city she had founded, exemplified by Cato the Elder's much-repeated utterance, "Carthago delenda est", "Carthage must be destroyed".[10]

The Phoenicians established numerous colonial cities along the coasts of the Mediterranean[11] to provide safe harbors for their merchant fleets,[12] to maintain a Phoenician monopoly on an area's natural resources, and to conduct trade free of outside interference.[13] They were also motivated to found these cities by a desire to satisfy the demand for trade goods or to escape the necessity of paying tribute[14] to the succession of empires that ruled Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, and by fear of complete Greek colonization of that part of the Mediterranean suitable for commerce.[15] The Phoenicians lacked the population or necessity to establish large self-sustaining cities abroad, and most of their colonial cities had fewer than 1,000 inhabitants, but Carthage and a few others developed larger populations.[16]

Although Strabo's claim that the Tyrians founded three hundred colonies along the west African coast is clearly exaggerated, colonies were established in Tunisia, Morocco, Algeria, Iberia,[17] and to a much lesser extent, on the arid coast of Libya. The Phoenicians were active in Cyprus, Sardinia, Corsica, the Balearic Islands, Crete, and Sicily, as well as on the European mainland at present-day Genoa in Italy and Marseille in present-day France.[18] The settlements at Crete and Sicily were in perpetual conflict with the Greeks,[19] but the Phoenicians managed to control all of Sicily for a limited time. The entire area later came under the leadership and protection of Carthage,[20] which in turn dispatched its own colonists to found new cities[21] or to reinforce those that declined with the loss of primacy of Tyre and Sidon.

The first colonies were settled on the two paths to Iberia's mineral wealth — along the Northwest African coast and on Sicily, Sardinia and the Balearic Islands.[22] The centre of the Phoenician world was Tyre,[23] which served as its economic and political hub. The power of this city waned following numerous sieges by Babylonia,[24][25] and then its later voluntary submission to the Persian king Cambyses and incorporation within the Persian empire.[26] Supremacy passed to Sidon, and then to Carthage,[27] before Tyre's eventual destruction by Alexander the Great in 332 BC.[28] Each colony paid tribute to either Tyre or Sidon, but neither city had actual control of the colonies. This changed with the rise of Carthage, since the Carthaginians appointed their own magistrates to rule the towns and Carthage retained much direct control over the colonies.[29] This policy resulted in a number of Iberian towns siding with the Romans during the Punic Wars.

In 509 BC, a treaty was signed between Carthage and Rome[30] indicating a division of influence and commercial activities.[31] This is the first known source indicating that Carthage had gained control over Sicily and Sardinia.

By the beginning of the 5th century BC, Carthage had become the commercial center of the West Mediterranean region,[32]
a position it retained until overthrown by the Roman Republic. The city had conquered most of the old Phoenician colonies (including Hadrumetum, Utica, Hippo Diarrhytus and Kerkouane), subjugated the Libyan tribes (with the Numidian and Mauretanian kingdoms remaining more or less independent), and taken control of the entire Northwest African coast from modern Morocco to the borders of Egypt (not including the Cyrenaica, which was eventually incorporated into Hellenistic Egypt).[33] Its influence had also extended into the Mediterranean, taking control over Sardinia, Malta, the Balearic Islands, and the western half of Sicily,[34] where coastal fortresses such as Motya or Lilybaeum secured its possessions. Important colonies had also been established on the Iberian Peninsula.[35] Their cultural influence in the Iberian Peninsula is documented,[36] but the degree of their political influence before the conquest by Hamilcar Barca is disputed.[37]

Carthage's economic successes, and its dependence on shipping to conduct most of its trade, led to the creation of a powerful Carthaginian navy.[38] This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the Greeks of Syracuse, the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean.[39]

The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coast;[40] battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries.

By 480 BC, Gelo, the tyrant leader of Greek Syracuse, backed in part by support from other Greek city-states, was attempting to unite the island under his rule.[41] This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage — possibly as part of an alliance with Persia — engaged military force under the leadership of the general Hamilcar. Traditional accounts, including those of Herodotus and Diodorus, give Hamilcar's army a strength of three hundred thousand men; though this is certainly exaggerated, it must nonetheless have been of formidable strength.[42]

En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suffered losses (possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day Palermo),[43] Hamilcar spent 3Â days reorganizing his forces and repairing his battered fleet. The Carthaginians marched along the coast to Himera, and made camp before engaging in the Battle of Himera.[44] Hamilcar was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame.[45] As a result, the nobility negotiated peace and replaced the old monarchy with a republic.[46]

By 410 BC, Carthage had recovered after serious defeats. It had conquered much of modern-day Tunisia, strengthened and founded new colonies in Northwest Africa; Hanno the Navigator had made his journey down the African coast,[47][48] and Himilco the Navigator had explored the European Atlantic coast.[49] Expeditions were also led into Morocco and Senegal, as well as into the Atlantic.[50] In the same year, the Iberian colonies seceded, cutting off Carthage's major supply of silver and copper, while Hannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began preparations to reclaim Sicily.

In 409 BC,[51] Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He captured the smaller cities of Selinus (modern Selinunte) and Himera before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched and, in 405 BC, Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition to claim the entire island. This time, however, he met with fierce resistance and ill-fortune. During the siege of Agrigentum, the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hannibal Mago himself succumbing to it.[52] Although his successor, Himilco, successfully extended the campaign by breaking a Greek siege - capturing the city of Gela and repeatedly defeating the army of Dionysius, the new tyrant of Syracuse - he, too, was weakened by the plague and forced to sue for peace before returning to Carthage.

In 398 BC, Dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of Motya. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured Messina.[53] Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself. The siege was close to a success throughout 397 BC, but in 396 BC plague again ravaged the Carthaginian forces,[54] and they collapsed.

The fighting in Sicily swung in favor of Carthage in 387 BC. After winning a naval battle off the coast of Catania, Himilco laid siege to Syracuse with 50,000 Carthaginians, but yet another epidemic struck down thousands of them. Dionysius then launched a counterattack by land and sea, and the Syracusans surprised the enemy fleet while most of the crews were ashore, destroying all the Carthaginian ships. At the same time, Dionysius's ground forces stormed the besiegers' lines and routed the Carthaginians. Himilco and his chief officers abandoned their army and fled Sicily.[55] Himilco returned to Carthage in disgrace and was very badly received; he eventually committed suicide[56] by starving himself.

Sicily by this time had become an obsession for Carthage. Over the next fifty years, Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By 340 BC, Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over the island.

In 315 BC, Agathocles, the tyrant (administrating governor) of Syracuse, seized the city of Messene (present-day Messina). In 311 BC he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty,[57] and laid siege to Akragas.

Hamilcar, grandson of Hanno the Great, led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. By 310 BC, he controlled almost all of Sicily and had laid siege to Syracuse itself. In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland,[58] hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of his army from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat. Although Agathocles's army was eventually defeated in 307 BC, Agathocles himself escaped back to Sicily and was able to negotiate a peace which maintained Syracuse as a stronghold of Greek power in Sicily.

Between 280 and 275 BC, Pyrrhus of Epirus waged two major campaigns in the western Mediterranean: one against the emerging power of the Roman Republic in southern Italy, the other against Carthage in Sicily.[59]

Pyrrhus sent an advance guard to Tarentum under the command of Cineaus with 3,000 infantry. Pyrrhus marched the main army across the Greek peninsula and engaged in battles with the Thessalians and the Athenian army. After his early success on the march Pyrrhus entered Tarentum to rejoin with his advance guard.

In the midst of Pyrrhus's Italian campaigns, he received envoys from the Sicilian cities of Agrigentum, Syracuse, and Leontini, asking for military aid to remove the Carthaginian dominance over that island.[60][61]
Pyrrhus agreed, and fortified the Sicilian cities with an army of 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry[62] and 20 war elephants,[63] supported by some 200 ships. Initially, Pyrrhus's Sicilian campaign against Carthage was a success, pushing back the Carthaginian forces, and capturing the city-fortress of Eryx, even though he was not able to capture Lilybaeum.[64]

Following these losses, Carthage sued for peace, but Pyrrhus refused unless Carthage was willing to renounce its claims on Sicily entirely. According to Plutarch, Pyrrhus set his sights on conquering Carthage itself, and to this end, began outfitting an expedition. However, his ruthless treatment of the Sicilian cities in his preparations for this expedition, and his execution of two Sicilian rulers whom he claimed were plotting against him led to such a rise in animosity towards the Greeks, that Pyrrhus withdrew from Sicily and returned to deal with events occurring in southern Italy.[65][66]

Pyrrhus's campaigns in Italy were inconclusive, and Pyrrhus eventually withdrew to Epirus. For Carthage, this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however, the failure of Pyrrhus to defend the colonies of Magna Graecia meant that Rome absorbed them into its "sphere of influence", bringing it closer to complete domination of the Italian peninsula. Rome's domination of Italy, and proof that Rome could pit its military strength successfully against major international powers, would pave the way to the future Rome-Carthage conflicts of the Punic Wars.

When Agathocles died in 288 BC, a large company of Italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment. Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana. Naming themselves Mamertines (or "sons of Mars"), they became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside.[67]

The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In 265 BC, Hiero II, former general of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took action against them.[68] Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. While the Roman Senate debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero. Alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians.

Hiero's intervention had placed Carthage's military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the Strait of Messina, and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests.

As a result, the Roman Assembly, although reluctant to ally with a band of mercenaries, sent an expeditionary force to return control of Messana to the Mamertines.

The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the Punic Wars.[69] Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization. The wars included a Carthaginian invasion led by Hannibal Barca, which nearly prevented the rise of the Roman Empire.

In 256-255 BC the Romans, under the command of Marcus Atilius Regulus, landed in Africa and after suffering some initial defeats the Carthaginian forces eventually repelled the Roman invasion.[68]

Shortly after the First Punic War, Carthage faced a major mercenary revolt which changed the internal political landscape of Carthage (bringing the Barcid family to prominence),[70] and affected Carthage's international standing, as Rome used the events of the war to base a claim by which it seized Sardinia and Corsica.

The Second Punic War lasted from 218 to 202 BC and involved combatants in the western and eastern Mediterranean, with the participation of the Berbers on Carthage's side.[71] The war is marked by Hannibal's surprising overland journey[72] and his costly crossing of the Alps, followed by his reinforcement by Gaulish allies and crushing victories over Roman armies in the battle of the Trebia and the giant ambush at Trasimene. Against his skill on the battlefield the Romans deployed the Fabian strategy. But because of the increasing unpopularity of this approach, the Romans resorted to a further major field battle.[73] The result was the crushing Roman defeat at Cannae.[74]

In consequence many Roman allies went over to Carthage, prolonging the war in Italy for over a decade, during which more Roman armies were destroyed on the battlefield. Despite these setbacks, the Roman forces were more capable in siegecraft[75] than the Carthaginians and recaptured all the major cities that had joined the enemy, as well as defeating a Carthaginian attempt to reinforce Hannibal at the battle of the Metaurus. In the meantime in Iberia, which served as the main source of manpower for the Carthaginian army, a second Roman expedition under Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major took New Carthage by assault[76] and ended Carthaginian rule over Iberia in the battle of Ilipa.[77] The final showdown was the battle of Zama in Africa between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal, resulting in the latter's defeat and the imposition of harsh peace conditions on Carthage, which ceased to be a major power and became a Roman client-state.[78]

The Third Punic War (149 to 146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars. The war was a much smaller engagement than the two previous Punic Wars and primarily consisted of a single main action, the Battle of Carthage, but resulted in the complete destruction of the city of Carthage,[79] the annexation of all remaining Carthaginian territory by Rome,[80] and the death or enslavement of thousands of Carthaginians.[81][82] The Third Punic War ended Carthage's independent existence.[83]

The government of Carthage changed dramatically after the total rout of the Carthaginian forces at the battle of Himera on Sicily in 483 BC.[84] The Magonid clan was compelled to compromise and allow representative and even some democratic institutions. Carthage remained to a great extent an oligarchal republic, which relied on a system of checks and balances and ensured a form of public accountability. At the head of the Carthaginian state were now two annually elected, not hereditary, Suffets [85](thus rendered in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested in Punic inscriptions as SPΘM /ʃuftˤim/, meaning "judges" and obviously related to the Biblical Hebrew ruler title Shophet "Judge"),[86]
similar to modern day executive presidents. Greek and Roman authors more commonly referred to them as "kings", as they were in effect, if not in name, the monarchs of Carthage. SPΘ /ʃufitˤ/ might originally have been the title of the city's governor, installed by the mother city of Tyre.

In the historically attested period, the two Suffets were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families and ruled collegially, similarly to Roman consuls (and equated with these by Livy). This practice might have descended from the plutocratic oligarchies that limited the Suffet's power in the first Phoenician cities.[87] A range of more junior officials and special commissioners oversaw different aspects of governmental business such as public works, tax-collecting, and the administration of the state treasury.[85][88]

The aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council (Roman sources speak of a Carthaginian "Senate", and Greek ones of a "council of Elders" or a gerousia), which had a wide range of powers; however, it is not known whether the Suffets were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Suffets appear to have exercised judicial and executive power, but not military, as generals were chosen by the administration. The final supervision of the Treasury and Foreign Affairs seems to have come under the Council of Elders.[85]

There was a body known as the Tribunal of the Hundred and Four, which Aristotle compared to the Spartan ephors. These were judges who acted as a kind of higher constitutional court and oversaw the actions of generals,[87] who could sometimes be sentenced to crucifixion, as well as other officials. Panels of special commissioners, called pentarchies, were appointed from the Tribunal of One Hundred and Four: they appear to have dealt with a variety of affairs of state.[85]

Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs,[89] democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings in the form of a Popular Assembly. Aristotle reported in his Politics that unless the Suffets and the Council reached a unanimous decision, the Carthaginian popular assembly had the decisive vote — unlike the situation in Greek states with similar constitutions such as Sparta and Crete. Polybius, in his History book 6, also stated that at the time of the Punic Wars, the Carthaginian public held more sway over the government than the people of Rome held over theirs (a development he regarded as evidence of decline).[90] This may have been due to the influence of the Barcid faction.[91]

Eratosthenes, head of the Library of Alexandria, noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knew and discussed the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics (Book II, Chapter 11).[92] During the period between the end of the First Punic War and the end of the Second Punic War, members of the Barcid family dominated in Carthaginian politics.[93] They were given control of the Carthaginian military and all the Carthaginian territories outside of Africa.

According to Polybius, Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries,[94] especially in overseas warfare. The core of its army was from its own territory in Northwest Africa (ethnic Libyans and Numidians (modern northern Algeria), as well as "Liby-Phoenicians"—i.e., Phoenicians proper). These troops were supported by mercenaries from different ethnic groups and geographic locations across the Mediterranean, who fought in their own national units; Celts and Balearics and Iberians were especially common. Later, after the Barcids conquered Iberia[dubious  – discuss] (modern Spain and Portugal), Iberians came to form an even greater part of the Carthaginian forces.

Carthage seems to have fielded a formidable cavalry force, especially in its Northwest African homeland; a significant part of it was composed of light Numidian cavalry. Other mounted troops included North African elephants (now extinct), trained for war, which, among other uses, were commonly used for frontal assaults or as anticavalry protection. An army could field up to several hundred of these animals, but on most reported occasions fewer than a hundred were deployed. The riders of these elephants were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the elephants, in case they charged toward their own army. The Carthaginians also fielded troops such as slingers, soldiers armed with straps of cloth used to toss small stones at high speeds.

The navy of Carthage was one of the largest in the Mediterranean, using serial production to maintain high numbers at moderate cost. The sailors and marines of the Carthaginian navy were predominantly recruited from the Phoenician citizenry, unlike the multiethnic allied and mercenary troops of the Carthaginian armies. The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors. This helped to contribute to the city's political stability, since the unemployed, debt-ridden poor in other cities were frequently inclined to support revolutionary leaders in the hope of improving their own lot.[95] The reputation of her skilled sailors implies that training of oarsmen and coxswains occurred in peacetime, giving their navy a cutting edge in naval matters.

The trade of Carthaginian merchantmen was by land across the Sahara and especially by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic to the tin-rich Cassiterides,[96] and also to Northwest Africa. Evidence exists that at least one Punic expedition, that of Hanno, may have sailed along the West African coast to regions south of the Tropic of Cancer.[97]

Polybius wrote in the sixth book of his history that the Carthaginians were "more exercised in maritime affairs than any other people."[98] Their navy included some 300 to 350 warships. The Romans, who had little experience in naval warfare prior to the First Punic War, managed to finally defeat Carthage with a combination of reverse-engineered, captured Carthaginian ships, recruitment of experienced Greek sailors from the ranks of its conquered cities, the unorthodox corvus device, and their superior numbers in marines and rowers. In the Third Punic War, Polybius describes a tactical innovation of the Carthaginians, augmenting their few triremes with small vessels that carried hooks (to attack the oars) and fire (to attack the hulls). With this new combination, they were able to stand their ground against the numerically superior Romans for a whole day.

Carthaginians spoke Punic, a variety of Phoenician,[99] which was a Semitic language originating in the Carthaginians' original homeland of Phoenicia (present-day Lebanon).[100]

Carthaginian commerce extended by sea throughout the Mediterranean and perhaps into the Atlantic as far as the Canary Islands, and by land across the Sahara desert. According to Aristotle, the Carthaginians and others had treaties of commerce to regulate their exports and imports.[101][102]

The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with Tartessos[103] and with other cities of the Iberian peninsula,[104] from which it obtained vast quantities of silver, lead, copper and – even more importantly – tin ore,[105] which was essential for the manufacture of bronze objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthaginian trade-relations with the Iberians, and the naval might that enforced Carthage's monopoly on this trade and the Atlantic tin trade,[106] made it the sole significant broker of tin and maker of bronze in its day. Maintaining this monopoly was one of the major sources of power and prosperity for Carthage; Carthaginian merchants strove to keep the location of the tin mines secret.[107] In addition to its role as the sole significant distributor of tin, Carthage's central location in the Mediterranean and control of the waters between Sicily and Tunisia allowed it to control the eastern peoples' supply of tin. Carthage was also the Mediterranean's largest producer of silver, mined in Iberia[108] and on the Northwest African coast; after the tin monopoly, this was one of its most profitable trades. One mine in Iberia provided Hannibal with 300 Roman pounds (3.75 talents) of silver a day.[109][110]

Carthage's economy began as an extension of that of its parent city, Tyre.[111] Its massive merchant fleet traversed the trade routes mapped out by Tyre, and Carthage inherited from Tyre the trade in the extremely valuable dye Tyrian purple.[112] No evidence of purple dye manufacture has been found at Carthage, but mounds of shells of the murex marine snails from which it derived have been found in excavations of the Punic town which archaeologists call Kerkouane, at Dar Essafi on Cap Bon.[113] Similar mounds of murex have also been found at Djerba[114] on the Gulf of Gabes[115] in Tunisia. Strabo mentions the purple dye-works of Djerba[116] as well as those of the ancient city of Zouchis.[117][118][119] The purple dye became one of the most highly valued commodities in the ancient Mediterranean,[120] being worth fifteen to twenty times its weight in gold. In Roman society, where adult males wore the toga as a national garment, the use of the toga praetexta, decorated with a stripe of Tyrian purple about two to three inches in width along its border, was reserved for magistrates and high priests. Broad purple stripes (latus clavus) were reserved for the togas of the senatorial class, while the equestrian class had the right to wear narrow stripes (angustus clavus).[121][122]

Carthage produced finely embroidered silks,[123] dyed textiles of cotton, linen,[124] and wool, artistic and functional pottery, faience, incense, and perfumes.[125] Its artisans worked expertly with ivory,[126] glassware, and wood,[127] as well as with alabaster, bronze, brass, lead, gold, silver, and precious stones to create a wide array of goods, including mirrors, furniture[128] and cabinetry, beds, bedding, and pillows,[129] jewelry, arms, implements, and household items.[130] It traded in salted Atlantic fish and fish sauce (garum),[131]
and brokered the manufactured, agricultural, and natural products[132] of almost every Mediterranean people.[133]

In addition to manufacturing, Carthage practised highly advanced and productive agriculture,[134] using iron ploughs, irrigation,[135] crop rotation, threshing machines, hand-driven rotary mills and horse mills, the latter two which they invented in the late 6th century BC and 375–350 BC, respectively.[136][137] After the Second Punic War, Hannibal promoted agriculture[138] to help restore Carthage's economy and pay the war indemnity to Rome (10,000 talents or 800,000 Roman pounds of silver),[139][140] and he was largely successful. When Rome conquered and destroyed Carthage in 146 BC, the Roman Senate decreed that Mago's famous treatise on agriculture be translated into Latin.[141]

Circumstantial evidence suggests that Carthage developed viticulture and wine production before the 4th century BC,[142] and even exported its wines widely, as indicated by distinctive cigar-shaped Carthaginian amphorae found at archaeological sites around the western Mediterranean,[143] although the contents of these vessels have not been conclusively analysed. Carthage also shipped quantities of raisin wine, the passum of antiquity.[144] Fruits including figs, pears, and pomegranates, as well as nuts, grain, grapes, dates, and olives were grown in the extensive hinterland,[145] while olive oil was processed and exported all over the Mediterranean. Carthage also raised fine horses,[146] the ancestor of today's Barb horses.

Carthage's merchant ships, which surpassed in number even those of the cities of the Levant, visited every major port of the Mediterranean, as well as Britain and the Atlantic coast of Africa.[147] These ships were able to carry over 100 tons of goods.[148]

Carthage also sent caravans into the interior of Africa and Persia. It traded its manufactured and agricultural goods to the coastal and interior peoples of Africa for salt, gold, timber, ivory, ebony, apes, peacocks, skins, and hides.[149] Its merchants invented the practice of sale by auction and used it to trade with the African tribes. In other ports, they tried to establish permanent warehouses or sell their goods in open-air markets. They obtained amber from Scandinavia, and from the Celtiberians, Gauls, and Celts they got amber, tin, silver, and furs. Sardinia and Corsica produced gold and silver for Carthage, and Phoenician settlements on islands such as Malta and the Balearic Islands produced commodities that would be sent back to Carthage for large-scale distribution. The city supplied poorer civilizations with simple products such as pottery, metallic objects, and ornamentations, often displacing the local manufacturing, but brought its best works to wealthier ones such as the Greeks and Etruscans. Carthage traded in almost every commodity wanted by the ancient world, including spices from Arabia, Africa and India, and slaves (the empire of Carthage temporarily held a portion of Europe and sent conquered barbarian warriors into Northern African slavery).[150]

Herodotus wrote an account about 430 BC of Carthaginian trade on the Atlantic coast of Morocco.[151] The Punic explorer and suffete of Carthage called Hanno the Navigator led an expedition to recolonise the Atlantic coast of Morocco[152] that may have ventured as far down the coast of Africa as Senegal and perhaps even beyond. The Greek version of the Periplus of Hanno describes his voyage. Although it is not known just how far his fleet sailed on the African coastline, this short report, dating probably from the 5th or 6th century BC, identifies distinguishing geographic features such as a coastal volcano and an encounter with hairy hominids.

Archaeological finds show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars, Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean,[153] trading in harbours with warehouses or from ships beached on the coast.

The Etruscan language is imperfectly deciphered, but bilingual inscriptions found in archaeological excavations at the sites of Etruscan cities indicate the Phoenicians had trading relations with the Etruscans for centuries.[154] The discovery in 1964 at Pyrgi in Italy of a shrine to Astarte, a popular Phoenician deity, containing three gold tablets with inscriptions in Etruscan and Phoenician, gives tangible proof of the Phoenician presence in the Italian peninsula at the end of the 6th century BC,[155] long before the rise of Rome. These inscriptions imply a political and commercial alliance between Carthage[156] and the Etruscan ruler of Caere that would corroborate Aristotle's statement that the Etruscans and Carthaginians were so close as to form almost one people.[157] The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies.[158]

Carthaginian religion was based on Phoenician religion (derived from the faiths of the Levant), a form of polytheism. Many of the gods the Carthaginians worshiped were localized and are now known only under their local names. Carthage also had Jewish communities.[159]

The supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and Ba'al Hammon.[160] The goddess Astarte[161] seems to have been popular in early times.[162] At the height of its cosmopolitan era, Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states. A pantheon was presided over by the father of the gods, but a goddess was the principal figure in the Phoenician pantheon.

Surviving Punic texts are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population.[163] In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions.

Cippi and stelae of limestone are characteristic monuments of Punic art and religion,[164] found throughout the western Phoenician world in unbroken continuity, both historically and geographically. Most of them were set up over urns containing cremated human remains, placed within open-air sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries constitute striking relics of Punic civilization.

Carthage under the Phoenicians was accused by its adversaries of child sacrifice. Plutarch (20:14,4–6) alleges the practice,[165] as do Tertullian (Apolog.9:2–3),[166] Orosius, Philo and Diodorus Siculus.[167] However, Herodotos and Polybius do not. Sceptics contend that if Carthage's critics were aware of such a practice, however limited, they would have been horrified by it and exaggerated its extent due to their polemical treatment of the Carthaginians.[168] The Hebrew Bible mentions child sacrifice practiced by the Canaanites, ancestors of the Carthaginians. The Greek and Roman critics, according to Charles Picard, objected not to the killing of children but to the religious nature of it. As in both ancient Greece and Rome, inconvenient children were commonly killed by exposure to the elements.[169]

Modern archaeology in formerly Punic areas has discovered a number of large cemeteries for children and infants, representing a civic and religious institution for worship and sacrifice called the Tophet by archaeologists. These cemeteries may have been used as graves for stillborn infants or children who died very early.[170] Modern archeological excavations have been interpreted by many archeologists[171] as confirming Plutarch's reports of Carthaginian child sacrifice.[172] An estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between 400 BC and 200 BC in the tophet discovered in the SalammbÃ´ neighbourhood of present-day Carthage with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period.[173] The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and two-year-olds. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of cremation and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) cremations became more frequent, but it is not known why. One explanation for this correlation is the claim that the Carthaginians prayed for divine intervention via child sacrifice; however, bad times would naturally lead to increased child mortality, and consequently, more child burials via cremation.

Accounts of child sacrifice in Carthage report that beginning at the founding of Carthage in about 814 BC, mothers and fathers buried their children who had been sacrificed to Ba`al Hammon and Tanit in the
tophet.[174] The practice was apparently distasteful even to Carthaginians, and they began to buy children for the purpose of sacrifice or even to raise servant children instead of offering up their own. However, Carthage's priests demanded the youth in times of crisis such as war, drought, or famine. Special ceremonies during extreme crisis saw up to 200 children of the most affluent and powerful families slain and tossed into the burning pyre.[175]

Sceptics maintain that the bodies of children found in Carthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children who died naturally. Sergio Ribichini has argued that the tophet was "a child necropolis designed to receive the remains of infants who had died prematurely of sickness or other natural causes, and who for this reason were "offered" to specific deities and buried in a place different from the one reserved for the ordinary dead".[176]
However, recent study of archeological evidence confirms that the Carthaginians practice human sacrifice.[177]

Carthage features in Gustave Flaubert's historical novel Salammbô (1862). Set around the time of the Mercenary War, it includes a dramatic description of child sacrifice, and the boy Hannibal narrowly avoiding being sacrificed. Giovanni Pastrone's epic silent film Cabiria is narrowly based on Flaubert's novel.

The Young Carthaginian (1887) by G. A. Henty is a boys' adventure novel told from the perspective of Malchus, a fictional teenage lieutenant of Hannibal during the Second Punic War.

In The Dead Past, a science fiction short story by Isaac Asimov, a leading character is a historian studying ancient times who is trying to disprove the allegation that the Carthaginians carried out child sacrifice.

The Purple Quest by Frank G. Slaughter is about the founding of Carthage.

Die Sterwende Stad (The Dying City) is a novel written in Afrikaans by Antonie P. Roux and published in 1956. It is a fictional account of life in Carthage and included the defeat of Hannibal by Scipio Africanus at the Battle of Zama. For several years it was prescribed reading for South African year 11 and 12 high school students studying the Afrikaans language.[citation needed]

"Delenda Est", a short story in Poul Anderson's Time Patrol series, is an alternate history where Hannibal won the Second Punic War, and Carthage exists in the 20th century.

A duology by John Maddox Roberts, comprising Hannibal's Children (2002) and The Seven Hills (2005), is set in an alternate history where Hannibal defeated Rome in the Second Punic War, and Carthage is still a major Mediterranean power in 100 BC.

Mary Gentle used an alternate history version of Carthage as a setting in her novels Ash: A Secret History and Ilario, A Story of the First History. In these books, Carthage is dominated by Germanic tribes, and the premise is that the Visigoths conquered Carthage and set up a huge empire that repelled the Muslim conquest. In these novels, titles such as "lord-amir" and "scientist-magus" indicate a fusion of European and Northwest African cultures, and Arian Christianity is the state religion.

Stephen Baxter also features Carthage in his alternate history Northland trilogy; in Baxter's narrative it is Carthage that prevails and subjugates Rome.[178]


who plays cora in once upon a time

Barbara Hershey (born Barbara Lynn Herzstein; February 5, 1948),[1] once known as Barbara Seagull,[2] is an American actress. In a career spanning over 50 years, she has played a variety of roles on television and in cinema in several genres, including Westerns and comedies. She began acting at age 17 in 1965, but did not achieve much critical acclaim until the latter half of the 1980s. By that time, the Chicago Tribune referred to her as "one of America's finest actresses."[3]

Barbara Hershey

Hershey won an Emmy and a Golden Globe for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries/TV Film for her role in A Killing in a Small Town (1990). She has also received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Mary Magdalene in Martin Scorsese's The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) and for her role in Jane Campion's Portrait of a Lady (1996). For the latter film, she was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won the Los Angeles Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress. In addition, she has won two Best Actress awards at the Cannes Film Festival for her roles in Shy People (1987) and A World Apart (1988). She was also featured in Woody Allen's critically acclaimed Hannah and Her Sisters (1986), for which she was nominated for the British Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and Garry Marshall's melodrama Beaches (1988), and she earned a second British Academy Award nomination for Darren Aronofsky's Black Swan (2010).

Establishing a reputation early in her career as a "hippie", Hershey experienced conflict between her personal life and her acting goals. Her career suffered a decline during a six-year relationship with actor David Carradine, with whom she had a child. She experimented with a change in stage name that she later regretted. During this time, her personal life was highly publicized and ridiculed.[4] Her acting career was not well established until she separated from Carradine and changed her stage name back to Hershey.[5][6] Later in her career, she began to keep her personal life private.[4][7]

Barbara Herzstein was born in Hollywood, the daughter of Arnold Nathan Herzstein (1906–1981), a horse-racing columnist, and Melrose Herzstein (née Moore; 1917–2008).[8] Her father's parents were Jewish emigrants from Hungary and Russia respectively,[9] while her mother, a native of Arkansas, was a Presbyterian of Irish descent.[10][11]

The youngest of three children, Barbara always wanted to be an actress, and her family nicknamed her "Sarah Bernhardt." She was shy in school and so quiet that people thought she was deaf. By the age of 10, she proved herself to be an "A" student. Her high-school drama coach helped her find an agent, and in 1965, at age 17, she landed a role on Sally Field's television series Gidget. Barbara said that she found Field to be very supportive of her in her first acting role.[12] According to The New York Times All Movie Guide, Barbara graduated from Hollywood High School in 1966,[13] but David Carradine, in his autobiography, said she dropped out of high school after she began acting.[8]

Hershey's acting debut, three episodes of Gidget, was followed by the short-lived television series The Monroes (1966), which also featured Michael Anderson, Jr. By this point, she had adopted the stage name "Barbara Hershey".[14] Although Hershey said the series helped her career, she expressed some frustration with her role, saying: "One week I was strong, the next, weak".[15] While on the series, Hershey garnered several other roles, including one in Doris Day's final feature film, With Six You Get Eggroll.[15]

In 1969, Hershey co-starred in the Glenn Ford Western Heaven with a Gun. On the set, she met and began a romantic relationship with actor David Carradine,[8] who later starred in the television series Kung Fu (see Personal life). In the same year, she acted in the controversial drama Last Summer, which was based on Evan Hunter's eponymous novel. In this film, Hershey played Sandy, the "heavy" who influences two young men (played by Bruce Davison and Richard Thomas) to rape another girl, Rhoda (played by Catherine Burns). Though the film, directed by Frank Perry, received an X rating for the graphic rape scene, Burns earned a Best Supporting Actress Oscar nomination for her performance.[16]

During the filming of Last Summer, a seagull was killed. "In one scene," Hershey explained, "I had to throw the bird in the air to make her fly. We had to reshoot the scene over and over again. I could tell the bird was tired. Finally, when the scene was finished, the director, Frank Perry, told me the bird had broken her neck on the last throw."[2] Hershey felt responsible for the bird's death and changed her stage name to "Seagull" as a tribute to the creature. "I felt her spirit enter me," she later explained. "It was the only moral thing to do."[12] The name change was not positively received. When she was offered a part opposite Timothy Bottoms in The Crazy World of Julius Vrooder (1974) (or Vrooder's Hooch), Hershey had to forfeit half her salary, $25,000, to be billed under the name "Seagull" because the producers were not in favor of the billing.[2][17]

In 1970, Hershey played Tish Grey in The Baby Maker, a film that explored surrogate motherhood. Criticizing the directing and writing of James Bridges, critic Shirley Rigby said of the "bizarre" film, "Only the performances in the film save it from being a total travesty." Rigby went on to say, "Barbara Hershey is a great little actress, much, much more than just another pretty face."[18]

Hershey once said that starring in Boxcar Bertha (1972) "was the most fun I ever had on a movie."[19] The film, co-starring Hershey's domestic partner, David Carradine, and produced by Roger Corman, was Martin Scorsese's first Hollywood picture. Shot in six weeks on a budget of $600,000, Boxcar Bertha was intended to be a period crime drama similar to Corman's Bloody Mama (1970) or Bonnie and Clyde (1967). Although Corman publicized it as an exploitation piece with plenty of sex and violence, Scorsese's influence made it "something much more."[19] Roger Ebert, of the Chicago Sun-Times, wrote of the film's direction, "Martin Scorsese has gone for mood and atmosphere more than for action, and his violence is always blunt and unpleasantâ€”never liberating and exhilarating, as the New Violence is supposed to be."[19] A spread recreating sexually explicit scenes from the movie appeared in Playboy magazine in 1972.[19][20]

Hershey's experience with Scorsese was extended to another major role for her 16 years later in The Last Temptation of Christ (1988) as Mary Magdalene. During the filming of Boxcar Bertha, Hershey had introduced Scorsese to the Nikos Kazantzakis novel on which the latter film was based.[18][19] That collaboration resulted in an Academy Award nomination for the director[21] and a Golden Globe nod for Hershey.

By the mid 1970s, Hershey concluded, "I've been so tied up with David [Carradine] that people have forgotten that I am me. I spend 50 percent of my time working with David."[5] She had, in 1974, guest-starred in a two-part episode of Carradine's television series Kung Fu. She played, under the direction of Carradine, a love interest to his character, Kwai Chang Caine, during his time at the Shaolin temple. She also appeared in two of Carradine's independent directorial projects, You and Me (1975) and Americana (1983), both of which had been filmed in 1973.[6] Her father, Arnold Herzstein, also appeared in Americana.

She publicly acknowledged the desire to be recognized in her own right. Later, in 1974, she did just that, winning a Gold Medal at the Atlanta Film Festival for her role in the Dutch-produced film Love Comes Quietly.[5]

Later in the decade, Hershey starred with Charlton Heston in The Last Hard Men (1976). She hoped the film would revive her career after the damage she felt it had suffered while she was with Carradine, believing that the hippie label she had been given was a career impediment. By this time, she had shed Carradine and her "Seagull" pseudonym.[22] Throughout the rest of the 1970s, however, she was appearing in made-for-TV movies that were described as "forgettable,"[23] like Flood! (1976), Sunshine Christmas (1977), and The Glitter Palace (1977), in which she played a lesbian.[24]

Hershey landed a role in Richard Rush's The Stunt Man (1980), marking a return to the big screen after four years[12] and earning her critical praise.[25] Hershey felt that she would be forever in debt to Rush for fighting with financiers to allow her a part in that film.[23] She also felt The Stunt Man was an important transition for her, from playing girls to playing women.[23]

Some of the "women roles" that followed The Stunt Man included the horror movie The Entity (1982); Philip Kaufman's The Right Stuff (1983), in which she played Glennis Yeager, wife of test pilot Chuck Yeager; and The Natural (1984), in which she shot Robert Redford's character, inspired by a real-life incident where Ruth Ann Steinhagen shot ballplayer Eddie Waitkus.[26] For the role of Harriet Bird, Hershey had chosen a particular hat as her "anchor".[23] Director Barry Levinson disagreed with her choice, but she insisted on wearing it. Levinson later cast Hershey as the wife of Danny DeVito's character in the comedy Tin Men (1987).[23]

In 1986, Hershey left her native California and moved with her son to Manhattan. Three days later, she met briefly with Woody Allen, who offered her the role of Lee in Hannah and Her Sisters (1986). In addition to a Manhattan apartment, Hershey bought an antique home in rural Connecticut.[27] The Allen picture won three Academy Awards and a Golden Globe. The film also earned Hershey a BAFTA nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She described her part as "a wonderful gift."[23]

Hershey followed Hannah and Her Sisters with back-to-back wins for Best Actress at the Cannes Film Festival for Shy People[4][28] and for her appearance as anti-apartheid activist Diana Roth in A World Apart (1988).[4] Her character in the latter film was based on Ruth First.[29] Also in the 1980s, she portrayed Errol Flynn's first wife, actress Lili Damita, in the TV movie My Wicked, Wicked Ways: The Legend of Errol Flynn (1985), which was based on Flynn's autobiography. She also played the love interest to Gene Hackman's character in the basketball film Hoosiers (1986).

Barbara Cloud of the Pittsburgh Press gave attribution to Hershey for starting a trend when she had collagen injected into her lips for her role in Beaches (1988).[30] Humorist Erma Bombeck said of the movie, which also starred Bette Midler, "I have no idea what Beaches was all about. All I could focus on was Barbara Hershey's lips. She looked like she stopped off at a gas station and someone said, 'Your lips are down 30 pounds. Better let me hit 'em with some air.'"[31]

In 1990, Hershey won an Emmy and a Golden Globe for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or Special for her role as Candy Morrison in A Killing in a Small Town, which was based on Candy Montgomery's acquittal for the death of Betty Gore. Montgomery had killed Gore on Friday, June 13, 1980, in Gore's Wylie, Texas, home, by hitting her 41 times with an ax. The jury determined that she did so in self-defense.[32] In preparation for the part, Hershey had a phone conversation with Montgomery.[33] Many of the names of the real-life principals in the case were changed for the movie. The film's alternative title was Evidence of Love, the name of a 1984 book about the case.

Also in 1990, Hershey drew upon what Woody Allen once described as her "erotic overtones,"[34] portraying a woman who falls in love with her much younger nephew, by marriage, played by Keanu Reeves, in the comedic Tune in Tomorrow.[34]

In 1991, Hershey played Hanna Trout, the wife of the title character in Paris Trout (1991), a made-for-cable television movie. In this Showtime production, Hershey collaborated again with A Killing in a Small Town director Stephen Gyllenhaal to play a woman who has an affair with her husband's lawyer. Her husband, an abusive bigot (played by Dennis Hopper), is on trial for murdering a young African American girl.[35] The film, which was based on Pete Dexter's 1988 National Book Award-winning novel, featured Hopper and Hershey enacting a graphic rape scene that the actress found difficult to view. The picture was described as a "dramatic reach deep into the dark hollows of racism, abuse and murder."[36] Paris Trout was nominated for five Prime Time Emmy Awards, including nods for both Hershey and Hopper.

Later in the year, Hershey played an attorney defending her college roommate for the murder of her husband in the suspenseful whodunit Defenseless (1991).[37]

Because of her frequent television appearances, by the end of 1991, Hershey was accused of "selling out to the small screen."[37] In 1992, Hershey appeared with Jane Alexander in the ABC miniseries Stay the Night (1992), prompting Associated Press writer Jerry Buck to write, "Barbara Hershey is a person who jumps back and forth between features and television very easily."[38] She starred in another TV miniseries in 1993, succeeding Anjelica Huston as Clara Allen in the sequel series Return to Lonesome Dove.[39] She was nominated for a Golden Satellite Award for another TV appearance, The Staircase (1998). Between 1999 and 2000, she played Dr. Francesca Alberghetti in 22 season-six episodes of the medical TV drama Chicago Hope.[40]

Hershey co-starred with Joe Pesci as a nightclub owner in the film drama The Public Eye (1992) and as the estranged wife of homicidal Michael Douglas in the thriller Falling Down (1993). Among the other feature films in which she appeared during the 1990s was Jane Campion's adaptation of the Henry James novel The Portrait of a Lady (1996). Hershey earned an Oscar nomination[41] and won the Best Supporting Actress award from the National Society of Film Critics for her role as Madame Serena Merle in that picture.[42] In 1995, Last of the Dogmen, co-starring Tom Berenger, was released through Savoy Pictures. In 1999, Hershey starred in an independent film called Drowning on Dry Land; during production she met co-star Naveen Andrews, with whom she began a romantic relationship that lasted until 2010.[43]

In 2001, Hershey appeared in the psychological thriller Lantana. She was the only American in a mostly Australian cast, which included Kerry Armstrong, Anthony LaPaglia, and Geoffrey Rush.[44] Film writer Sheila Johnson said the film was "one of the best to emerge from Australia in years."[45] Another thriller followed: 11:14 (2003) also featured Rachael Leigh Cook, Patrick Swayze, Hilary Swank, and Colin Hanks.[46]

Hershey continued to appear on television during the 2000s, including a season on the series The Mountain. She also starred as Anne Shirley as an adult in Anne of Green Gables: A New Beginning (2008), the fourth in a series of made-for-TV films based on the character, taking over the role from Megan Follows.

Hershey appeared as an American actress, Mrs. Hubbard, in an adaptation of Agatha Christie's Murder on the Orient Express for the British television series Poirot (starring David Suchet), which aired in the United States on Public Broadcast Service in July 2010.[47] Also in 2010, Hershey co-starred in Darren Aronofsky's acclaimed psychological thriller Black Swan (2010) opposite Natalie Portman and Mila Kunis. The following year, she co-starred in the James Wan horror film Insidious (2011).[48] From 2012 to 2013, she had a recurring role in the first two seasons of ABC's hit drama Once Upon a Time as Cora, the Queen of Hearts and mother of the Evil Queen.[49] In 2014, she reprised the role in one episode of the show's spin-off Once Upon a Time in Wonderland. In 2015, she once more reprised the role when she returned to the show for an episode of its fourth season, and in 2016, she appeared again for two episodes of the show's fifth season, most notably its landmark 100th episode. In A&E's new series Damien, Hershey portrayed series regular Ann Rutledge, the world's most powerful woman, who has been given the task to make sure Damien fulfills his destiny as the Antichrist. The role marks Hershey's latest TV gig following Once Upon a Time, The Mountain, Chicago Hope, and Lifetime's Left to Die TV movie.[50]

In 1969, Hershey met David Carradine while they were working on Heaven With a Gun.[8] The pair began a domestic relationship that lasted until 1975.[51] Carradine said that during the rape scene in that movie, he cracked one of Barbara's ribs.[52] They appeared in other films together including Martin Scorsese's Boxcar Bertha. In 1972, the couple posed together in a nude Playboy spread, recreating some sex scenes from Boxcar Bertha.[20] Later in 1972, Hershey gave birth to their son, Free, who changed his name to Tom when he was nine years old.[53] The relationship fell apart around the time of Carradine's 1974 burglary arrest,[54] after he had begun an affair with Season Hubley, who had guest-starred in Kung Fu.[55]

During this period, Hershey changed her stage name to "Seagull". In 1979, a blunt newspaper article from the Knight News Service referenced this period of her life, saying of her acting career that "it looked as if she blew it."[56] The article referred to Hershey as a "kook" and stated that she was frequently "high on something."[56] In addition to that criticism, she had been ostracized for breast-feeding her son during an appearance on The Dick Cavett Show,[2][12][57] and for breast-feeding him beyond the age of two years.[58] She said that this period of her life hurt her career; "Producers wouldn't see me because I had a reputation for using drugs and being undependable. I never used drugs at all and I have always been serious about my acting career."[6] After splitting up with Carradine, she changed her stage name back to "Hershey", explaining that she had told the story of why she adopted the name "Seagull" so many times that it had lost its meaning.[6]

By the time Hershey was 42, she was described by columnist Luaina Lee as a "private person who was mired in some heavy publicity when she first became a professional actress."[7] Yardena Arar, writing for the Los Angeles Daily News, confirmed that Hershey had become a private person by 1990.[4]

On August 8, 1992, Hershey married artist Stephen Douglas. The ceremony took place at her home in Oxford, Connecticut, where the only guests were their two mothers and Hershey's then 19-year-old son, Tom (nÃ© Free) Carradine.[59] The couple separated and divorced one year after the wedding.[60]

Hershey began dating actor Naveen Andrews in 1999.[43] During a brief separation in 2005, Andrews fathered a child with another woman.[61] In May 2010, after Andrews won sole custody of his son, the couple announced that they had ended their 10-year relationship six months earlier.[62]

Hershey has residences in Los Angeles, Hawaii, New York, and Connecticut.[citation needed]