when did avenged sevenfold release their first album

Before the release of their debut album, the band recorded two demos in 1999 and 2000.[7][8] In mid-2001, it was reported that Meacham had attempted suicide[9] by drinking excessive amounts of cough syrup.[10] The attempt affected the band's Take Action Tour.[9] During his hospitalization he remained in poor condition and was replaced by Dameon Ash.[10] In an interview, lead singer M. Shadows said of Meacham that "he perma-fried his brain and was in a mental institution for a long time, and when you have someone in your band who does that, it ruins everything that's going on all around you, and it makes you want to do something to prevent it from happening to other people."[10] Avenged Sevenfold's debut album, Sounding the Seventh Trumpet, was recorded when the band members were in their late teens and still in high school. It was originally released on their first label, Good Life Recordings in 2001.[11] When lead guitarist Synyster Gates joined the band after the album was released, the introductory track "To End the Rapture" was re-recorded featuring a full band element. The album was subsequently re-released on Hopeless Records in 2002. The band started to receive recognition, performing with bands such as Mushroomhead and Shadows Fall and playing on the Take Action Tour.[12][13]

Avenged Sevenfold

Avenged Sevenfold (sometimes abbreviated as A7X) is an American heavy metal band from Huntington Beach, California, formed in 1999. The band's current lineup consists of lead vocalist M. Shadows, rhythm guitarist and backing vocalist Zacky Vengeance, lead guitarist and backing vocalist Synyster Gates, bassist and backing vocalist Johnny Christ, and drummer Brooks Wackerman.

Avenged Sevenfold is known for its diverse rock sound and dramatic imagery in album covers and merchandise.[1] Avenged Sevenfold emerged with a metalcore sound on the band's debut Sounding the Seventh Trumpet. However, Avenged Sevenfold's style had evolved by the band's third album and first major label release, City of Evil, into a heavy metal and hard rock style. The band continued to explore new sounds with its self-titled release and enjoyed continued mainstream success before their drummer, James "The Rev" Sullivan, died in 2009. Despite his death, Avenged Sevenfold continued on with the help of now-former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy, and released and toured in support of its fifth album Nightmare in 2010, which debuted on the top spot of the Billboard 200, Avenged Sevenfold's first number one debut.[2] In 2011 drummer Arin Ilejay joined the band on tours and recording. Avenged Sevenfold's sixth studio album Hail to the King, which was released in 2013, marked the only Avenged Sevenfold album featuring Arin Ilejay. Hail to the King charted as number 1 on the Billboard 200, the UK Albums chart, as well as the Finnish, Brazilian, Canadian, and Irish charts. In late 2014 Ilejay left the band, and was replaced by former Bad Religion drummer Brooks Wackerman, but wasn't revealed as his replacement until in 2015 the band announced Ilejay's departure. The band surprise-released their seventh studio album titled The Stage on October 28, 2016, which debuted as number 4 on the Billboard 200 chart in the US. The Stage is their first conceptual album and it marked another stylistic change for the band, moving towards the progressive metal sound.

To date, Avenged Sevenfold has released seven studio albums, one live album/DVD, two compilation albums and eighteen singles and have sold over 8 million albums worldwide.[3] Avenged Sevenfold was ranked No. 47 on Loudwire's list of Top 50 Metal Bands of All Time.[4]

The band was formed in 1999 in Huntington Beach, California with original members M. Shadows, Zacky Vengeance, The Rev and Matt Wendt. M Shadows came up with the name as a reference to the story of Cain and Abel from The Bible, which can be found in Genesis 4:24, although they are not a religious band.[5] Upon its formation, each member of the band also took on a pseudonym which were already nicknames of theirs from high school.[6] Matt Wendt was later replaced by Justin 'Sane' Meacham who was previously the bassist for Suburban Legends.

Having found a new bassist, Johnny Christ, the group released their second studio album titled Waking the Fallen on Hopeless Records in August 2003. The album featured a more refined and mature sound production in comparison to their previous album. The band received profiles in Billboard and The Boston Globe, and played in the Vans Warped Tour.[14][15] In 2004, Avenged Sevenfold toured again on the Vans Warped Tour and recorded a video for their song "Unholy Confessions" which went into rotation on MTV2's Headbanger's Ball.[16] Shortly after the release of Waking the Fallen, Avenged Sevenfold left Hopeless Records and were signed to Warner Bros. Records.

City of Evil, the band's third album and major label debut, was released on June 7, 2005 and debuted at No.30 on the Billboard 200 chart, selling over 30,000 copies in its first week of release.[17][18] It utilized a more classic metal sound than Avenged Sevenfold's previous albums, which had been grouped into the metalcore genre.[19][20] The album is also notable for the absence of screamed and growled vocals; M. Shadows worked with vocal coach Ron Anderson—whose clients have included Axl Rose and Chris Cornell—for months before the album's release to achieve a sound that had "grit while still having the tone".[19][21] The album received positive reviews from several magazines and websites and is credited for propelling the band into international popularity.

After playing Ozzfest in 2006, Avenged Sevenfold memorably beat out R&B Singers Rihanna and Chris Brown, Panic! at the Disco, Angels & Airwaves and James Blunt for the title of Best New Artist at the MTV Video Music Awards, thanks in part to their Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas-inspired song "Bat Country."[22] They returned to the Vans Warped Tour, this time headlining and then continued on their own "Cities of Evil Tour."[23] In addition, their lead single "Bat Country" reached No.2 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Charts, No.6 on the Billboard Modern Rock Charts and the accompanying video made it to No.1 on MTV's Total Request Live.[24] Propelled by this success, the album sold well and became Avenged Sevenfold's first gold record.[25] It was later certified platinum in August 2009.

Avenged Sevenfold was invited to join Ozzfest tour on the main stage, alongside other well known rock/heavy metal acts such as DragonForce, Lacuna Coil, Hatebreed, Disturbed and System of a Down for the first time in 2006.[26] That same year they also completed a worldwide tour, including the US, The United Kingdom (as well as mainland Europe), Japan, Australia and New Zealand. After a sixteen-month promotion of City of Evil, the band announced that they were cancelling their Fall 2006 tour to record new music.[27] In the interim, the band released their first DVD titled All Excess on July 17, 2007.[28] All Excess, which debuted as the No.1 DVD in the USA, included live performances and backstage footage that spanned the band's eight-year career. Two tribute albums, Strung Out on Avenged Sevenfold: Bat Wings and Broken Strings and Strung Out on Avenged Sevenfold: The String Tribute were also released in October 2007.

On October 26, 2007, Avenged Sevenfold released their self-titled album, the band's fourth studio album. It debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 with over 90,000 copies sold.[29] Two singles, "Critical Acclaim" and "Almost Easy" were released prior to the album's debut. In December 2007, an animated video was made for "A Little Piece of Heaven". Due to the song's controversial subject matter, however, Warner Brothers only released it to registered MVI users over the internet. The third single, "Afterlife" and its video was released in January 2008. Their fourth single, "Dear God", was released on June 15, 2008. Although critical reception was generally mixed the self-titled album went on to sell over 500,000 copies and was awarded "Album of the Year" at the Kerrang! Awards.[30]

Avenged Sevenfold headlined the 2008 Taste of Chaos tour with Atreyu, Bullet for My Valentine, Blessthefall and Idiot Pilot.[31] They used the footage from their last show in Long Beach for Live in the LBC & Diamonds in the Rough, a two-disc B-sides CD and live DVD which was released on September 16, 2008. They also recorded numerous covers, including Pantera's "Walk", Iron Maiden's "Flash of the Blade" and Black Sabbath's "Paranoid".[31][32][33]

In January 2009, M. Shadows confirmed that the band was writing the follow-up to their self-titled fourth album within the upcoming months.[34] They also played at Rock on the Range, from May 16â€“17, 2009.[35] On April 16, they performed a version of Guns N' Roses' "It's So Easy" onstage with Slash, at the Nokia Theater in Los Angeles.[36] On December 28, 2009, the band's drummer James "The Rev" Sullivan was found dead at his home at the age of 28.[37] Autopsy results were inconclusive,[38] but on June 9, 2010, the cause of death was revealed to have been an "acute polydrug intoxication due to combined effects of Oxycodone, Oxymorphone, Diazepam/Nordiazepam and ethanol".[39] In a statement by the band, they expressed their grief over the death of The Rev and later posted a message from Sullivan's family which expressed their gratitude to his fans for their support.[40][41] The band members admitted in a number of interviews that they considered disbanding at this point in time.[42][43] However, on February 17, 2010, Avenged Sevenfold stated that they had entered the studio, along with now-former Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy, to drum for the album, in place of The Rev.[44]

The single "Nightmare" was digitally released on May 18, 2010.[45][46] A preview for the song was released on May 6, 2010 on Amazon.com, but was removed soon after for unknown reasons.[46] Mixing for the album had been completed in New York City, and Nightmare was finally released worldwide on July 27, 2010.[47] It met with mixed to positive reviews from music critics but was well received by the fans. Nightmare beat sales projections easily, debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 with sales of 163,000 units in its first week.[48] After finishing recording, in December, Portnoy and the band posted simultaneous statements on their websites stating that he would not be their replacement for The Rev. However, Portnoy did travel with the band overseas in December 2010 for three shows in Iraq and Kuwait sponsored by the USO. They played for U.S. Soldiers at Camp Adder, Camp Beuhring, and Balad Air Base.[49] On January 20, 2011, Avenged Sevenfold announced via Facebook that former Confide drummer Arin Ilejay would begin touring with them that year. He was not yet considered a full-time member at this point.[50][51]

Avenged Sevenfold performed at the Rock am Ring and Rock im Park festivals on June 3â€“5, 2011 alongside other bands such as Alter Bridge, System of a Down, and In Flames.[52] On April 2011, the band headlined the Golden God Awards held by Metal Hammer. The same night the band won three awards for "Best Vocalist" (M. Shadows), "Epiphone Best Guitarist(s)" (Synyster Gates and Zacky Vengeance) and "Affliction's Album of The Year: " for Nightmare, while Mike Portnoy won the award for "Drum Workshop's Best Drummer" for his work on the album.

Avenged Sevenfold headlined the 2011 Uproar Festival with supporting acts Three Days Grace, Seether, Bullet for My Valentine, Escape The Fate, among others.[53] In November and December 2011, the band went on their "Buried Alive" tour with supporting acts Hollywood Undead, Asking Alexandria, and Black Veil Brides.[54]

On April 11, 2012, Avenged Sevenfold won the award for "Best Live Band" and "Most Dedicated Fans" at the Revolver Golden Gods awards.[55] The band toured through Asia into April and early May, and played at the Orion Music + More, Festival on June 23 and 24 in Atlantic City, New Jersey alongside Metallica and Cage the Elephant among many others.[56]

On September 24, 2012, Avenged Sevenfold released a new song, titled "Carry On"; it was featured in the video game Call of Duty: Black Ops II.[57] On November 15, 2012, vocalist M. Shadows said that the band had been working on a new album since the recording of "Carry On" in August 2012.[58] The band began recording material for the album in January 2013.[59] The band then started streaming snippets of the album in May 2013 on their new radio app.[60] There, Arin Ilejay was confirmed as an official band member and replacement of deceased The Rev. M. Shadows said that the album would sound more blues rock-influenced and more like classic rock/metal like Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin.[61]

The band was confirmed to play at the 2013 Rock in Rio festival on September 22, 2013.[62] On May 24, 2013, the band have announced dates for their European tour with Five Finger Death Punch and Device serving as their support bands.

The album, entitled Hail to the King, was released on August 27, 2013.[63] This is the first Avenged Sevenfold album without any musical contributions from deceased The Rev. The album's lead single and title track was released on July 15, 2013. Hail to the King charted as No. 1 on the US Billboard 200, the UK albums chart, as well as the Finnish, Brazilian, Canadian, and Irish charts, and was commercially and critically acclaimed. The band headlined Monster Energy's Welcome to Rockville two-day music festival in Jacksonville, FL, April 26–27, 2014, joined by more than 25 rock acts, such as Motörhead, Rob Zombie, Chevelle, Korn, Staind, Alter Bridge, The Cult, Five Finger Death Punch, Volbeat, Black Label Society, and Seether.[64] On June 13, the band headlined the Friday night of Download Festival 2014. The band also headlined the Mayhem Festival 2014 with Korn, Asking Alexandria, and Trivium.

In March 2014, vocalist M. Shadows revealed in an interview with Loudwire that the band had plans in the works to put something out for the overdue 10th anniversary of Waking the Fallen.[65] Waking the Fallen: Resurrected was released August 25, 2014.[66] The reissue charted No. 10 on the US Billboard 200.[67]

In October 2014, M. Shadows confirmed that the band will begin writing their seventh album during mid-2015.[68] In May 2015, the band posted a video on their website teasing their upcoming second live DVD/documentary, entitled This is Bat Country, which will show performances from Download Festival, Rock in Rio and Rock on the Range. As of 2016, the band hasn't released the DVD because of the ongoing lawsuit with Warner Bros.

In July 2015 the band announced on their website that they would part ways with drummer Arin Ilejay, due to "creative differences".[69] In October 2015, the band announced on their website that they had been working with a new drummer for over a year, making sure that it was a good fit before making sudden changes.[70] On October 21, in an interview with Kerrang! magazine, guitarist Zacky Vengeance revealed that the band had been working on the new album for the past couple of months and that a couple of songs had already been completely written.[71] On November 4, 2015, the band announced that Brooks Wackerman would replace Arin Ilejay as the drummer for Avenged Sevenfold.[72] In an interview with Kerrang! magazine on December 3, guitarist Zacky Vengeance said that the new album went in all sorts of aggressive and melodic directions and described it as very "aggro".[73]

On January 14, 2016, Billboard reported that Avenged Sevenfold had been sued by Warner Bros. for trying to leave the label. The band later released a statement clarifying that they wanted to leave because a majority of the executives who helped sign the band to Warner Bros were no longer at the label. They also revealed that the band was going to be entering the studio to record their new album very soon, intending to release it later in 2016.[74] On March 31, the band posted a teaser of their upcoming album on their website.[75]

On August 18, 2016, the band performed a free live show for 1500 people in Minnesota, marking it the first live performance with new drummer Brooks Wackerman.[76] The band was announced as support for Metallica with Volbeat in the U.S. Bank Stadium on August 20, 2016, making it the first ever rock show in the stadium.[77] The band was announced as a headliner of Monster Energy Rock Allegiance 2016, along with Alice in Chains, Slayer, The Offspring, Breaking Benjamin and others.[78] Avenged Sevenfold also performed on "Louder Than Life" festival as headliners on October 1, with Slipknot, Slayer, Disturbed, Korn and other artists.[79] On June 21, the band announced a U.S. Fall tour with Volbeat, Killswitch Engage, and Avatar.[80] The band also announced a UK tour for January 2017 with Disturbed and In Flames.[81] Avenged Sevenfold was announced as a headliner of 2016 edition of Knotfest Mexico.[82] The band also announced the European Tour for February and March 2017 along with Disturbed and Chevelle.

On October 3, 2016, the band's logo Deathbat started appearing as a projection in London. After that, Deathbat also started appearing in Berlin, Toronto and Paris, indicating a release of the new album. On October 12, Chris Jericho posted an Instagram photo of the Deathbat logo with a date 12/9/16 underneath it. He then revealed the supposed title of the album, Voltaic Oceans,[83] It was later revealed that the new album would actually be called The Stage, a concept album about artificial intelligence, which was released on October 28, 2016 via Capitol Records.[84] The album was released to generally favorable reviews,[85] and the band decided to make a unique stage production for it, hiring Cirque du Soleil directors for its making.[86]

Avenged Sevenfold was announced as the main support act on Metallica's WorldWired 2017 stadium summer tour in the US and Canada, alongside Volbeat and Gojira.[87] The band also announced a series of 2017 US headlining summer shows of The Stage World Tour, with Volbeat, Motionless in White, and A Day to Remember as special guests across various dates.[88]

On December 22, 2017, the band released a deluxe edition of The Stage that included one new original track, six cover songs, and four live tracks from their European tour earlier that year.

The band's influences include Guns N' Roses, Iron Maiden, Pantera, Bad Religion, Dream Theater, Motörhead, Megadeth,[89] Metallica, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, The Rolling Stones,[90] AC/DC, NOFX, Alice in Chains, Black Flag, Corrosion of Conformity, Suicidal Tendencies, Misfits, Slayer, The Vandals, Rage Against the Machine, Korn, Deftones, and AFI.[91]

The band has been categorized under many genres of heavy music. Mainly categorized as heavy metal,[92][93][94][95] hard rock,[94][96][97] progressive metal[98][99][100][101] and metalcore,[94][95][102] Avenged Sevenfold's music has evolved over most of the band's career. At first, the band's debut album Sounding the Seventh Trumpet consisted almost entirely of a metalcore sound; however, there were several deviations from this genre, most notably in "Streets", which shows a punk rock style, and "Warmness on the Soul", which is a piano ballad.[103] On Waking the Fallen, the band displayed a metalcore style once more, but added more clean singing and leaned a bit more towards metal and bit less close to hardcore.[95] In the band's DVD All Excess, producer Andrew Murdock explained this transition: "When I met the band after Sounding the Seventh Trumpet had come out before they had recorded Waking the Fallen, M. Shadows said to me 'This record is screaming. The record we want to make is going to be half-screaming half-singing. I don't want to scream anymore. And the record after that is going to be all singing'."

On City of Evil, Avenged Sevenfold's third album, the band chose to abandon the metalcore genre,[104] using a more hard rock and heavy metal style.[105] Avenged Sevenfold's self-titled album, however, has some experiments with other music genres than that from City of Evil, most notably in "Dear God", which shows a country style and "A Little Piece of Heaven", which is circled within the influence of Broadway show tunes, using primarily brass instruments and stringed orchestra to take over most of the role of the lead and rhythm guitar.[106] Nightmare contains further deviations, including a piano ballad called "Fiction", progressive metal-oriented track "Save Me" and a heavy metal sound with extreme vocals and heavier instrumentation on "God Hates Us". The band's sixth studio album Hail to the King shows more of a classic metal sound and a riff-oriented approach. On their newest album The Stage, the band explores further into progressive metal,[98] blending it with elements of thrash metal. In the past, Avenged Sevenfold has also been described as alternative metal,[107] screamo,[108] and pop punk metal.[109]

The band has been criticized for "not being metal enough".[93][110] Vocalist M. Shadows responded to this with, "we play music for the sake of music, not so that we can be labeled a metal band. That's like telling us we aren't punk enough. Who cares?".[110] Avenged Sevenfold is one of the notable acts of the New Wave of American Heavy Metal.[111]


when did rock and roll start in britain

In the 1950s, Britain was well placed to receive American rock and roll music and culture.[1] It shared a common language, had been exposed to American culture through the stationing of American troops in the country, and, although not enjoying the same economic prosperity as the US, had many similar social developments, not least of which was the emergence of distinct youth leisure activities and sub-cultures. This was most evident in the rise of the Teddy Boys among working-class youths in London from about 1953, who adopted a version of the Edwardian styles of their grandfathers' generation.[2] British audiences were accustomed to American popular music and British musicians had already been influenced by American musical styles, particularly in trad jazz, which also exposed some to the precursors of rock and roll, including boogie-woogie and the blues.[3] From this emerged the skiffle craze in 1955, led by Lonnie Donegan, whose version of "Rock Island Line" reached the Top 10 in the UK Singles Chart.[4] Skiffle produced an Anglicised and largely amateur form of American folk song, chiefly notable for inspiring many individuals to take up music. These included many of the subsequent generation of rock and roll, folk, R&B and beat performers, among them John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who first performed together in the Quarrymen skiffle group in 1957.[4]

British rock and roll

British rock and roll, or sometimes British rock 'n' roll, is a style of popular music based on American rock and roll, which emerged in the late 1950s and was popular until the arrival of beat music in 1962. It has generally been considered inferior to the American version of the genre, and made little international or lasting impact. However, it was important in establishing British youth and popular music culture and was a key factor in subsequent developments that led to the British Invasion of the mid-1960s. Since the 1960s, some stars of the genre, most notably Cliff Richard, have managed to sustain successful careers and there have been periodic revivals of this form of music.

At the same time, British audiences were beginning to encounter American rock and roll. For many, this was initially through American films, including Blackboard Jungle (1955) and Rock Around the Clock (1955).[5] Both films contained the Bill Haley & His Comets hit "Rock Around the Clock" and helped it to top the UK chart in 1955 and again in 1956. It also set off a moral panic as young cinema goers ripped up seats to dance, which helped identify rock and roll with delinquency. This led to it being almost banned by TV and radio stations, making it something of an underground youth movement, which was widely adopted by the Teddy Boy sub-culture.[6] In the 1950s, radio in the UK was almost exclusively in the hands of the BBC. Popular music was only played on the Light Programme, and the playing of records was heavily restricted by "needle time" arrangements. Nevertheless, American rock and roll acts became a major force in the UK chart. Elvis Presley reached number 2 in the UK chart with "Heartbreak Hotel" in 1956 and had nine more singles in the Top 30 that year. His first number 1 was "All Shook Up" in 1957 and there would be more chart-toppers for him and for Buddy Holly and the Crickets and Jerry Lee Lewis in the next two years.[7]

The initial response of the British music industry was to attempt to produce exact copies of American records. These were often recorded with session musicians and, even if note perfect, lacked the energy and spontaneity that characterised American rock and roll. They were often fronted by teen idols co-opted in an attempt to break into the suddenly emerging youth market.[1] More grassroots British rock and rollers soon began to appear, many of them out of the declining skiffle craze, including Wee Willie Harris (usually credited as the first) and Tommy Steele, who proved the most successful of this first wave, and one of the first to be tagged as "the British Elvis". He reached the Top 20 with "Rock with the Caveman" and number 1 with "Singing the Blues" in 1956.[1][8] Another response was to treat rock and roll as a joke â€“ "Bloodnok's Rock and Roll Call", recorded by The Goons, reached number 3 in the chart in late 1956. The bland, jokey, or wholly imitative style of much British rock and roll in this period meant that the American product remained dominant. However, this process was important in the orientation of the British record industry towards the youth market and group based music in general. In 1958, Britain produced its first "authentic" rock and roll song and star, when Cliff Richard and the Drifters reached number 2 in the chart with "Move It", which managed to combine a bluesy rock and roll riff with respectable lyrics and attitude.[9]

The success of "Move It" was partly due to an appearance on Independent Television's Oh Boy! (1958–9). This followed the BBC's tentative first attempt at youth music programming, Six-Five Special (1957–58), with a much more music-orientated show that did much to promote the careers of British rock and rollers like Marty Wilde, Johnny Gentle, Vince Eager, Adam Faith and Duffy Power.[1] These and other British acts had a series of hits in the late 1950s. Cliff Richard, and as instrumental artists his new backing band The Shadows, were the most successful home grown rock and roll based acts of the era. The Shadows, and particularly guitarist Hank Marvin, were highly influential on a subsequent generation of musicians, helping to cement the line-up of drums, bass, rhythm and lead guitars for British bands.[10] However, in retrospect their work tends to be seen as a bland imitation of American rock and roll.[1] Notably, Cliff Richard rapidly dropped much of his sub-Elvis, rock and roll image for a softer mainstream style, as can be seen in his first number 1, "Living Doll" and a subsequent series of ballads that owed little to rock and roll.[11]

Amid the limited vitality of late 1950s and early 1960s British rock and roll, there were some more dynamic acts. These included Billy Fury, whose rockabilly-style compositions, aided by the guitar of Joe Brown, on his "masterpiece"[8] 1960 LP Sound of Fury are considered some of the best work of the era.[12] Tony Sheridan, Vince Taylor and Screaming Lord Sutch and the Savages also produced some work that could be compared with American rock and roll. Other singers who issued records of note included Terry Dene, "a fine rock'n'roll vocalist";[8] Johnny Brandon, who toured the US in 1956 billed as "the King of Rock & Roll";[8] Dickie Pride, Roy Young, and Helen Shapiro.[8] The only act to create what has been described as "a pre-Beatle rock classic", were Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, whose song "Shakin' All Over" managed to become a rock and roll standard.[1]

Several of the most lasting and innovative British records of the period were produced by Joe Meek. These included "Johnny Remember Me" by John Leyton, a UK number one record in 1961, and "Telstar" by the Tornados in 1962, which was number one in the UK and became the first record by a British group to reach number one in the US Hot 100.[13]

British rock and roll declined sharply in the face of the new beat music after 1962. While some of the most successful acts, most notably Cliff Richard, were able to hang on to positions in the chart, British rock and roll virtually disappeared from the chart, as beat and then R&B based groups began to dominate.[1] Many British rock and rollers continued their careers, and occasional bands specialised in the form, but mainstream success for the genre was rare. There have been periodic revivals of British rock and roll, including in the 1970s, with highly successful nostalgic pop acts in the 1970s like Showaddywaddy and Alvin Stardust (who, as Shane Fenton, had enjoyed chart success in the early 1960s),[8] and Shakin' Stevens in the 1980s, but a wider revival has been elusive.[14]

In general, early British rock and roll was a second-class product and made little impact on the American market, where British acts before 1963 were almost unknown. In Britain too their significance was limited. British rhythm and blues bands like the Rolling Stones and the Yardbirds deliberately turned away from rock and roll towards its sources in America, and even the subsequent generation of beat bands that owed much more to rock and roll, frequently covered songs by American artists like Chuck Berry, but rarely used material from British acts.[1] Early British rock and roll was undoubtedly an inspiration and influence on the instrumentation and shape of the beat music that spearheaded the British Invasion, but it had to be changed significantly into something new and vital in order to have any impact outside of its own borders.[1]


when does leela find out she a mutant

"Leela's Homeworld" is the second episode in the fourth production season of the American animated television series Futurama. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 17, 2002. "Leela's Homeworld" was written by Kristin Gore and directed by Mark Ervin. The episode reveals Leela's true origin as a mutant who was abandoned by her parents so she could have a better life. She was disguised as an alien, as it is illegal for mutants to live on the surface.

Leela's Homeworld

The Professor announces some good news: Leela's old orphanarium has named her orphan of the year, and he has invented a machine that makes glow-in-the-dark noses. The machine produces enormous amounts of toxic waste, and Hermes tells him to get rid of it. The Professor hires Bender for the job, and he dumps the waste into the sewer.

At the orphanarium's award ceremony, the headmaster presents a story of Leela's arrival and Leela delivers a speech which profoundly inspires the orphans. However, back at Planet Express, Fry finds Leela in tears, and she admits she still longs to have parents.

Bender expands his one-time dumping into a full waste management service. The sewer mutants grow angry with Bender's disposal technique and abduct him, Fry, and Leela. The mutants sentence them to be lowered into a lake of chemicals which will turn them into mutants. Two hooded mutants break from the group and swing the crane the three are tied to, dropping them on the far side of the mutagenic lake. The mutant mob pursue them. Fry, Leela, and Bender take refuge in a mutant home, where they find photos and news clippings of every major event in Leela's life. Leela is frozen in horror at the thought of a mutant having been stalking her her whole life, giving the mob the opportunity to capture them. However, after a whispered word from the hooded mutants, the crew's sentence is commuted to exile. They are flown by hot air balloon to a surface access ladder hanging over the lake. Fry and Bender emerge on the surface, but Leela, determined to find out what the hooded mutants know about her, dives into the chemical lake. To her surprise, she is unaffected by the chemicals.

Fry heads to the orphanarium to get some clues to what is going on, and the headmaster gives him the note that was left with Leela when she was abandoned. Fry takes the note to the Professor for analysis.

Leela pursues the hooded mutants through the sewers back to the home with the shrine to herself. Finding that one of them has a bracelet identical to one she has had since before coming to her orphanarium, Leela hypothesizes that they killed her parents, and the hooded mutants confess. Before Leela can kill the two in her rage, Bender shoots Fry through the ceiling using his waste disposal pump. Fry stops Leela and removes the mutants' hoods, revealing they are one-eyed. Fry explains that though the Professor could not translate the note, his analysis showed that it was written on a brand of toilet paper that is used primarily in the sewers, cluing Fry in to the fact that the hooded mutants are Leela's parents. Her parents confess that, wanting Leela to have a better life than that of a mutant, they left her at the orphanarium with an alienese note so she would be assumed to be an alien. A tearful reunion ensues, and the episode closes with a montage of scenes that show Leela's parents secretly watching over her throughout her life.

This episode reveals Leela's origins, something she had been searching for all throughout the series. Until this episode, Leela believed she was an alien who was abandoned on Earth after her home planet collapsed (as seen in "A Bicyclops Built for Two"). The revelation of her true origin in this episode was previously foreshadowed when Leela's parents appeared in a crowd of mutants in the season two episode "I Second That Emotion".[1]

The idea for the character Leela and her back story were conceived by Matt Groening and David X. Cohen before they even pitched the series to Fox. As the plot for this episode developed, they realized that the design of the characters needed to change to look less normal.[2] In the original design, Morris had a normal mouth and Munda had normal human arms, one of which was visible in her original appearance in "I Second That Emotion". For a while, the idea was thrown around to stay true to some aspects of this design and Munda had one normal human arm and one tentacle arm. Eventually it was decided to make both arms tentacles and work under the assumption that in the previous appearance she had been wearing something similar to a human flesh colored glove.[3] There was a large amount of debate amongst the writers as to whether the truth of Leela's origin should be revealed to the viewer before Leela realized it or if it should be a surprise for the viewers as well. The final decision was made based on the idea that it would be easier to make jokes if the viewer were in on the plot.[2]

The song played during the ending montage is "Baby Love Child" by Pizzicato Five; the scene was slightly extended due to a desire to include more of the song.[2] Producers claim that the montage was inspired by the musical sequences used on Homicide: Life on the Street.[citation needed]

Along with the episodes "Jurassic Bark" and "The Luck of the Fryrish", this episode is considered to be a fan favorite and one of the most emotional episodes of the series.[2]

In its initial airing, the episode received a Nielsen rating of 3.4/5, placing it 71st among primetime shows for the week of February 11â€“17, 2002.[4]

Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A, particularly praising the execution of a story that could have been forgettable if done any other way. He also praised the episode's final sequence and its music.[5]


which russian leader defeated the tatars at the battle of kazan

The Battle of Kazan (1774) was a major battle during the Pugachev Rebellion. It took place on 12â€“15 July 1774 in Kazan, Russia, and the surrounding area. The first stage began in the morning of 12 July, when rebels under Yemelyan Pugachev defeated government troops and besieged them in the Kazan Kremlin. During the battle some government forces defected to the rebels' side. However, in the evening, tsarist forces under Johann Michelson reached Kazan and defeated the rebels in two battles which took place on 13 and 15 July, forcing Pugachev to retreat to Tsaryovokokshaysk and then to cross the Volga. Out of 25,000 and 15,000 rebels who participated in the first and last stages of the battle respectively, only 500 escaped.[1]

Battle of Kazan (1774)

Kazan was threatened by Pugachev as early as the autumn of 1773. Many of the town's nobles escaped to Moscow, inspiring fear there. A defensive plan was formulated by the Russian high command and was approved personally by Catherine the Great.

There were 3 sectors of defense in Kazan. The first, under general Banner, extended from Kazanka and Arsk Field to Qaban lakes. There, government troops were reinforced by gymnasium pupils under headmaster Kanitsa and armed town militiamen. The second was from the Pleteni to Yamskoy quarter under general-mayor Larionov, and the third was from Yamskoy to Kazanka, under colonel Svechin. The area north from the citadel was defended by Admiralty troops under Shchelin. The citadel itself was reinforced and the garrison under Letskoy was ready to fight. Zilantov Monastery and the Admiralty were turned into strongholds, redoubts were installed at Kazanka's bank and Arsk Field, and a system of knife-rests was installed around the city. Nine cannons were placed behind the knife-rests. The suburban settlements were left to defend themselves without government assistance.

There were 1,500 regular troops in Kazan, along with policemen, Admiralty troops and firemen the defenders numbered 2,000. On 2 July the governor von Brandt announced a coming siege.

Ten mullahs sent by Catherine's officers to agitate against Pugachev were killed by rebels. The Orthodox bishop Veniamin appealed to Christians to refuse from joining Pugachev army. However, many peasants from the entire region of modern Tatarstan joined the rebellion and marched to Kazan.

On 10 and 11 July Pugachev's troops encamped to the north-east of Kazan, between Troitskaya Noksa and Tsaritsyno. The army numbered 25,000, mostly Cossacks supported by Tatar and Udmurt peasants and Bashkir cavalry. Only the Cossacks had firearms; the Bashkirs were armed with bows while the peasants were mostly equipped with clubs and stakes. On 11 July, Pugachev, with an interpreter, approached Kazan borders and demanded that the loyalist forces surrender. The Tatar community was invited to support the rebellion. Von Brandt refused to disarm; however, the Tatars quarters sent seventy emissaries with presents to Pugachev. They also disclosed weaknesses in the Kazan defense.

On 12 July, at four o'clock in the morning, Pugachev convened a council of war, dividing his army into 4 groups. The first two under Beloborodov and Mineyev should attack Arsk Field, the main group under Pugachev himself attacked Sukonny (Broadcloth Manufactory) quarter. The group under Ovchinnikov and Bakhmutov should attack Tatar quarters. The storm started at six o'clock after Pugachev's prayer.

Beloborodov took Neyelova grove, the area of modern-day Gorky Park and approached the citadel by the avenue now known as Karl Marx Street. Pugachev's cannons neutralized government artillery and shelled the defenders of the cloth fabric under manufacturer Dryablov. Workers joined the rebel army. The fourth group of rebels reached Mokry quarter and Admiralty.

Government troops were forced to retreat and were besieged in the citadel. Nearly half of the defenders, mostly ethnic Tatars, defected to the rebels. The central stone part of Kazan, mostly settled by Russian nobles and merchants, was set on fire. Sukonny and Tatar quarters, however, stayed safe.

Pugachev ordered his troops to safeguard the lives of civilians and captives. They were convoyed to the nearby village of Savinovo, where Pugachev invited them to join his troops. Among others, a captive Lutheran priest was appointed colonel in Pugachev's army, but nobles and resisters were massacred.

Pugachev's family, his wife Sofia Dmitrievna, his 11-year-old son Trofim, daughters Khristina and Agrafena and his brother, were imprisoned in Kazan during the rebellion. Sofia Pugacheva should confirm, that Yemelyan isn't Peter III, but a Cossack. She could visit markets to spread this information. When Pugachev's group marched they occasionally met his family. Trofim called him, but Pugachev said that he is simply a friend of this family. So, he took them to unit transport.[2]

The Kremlin surrounded, rebel cannons were installed near Spasskaya Tower and started shelling. After noon, Pugachev stopped the storm and retreated to Arsk Field. There he participated in thanksgiving service. Then he had a dinner at Tatar merchant Musa Apanayev's house.

In the evening governmental troops from Ufa under Johann Michelson reached Kazan. A harsh battle took place at the modern Gogol street,[3] but neither side won. Pugachev retreated to Savinovo and Sukhaya Reka villages. On 13 July he tried to prevent the end of the siege of the citadel, but under the pressure of Michelson and Potyomkin the rebels were defeated and were forced to retreat. On 15 July Pugachyov's army of 15,000 was defeated in the battle of Arsk Field. Pugachev with 500 men escaped to Tsaryovokokshaysk, to cross the Volga on 18 July and to continue his struggle then. Michelson didn't follow him, as government forces had no horses.

Before the trial captives were imprisoned in a camp near the suburb of Bishbalta. In autumn two gallows were placed in Kazan, one in Sukonny, another in Tatar quarter. Many captive rebels were executed, including Beloborodov and Mineyev.

After Pugachev's escape some rebel groups under Bäxtiär Qanqayıv and Usman Timerev continued the resistance, but they were shortly neutralized by governmental troops.

The battle of Kazan had a significant role in Tatarstan's history. The Tatar participation in the rebellion numbered up to 85,000. Nevertheless, the participants of the rebellion were harshly punished. The Tsar's government continued its policy of the support of Muslim nobility and clergy, to prevent similar uprisings as a result of religious oppression in the future. Feudal oppression, however, stayed for a long time.[4]

This battle took a major place in the Soviet culture. The first Tatar movie Bulat-Batır was devoted to Pugachev rebellion in Tatarstan and the siege of Kazan.


when was susan barlow killed in coronation street

Katie Heannau played Susan as a baby and young child from 1965 until 1970 when Heannau and her family moved away from the Manchester area.[1] Child actress Wendy Jane Walker took over the role later in 1970. Although Susan was written out in 1971, Walker made recurring appearances in 1973 and 1974. Suzy Patterson played Susan from 1979 to 1981 but only made a small number of appearances. Walker took back the role in 1985 and Susan became a main character again before departing in 1987. Patterson had played the role with a strong Scots accent, whereas Walker did not. After a thirteen-year absence, Susan returned for a final time in early 2001, now played by Joanna Foster, which saw the character get killed off after introducing her secret son Adam.

Susan Barlow

Susan Ida Barlow (also Baldwin) was a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera, Coronation Street. She made her debut screen appearance on 5 April 1965. Susan has been portrayed by four actresses since her introduction. Katie Heannau was the first actress to the character. Wendy Jane Walker took over the role for two years from 1970. When the character returned in 1979, Suzy Patterson was recast in the role. She remained with the show until 1981, in 1985 Walker reprised the role until 1987. In 2001, Susan returned with Joanna Foster in the role for a month until the character was killed-off.

Susan was the daughter of Ken and Valerie Barlow and twin sister of Peter Barlow. She was born on 5 April 1965 after Len Fairclough drove Valerie to the hospital in his van. Most of Susan's early storylines were alongside her twin brother, Peter.

Valerie's life changed completely as her time was spent looking after the twins and Ken. The Barlows had many friends and could easily find babysitters, allowing Valerie to attend evening classes in Sociology. In November 1965, Ken was looking after the twins but when he visited The Rovers Return briefly, a piece of coal fell from the fire and filled the house with smoke. Valerie came home before Ken put the fire out but was outraged that he had left the babies alone while he went to buy cigarettes. Valerie told Ken she would leave him if he ever smoked again.

In 1966, Ken had a fling with reporter, Jackie Marsh. Valerie left him briefly and took the twins to Glasgow but returned when he convinced her that he would be a more devoted husband and father from then on.

In 1968, the Mission of Glad Tidings and Elliston's Raincoat Factory across the Street were torn down to make way for a block of maisonettes. As they were being demolished, Ken and Valerie realised the twins were missing. They were found in the factory just before the wrecking ball hit.

In 1969, Susan's maternal grandmother, Edith, stayed with the Barlows. When Edith took the twins to the fair, she lost them but they were found by an elderly woman who had taken them in and not contacted the family.

In January 1971, Ken was offered a teaching position in Jamaica and Valerie agreed to emigrate with the twins. However, Valerie died when she was electrocuted by a faulty hairdryer. Later in the year, Peter and Susan were sent to live in Scotland with their maternal grandparents after Ken struggled to make suitable childcare arrangements and continue to work as a teacher. Susan came back to Weatherfield to visit her father in 1973 and 1974.

Susan returned to Coronation Street again for New Year's Eve 1979, and stayed with her father and his girlfriend Deirdre Langton into the New Year. Susan then went travelling and visited Ken again in April 1980, along with her boyfriend Craig Brennan, who Ken did not approve of. Susan visited again for Ken and Deirdre's wedding in July 1981. Susan went back to Scotland, and decided to attend university.

In 1985, Susan returned again now working as a market researcher. She began an affair with her father's sworn enemy Mike Baldwin and they got engaged but Ken refused to attend as he hated Mike and could not come to terms with the fact he was marrying his little girl. But after a lot of thinking and talking to Susan, Peter and Deirdre he walked Susan down the aisle on 6 May 1986. The marriage failed, because Susan's career ambitions did not fit in with Mike's plans for the future. When she got pregnant, Mike wanted her to abandon her business; Susan decided to have an abortion. Mike branded her a killer and a murdering bitch and she left him and moved to Newcastle after just a year of marriage in November 1987.

By December 2000, Peter was living with Ken and Deirdre. While arguing with Ken, Peter let slip that Susan had a son. Ken insisted Peter explain, which he did, telling Ken that Susan had lied about the abortion and gave birth to her son, Adam in May 1988. Susan had only told Peter this. Ken went to Scotland the following month to visit Susan and she made him swear not to tell Mike. Ken told Deirdre and she told her ex-lover Dev Alahan. He told Mike who called Susan and demanded access. Susan, who was visiting her father and brother, refused. Mike threatened her with legal action. Susan tried to flee again with Adam to Ireland, but while driving on the M6, her car crashed into a tree. Susan was killed instantly but Adam suffered only minor injuries. Susan's body was taken back to Weatherfield for her funeral, and she was buried next to her mother, Valerie.

In January 2001, the character returned to Coronation Street with actress Joanna Foster taking over the role.[2] Susan comes back to Weatherfield to introduce her son, Adam (Iain de Caestecker) to his grandfather, Ken (William Roache).[3] Rick Fulton of the Daily Record said Ken is "amazed, but also devastated" that Susan kept his grandson a secret for so long.[3] Adam's father is Mike Baldwin (Johnny Briggs), who Susan married in 1986.[3] Susan told Mike she had an abortion and he threw her out the following year. Fulton explained "But that will be exposed as a lie. It seems Susan, who had grown to hate her husband, didn't think Mike would be a fit father for her child. She decided she wanted to bring up the baby on her own without any of his influence."[3] The news rocks Ken and Mike, when they learn they are linked by Adam.[3] On 22 January 2001, Brian Roberts of the Daily Mirror reported Susan would be killed off in a car accident.[2] Her death would then kick-start a custody battle for her son, Adam, between her father and her ex-husband.[2] Roberts said Susan is "adamant" that she does not want Mike having anything to do with Adam and she decides to take him to Ireland. However, while they are on their way Susan crashes the car and dies.[2]

Johnny Briggs disapproved of the storyline that saw his character (Mike Baldwin) marry Susan as he thought it would tie his character down.[4] He also did not get on with Walker and was pleased when the relationship broke up.[4] The Daily Mirror's Charlie Catchpole described Susan as the "hapless" wife and daughter of Mike and Ken.[5] He commented on her 2001 recast saying "I don't know why either of them believed a word she said, since Susan had been blonde and blue-eyed, and this impostor had black hair and brown eyes."[5] Catchpole added that Susan's off screen death was one of the soap world's cruelest exits.[5]


what is ralph angels real name on queen sugar

Nana-Kofi Siriboe (born March 2, 1994) is an American actor and model. He stars as Ralph Angel Bordelon in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, Queen Sugar.

Kofi Siriboe

Siriboe was born in Los Angeles, California. His parents were born in Ghana.[1] He is the middle child and has two brothers, actors Kwame Boateng and Kwesi Boakye. As a model, he signed with Wilhelmina Models New York and Vision Los Angeles.[2] In film, Siriboe debuted playing supporting role in the 2008 comedy-drama, The Longshots. He later has appeared in films Prom (2011), Whiplash (2014), and Straight Outta Compton (2015). On television, he guest-starred on Lincoln Heights and CSI: Crime Scene Investigation. From 2014 to 2015, he had a recurring role in the MTV comedy-drama series, Awkward.

In 2016, Siriboe was cast in a series regular role opposite Rutina Wesley and Dawn-Lyen Gardner in the Oprah Winfrey Network drama series, Queen Sugar produced by Ava DuVernay.[3][4] In 2017, he co-starred in the romantic comedy film Girls Trip, starring Regina Hall, Queen Latifah, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Tiffany Haddish.[5]


what type of colony was pennsylvania when it was founded

The Province of Pennsylvania,[citation needed] also known as the Pennsylvania Colony, was founded in English North America by William Penn on March 4, 1681 as dictated in a royal charter granted by King Charles II. The name Pennsylvania, which translates roughly as "Penn's Woods",[1] was created by combining the Penn surname (in honor of William's father, Admiral Sir William Penn) with the Latin word sylvania, meaning "forest land." The Province of Pennsylvania was one of the two major Restoration colonies, the other being the Province of Carolina. The proprietary colony's charter remained in the hands of the Penn family until the American Revolution, when the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was created and became one of the original thirteen states.

Province of Pennsylvania

Welsh, Unami, Susquehannock, Munsee

The colonial government, established in 1682 by Penn's Frame of Government, consisted of an appointed Governor, the proprietor (William Penn), a 72-member Provincial Council, and a larger General Assembly. The General Assembly, also known as the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, was the largest and most representative branch of government, but had little power.

Succeeding Frames of Government, also known as the Charter of Privileges, were produced in 1683, 1696 and 1701. The fourth Frame (Charter of Privileges) remained in effect until the American Revolution. At that time, the Provincial Assembly was deemed too moderate by the revolutionaries, who ignored the Assembly and held a convention which produced the Constitution of 1776 for the newly established Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, creating a new General Assembly in the process.

William Penn (14 October 1644 â€“ 30 July 1718) was an English real estate entrepreneur, philosopher, early Quaker and founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, the English North American colony and the future Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He was an early advocate of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Indians. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed.

The province was divided first into 5 counties, plus the three "lower counties on Delaware Bay." The easternmost, Bucks County, extended northwest from Bensalem all the way to what is currently Bradford County, and included not only present-day Bucks County, but also the Poconos, the Lehigh Valley, and Carbon and part of Schuylkill County. Philadelphia County is present-day Philadelphia City (which also happens to be its own county). Montgomery County was west of Bucks and northwest of Philadelphia, and extended along the Schuylkill River to the area presently known as Minersville, in Schuylkill County. Chester County extended along the southern border of Pennsylvania (the Mason–Dixon line) from Marcus Hook to the western border of the province. The remainder of the province, which is now North Central and Northwestern Pennsylvania, was part of an enlarged Northumberland County (Northumberland County presently sits between Harrisburg and Wilkes-Barre along the Susquehanna River).

"The lower counties on Delaware," a separate colony within the province, constituted the same three counties that constitute the present State of Delaware: New Castle, the northernmost, Sussex, the southernmost, and Kent, which fell between New Castle and Sussex County. Their borders remain unchanged to this day.

William Penn and his fellow Quakers heavily imprinted their religious values on the early Pennsylvanian government. The Charter of Privileges extended religious freedom to everyone monotheists and government was initially open to all Christians. Until the French and Indian War Pennsylvania had no military, few taxes and no public debt. It also encouraged the rapid growth of Philadelphia into America's most important city, and of the Pennsylvania Dutch Country hinterlands, where German (or "Deutsch") religions and political refugees prospered on the fertile soil and spirit of cultural creativeness. Among the first groups were the Mennonites, who founded Germantown in 1683; and the Amish, who established the Northkill Amish Settlement in 1740. 1751 was an auspicious year for the colony. Pennsylvania Hospital, the first hospital in the British American colonies,[2] and The Academy and College of Philadelphia, the predecessor to the private University of Pennsylvania,[3] both opened. Benjamin Franklin founded both of these institutions along with Philadelphia's Union Fire Company fifteen years earlier in 1736.[4] Likewise in 1751, the Pennsylvania State House ordered a new bell which would become known as the Liberty Bell for the new bell tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia.

William Penn had mandated fair dealings with Native Americans. This led to significantly better relations with the local Native tribes (mainly the Lenape and Susquehanna) than most other colonies had. The Quakers had previously treated Indians with respect, bought land from them voluntarily, and had even representation of Indians and Whites on juries. According to Voltaire, the Shackamaxon Treaty was "the only treaty between Indians and Christians that was never sworn to and that was never broken."[5] The Quakers also refused to provide any assistance to New England's Indian wars.

In 1737, the Colony exchanged a great deal of its political goodwill with the native Lenape for more land. The colonial administrators claimed that they had a deed dating to the 1680s in which the Lenape-Delaware had promised to sell a portion of land beginning between the junction of the Delaware River and Lehigh River (present Easton, Pennsylvania) "as far west as a man could walk in a day and a half." This purchase has become known as the Walking Purchase. Although the document was most likely a forgery, the Lenape did not realize that. Provincial Secretary James Logan set in motion a plan that would grab as much land as they could possibly get and hired the three fastest runners in the colony to run out the purchase on a trail which had been cleared by other members of the colony beforehand. The pace was so intense that only one runner actually completed the "walk," covering an astonishing 70 miles (110 km). This netted the Penns 1,200,000 acres (4,900 km2) of land in what is now northeastern Pennsylvania, an area roughly equivalent to the size of the state of Rhode Island in the purchase. The area of the purchase covers all or part of what are now Pike, Monroe, Carbon, Schuylkill, Northampton, Lehigh and Bucks counties. The Lenape tribe fought for the next 19 years to have the treaty annulled, but to no avail. The Lenape-Delaware were forced into the Shamokin and Wyoming Valleys, which were already overcrowded with other displaced tribes.

As the colony grew, colonists and British military forces came into confrontation with Natives in the Western half of the state. Britain fought for control of the neighboring Ohio Country with France during the French and Indian War, and following the British victory the territory was formally ceded to them in 1763 and became part of the British Empire.

With the war just over and Pontiac's War beginning, the Royal Proclamation of 1763 banned colonization beyond the Appalachian Mountains in an effort to prevent settlers settling lands which the Native Americans considered their own. This proclamation affected Pennsylvanians and Virginians the most, as they had been racing towards the lands surrounding Fort Pitt (modern-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania).

The Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, consisting of the Chief Justice and at least one other judge, was founded in 1722 and sat in Philadelphia twice a year.

Chief Justices[1]


who played the red queen in alice in wonderland

The 2010 live-action film Alice in Wonderland, fashioned as a sequel to the novel, features Helena Bonham Carter as the Red Queen.[2] Bonham Carter's head was digitally increased three times its original size on screen.[3] Bonham Carter's character is a combination of the Red Queen, the Duchess and the Queen of Hearts.[4] From the original Red Queen, this character gets only a relationship to the White Queen. Here the Red Queen is the older sister of the White Queen, and is jealous of her sister, whom her subjects genuinely love. From the original John Tenniel illustrations of the Duchess, she gets a massive head in proportion to her body and a retinue of frog footmen. The White Queen theorizes that the movie's Red Queen has a tumor pressing against her brain, explaining both her large head and her deranged behaviour. Most of her characteristics are taken from the Queen of Hearts, including:

Red Queen (Through the Looking-Glass)

The Red Queen is a fictional character in Lewis Carroll's fantasy novel Through the Looking-Glass. She is often confused with the Queen of Hearts from the previous book Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, although the two are very different.

With a motif of Through the Looking-Glass being a representation of the game of chess, the Red Queen could be viewed as an antagonist in the story as she is the queen for the side opposing Alice. Despite this, their initial encounter is a cordial one, with the Red Queen explaining the rules of chess concerning promotion â€” specifically that Alice is able to become a queen by starting out as a pawn and reaching the eighth square at the opposite end of the board. As a queen in the game of chess, the Red Queen is able to move swiftly and effortlessly.

Later, in Chapter 9, the Red Queen appears with the White Queen, posing a series of typical Wonderland/Looking-Glass questions ("Divide a loaf by a knife: what's the answer to that?"), and then celebrating Alice's promotion from pawn to queen. When that celebration goes awry, Alice turns against the Red Queen, whom she "considers as the cause of all the mischief", and shakes her until the queen morphs into Alice's pet kitten. In doing this, Alice presents an end game, awakening from the dream world of the looking glass, by both realizing her hallucination and symbolically "taking" the Red Queen in order to checkmate the Red King.

The Red Queen is commonly mistaken for the Queen of Hearts in the story's predecessor, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland. The two share the characteristics of being strict queens associated with the color red. However, their personalities are very different. Indeed, Carroll, in his lifetime, made the distinction between the two Queens by saying:

The 1951 Walt Disney animated film Alice in Wonderland perpetuates the long-standing confusion between the Red Queen and the Queen of Hearts. In the film, the Queen of Hearts delivers several of the Red Queen's statements, the most notable being based on her "all the ways about here belong to me". Both characters say this to suggest importance and possible arrogance, but in the Red Queen's case it has a double meaning since her status as a chess-queen means that she can move in any direction she desires.

In both American McGee's Alice and Tim Burton's film adaptation of the books, the characters are also combined, leading to further popular misconception. Also, Jefferson Airplane's song "White Rabbit" contains the lyric "and the Red Queen's off with her head", another instance of the two characters combined or mistaken for one another. However, American McGee's game implies that after Alice was put into the asylum the Queen of Hearts and Red Queen fused together.

The irritable, snobbish mother of Alice's potential husband, cast as a corresponding villain in the "real world" also resembles the Queen of Hearts when she fumes about her gardeners planting white instead of red roses.

After the Jabberwocky is slain by Alice, the Red Queen's army stops fighting and following her orders. The White Queen banishes the Red Queen to Outland where nobody is to say a word to her or show her any kindness. The Knave of Hearts is also banished and tries to kill the Red Queen only to be thwarted by the Mad Hatter. As the Red Queen and the Knave of Hearts are carried off to their exile, the Red Queen repeatedly shouts "He tried to kill me" while the Knave of Hearts begged for the White Queen to have him killed.

In the video game adaptation of the film, she plays a minor role, first appearing as a mere illustration. She is not seen in person until near the end of the game, first playing croquet and beheading the hedgehogs she uses as balls whenever they miss their target at her castle, and then again both before and after the battle with the Jabberwocky. Her clothes and persona is similar to the Tudor sisters Queen Mary I (persona) and Queen Elizabeth I (clothes).[citation needed]

The Red Queen appears in Once Upon a Time in Wonderland (a spin-off to Once Upon a Time) portrayed by Emma Rigby. She is a character distinct from the Queen of Hearts (Barbara Hershey), who was her tutor in magic. Like the Queen of Hearts and the Mad Hatter, the Red Queen is an émigré to Wonderland from the Enchanted Forest, having originally been a young woman named Anastasia, with whom Will Scarlet (the Knave of Hearts) was in love. The Red Queen featured as one of the show's main antagonists, alongside Jafar.

Two characters from the manga/anime Pandora Hearts are based on the Red Queen, Alice and Lacie, though Lacie has more in common with the Red Queen than Alice, who also has connections with The Queen of Hearts.

The Red Queen is combined into the Queen of Hearts in the first game, American McGee's Alice. The names are used interchangeably. However, in the second game they are separated once more and the player meets the Queen of Hearts in her original form, the Red Queen is never seen.


where is the largest proportion of the earth’s fresh water located

Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Only 2.5–2.75% is fresh water, including 1.75–2% frozen in glaciers, ice and snow, 0.5–0.75% as fresh groundwater and soil moisture, and less than 0.01% of it as surface water in lakes, swamps and rivers.[2][3] Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this fresh surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 22% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes, and 14% in other lakes. Swamps have most of the balance with only a small amount in rivers, most notably the Amazon River. The atmosphere contains 0.04% water.[4] In areas with no fresh water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density, overlie saline ground water in lenses or layers. Most of the world's fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of fresh water, such as deserts.

Fresh water

Fresh water is naturally occurring water on Earth's surface in ice sheets, ice caps, glaciers, icebergs, bogs, ponds, lakes, rivers and streams, and underground as groundwater in aquifers and underground streams. Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs. The term "sweet water" (from Spanish "agua dulce") has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term "fresh water" does not have the same meaning as potable water. Much of the surface fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants.

Fresh water habitats are divided into lentic systems, which are the stillwaters including ponds, lakes, swamps and mires; lotic, or running-water systems; and groundwater which flows in rocks and aquifers. There is, in addition, a zone which bridges between groundwater and lotic systems, which is the hyporheic zone, which underlies many larger rivers and can contain substantially more water than is seen in the open channel. It may also be in direct contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of fresh water on Earth is in ice caps.

The source of almost all fresh water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain and snow. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea and land over which the rain bearing clouds have traveled. In industrialized areas rain is typically acidic because of dissolved oxides of sulfur and nitrogen formed from burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories, trains and aircraft and from the atmospheric emissions of industry. In some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers.

In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate as well as many other compounds in smaller concentrations.

In desert areas, or areas with impoverished or dusty soils, rain-bearing winds can pick up sand and dust and this can be deposited elsewhere in precipitation and causing the freshwater flow to be measurably contaminated both by insoluble solids but also by the soluble components of those soils. Significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa.

Water is a critical issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use salt water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants and most mammals must have access to fresh water to live. Some terrestrial mammals, especially desert rodents appear to survive without drinking but they do generate water through the metabolism of cereal seeds and they also have mechanisms to conserve water to the maximum degree.

Fresh water can be defined as water with less than 500 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved salts.[5]

Other sources give higher upper salinity limits for fresh water, e.g. 1000 ppm[6] or 3000 ppm.[7]

Fresh water creates a hypotonic environment for aquatic organisms. This is problematic for some organisms with pervious skins or with gill membranes, whose cell membranes may burst if excess water is not excreted. Some protists accomplish this using contractile vacuoles, while freshwater fish excrete excess water via the kidney.[8] Although most aquatic organisms have a limited ability to regulate their osmotic balance and therefore can only live within a narrow range of salinity, diadromous fish have the ability to migrate between fresh water and saline water bodies. During these migrations they undergo changes to adapt to the surroundings of the changed salinities; these processes are hormonally controlled. The eel (Anguilla anguilla) uses the hormone prolactin,[9] while in salmon (Salmo salar) the hormone cortisol plays a key role during this process.[10]

Many sea birds have special glands at the base of the bill through which excess salt is excreted. Similarly the marine iguanas on the Galápagos Islands excrete excess salt through a nasal gland and they sneeze out a very salty excretion.

Freshwater molluscs include freshwater snails and freshwater bivalves. Freshwater crustaceans include freshwater crabs, and others.

An important concern for hydrological ecosystems is securing minimum streamflow, especially preserving and restoring instream water allocations.[11] Fresh water is an important natural resource necessary for the survival of all ecosystems. The use of water by humans for activities such as irrigation and industrial applications can have adverse impacts on down-stream ecosystems. Chemical contamination of fresh water can also seriously damage eco-systems.

Pollution from human activity, including oil spills and also presents a problem for freshwater resources. The largest petroleum spill that has ever occurred in fresh water was caused by a Royal Dutch Shell tank ship in Magdalena, Argentina, on 15 January 1999, polluting the environment, drinkable water, plants and animals.[12]

Fresh and unpolluted water accounts for 0.003% of total water available globally.[13]

Changing landscape for the use of agriculture has a great effect on the flow of fresh water. Changes in landscape by the removal of trees and soils changes the flow of fresh water in the local environment and also affects the cycle of fresh water. As a result, more fresh water is stored in the soil which benefits agriculture. However, since agriculture is the human activity that consumes the most fresh water,[14] this can put a severe strain on local freshwater resources resulting in the destruction of local ecosystems. In Australia, over-abstraction of fresh water for intensive irrigation activities has caused 33% of the land area to be at risk of salination.[14] With regards to agriculture, the World Bank targets food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that will foster debate.[15]

Fresh water is a renewable and variable, but finite natural resource. Fresh water can only be replenished through the process of the water cycle, in which water from seas, lakes, forests, land, rivers, and reservoirs evaporates, forms clouds, and returns as precipitation. Locally however, if more fresh water is consumed through human activities than is naturally restored, this may result in reduced fresh water availability from surface and underground sources and can cause serious damage to surrounding and associated environments.

Fresh water withdrawal is the quantity of water removed from available sources for use in any purpose, excluding evaporation losses. Water drawn off is not necessarily entirely consumed and some portion may be returned for further use downstream.

The increase in the world population and the increase in per capita water use puts increasing strains on the finite resources avialability of clean fresh water The World Bank adds that the response by freshwater ecosystems to a changing climate can be described in terms of three interrelated components: water quality, water quantity or volume, and water timing. A change in one often leads to shifts in the others as well.[16] Water pollution and subsequent eutrophication also reduces the availability of fresh water.[17]

Many areas of the world are already experiencing stress on water availability. Due to the accelerated pace of population growth and an increase in the amount of water a single person uses, it is expected that this situation will continue to get worse. A shortage of water in the future would be detrimental to the human population as it would affect everything from sanitation, to overall health and the production of grain.[18]

With one in eight people in the world not having access to safe water[19] it is important to use this resource in a prudent manner. Making the best use of water on a local basis probably provides the best solution. Local communities need to plan their use of fresh water and should be made aware of how certain crops and animals use water.

As a guide the following tables provide some indicators.

Table 1 Recommended basic water requirements for human needs (per person) [20]

Table 2. Water Requirements of different classes of livestock [21]

Table 3 Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs [22]


why has mr trelawny hired the captain the ship and the crew

Squire Trelawney immediately plans to commission a sailing vessel to hunt for the treasure, with the help of Dr. Livesey and Jim. He finances the entire expedition to the eponymous Treasure Island. Going to the Bristol docks, Trelawney buys the schooner Hispaniola, hires Captain Smollett to command her, and retains Long John Silver, a former sea cook and now the owner of the dock-side "Spy-Glass" tavern, to run the galley. When it comes to hiring a crew for the ship, he depends highly on the advice of Silver, who recruits a group of fellow pirates.

Squire Trelawney

Squire John Trelawney is a supporting character from Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Treasure Island.

Stevenson describes him as a tall man, over six feet high, and broad in proportion, and he has a bluff, rough-and-ready face, all roughened and reddened and lined from his long travels. His eyebrows are very black, and move readily, and this gives him a look of some temper, not bad, you would say, but quick and high.

The Squire is a bombastic and excitable landowner and friend to Dr. Livesey, another supporting character who has been sought out by the book's protagonist, Jim Hawkins as a sanctuary from pirates who seek the treasure map that has fallen into Jim's possession.

Livesey warns Trelawney to be silent about their objective, but he cannot keep a secret and everyone seems to get to know about the nature of the mission. Although the squire is financier of the expedition and appears to be the social better of all others aboard the ship, he is privately dismissed on several occasions due to his lack of discretion. Stevenson has Jim Hawkins observe that neither he nor the captain paid much regard to Mr. Trelawney's protestations, he was so loose a talker.

When the crew mutinies to steal the treasure, Trelawney, Livesey and their loyal crewmen surprise and overpower the few pirates who did not go ashore. They row ashore and move into an abandoned, fortified stockade. The pirates are defeated, the treasure is divided amongst Trelawney and his loyal men, and they return to England, leaving the surviving pirates marooned on the island.

The Squire is a well-traveled man and the best shot amongst the crew. He also shows effective leadership qualities and keeps a cool head throughout the adventure. Squire Trelawney may have been named for Edward Trelawney, Governor of Jamaica 1738â€“1752.

The character of Squire Trelawney has been played in film adaptations by Nigel Bruce (1934), Walter Fitzgerald (1950), Walter Slezak (1972), Richard Johnson (1990), Christopher Benjamin (1999) and Fozzie Bear in Muppet Treasure Island (1996).


when was the volcanic eruption that killed a quarter of the population of iceland

The system erupted violently over an eight-month period between June 1783 and February 1784 from the Laki fissure and the adjoining volcano Grímsvötn, pouring out an estimated 42 billion tons 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of basalt lava and clouds of poisonous hydrofluoric acid and sulfur dioxide compounds that contaminated the soil, leading to the death of over 50% of Iceland's livestock population, and the destruction of the vast majority of all crops. This led to a famine which then killed approximately 25% of the island's human population.[4] The lava flows also destroyed 20 villages.

Laki

Laki or Lakagígar (Craters of Laki) is a volcanic fissure in the south of Iceland, not far from the canyon of Eldgjá and the small village of Kirkjubæjarklaustur. Lakagígar is the correct name, as Laki mountain itself did not erupt, as fissures opened up on each side of it. Lakagígar is part of a volcanic system centered on the volcano Grímsvötn and including the volcano Thordarhyrna.[1][2][3] It lies between the glaciers of Mýrdalsjökull and Vatnajökull, in an area of fissures that run in a southwest to northeast direction.

The Laki eruption and its aftermath caused a drop in global temperatures, as 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide was spewed into the Northern Hemisphere. This caused crop failures in Europe and may have caused droughts in North Africa and India.

On 8 June 1783, a 25 km (15.5 mi) long fissure with 130 craters opened with phreatomagmatic explosions because of the groundwater interacting with the rising basalt magma. Over a few days the eruptions became less explosive, Strombolian, and later Hawaiian in character, with high rates of lava effusion. This event is rated as 4 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index,[5] but the eight-month emission of sulfuric aerosols resulted in one of the most important climatic and socially repercussive events of the last millennium.[6][7]

The eruption, also known as the Skaftáreldar ("Skaftá fires") or Síðueldur, produced an estimated 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of basalt lava, and the total volume of tephra emitted was 0.91 km3 (0.2 cu mi).[8] Lava fountains were estimated to have reached heights of 800 to 1,400 m (2,600 to 4,600 ft). The gases were carried by the convective eruption column to altitudes of about 15 km (10 mi).[9]

The eruption continued until 7 February 1784, but most of the lava was ejected in the first five months. Grímsvötn volcano, from which the Laki fissure extends, was also erupting at the time, from 1783 until 1785. The outpouring of gases, including an estimated 8 million tons of hydrogen fluoride and an estimated 120 million tons of sulfur dioxide, gave rise to what has since become known as the "Laki haze" across Europe.[9]

The consequences for Iceland, known as the Móðuharðindin "Mist Hardships", were disastrous.[10] An estimated 20–25% of the population died in the famine and fluoride poisoning after the fissure eruptions ensued. Around 80% of sheep, 50% of cattle and 50% of horses died because of dental fluorosis and skeletal fluorosis from the 8 million tons of hydrogen fluoride that were released.[11][12]

The parish priest and dean of Vestur-Skaftafellssýsla, Jón Steingrímsson (1728–1791), grew famous because of the eldmessa ("fire sermon") that he delivered on 20 July 1783. The people of the small settlement of Kirkjubæjarklaustur were worshipping while the village was endangered by a lava stream, which ceased to flow not far from town, with the townsfolk still in church.

This past week, and the two prior to it, more poison fell from the sky than words can describe: ash, volcanic hairs, rain full of sulfur and saltpeter, all of it mixed with sand. The snouts, nostrils, and feet of livestock grazing or walking on the grass turned bright yellow and raw. All water went tepid and light blue in color and gravel slides turned gray. All the earth's plants burned, withered and turned gray, one after another, as the fire increased and neared the settlements.[13]

There is evidence that the Laki eruption weakened African and Indian monsoon circulations, leading to between 1 and 3 millimetres (0.04 and 0.12Â in) less daily precipitation than normal over the Sahel of Africa, resulting in, among other effects, low flow in the River Nile.[14] The resulting famine that afflicted Egypt in 1784 cost it roughly one-sixth of its population.[14][15] The eruption was also found to have affected the southern Arabian Peninsula and India.[15]

An estimated 120,000,000 long tons (120,000,000 t) of sulphur dioxide was emitted, about three times the total annual European industrial output in 2006 (but delivered to higher altitudes, hence more persistent), and equivalent to six times the total 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption.[11][16] This outpouring of sulphur dioxide during unusual weather conditions caused a thick haze to spread across western Europe, resulting in many thousands of deaths throughout the remainder of 1783 and the winter of 1784.

The summer of 1783 was the hottest on record and a rare high-pressure zone over Iceland caused the winds to blow to the south-east.[11] The poisonous cloud drifted to Bergen in Denmark–Norway, then spread to Prague in the Kingdom of Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) by 17 June, Berlin by 18 June, Paris by 20 June, Le Havre by 22 June, and Great Britain by 23 June. The fog was so thick that boats stayed in port, unable to navigate, and the sun was described as "blood coloured".[11]

Inhaling sulphur dioxide gas causes victims to choke as their internal soft tissue swells â€“ the gas reacts with the moisture in lungs and produces sulfurous acid.[17] The local death rate in Chartres was up by 5% during August and September, with more than 40 dead. In Great Britain, the records show that the additional deaths were among outdoor workers; the death rate in Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire and the east coast was perhaps two or three times the normal rate. It has been estimated that 23,000 British people died from the poisoning.[18]

The weather became very hot, causing severe thunderstorms with large hailstones that were reported to have killed cattle,[19] until the haze dissipated in the autumn. The winter of 1783–1784 was very severe;[20] the naturalist Gilbert White in Selborne, Hampshire, reported 28 days of continuous frost. The extreme winter is estimated to have caused 8,000 additional deaths in the UK. During the spring thaw, Germany and Central Europe reported severe flood damage.[11]

The meteorological impact of Laki continued, contributing significantly to several years of extreme weather in Europe. In France, the sequence of extreme weather events included a surplus harvest in 1785 that caused poverty for rural workers, as well as droughts, bad winters and summers. These events contributed significantly to an increase in poverty and famine that may have contributed to the French Revolution in 1789.[21] Laki was only one factor in a decade of climatic disruption, as Grímsvötn was erupting from 1783 to 1785, and there may have been an unusually strong El Niño effect from 1789 to 1793.[22]

In North America, the winter of 1784 was the longest and one of the coldest on record. It was the longest period of below-zero temperatures in New England, with the largest accumulation of snow in New Jersey, and the longest freezing over of Chesapeake Bay, where Annapolis, Maryland is, then the capital of the United States; the weather delayed Congressmen in coming to Annapolis to vote for the Treaty of Paris, which formally ended the American Revolutionary War. A huge snowstorm hit the South; the Mississippi River froze at New Orleans and there were reports of ice floes in the Gulf of Mexico.[21][23]

Gilbert White recorded his perceptions of the event at Selborne, Hampshire, England:

Benjamin Franklin recorded his observations in America in a 1784 lecture:

Note that, according to contemporary records, Hekla did not erupt in 1783; its previous eruption was in 1766. The Laki fissure eruption was 45 miles (72 km) to the east and the Grímsvötn volcano was erupting about 75 miles (121 km) north east. Additionally Katla, only 31 miles (50 km) south east, was still renowned after its spectacular eruption 28 years earlier in 1755.

Sir John Cullum of Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England, recorded his observations on 23 June 1783 (the same date on which Gilbert White noted the onset of the unusual atmospheric phenomena), in a letter to Sir Joseph Banks, then President of the Royal Society:

Sir John goes on to describe the effect of this "frost" on trees and crops:


where is the pollen tube on a flower

Once a pollen grain settles on a compatible pistil, it may germinate in response to a sugary fluid secreted by the mature stigma of certain plants. Lipids at the surface of the stigma may also stimulate pollen tube growth for compatible pollen. Plants that are self-sterile often inhibit the pollen grains from their own flowers from growing pollen tubes. The presence of multiple grains of pollen has been observed to stimulate quicker pollen tube growth in some plants.[citation needed] The vegetative cell then produces the pollen tube, a tubular protrusion from the pollen grain, which carries the sperm cells within its cytoplasm. The sperm cells are the male gametes that will join with the egg cell and the central cell in double fertilization.

Pollen tube

A pollen tube is part of the male gametophyte of seed plants. It acts as a conduit to transport the male gamete cells from the pollen grain, either from the stigma (in flowering plants) to the ovules. In maize, this single cell can grow longer than 12Â inches to traverse the length of the pistil.

Pollen tubes were first discovered by Giovanni Battista Amici.

Angiosperm reproduction is a complex process that includes several steps that may vary among species.[1] Each step is a vast procedure in its own right. Pollen is produced by the stamen, the male reproductive organ of the flower. Each pollen grain contains a vegetative cell, and a generative cell that divides to form two sperm cells. The pollen is delivered by the opening of anthers for subsequent pollination, that is, for the transfer of pollen grains to the pistil, the female reproductive organ. Pollination is usually carried out by wind, water or insects. The ovaries hold the ovules that produce the female gamete: the egg cell, which waits in place for fertilization.

The germinated pollen tube must then drill its way through the nutrient-rich style and curl to the bottom of the ovary to reach the ovule. Once the pollen tube successfully attains an ovule, it delivers the two sperm cells with a burst. One of them fertilizes the egg cell to form an embryo, which will become the future plant. The other one fuses with both polar nuclei of the central cell to form the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. Finally, the ovary will develop into a fruit and the ovules will develop into seeds.

Pollen tubes are an excellent model for the understanding of plant cell behavior.[2] They are easily cultivated in vitro and have a very dynamic cytoskeleton that polymerizes at very high rates, providing the pollen tube with interesting mechanical properties.[3] The pollen tube has an unusual kind of growth; it extends exclusively at its apex. Extending the cell wall only at the tip minimizes friction between the tube and the invaded tissue. This tip growth is performed in a pulsating manner rather than in a steady fashion.[4] Remarkably, the pollen tubeâ€™s journey through the style often results in depth-to-diameter ratios above 100:1 and up to 1000:1 in certain species. The internal machinery and the external interactions that govern the dynamics of pollen tube growth are far from being fully understood.

Extensive work has been dedicated to comprehend how the pollen tube responds to extracellular guidance signals to achieve fertilization.[1][2][5][6] It is believed that pollen tubes react to a combination of chemical, electrical, and mechanical cues during its journey through the pistil.[7][8][9] However, it is not clear how these external cues work or how they are processed internally. Moreover, sensory receptors for any external cue have not been identified yet. Nevertheless, several aspects have already been identified as central in the process of pollen tube growth. The actin filaments in the cytoskeleton, the peculiar cell wall, secretory vesicle dynamics, and the flux of ions, to name a few, are some of the fundamental features readily identified as crucial, but whose role has not yet been completely elucidated.

During pollen tube growth, DNA damages that arise need to be repaired in order for the male genomic information to be transmitted intact to the next generation. In the plant Cyrtanthus mackenii, bicellular mature pollen contains a generative cell and a vegetative cell.[10] Sperm cells are derived by mitosis of the generative cell during pollen tube elongation. The vegetative cell is responsible for pollen tube development. Double-strand breaks in DNA that arise appear to be efficiently repaired in the generative cell, but not in the vegetative cell, during the transport process to the female gametophyte.[10]


who is huey's voice in the boondocks

Huey Freeman (voiced by Regina King) is a young leftist radical Black revolutionary and retired domestic terrorist. He is a practicing and near master practitioner of Chinese martial arts, as seen in the episodes "Let's Nab Oprah", "Attack of the Killer Kung Fu Wolf Bitch", "Stinkmeaner 3: The Hateocracy", and "...Or Die Trying". He maintains an austere, yet strangely loving relationship with his brother Riley, and has shown the willingness to go out of his way to prevent his brother from succumbing to bad influences (occasionally giving him some "tough love"). Over the course of the comic strip and television series, Huey retains a sober demeanor, tending not to let his countenance relay his mood. During most episodes, Huey takes on the role of narrator, and it is often only through his narration that his thoughts and emotions are revealed. In the comic strip, Huey's best friend was Michael Caesar, who effectively balanced out Huey's pessimistic world outlook with his upbeat personality and temperament. The role he played in Huey's life has been taken up by his neighbor Jazmine Dubois in the television series. Unlike Caesar, Jazmine tries to balance Huey's demeanour with a childlike, naive innocence, which often leads to Huey having to resolve a situation where Jazmine is being taken advantage of.

List of The Boondocks characters

The following is a partial list of characters who have appeared in the animated television series The Boondocks.

Riley Freeman (voiced by Regina King) is Huey's younger brother. Riley could be described as a product of mass media influence, in that he refers to women as "bitches" or "hoes", frequently alludes to his "rep" and his status on the "streets", and idolizes gangsta rappers and their lifestyle. He often refers to himself as self-appointed moniker "Young Reezy". Though he would seem to be everything his brother is not, he has demonstrated his ability to rationalize and plan things out, such as when he planned his "fund raiser" and when he rendered attorney Tom Dubois speechless after debating with him regarding the R. Kelly trial in "The Trial of R. Kelly". "Damn, you just got beat by an eight year-old." which Huey remarked. His criminal aptitude is put to the test when he goes on some crime sprees with the incompetent Ed Wuncler III and Gin Rummy in the episode "Let's Nab Oprah" during which he effectively acts as the brains behind the operation to kidnap Oprah. Riley can be seen as representative of the misguided Black youth. He has a fascination for firearms, and his tendency for violence is displayed time and time again. At Christmas, he declared himself "The Santa Stalker" and attacked the Santa at the local mall with airsoft Glock 17s, hitting many innocent bystanders. Riley does not own any real firearms and has only been seen owning Airsoft-style guns—a Glock 17 and an MP5K—but he pals around with Ed Wuncler III and Gin Rummy, who have on occasion granted him access to real weapons. He also seems to possess unusually large amount of strength and stamina, as seen when he fights his brother Huey, who is a very high degree martial artist and swordsman. It can also be seen when he fights Stinkmeaner alongside his family where, albeit slow, his blows seem to be worth blocking against a kung-fu trained Stinkmeaner. Indeed, though, beyond this tough-guy facade, there would seem to be some measure of sensitivity that is especially apparent in the episode "Riley Wuz Here" during which he learns to use his incredible artistic abilities to create art for the sake of creating art, and not for personal glory.

Robert Jebediah "Granddad" Freeman (voiced by John Witherspoon), is the paternal grandfather and legal guardian of Huey and Riley who lives in a peaceful environment in Woodcrest while he tries to enjoy his retirement. Robert has witness to many major incidents in American history. He was a part of the civil rights movement, but was prone to certain faux pas such as donning a raincoat in preparation for getting doused by a police fire hose. Robert was also a fighter pilot in World War II, during which time he flew a P-51 Mustang with the Tuskegee Airmen. He was also a part of the Montgomery bus boycott, even sitting next to Rosa Parks, though she received all the credit for refusing to give up her seat while he, having actually refused before her and much to his chagrin, received none. This also brings Robert's age into question, since in order to have been in World War II and in the civil rights movement he claims to have been in (while making his relative stamina and cartoonish actions realistic), he would be between 87 (the minimum age of World War II participants of 1945) and 100 years old today. Granddad occasionally serves as a more pragmatic voice of reason. Though he has expressed his embarrassment over Huey and Riley, his primary motivation is to advance his family's best interest. This is where he most often finds himself at odds with his grandsons. Huey and Riley, though possessing contrasting personalities, tend not to act in a manner in line with their grandfather's desire for simplistic living. Riley gets in trouble a lot and Huey always has his eye on some bigger picture. He does not hesitate to use corporal punishment when necessary, wielding his belt with great dexterity for this purpose. Although it is never directly explained how Robert came to be Huey and Riley's guardian, it is implied that Huey and Riley's biological parents are deceased.