who was going to play rachel in friends

The role of Rachel was originally offered to actresses Téa Leoni, the producer's first choice, and Courteney Cox, both of whom declined, Leoni in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth, and Cox in favor of playing Rachel's best friend Monica in Friends.[5] A virtually unknown actress at the time who had previously starred in five short-lived sitcoms, Aniston auditioned for the role of Rachel after turning down an offer as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live. After acquiring the role and before Friends aired, Aniston was temporarily at risk of being recast because she had also been involved with another sitcom, Muddling Through, at the time, which was ultimately canceled and allowed Aniston to remain on Friends.

Rachel Green

Rachel Karen Green[4] is a fictional character, one of the six main characters who appeared in the American sitcom Friends. Portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston, the character was created by show creators David Crane and Marta Kauffman, and appeared in each of the showâ€™s 236 episodes during its decade-long run, from its premiere on September 22, 1994 to its finale on May 6, 2004. Introduced in the show's pilot as a naive runaway bride who reunites with her childhood best friend Monica and relocates to New York City, Rachel gradually evolves from a spoiled, inexperienced "daddy's girl" into a successful businesswoman. During the show's second season, the character becomes romantically involved with her friend Ross, with whom she maintains a complicated on-again, off-again relationship throughout the entire series. Together, the characters have a daughter, Emma.

Critical reception towards Rachel has remained consistently positive throughout Friends' decade-long run, with The A.V. Club attributing much of the show's early success to the character. However, some of her storylines have been criticized, specifically her romantic relationship with her friend Joey during season ten. Rachel's popularity established her as the show's breakout character, who has since been named one of the greatest television characters of all time, while the character's second season haircut spawned an international phenomenon of its own. Named the "Rachel" after her, the character's shag continues to be imitated by millions of women around the world and remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history, in spite of Aniston's own resentment towards it. Rachel is also regarded as a style icon due to her influence on womenswear during the 1990s. Meanwhile, the character's relationship with Ross is often cited among television's most beloved.

Rachel is considered to be Aniston's breakout role, credited with making her the show's most famous cast member and for spawning her successful film career. Praised for her performance as Rachel, Aniston won both an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical.

Rachel debuts in the pilot episode of Friends as a runaway bride who is distraught after abandoning her fiancé Barry Farber (Mitchell Whitfield) at the altar. She locates her high school best friend Monica Geller (Courteney Cox), the only person she knows in New York City, who agrees to let Rachel reside with her while she attempts to reorganize her life. Rachel meets and befriends Monica’s friends Phoebe Buffay (Lisa Kudrow), Joey Tribbiani (Matt LeBlanc), and Chandler Bing (Matthew Perry), while reuniting with Monica's older brother Ross Geller (David Schwimmer), who has harbored unrequited romantic feelings for her since high school. Having previously relied on her parents' money her entire life with a sole goal of marrying wealthy, Rachel attempts to reinvent herself as an independent young woman by waitressing at Central Perk, a coffeehouse where her new friends regularly socialize.[6] She is terrible at the job, but remains employed because the owner, Gunther (James Michael Tyler), is in love with her.

As season one concludes, Rachel finds out that Ross is in love with her, and realizes that she loves him, too. When she goes to tell him, however, she finds that he has begun a relationship with a woman named Julie (Lauren Tom).[7] However, Ross eventually chooses Rachel over Julie,[8] and the couple dates for the remainder of the second season.[9] However, their relationship begins to deteriorate towards the end of the third season[10] after Rachel quits her job at the coffeehouse in favor of working in fashion.[9] While Rachel becomes increasingly preoccupied with her new job, Ross grows jealous of her companionship with her coworker Mark (Steven Eckholdt),[11] culminating in Rachel deciding that they should "take a break" from their relationship. Ross takes this to mean that they've broken up, and sleeps with another woman. Rachel gets back together with Ross the next day, but breaks up with him upon learning of his infidelity.[12]

In the episodes following the break up, Rachel and Ross are initially hostile towards each other, but continue to harbor feelings for each other. During a beach house vacation with their friends, Rachel and Ross briefly reconcile when he ends his relationship with Bonnie (Christine Taylor),[13] only to break up once again due to a disagreement. During season four, Rachel dates her customer Joshua (Tate Donovan), while Ross dates her boss' niece Emily (Helen Baxendale), to whom he eventually gets engaged. Competitively, Rachel proposes to recent divorcee Joshua, frightening him off. Rachel indirectly contributes to the demise of Ross and Emily's relationship when he accidentally utters Rachel's name while exchanging their wedding vows.[14] Ross ultimately divorces a jealous Emily, choosing his friendship with Rachel instead.[15]

At the end of season five, Ross and Rachel drunkenly get married while vacationing with their friends in Las Vegas.[16] In season six, their annulment request is denied because of Rachel having leveled unfounded allegations against Ross, forcing the two to file for a divorce instead. In season seven, Ross and Rachel have sex, and Rachel gets pregnant.[17] Rachel gives birth to a girl in season eight, naming the baby Emma Geller-Green;[18] the name Emma is a gift from Monica, who had previously been reserving the name for her own child. Rachel and Ross live together as non-romantic roommates during the first half of season nine.

At the end of season nine, Joey confesses that he has feelings for Rachel, and they decide to try dating.[19] They break up in season ten, however, both because their romance upsets Ross and because they realize that they don't work as a couple.[20]

Rachel eventually finds a job opportunity in France, but has second thoughts when Ross tells her he still loves her. Rachel ultimately decides to stay and reignite her relationship with Ross, getting off the plane at the last minute.[21]

After their short-lived television series Family Album was canceled,[22] television writers David Crane and Marta Kauffman pitched Friends to then-NBC president Warren Littlefield as a sitcom about "that special time in your life when your friends are your family,"[23] basing the show on their own experiences as young people living in New York;[24] the main characters themselves were inspired by their own friends.[25] Conceived as a young woman who is unprepared for adulthood,[26] the character Rachel Green was originally named Rachel Robbins in the pilot.[27][28] Although critics and audiences initially perceived Monica as the show's main character when Friends premiered,[29][30][31] the writers had actually given Rachel the pilot's most prominent storyline.[32] Before deciding that Rachel and Ross would be an item for the entire series, the writers had originally intended for the show's defining couple to be Joey and Monica.[22] However, after the success of the pilot, in which Rachel and Ross' developing romance is first hinted at,[23] and witnessing Aniston and co-star David Schwimmer's on-screen chemistry for the first time,[33] Crane and Kauffman determined that the entire series relied on "finding all the wonderful roadblocks for them to be with each other."[23]

Audiences began rooting for Rachel and Ross' union since the very beginning of Friends, openly voicing their frustration with Rachelâ€™s obliviousness to Ross' feelings for her.[34] The episode that would ultimately transform the friends' relationship for the remainder of the series was the first-season finale "The One Where Rachel Finds Out", in which Rachel finally learns of Ross' true feelings for her, at the same time discovering she actually feels the same. However, the episode nearly went unwritten because, at the time, few Friends writers were expecting the couple's relationship to morph into the phenomenon that it ultimately became.[35] The episode was first suggested by director James Burrows; the writers felt that it was time to alter the couple's dynamic in order to avoid the repetitive "he's pining, she's oblivious" pattern, using the work of author Jane Austen as inspiration on how to finally shift the pining arc from Ross to Rachel. Because stakes for the episode were unprecedentedly high, "The One Where Rachel Finds Out" became Friends' most reworked episode.[35] The couple's first kiss at the end of season two's "The One Where Ross Finds Out" was met with deafening applause from the studio audience.[34] Crane admitted that keeping viewers interested in their relationship for ten years was challenging.[23] Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph believes that they accomplished this by "dangl[ing] the possibility of a Ross and Rachel recoupling through several cliffhangers without ever putting them back together."[34] According to Encyclopedia of Television author Horace Newcomb, Ross and Rachel's ever-changing relationship "converted the traditional amnesic plotlines of the situation comedy into ones akin to episodic drama."[36] Meanwhile, writing for The New York Review of Books, Elaine Blair agreed that Friends created "a sense of chemistry between two characters while also putting obstacles in their way, setting us up for a long-deferred union."[37]

After Rachel and Ross drunkenly get married while on vacation in Las Vegas during season five, Schwimmer had initially objected to the idea of having his character Ross divorce her – his third divorce – because he felt that it was taking it "too far."[38] The actor explained that "The whole arc of the relationship was weird then... because for [Ross] to be able to move on enough to marry someone else and then go back to being in love with Rachel later just went a bit too far."[38] Rachel and Joey's romantic storyline was conceived because the writers wanted to delay Ross and Rachel's reunion further.[38] Crane felt that pairing Rachel and Joey during season ten "was for the greater good" because "It was inappropriate."[23] However, the cast initially protested the idea, fearing that Rachel, Joey, and Ross would ultimately become unlikeable characters and audiences would either "resent Joey for going after a pregnant woman, or resent Rachel for rejecting him, or resent Ross for standing between the two of them."[39] Meanwhile, the writers also approached the concept of Rachel's pregnancy and baby tentatively, worrying about how they would include it in the show because they did not want Friends "to become a show about a baby" while "On the other hand, we don't want to pretend that there isn't one."[39] According to Robert Bianco of USA Today, the critical success and popularity of Rachel's pregnancy is ultimately responsible for "propel[ling] the show to the top of the ratings".[40] When it finally came time to write the series finale, "The only thing [Crane and Kauffman] absolutely knew from very early on was that we had to get Ross and Rachel together," deciding, "We had dicked the audience around for 10 years with their 'will they or won’t they,' and we didn’t see any advantage in frustrating them" any longer.[41] However, at one point the writers had deliberated ending the series with Ross and Rachel in "a gray area of where they aren’t together, but we hint there’s a sense that they might be down the road."[42] Ultimately, Crane and Kauffman relented in favor of giving the audience what they want.[42]

The final character to be cast,[33] Rachel is portrayed by actress Jennifer Aniston, who auditioned for the role shortly after declining a position as a cast member on the sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live.[43] Her decision was initially ridiculed by both her friends as well as actor Adam Sandler, a Saturday Night Live alum.[44] Actress Téa Leoni, who at the time was being referred to by the media as "the next Lucille Ball",[45] was offered the role of Rachel as the studio's first choice,[24] but she declined in favor of starring in the sitcom The Naked Truth.[46] Actress Elizabeth Berkley also auditioned for the role prior to being cast in the teen sitcom Saved by the Bell.[47] Other actresses who auditioned for Rachel include Denise Richards, Melissa Rivers, Nicollette Sheridan, Parker Posey, and Jami Gertz.[32] Originally, the producers wanted to cast actress Courteney Cox as Rachel,[48] who Crane and Kauffman were particularly drawn to because of her "cheery, upbeat energy."[22] Additionally, Cox was the most famous cast member at the time amidst an ensemble of relatively unknown actors.[24][32][49][50] However, the actress lobbied for the role of Rachel's best friend Monica, as whom she was ultimately cast,[22] because she felt that she was not "quirky" enough to play Rachel.[51] At the same time, although unbeknownst to each other,[52] Aniston was being considered for the role of Monica,[53] but fought to play Rachel because she felt that the character suited her better.[54][55] At one point, Cox had begun to regret her decision to play Monica until her own character's storylines started improving.[32]

Friends was Aniston's sixth sitcom;[56] each of her previous ventures had been canceled prematurely.[57] Feeling vulnerable, Aniston had begun to doubt herself as an actress[58] and personally approached Littlefield for reassurance on her career, who encouraged her to audition for Friends,[59] which was being referred to as Friends Like These at the time.[60] Crane and Kauffman had worked with Aniston prior to this.[23] However, casting her as Rachel posed a challenge for the network because, at the time, Aniston was simultaneously starring in a developing CBS sitcom called Muddling Through,[61] in which she plays a young woman whose mother is returning home from jail after two years.[62] CBS was initially reluctant to release Aniston from her contract,[32] which required the actress to balance both roles simultaneously,[63] traveling back-and-forth between Muddling Through and Friends for two weeks.[64] Meanwhile, NBC risked having to recast the role of Rachel, replace Aniston, and reshoot several episodes if CBS' series proved successful, which would have potentially cost the network millions of dollars.[23] However, Littlefield remained confident that Muddling Through would fail.[65] Essentially, the producers of Friends hoped that Muddling Through would be canceled before Friends premiered,[66] while Aniston feared that Muddling Through would be the more successful of the two sitcoms in spite of her preference towards Friends.[32][67] During this time of uncertainty, Aniston was forced not to participate in several Friends-related promotions and photo shoots;[68] the network excluded her from these in case she would be replaced.[69] Aniston explained, "When we were shooting the first grouping of cast photos... I was asked to step out of a bunch because they didn't know if I was going to be still playing Rachel."[69] Director James Burrows admitted that Aniston had been cast in second position.[70][71] The producers had already begun auditioning other actresses for the part,[72] while Aniston also received phone calls from her own friends warning her, "I'm auditioning for your part in Friends."[73] Ultimately, Muddling Through was canceled after only three months and ten episodes,[74][75] two weeks before the pilot of Friends aired,[76] thus allowing Aniston to keep her role on the show,[77] becoming its second youngest cast member at the age of 25.[3][32] Crane appreciated Aniston's interpretation of Rachel because "in the wrong hands Rachel is kind of annoying and spoiled and unlikable," commending the actress for "breathing life into a difficult character."[32]

Crane and Kauffman strongly envisioned Friends as an ensemble comedy,[23] and Warner Bros. initially marketed the show as such by having the cast appear in their entirety for all press, interviews and photo shoots.[78] One of few sitcoms at the time to be neither a workplace comedy, family sitcom or star a famous comedian,[34] Elizabeth Kolbert of The New York Times explained that each of the show's main characters are "of equal importance."[50] As a writer, Crane preferred it this way because "utilizing six equal players, rather than emphasizing one or two, would allow for myriad story lines."[79] Kauffman echoed "that Friends worked best when the entire ensemble was onstage."[80] The only reason Aniston is credited first during the show's title sequence is because the cast is listed alphabetically.[32] The show's ensemble format is also believed to have prevented jealous conflicts among the cast.[34][79] Famously, the Friends cast became the first in television history to negotiate as a group for equal salaries,[78] refusing to work until their demands of $100,000 per episode were met during season three,[49] which eventually increased to $1 million per episode by seasons nine and ten –[58] approximately $25 million per year.[71] Alongside Cox and actress Lisa Kudrow, who portrays Phoebe, Aniston became the highest-paid television actress of all time.[81] By then, Aniston had surpassed Cox as the show's most famous cast member due to having launched an international hair trend with the "Rachel" and successfully transitioning into a film career,[32] combined with her high-profile relationship with her then-husband, actor Brad Pitt,[22] who had once guest starred in an episode of the show.[82] At times the producers would use the actress' popularity to boost the show's ratings, notably her character's seventh season kiss with actress Winona Ryder and pregnancy arc.[83][84] Aniston had been telling the press that the show's ninth season would be her last,[83] and was initially hesitant to return to Friends to film its tenth and final season.[22] She explained to NBC's Matt Lauer, "I wanted it to end when people still loved us and we were on a high. And then I was also feeling like, ‘How much more of Rachel do I have in me?’”[49] However, the actress ultimately agreed to complete the tenth season of Friends,[49] which was reduced from 24 to 18 episodes to accommodate Aniston's busy film schedule.[85]

Rachel is the youngest of Friends six main characters.[86] The term "spoiled" is often used to describe the character's personality during her early appearances.[36][87][88][89] Encyclopædia Britannica describes Rachel as a spoiled and funny character.[90] According to Rachel's original character description, written by Crane and Kauffman themselves for the show's pilot, the character is a spoiled yet courageous young woman who "has worked for none of what she has", unlike best friend Monica, and is initially "equipped to do nothing".[88] James Endrst of the Hartford Courant identified her as "a spoiled rich kid",[91] while the Daily News dubbed Rachel an "endearingly spoiled Daddy's girl."[92] Author Kim Etingoff wrote about Rachel in her book Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films that the character is "spunky and sometimes spoiled",[55] while TV Land called her "naive."[93] Citing the differences between Rachel and her two female friends, The Guardian's Ryan Gilbey observed that the character "wasn't insulated by self-regard, like Monica, or swaddled in gormlessness, like Phoebe."[94] Frequently identified as fitting the "girl next door" archetype,[95][96][97][98] Anne Bilson of The Telegraph described Rachel as "funny but not too funny, pretty but not too pretty, sexy but not too sexy, scatterbrained but not too scatterbrained."[99] TalkTalk's Dominic Wills described the character as "smart but ditzy, determined but undisciplined."[84] Meanwhile, Liat Kornowski, writing for The Huffington Post, scribed that Rachel is a "beautiful, coveted, slightly neurotic, borderline egocentric" character.[100]

Observing that the show's main characters are each based on a stereotype, Jonathan Bernstein of The Daily Telegraph identified Rachel as "the self-absorbed one who goes from riches to rags."[34] According to Reign Magazine, Rachel is "a human being full of vulnerability, humor and strength while aesthetically donning an undeniable beauty and allure."[101] Originally depicted as a character who is unprepared for "the world as an adult", Rachel's personality was gradually tailored to suit Aniston as the series progressed, becoming "more self-sufficient and sympathetic."[26] According to Shining in the Shadows: Movie Stars of the 2000s author Murray Pomerance, "The more boundary collapsed between the'real' Jennifer Aniston and Rachel, the more 'authentic' Aniston became."[26] Pomerance also noted that the character's "well-roundedness, normalcy and relatability" is similar to Aniston's, while both the character and the actress herself are very expressive, talking "with [their] hands a good deal."[26] In her book How To Write For Television, author Madeline Dimaggio wrote that although "Rachel grew within the context of the series... she would always struggle with the spoiled, image-conscious Daddy's girl who fled from her wedding in the pilot."[102] Similarly, BuddyTV wrote that although Rachel "eventually evolves into being less absorbed in later series, she [remains] the most image-centric among the six",[103] while Vogue's Edward Barsamian opined, "She might have been self-centered and bratty, but Rachel Green was perhaps the most stylish and unabashedly fashion-obsessed character on the show."[104] TV Land summarized the character's arc and development in the website's biography of her, writing, "Rachel is a born shopper, but... she’s not necessarily a born worker. In fact, before moving in with Monica, she’s never had to work at all, thanks to the generosity of her parents. Luckily, Rachel is smart, resourceful and chic, so her future is bright, both as a member of the workforce and with her newfound tribe."[93] Examining the character's sexuality, Splitsider's Mike D'Avria determined that Rachel has had the third most sexual partners, 14, as well as the highest percentage of serious monogamous relationships at 71%. D'Avria opined, "Throughout the whole series Rachel is continually meeting men she wants to impress. Her flirtations typically fail, but she somehow winds up in a serious relationship with them."[105] Additionally, Rachel is also the only character to admit to having had a homosexual experience.[105]

In an interview with the Jewish Telegraph, Kauffman confirmed that Rachel is Jewish.[106] On the character's "Jewish ties", Kauffman told j. that Rachel had always been Jewish "in our minds", explaining, "You canâ€™t create a character with the name 'Rachel Green' and not from the get-go make some character choices".[107] Prior to this, critics and fans had long speculated whether or not Rachel is Jewish; there are entire websites entirely devoted to discussing this.[106] Vulture's Lindsey Weber, who identifies herself as Jewish, observed several similarities and Jewish stereotypes she shares with the character, citing the facts that Rachel refers to her grandmother Ida Green as "Bubbe",[108] Long Island origin, and engagement to a Jewish doctor as allusions to the character's Jewish culture.[109] In her book Changed for Good: A Feminist History of the Broadway Musical, author Stacy Wolf identified Rachel as one of several popular female television characters who embodied Jewish stereotypes during the 1990s and often served as "the butt of the shows' jokes."[110] Meanwhile, JDate's Rebecca Frankel cited Rachel as one of the earliest and most prominent examples of the Jewish American Princess stereotype on screen.[111] Writing for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Alicia R. Korenman also acknowledged Rachel's initial Jewish American Princess qualities, describing her as "spoiled, dependent on her father's money and her fiance's, is horrified at the thought of working for a living and generally inept in her attempts to do so, and is eventually revealed to have had a nose job", which she eventually overcomes as they become less "evident in later seasons of the show".[112] In his article "Princesses, Schlemiels, Punishers and Overbearing Mothers", Evan Cooper described Rachel as a "de-semitized" Jew because, aside from her name, "there is never any discussion of experiences of growing up in a Jewish culture, no use of Yiddish, and few, if any, references to family members with distinctively Jewish surnames".[113] Cooper continued to write that although Rachel possesses some Jewish American Princess traits, she is more similar to the "little woman" stereotype.[113] The New York Post's Robert Rorke labeled Rachel "a rehabilitated Jewish American Princess", in contrast to her sister Amy (Christina Applegate) who remains "selfish, condescending and narcissistic."[114]

Critical response towards Rachel remained mostly positive throughout the show's ten-season run.[55] Writing for The A.V. Club, John Reid believes that Rachel is responsible for the success of the pilot, explaining, "The story of this group of friends must start with a stranger coming to town," describing Rachel as "the perfect stranger for this plot".[115] Reid also holds Rachel responsible for spurring character development in the show's five other main characters, calling her arrival "a catalyst for all of them to grow, because unlike the rest of them, Rachel is interested in finding meaning for her life".[115] Also writing for The A.V. Club, Sonia Saraiya enjoyed Rachel's first awkward encounter with Ross because, for the first time, "Rachel displays a moment of true empathy for another human being".[115] Saraiya went on to hail Rachel as "as a model for women coming of age in the 1990sâ€”the popular, pretty girl dissatisfied with where those illusions have taken her but also unwilling to embrace the more aggressively 'feminist' career-woman strategy".[115] The New York Times' Joseph Hanania enjoyed Rachel's telephone conversation with her father during the pilot, describing it as "hilarious."[116] The Los Angeles Times Bob Shayne admitted his attraction towards Rachel, joking, "my feelings for Rachel, I say with some embarrassment, mirror those of Gunther".[117] Cosmopolitan touted Rachel "the best fictional gal pal we've ever had".[118] While People called her "spoiled-but-lovable",[89] TV Guide described Rachel as "neurotic and adorable".[119] Writing for Heat, Ellen Kerry hailed Rachel's gradual transformation from waitress to businesswoman as arguably "the best thing on tv."[120]

USA Today's Robert Bianco credits Rachel's pregnancy storyline with saving Friends, observing that the arc increased the show's ratings while ultimately "reversing the show's decline in ways... that no one watching 'The One With Monica & Chandler's Wedding' could ever have imagined."[40] Bianco concluded, "Indeed, without that fortune-altering twist, Friends probably would have ended sooner".[40] BDCwire ranked "The One With The Ball", "The One With Rachel’s Inadvertent Kiss", "The One With The Football", "The One With The Fake Party" and "The One In Vegas, Part One" Rachel's five strongest episodes.[121] Meanwhile, TVLine criticized Rachel for sleeping with ex-fiancé Barry in season one's "The One With the Evil Orthodontist", panning the episode as "cringeworthy".[122] TVLine similarly criticized the character's role in season four's "The One With The Fake Party".[123] At times the character would generate mild controversy, specifically the second-season episode "The One Where Dr. Ramoray Dies", during which Rachel and Monica argue over who will get to use the last remaining condom in the apartment,[23] which Rachel ultimately wins via a game of rock-paper-scissors.[124][125] Additionally, fans would often approach Aniston and scold her for decisions that Rachel makes within the show that they do not particularly agree with.[126]

Within the first two seasons of Friends, the character became extremely popular among women.[53] Viewers' perpetual desire to see Rachel succeed helped her remain a fan favorite throughout all ten seasons of the show.[55] Writing for TalkTalk, Dominic Wills agreed that while Rachel established herself as "the general favourite... No one had a bad word to say about Jennifer Aniston",[84] with whose performance audiences instantly fell in love.[127] Aniston's performance has been consistently praised since her debut in the pilot, about which Entertainment Weekly's Ken Tucker wrote that the actress portrays Rachel with "prickly intelligence".[30] Writing for The Baltimore Sun, David Zurawik cited Aniston among the show's "very strong cast",[128] while Variety's Tony Scott agreed that "All six of the principals... appear resourceful and display sharp sitcom skills";[87] Robert Bianco of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette praised the work of show's female cast equally.[129] TV Guide wrote that Aniston "instantly charmed audiences with her perfect looks and endearingly flawed persona",[119] while Kevin Fallon of The Daily Beast referred to Aniston's tenure on Friends as not "a leading lady performance" but instead "the work of a brilliant character actress."[127] The Guardian's Ryan Gilbey highlighted Aniston as the cast member "least reliant on goofball caricature", observing that "Playing the only character with whom a sane viewer might reasonably identify also meant that she got the lion's share of attention".[94] Writing that the actress "quickly stole our hearts as the daddy’s girl and aspiring fashionista," Andrew Collins of Radio Times hailed Aniston as a "natural comic performer, as adept with a subtle nose wrinkle as a full-on pratfall, and fluent in quick-fire patter".[130] In 2002, Aniston won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series.[131] In 2003, the actress won the Golden Globe Award for Best Performance by an Actress In A Television Series – Comedy Or Musical.[132] Dominc Willis of TalkTalk believes that Aniston won these awards because of "her brilliant comic performances in the show."[84]

Rachel has had several romantic relationships throughout Friends decade-long run, the most famous and prominent of which remains her on-again, off-again relationship with friend Ross. Although wildly popular among audiences,[23][34] the couple has been met with mixed reviews from critics. Katherine Hassel of the Daily Express described the characters' relationship as "the heart of the show".[24] China Daily cited Ross and Rachel's reunion during the series finale "The Last One" among the episode's highlights,[133] while Gary Susman of Rolling Stone believes that audiences would not have been happy had the couple not ultimately reunited.[134] Contrastingly, The Wire's Joe Reid is of the opinion that the show's second season is "the only time Ross/Rachel was truly great".[135] Virgin Media wrote that the couple's dynamics "had grown mightily tedious" by season ten.[136] E! cable network ranked Rachel and Ross the ninth greatest Friends couple, writing that their relationship gave "Friends fans enough iconic quotes to fill a book",[137] considering Phoebe's line "See? [Ross is] her lobster!" to be among show's most iconic.[138] Ross and Rachel's season three breakup has spawned a debate among Friends fans, who continue to argue over which of the two was at fault: Rachel for suggesting that they take a break from their relationship, or Ross for sleeping with another woman immediately afterwards. Writing for E!, Jenna Mullins ruled in favor of Rachel, elaborating, "there is no excuse for Ross sleeping with someone else after his lobster suggested taking a break", concluding that Ross "blew it".[138] The Jewish community was particularly receptive to the fact that a Jewish-American couple existed on prime time television, described by Lilith magazine as "a televisual first".[139]

Rachel and Ross are considered to be among television's greatest and most beloved couples.[10][140] Ninemsn referred to them as "everyone's favourite on... off... on (a break!) duo,"[141] while Us Weekly and BuzzFeed ranked them the first and second best television couple, respectively.[142][143] TV Guide ranked Ross and Rachel the third greatest television couple, dubbing them "the most iconic TV couple in recent memory".[144] Extra placed the couple at number eight, writing, "Never did we want two people to get together more than Ross... and Rachel".[145] Refinery29 included Rachel and Ross in the website's "16 TV Couples We Want To Be Together Forever" list.[146] The pair is also often ranked among television's greatest "will they or won't they" couples.[147][148][149] Naming Ross and Rachel the greatest "will they, won't they" couple, Network Ten believes they defined the term,[150] while Suggest dubbed them "The quintessential will they/wonâ€™t they couple."[151] According to Sarah Doran of Radio Times, the couple "became synonymous with the phrase 'we're on a break'".[152] Phoebe's line, in which she refers to the couple as each other's lobsters, has become one of the show's most popular and oft-quoted.[140][153][154] Kaitlin Reilly of Bustle magazine defined the term as "the person of whom another is meant to be with forever".[155] Tara Aquino of Complex magazine believes that "Every other person can tell you what exactly a 'Ross and Rachel' relationship means".[156] Ultimately, Rachel's season eight pregnancy arc is credited with reviving the show's ratings and reviews.[83]

During season ten, Rachel's brief romance with friend Joey drew strong criticism from both critics and fans,[138] although the contested relationship did not harm viewership.[55] Joshua Kurp of Splitsider believes that the Rachel/Joey/Ross love triangle is the main reason the show's final two seasons continued to perform well despite mediocre reviews.[157] Eric Goldman of IGN referred to the Rachel-Joey storyline as "questionable."[158] Entertainment Tonight Canada ranked "The One After Rachel and Joey Kiss" among the show's ten worst episodes at number five, with author I. P. Johnson panning it as "desperate", concluding, "Jeers for even conceiving this romantic plot; cheers for abandoning it".[159] Contrarily, E! enjoyed Rachel and Joey as a couple because they brought out positive aspects in each other's personalities and share a similar sense of humor.[160] Their relationship also spawned a debate among fans, who argued over whether making Rachel and Joey a couple was a bad idea. Jenna Mullins of E! determined that it is because "It was too far into the series to throw these two together. They didn't make sense and their romantic scenes felt forced".[138]

After Ross and Rachel's break up, there were many hints that they would eventually reunite forever, especially seasons 8-10. In the final season, Rachel wants to sleep with Ross when her father has a heart attack and wants "sympathy sex", which he turns down, not wanting to take advantage of her in the state she is in. However, Ross and Rachel do sleep together again the night before she leaves for Paris, which results in him admitting he still loves her and wants to get back together in the series finale. Rachel turns down the Paris job in order to be with Ross when she realizes she still loves him too, and the two agree "this is it", getting back together for good. Jennifer Aniston, who played Rachel, confirmed that after the series finale, Ross and Rachel got remarried, happily and had at least one more child.[161]

Both Rachel and Aniston became fashion icons due to their combined influence on womenswear during the 1990s,[162][163][164] particularly among British women.[165] Vogue's Edward Barsamian credits Rachel with inspiring "the cool New York look".[104] According to Stylist, Rachel "revived [a] love of denim shirts and dungarees",[165] while Mahogany Clayton of StyleBlazer believes that the character "managed to dominate every fashion trend that passed by her radar in the most stylish ways possible".[166] Hailing her as the "Fash Queen", Heat magazine observed the character's influence on plaid skirts, denim and overalls.[120] Citing every costume the character wore during the first season of Friends, BuzzFeed determined that Rachel popularized the mullet dress.[167] TV Guide published a list of "The 17 Ways Rachel from Friends Changed '90s Fashion".[168] Rachel is often considered to be one of television's best dressed characters.[169] Elle included Rachel in the magazine's "50 Best Dressed Women on TV" list.[170] PopSugar ranked Friends 15th on the website's list of "50 TV Shows That Changed the Way We Dress", citing Rachel's "impressive" wardrobe.[171] InStyle ranked Friends the 36th most fashionable television show of all-time, praising Rachel, Monica and Phoebe's costumes.[172] StyleCaster ranked Rachel among "The 50 Most Stylish TV Characters Of All Time" at number 28.[173] Cosmopolitan magazine compiled a list of "16 things Rachel Green wore to work that we'd totally wear today",[174] while Virgin Media ranked the character among television's sexiest.[136] Brides magazine ranked Rachel's wedding dress among "The Best TV Wedding Dresses", with contributor Jane Frankfort commending the dress with "set[ting] the tone for the following 10 years together and the many milestones our favorite friends will bring."[175]

Named after the character,[176] the "Rachel" refers to a bouncy layered[177] shag inspired by the way in which Aniston wore her hair on Friends between 1994 and 1996, during the first and second seasons of the series.[162] The "Rachel" debuted in the show's 20th episode, "The One With the Evil Orthodontist".[178] Aniston believes that her hair stylist, Chris McMillan, created the haircut while he was under the influence of marijuana.[179] The "Rachel" immediately became popular among women, launching an international hair trend.[180] The popularity of the "Rachel" coincided with the popularity of Friends during the mid-to-late-1990s.[181] Marie Claire estimates that 11 million women donned the hairstyle throughout the decade,[182] while the Daily Express determined that the hairstyle was most popular among British women,[183] who went to hair salons "clutching magazine pictures of Aniston" and asking hairdressers to give them the look.[184]

According to Vanity Fair, the hairstyle's "widespread popularity... in the showâ€™s very first year cemented the sitcom early on as heavily influential when it came to style."[185] The "Rachel" remains one of the most popular hairstyles in history,[24] and became the most popular hairstyle in the United States since actress Farrah Fawcett's.[162][186] Hair stylists credit its appeal and popularity to its medium length and volume, combined with its tendency to frame the face flatteringly.[162] Hairdresser Mark Woolley described it as "a cut that flatters almost everyone, designed to make women look beautiful".[130] The "Rachel" is often ranked among the greatest and most iconic hairstyles of all-time,[187][188][189] with Redbook placing it at number four and Time ranking it ninth.[190][191] The Huffington Post determined that the hairstyle is one of "The Most Famous TV Hairstyles Of All Time".[192] US Weekly ranked the "Rachel" the 17th most iconic hairstyle.[193] Glamour magazine ranked the "Rachel" fourth on the magazine's list of "The 100 Best Hairstyles of All Time".[194] The magazine also cited it among "The very best hair to have graced the small screen",[195] while ranking it the most memorable hairstyle in television history.[196] The Sydney Morning Herald ranked it the second greatest television hairstyle,[184] while Metro ranked the "Rachel" the character's second-best hairstyle.[197] Ranked sixth on Entertainment Weekly's list of the "25 Fashion Moments That Changed Entertainment", the haircut was declared the most "desired" hairstyle of the Clinton era.[198]

Zahra Barnes of Self joked that Rachel's hair has always been the "true star of the show".[178] Lauding the "Rachel" as one of television's greatest hairstyles, Sarah Carrillo of Elle magazine believed that its popularity "helped make Friends the phenomenon it was".[199] Opining that Friends spawned few memorable catchphrases in comparison to its contemporaries, Tom Jicha of The Baltimore Sun attributes much of the show's legacy to the hairstyle, calling it the show's "only cultural trend".[79] Josh Robertson of Complex magazine felt that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy... combined, Aniston became a big star", replacing Courteney Cox.[200] Hannah Lyons Powell of Glamour agreed that the hairstyle made Aniston "the definitive hair icon of the ‘90s and the proud owner of arguably the most infamous and influential hairstyle of all time."[195] According to Jim Vorel of Paste magazine, "'the Rachel' hairstyle became the decade’s defining 'do, calling it "the definition of influence".[201] However, Rebecca Cox of Glamour is grateful that the hairstyle remained in the 1990s.[187]

In the second-season episode "The One With The Lesbian Wedding", Rachel references the popularity of her haircut when she complains that her own overbearing mother is trying to reinvent her life after hers, lamenting, "Couldn't she just copy my haircut?" Despite her association with the cut, Aniston disliked the hairstyle.[202] She found maintaining the hairstyle without McMillan's help difficult,[203] stating "I'd curse Chris every time I had to blowdry. It took three brushesâ€”it was like doing surgery!"[204] and that she would rather shave her head than have to wear it for the rest of her life.[205] Since Aniston, several other celebrities have worn variations of the "Rachel", among them actresses Cameron Diaz,[206] Rachel McAdams,[207] Emma Watson,[208] Reese Witherspoon,[209] Julia Roberts,[210] comedian Tina Fey,[211] model Tyra Banks,[212] and singer Lily Allen.[207]

Rachel's popularity would ultimately lead her to becoming the show's breakout character;[101][213] she is often ranked among the greatest characters in television history. Us Weekly ranked Rachel the most beloved television character of the past two decades, citing her as "one of TV's most endearing personalities".[214] Entertainment Weekly ranked the character sixth on a similar countdown,[215] while AOL TV included Rachel among television's hundred "Greatest Women" at number 23, with author Kim Potts observing that "Rachel became one of viewers' favorite Friends because she grew from what could have been a one-note character... into a more independent, caring pal".[216] BuddyTV ranked Rachel the 15th funniest female character in sitcom history,[217] while ChaCha collectively ranked Rachel, Monica and Phoebe 11th, 12th and 13th on the website's list of the "Top 16 Female TV Characters of All Time".[218] According to The Hollywood Reporter, Hollywood professionals voted Rachel the 29th best female character in 2016.[219] Writing for Entertainmentwise, Georgina Littlejohn believes Rachel inspired the character Penny in the sitcom The Big Bang Theory, noting that the characters, both waitresses, are "blonde, cute, funny, likeable girls-next-door".[97] Several baby name books and websites commonly associate the name "Rachel" with the character.[220][221][222][223]

Like her character, Aniston became the show's breakout star.[186] Karen Thomas of USA Today dubbed Aniston "our favorite Friend".[224] According to Turner Classic Movies, Aniston ultimately became "One of the most popular television actresses of her era".[225] According to Jennifer Aniston: From Friends to Films author Kim Etingoff, the actress' own fame "outshone" those of her co-stars,[55] becoming the first cast member to "rise to prominence";[84] the actress continues to experience the most post-Friends success.[226][227][228] Aniston's performance in Friends led to a successful film career.[229] According to The Inquisitr News, Rachel is "the role that would end up launching [Aniston's] success",[72] while Bradford Evans of Splitsider believes "that Jennifer Aniston likely wouldn't have become a major movie star without Friends".[230] While ranking Aniston the most attractive sitcom star of the 1990s, Josh Robertson of Complex magazine wrote that "With the haircut, the TV fame, and a true gift for comedy... combined, Aniston became a big star", replacing Cox as the show's "established hottie".[200] According to Steve Charnock of Yahoo! Movies, Aniston is "the series' only main cast member to become a bona fide movie star since the end of the show".[231] While agreeing that Aniston's film career has been successful, several critics believe that the actress' filmography remains limited to playing Rachel-like roles in romantic comedies,[84][127][232] save for some exceptions.[233] Ryan Gilbey of The Guardian noted that "Consequently, many of Aniston's movie roles... have been Rachel in all but name."[94] Andrew Collins of Radio Times agreed, writing that Aniston "seems trapped, perpetually playing variations of Rachel".[130] According to TV Guide, Aniston is "usually called upon to play a variation of her neurotic and adorable Friends character".[119] Aniston cites Rachel as one of three roles for which she is most grateful, to whom she "owe[s] everything".[234] On being typecast in the aftermath of Rachel, Aniston admits that at times it "gives you more of a challenge, to shape peopleâ€™s perceptions of you".[235] as audiences struggle "to lose the Rachel tag that has made her one of the world's most recognisable faces".[236]


organization that is owned and operated by its members

A mutual exists with the purpose of raising funds from its membership or customers (collectively called its members), which can then be used to provide common services to all members of the organization or society. A mutual is therefore owned by, and run for the benefit of, its members - it has no external shareholders to pay in the form of dividends, and as such does not usually seek to maximize and make large profits or capital gains. Mutuals exist for the members to benefit from the services they provide and often do not pay income tax.[1]

Mutual organization

A mutual, mutual organization, or mutual society is an organization (which is often, but not always, a company or business) based on the principle of mutuality. Unlike a true cooperative, members usually do not contribute to the capital of the company by direct investment, but derive their right to profits and votes through their customer relationship. A mutual organization or society is often simply referred to as a mutual.

Profits made will usually be re-invested in the mutual for the benefit of the members, although some profit may also be necessary in the case of mutuals for internal financing to sustain or grow the organization, and to make sure it remains safe and secure.

The primary form of financial business set up as a mutual company in the United States has been mutual insurance. Some insurance companies are set up as stock companies and then mutualized, their ownership passing to their policy owners. In mutual insurance companies, what would have been profits are instead rebated to the clients in the form of dividend distributions, reduced future premiums or paid up additions to the policy value.

This is a competitive advantage to such companiesâ€”the idea of owning a piece of the company could be more attractive to some potential clients than the idea of being a source of profits for investors. In the typical stock company, profits go to shareholders. In contrast, a mutual manages the company in the best interests of the customers. Furthermore, a mutual company is able to focus on a longer horizon than a typical company. Some mutual insurance companies make this claim explicitly.[2]

In more general terms, mutual organizations are able to minimize the principal–agent problem by removing one stakeholder, the investor-owner, in favor of one of the other stakeholders, usually the customer, who becomes both user and joint owner of the business.[3]

However, the mutual form of ownership also has disadvantages. One example is that mutual companies have no shares to sell and hence no access to equity markets.

At one time, most major U.S. life insurers were mutual companies. For many years, the tax status of such organizations was open to dispute, as they were technically nonprofit organizations. Eventually, it was agreed that federal taxation would be based on their share of business: for instance, in years in which mutual companies represented half of the business, they would be responsible for half of the taxes paid by the industry.

Many savings and loan associations were also mutual companies, owned by their depositors.

As a form of corporate ownership the mutual has fallen out of favor in the U.S. since the 1980s. Savings and loan industry deregulation and the late 1980s savings and loan crisis led many to change to stock ownership, or in some cases into banks. Many large U.S.-based insurance companies, such as the Prudential Insurance Company of America and the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company have demutualized, with shares of stock being distributed to their policyholders to represent the ownership interest they formerly had in the form of their interest as mutual policyholders.

The Mutual of Omaha Insurance Company has also investigated demutualization, even though its form of ownership is embedded in its name. It is noted that other formerly mutual companies such as Washington Mutual, a former savings and loan association, have been allowed to demutualize and yet retain their names.

The approximate British equivalent of the saving and loan is the building society. Building societies also went through an era of demutualisation in the 1980s and 1990s, leaving only one large national building society and currently 43 (Sept 2016) smaller regional and local ones. Significant demutualisation also occurred in Australia in the same era.

Cooperatives are very similar to mutual companies. They tend to deal in primarily tangible goods and services such as agricultural commodities or utilities rather than intangible products such as financial services. Nevertheless, banking institutions with close ties to the co-operative movement are usually known as credit unions or cooperative banks rather than mutuals.

Various types of financial institutions around the world are mutuals, and examples include:

Some mutual financial institutions offer services very similar to (if not the same as) those of a commercial bank. In some markets, mutuals offer very competitive interest rates and fee tariffs on savings and deposit accounts, mortgages and loans. The members who save and borrow with the mutual ultimately own the business.

A mutual may convert itself to a non-mutual through the process of demutualization. This process became increasingly common in the 1980s as a result of deregulation. In the United States, conversion may be full, to a public company, or, in many states, partial, to a mutual holding company.


is radiology and x ray the same thing

A variety of imaging techniques such as X-ray radiography, ultrasound, computed tomography (CT), nuclear medicine including positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are used to diagnose and/or treat diseases. Interventional radiology is the performance of (usually minimally invasive) medical procedures with the guidance of imaging technologies.

Radiology

Radiology is the science that uses medical imaging to diagnose and sometimes also treat diseases within the body.

The acquisition of medical images is usually carried out by the radiographer, often known as a Radiologic Technologist. The Diagnostic Radiologist, a specially trained doctor, then interprets or "reads" the images and produces a report of their findings and impression or diagnosis. In some places, a Reporting Radiographer, a radiographer with advanced training, may also interpret basic images. This report is then transmitted to the Clinician who requested the imaging. The report can initially be made as a "wet-read" which is a rapid preliminary response to a clinical question, which will generally followed later by a final report.[1] Medical images are stored digitally in the picture archiving and communication system (PACS) where they can be viewed by all members of the healthcare team within the same health system and compared later on with future imaging exams.

Radiographs (originally called roentgenographs, named after the discoverer of X-rays, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen) are produced by transmitting X-rays through a patient. The X-rays are projected through the body onto a detector; an image is formed based on which rays pass through (and are detected) versus those that are absorbed or scattered in the patient (and thus are not detected). Röntgen discovered X-rays on November 8, 1895 and received the first Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery in 1901.

In film-screen radiography, an X-ray tube generates a beam of X-rays, which is aimed at the patient. The X-rays that pass through the patient are filtered through a device called an grid or X-ray filter, to reduce scatter, and strike an undeveloped film, which is held tightly to a screen of light-emitting phosphors in a light-tight cassette. The film is then developed chemically and an image appears on the film. Film-screen radiography is being replaced by phosphor plate radiography but more recently by digital radiography (DR) and the EOS imaging.[2] In the two latest systems, the X-rays strike sensors that converts the signals generated into digital information, which is transmitted and converted into an image displayed on a computer screen. In digital radiography the sensors shape a plate, but in the EOS system, which is a slot-scanning system, a linear sensor vertically scans the patient.

Plain radiography was the only imaging modality available during the first 50 years of radiology. Due to its availability, speed, and lower costs compared to other modalities, radiography is often the first-line test of choice in radiologic diagnosis. Also despite the large amount of data in CT scans, MR scans and other digital-based imaging, there are many disease entities in which the classic diagnosis is obtained by plain radiographs. Examples include various types of arthritis and pneumonia, bone tumors (especially benign bone tumors), fractures, congenital skeletal anomalies, etc.

Mammography and DXA are two applications of low energy projectional radiography, used for the evaluation for breast cancer and osteoporosis, respectively.

Fluoroscopy and angiography are special applications of X-ray imaging, in which a fluorescent screen and image intensifier tube is connected to a closed-circuit television system.[3]:26 This allows real-time imaging of structures in motion or augmented with a radiocontrast agent. Radiocontrast agents are usually administered by swallowing or injecting into the body of the patient to delineate anatomy and functioning of the blood vessels, the genitourinary system, or the gastrointestinal tract (GI tract). Two radiocontrast agents are presently in common use. Barium sulfate (BaSO4) is given orally or rectally for evaluation of the GI tract. Iodine, in multiple proprietary forms, is given by oral, rectal, intra-arterial or intravenous routes. These radiocontrast agents strongly absorb or scatter X-rays, and in conjunction with the real-time imaging, allow demonstration of dynamic processes, such as peristalsis in the digestive tract or blood flow in arteries and veins. Iodine contrast may also be concentrated in abnormal areas more or less than in normal tissues and make abnormalities (tumors, cysts, inflammation) more conspicuous. Additionally, in specific circumstances, air can be used as a contrast agent for the gastrointestinal system and carbon dioxide can be used as a contrast agent in the venous system; in these cases, the contrast agent attenuates the X-ray radiation less than the surrounding tissues.

CT imaging uses X-rays in conjunction with computing algorithms to image the body.[4] In CT, an X-ray tube opposite an X-ray detector (or detectors) in a ring-shaped apparatus rotate around a patient, producing a computer-generated cross-sectional image (tomogram). CT is acquired in the axial plane, with coronal and sagittal images produced by computer reconstruction. Radiocontrast agents are often used with CT for enhanced delineation of anatomy. Although radiographs provide higher spatial resolution, CT can detect more subtle variations in attenuation of X-rays (higher contrast resolution). CT exposes the patient to significantly more ionizing radiation than a radiograph.

Spiral multidetector CT uses 16, 64, 254 or more detectors during continuous motion of the patient through the radiation beam to obtain fine detail images in a short exam time. With rapid administration of intravenous contrast during the CT scan, these fine detail images can be reconstructed into three-dimensional (3D) images of carotid, cerebral, coronary or other arteries.

The introduction of computed tomography in the early 1970s revolutionized diagnostic radiology by providing Clinicians with images of real three-dimensional anatomic structures. CT scanning has become the test of choice in diagnosing some urgent and emergent conditions, such as cerebral hemorrhage, pulmonary embolism (clots in the arteries of the lungs), aortic dissection (tearing of the aortic wall), appendicitis, diverticulitis, and obstructing kidney stones. Continuing improvements in CT technology, including faster scanning times and improved resolution, have dramatically increased the accuracy and usefulness of CT scanning, which may partially account for increased use in medical diagnosis.

Medical ultrasonography uses ultrasound (high-frequency sound waves) to visualize soft tissue structures in the body in real time. No ionizing radiation is involved, but the quality of the images obtained using ultrasound is highly dependent on the skill of the person (ultrasonographer) performing the exam and the patient's body size. Examinations of larger, overweight patients may have a decrease in image quality as their subcutaneous fat absorbs more of the sound waves. This results in fewer sound waves penetrating to organs and reflecting back to the transducer, resulting in loss of information and a poorer quality image. Ultrasound is also limited by its inability to image through air pockets (lungs, bowel loops) or bone. Its use in medical imaging has developed mostly within the last 30 years. The first ultrasound images were static and two-dimensional (2D), but with modern ultrasonography, 3D reconstructions can be observed in real time, effectively becoming "4D".

Because ultrasound imaging techniques do not employ ionizing radiation to generate images (unlike radiography, and CT scans), they are generally considered safer and are therefore more common in obstetrical imaging. The progression of pregnancies can be thoroughly evaluated with less concern about damage from the techniques employed, allowing early detection and diagnosis of many fetal anomalies. Growth can be assessed over time, important in patients with chronic disease or pregnancy-induced disease, and in multiple pregnancies (twins, triplets, etc.). Color-flow Doppler ultrasound measures the severity of peripheral vascular disease and is used by cardiologists for dynamic evaluation of the heart, heart valves and major vessels. Stenosis, for example, of the carotid arteries may be a warning sign for an impending stroke. A clot, embedded deep in one of the inner veins of the legs, can be found via ultrasound before it dislodges and travels to the lungs, resulting in a potentially fatal pulmonary embolism. Ultrasounds is useful as a guide to performing biopsies to minimise damage to surrounding tissues and in drainages such as thoracentesis. Small, portable ultrasound devices now replace peritoneal lavage in trauma wards by non-invasively assessing for the presence of internal bleeding and any internal organ damage. Extensive internal bleeding or injury to the major organs may require surgery and repair.

MRI uses strong magnetic fields to align atomic nuclei (usually hydrogen protons) within body tissues, then uses a radio signal to disturb the axis of rotation of these nuclei and observes the radio frequency signal generated as the nuclei return to their baseline states.[5] The radio signals are collected by small antennae, called coils, placed near the area of interest. An advantage of MRI is its ability to produce images in axial, coronal, sagittal and multiple oblique planes with equal ease. MRI scans give the best soft tissue contrast of all the imaging modalities. With advances in scanning speed and spatial resolution, and improvements in computer 3D algorithms and hardware, MRI has become an important tool in musculoskeletal radiology and neuroradiology.

One disadvantage is the patient has to hold still for long periods of time in a noisy, cramped space while the imaging is performed. Claustrophobia severe enough to terminate the MRI exam is reported in up to 5% of patients. Recent improvements in magnet design including stronger magnetic fields (3 teslas), shortening exam times, wider, shorter magnet bores and more open magnet designs, have brought some relief for claustrophobic patients. However, for magnets with equivalent field strengths, there is often a trade-off between image quality and open design. MRI has great benefit in imaging the brain, spine, and musculoskeletal system. The use of MRI is currently contraindicated for patients with pacemakers, cochlear implants, some indwelling medication pumps, certain types of cerebral aneurysm clips, metal fragments in the eyes and some metallic hardware due to the powerful magnetic fields and strong fluctuating radio signals to which the body is exposed. Areas of potential advancement include functional imaging, cardiovascular MRI, and MRI-guided therapy.

Nuclear medicine imaging involves the administration into the patient of radiopharmaceuticals consisting of substances with affinity for certain body tissues labeled with radioactive tracer. The most commonly used tracers are technetium-99m, iodine-123, iodine-131, gallium-67, indium-111, thallium-201 and fludeoxyglucose (18F) (18F-FDG). The heart, lungs, thyroid, liver, brain, gallbladder, and bones are commonly evaluated for particular conditions using these techniques. While anatomical detail is limited in these studies, nuclear medicine is useful in displaying physiological function. The excretory function of the kidneys, iodine-concentrating ability of the thyroid, blood flow to heart muscle, etc. can be measured. The principal imaging devices are the gamma camera and the PET Scanner, which detect the radiation emitted by the tracer in the body and display it as an image. With computer processing, the information can be displayed as axial, coronal and sagittal images (single-photon emission computed tomography - SPECT or Positron-emission tomography - PET). In the most modern devices, nuclear medicine images can be fused with a CT scan taken quasisimultaneously, so the physiological information can be overlaid or coregistered with the anatomical structures to improve diagnostic accuracy.

Positron emission tomography (PET) scanning deals with positrons instead of gamma rays detected by gamma cameras. The positrons annihilate to produce two opposite traveling gamma rays to be detected coincidentally, thus improving resolution. In PET scanning, a radioactive, biologically active substance, most often 18F-FDG, is injected into a patient and the radiation emitted by the patient is detected to produce multiplanar images of the body. Metabolically more active tissues, such as cancer, concentrate the active substance more than normal tissues. PET images can be combined (or "fused") with anatomic (CT) imaging, to more accurately localize PET findings and thereby improve diagnostic accuracy.

The fusion technology has gone further to combine PET and MRI similar to PET and CT. PET/MRI fusion, largely practiced in academic and research settings, could potentially play a crucial role in fine detail of brain imaging, breast cancer screening, and small joint imaging of the foot. The technology recently blossomed after passing the technical hurdle of altered positron movement in strong magnetic field thus affecting the resolution of PET images and attenuation correction.

Interventional radiology (IR or sometimes VIR for vascular and interventional radiology) is a subspecialty of radiology in which minimally invasive procedures are performed using image guidance. Some of these procedures are done for purely diagnostic purposes (e.g., angiogram), while others are done for treatment purposes (e.g., angioplasty)

The basic concept behind interventional radiology is to diagnose or treat pathologies, with the most minimally invasive technique possible. Minimally invasive procedures are currently performed more than ever before. These procedures are often performed with the patient fully awake, with little or no sedation required. Interventional Radiologists and Interventional Radiographers[6] diagnose and treat several disorders, including peripheral vascular disease, renal artery stenosis, inferior vena cava filter placement, gastrostomy tube placements, biliary stents and hepatic interventions. Images are used for guidance, and the primary instruments used during the procedure are needles and catheters. The images provide maps that allow the Clinician to guide these instruments through the body to the areas containing disease. By minimizing the physical trauma to the patient, peripheral interventions can reduce infection rates and recovery times, as well as hospital stays. To be a trained interventionalist in the United States, an individual completes a five-year residency in radiology and a one- or two-year fellowship in IR.[7]

Teleradiology is the transmission of radiographic images from one location to another for interpretation by an appropriately trained professional, usually a Radiologist or Reporting Radiographer. It is most often used to allow rapid interpretation of emergency room, ICU and other emergent examinations after hours of usual operation, at night and on weekends. In these cases, the images can be sent across time zones (e.g. to Spain, Australia, India) with the receiving Clinician working his normal daylight hours. However at present, large private teleradiology companies in the U.S. currently provide most after-hours coverage employing night working Radiologists in the U.S. Teleradiology can also be used to obtain consultation with an expert or subspecialist about a complicated or puzzling case.

Teleradiology requires a sending station, a high-speed internet connection, and a high-quality receiving station. At the transmission station, plain radiographs are passed through a digitizing machine before transmission, while CT, MRI, ultrasound and nuclear medicine scans can be sent directly, as they are already digital data. The computer at the receiving end will need to have a high-quality display screen that has been tested and cleared for clinical purposes. Reports are then transmitted to the requesting clinician.

The major advantage of teleradiology is the ability to use different time zones to provide real-time emergency radiology services around-the-clock. The disadvantages include higher costs, limited contact between the referrer and the reporting Clinician, and the inability to cover for procedures requiring an onsite reporting Clinician. Laws and regulations concerning the use of teleradiology vary among the states, with some requiring a license to practice medicine in the state sending the radiologic exam. In the U.S., some states require the teleradiology report to be preliminary with the official report issued by a hospital staff Radiologist.

Existing AI systems can outperform radiologists on many diagnostic tasks, and as of 2017, AI systems are continuing to rapidly advance. Many economists and AI researchers believe that most tasks that consist of visually interpreting medical images are likely to be automated in the near future.[8][9]

Radiology is an expanding field in medicine. Applying for residency positions in radiology is competitive. Applicants are often near the top of their medical school classes, with high USMLE (board) scores.[10] The field is rapidly expanding due to advances in computer technology, which is closely linked to modern imaging. Diagnostic Radiologists must complete prerequisite undergraduate education, four years of medical school to earn a medical degree (D.O. or M.D.), one year of internship, and four years of residency training. After residency, Radiologists may pursue one or two years of additional specialty fellowship training.

The American Board of Radiology (ABR) administers professional certification in Diagnostic Radiology, Radiation Oncology and Medical Physics as well as subspecialty certification in neuroradiology, nuclear radiology, pediatric radiology and vascular and interventional radiology. "Board Certification" in diagnostic radiology requires successful completion of two examinations. The Core Exam is given after 36 months of residency. This computer-based examination is given twice a year in Chicago and Tucson. It encompasses 18 categories. A pass of all 18 is a pass. A fail on 1 to 5 categories is a Conditioned exam and the resident will need to retake and pass the failed categories. A fail on over 5 categories is a failed exam. The Certification Exam, can be taken 15 months after completion of the Radiology residency. This computer-based examination consists of 5 modules and graded pass-fail. It is given twice a year in Chicago and Tucson. Recertification examinations are taken every 10 years, with additional required continuing medical education as outlined in the Maintenance of Certification document.

Certification may also be obtained from the American Osteopathic Board of Radiology (AOBR) and the American Board of Physician Specialties.

Following completion of residency training, Radiologists may either begin practicing as a general Diagnostic Radiologist or enter into subspecialty training programs known as fellowships. Examples of subspeciality training in radiology include abdominal imaging, thoracic imaging, cross-sectional/ultrasound, MRI, musculoskeletal imaging, interventional radiology, neuroradiology, interventional neuroradiology, paediatric radiology, nuclear medicine, emergency radiology, breast imaging and women's imaging. Fellowship training programs in radiology are usually one or two years in length.[11]

Some medical schools in the US have started to incorporate a basic radiology introduction into their core MD training. New York Medical College, the Wayne State University School of Medicine, the Uniformed Services University, and the University of South Carolina School of Medicine offer an introduction to radiology during their respective MD programs.[12][13][14] Campbell University School of Osteopathic Medicine also integrates imaging material into their curriculum early in the first year.

Radiographic exams are usually performed by Radiographers. Qualifications for Radiographers vary by country, but many Radiographers now are required to hold a degree.

Veterinary Radiologists are veterinarians who specialize in the use of X-rays, ultrasound, MRI and nuclear medicine for diagnostic imaging or treatment of disease in animals. They are certified in either diagnostic radiology or radiation oncology by the American College of Veterinary Radiology.

Radiology is a competitive speciality in the UK, attracting applicants from a broad range of backgrounds. Applicants are welcomed directly from the foundation programme, as well as those who have completed higher training. Recruitment and selection into training post in clinical radiology posts in England, Scotland and Wales is done by an annual nationally coordinated process lasting from November to March. In this process, all applicants are required to pass a Specialty Recruitment Assessment (SRA) test.[15] Those with a test score above a certain threshold are offered a single interview at the London and the South East Recruitment Office.[16] At a later stage, applicants declare what programs they prefer, but may in some cases be placed in a neighbouring region.[16]

The training programme lasts for a total of five years. During this time, doctors rotate into different subspecialities, such as paediatrics, musculoskeletal or neuroradiology, and breast imaging. During the first year of training, radiology trainees are expected to pass the first part of the Fellowship of the Royal College of Radiologists (FRCR) exam. This comprises a medical physics and anatomy examination. Following completion of their part 1 exam, they are then required to pass six written exams (part 2A), which cover all the subspecialities. Successful completion of these allows them to complete the FRCR by completing part 2B, which includes rapid reporting, and a long case discussion.

After achieving a certificate of completion of training (CCT), many fellowship posts exist in specialities such as neurointervention and vascular intervention, which would allow the Doctor to work as an Interventional Radiologist. In some cases, the CCT date can be deferred by a year to include these fellowship programmes.

UK radiology registrars are represented by the Society of Radiologists in Training (SRT), which was founded in 1993 under the auspices of the Royal College of Radiologists.[17] The society is a nonprofit organisation, run by radiology registrars specifically to promote radiology training and education in the UK. Annual meetings are held by which trainees across the country are encouraged to attend.

Currently, a shortage of radiologists in the UK has created opportunities in all specialities, and with the increased reliance on imaging, demand is expected to increase in the future. Radiographers, and less frequently Nurses, are often trained to undertake many of these opportunities in order to help meet demand. Radiographers often may control a "list" of a particular set of procedures after being approved locally and signed off by a Consultant Radiologist. Similarly, Radiographers may simply operate a list for a Radiologist or other Physician on their behalf. Most often if a Radiographer operates a list autonomously then they are acting as the Operator and Practitioner under the Ionising Radiation (Medical Exposures) Regulations 2000. Radiographers are represented by a variety of bodies, most often this is the Society and College of Radiographers. Collaboration with Nurses is also common, where a list may be jointly organised between the Nurse and Radiographer.

After obtaining medical licensure, German Radiologists complete a five-year residency, culminating with a board examination (known as FacharztprÃ¼fung).

The radiology training program in Italy increased from four to five years in 2008. Further training is required for specialization in radiotherapy or nuclear medicine.

Dutch radiologists complete a five-year residency program after completing the 6-year MD program.

The radiology training course is a post graduate 3-year program (MD/DNB Radiology) or a 2-year diploma (DMRD).[18]


who wrote 13 books of the new testament

The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the 13 New Testament books which have the name Paul (Παῦλος) as the first word, hence claiming authorship by Paul the Apostle. Among these letters are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity and as part of the canon of the New Testament they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics. The Epistle to the Hebrews, although it does not bear his name, was traditionally considered Pauline for a thousand years, but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content.[1] Most scholars agree that Paul really wrote seven of the Pauline epistles, but that four of the epistles in Paul's name are pseudepigraphic; scholars are divided on the authenticity of two of the epistles.

Pauline epistles

The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the general epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first,[2] and a few minuscules (175, 325, 336, and 1424) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament.

In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:

This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, but keeping the four Pastoral epistles addressed to individuals in a separate final section. The only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians.[3]

In modern editions, the formally anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Paul's letters and before the General epistles. This practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts. With hardly any exceptions, though, the manuscripts do include Hebrews somewhere among Paul's letters.[3]

The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts:

In all of these epistles except the Epistle to the Hebrews, Paul does claim to be the author and writer. However, the contested letters may have been forgeries, as that seems to have been a problem among the early church as a whole.[5]

Seven letters (with consensus dates) [6] considered genuine by most scholars:

The letters on which scholars are about evenly divided:[7]

The letters thought to be pseudepigraphic by about 80% of scholars:[7]

Finally, Epistle to the Hebrews, though anonymous and not really in the form of a letter, has long been included among Paul's collected letters, but most scholars now regard it as not written by Paul.[7]

Paul's own writings are often thought to indicate several of his letters that have not been preserved:


at which conference were the terms of membership created for the united nations

At the Yalta Conference it was agreed that membership would be open to nations that had joined the Allies by 1 March 1945.[14] Brazil, Syria and a number of other countries qualified for membership by declarations of war on either Germany or Japan in the first three months of 1945 â€“ in some cases retroactively.

History of the United Nations

The history of the United Nations as an international organization has its origins in World War II. Since then its aims and activities have expanded to make it the archetypal international body in the early 21st century.

The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization to replace the ineffective League of Nations began under the aegis of the US State Department in 1939.[1] On 12 June 1941, representatives of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and of the exiled governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Yugoslavia, as well as General de Gaulle of France, met in London and signed the Declaration of St. James's Palace. This was the first of six conferences that led up to the founding of the United Nations and the Charter of the United Nations.[2]

U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt first suggested using the name United Nations, to refer to the Allies of World War II, to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill during the latter's three-week visit to the White House in December 1941. Roosevelt suggested the name as an alternative to "Associated Powers", a term the U.S. used in the First World War (the U.S. was never formally a member of the Allies of World War I but entered the war in 1917 as a self-styled "Associated Power"). Churchill accepted the idea and cited Lord Byron's use of the phrase "United Nations" in the poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, which referred to the Allies at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.[3][4]

The text of the "Declaration of United Nations" was drafted by U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Roosevelt aide Harry Hopkins, while meeting at the White House on 29 December 1941. It incorporated Soviet suggestions, but left no role for France. The first official use of the term "United Nations" was on 1â€“2 January 1942 when 26 Governments signed the Declaration. One major change from the Atlantic Charter was the addition of a provision for religious freedom, which Stalin approved after Roosevelt insisted.[5][6] By early 1945 it had been signed by 21 more states.[7]

A JOINT DECLARATION BY THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND NORTHERN IRELAND, THE UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS, CHINA, AUSTRALIA, BELGIUM, CANADA, COSTA RICA, CUBA, CZECHOSLOVAKIA, DOMINICAN REPUBLIC, EL SALVADOR, GREECE, GUATEMALA, HAITI, HONDURAS, INDIA, LUXEMBOURG, NETHERLANDS, NEW ZEALAND, NICARAGUA, NORWAY, PANAMA, POLAND, SOUTH AFRICA, YUGOSLAVIA
The Governments signatory hereto,
Having subscribed to a common program of purposes and principles embodied in the Joint Declaration of the President of the United States of America and the Prime Minister of Great Britain dated August 14, 1941, known as the Atlantic Charter,
Being convinced that complete victory over their enemies is essential to defend life, liberty, independence and religious freedom, and to preserve human rights and justice in their own lands as well as in other lands, and that they are now engaged in a common struggle against savage and brutal forces seeking to subjugate the world,
DECLARE:
(1) Each Government pledges itself to employ its full resources, military or economic, against those members of the Tripartite Pact and its adherents with which such government is at war.
(2) Each Government pledges itself to cooperate with the Governments signatory hereto and not to make a separate armistice or peace with the enemies.
The foregoing declaration may be adhered to by other nations which are, or which may be, rendering material assistance and contributions in the struggle for victory over Hitlerism.[8]

During the war, the United Nations became the official term for the Allies. To join countries had to sign the Declaration and declare war on the Axis.[9]

The idea for the future United Nations as an international organization emerged in declarations signed at the wartime Allied conferences: the Moscow Conference and the Tehran Conference in 1943.

US President Franklin D. Roosevelt considered his most important legacy the creation of the United Nations, making a permanent organization out of the wartime Alliance of the same name. He provided continuous backstage political support inside the United States, and with Churchill and Stalin abroad. He made sure that leading Republicans were on board, especially Senators Arthur Vandenberg of Michigan,[10] and Warren Austin of Vermont.[11] He went public with strong advocacy in the 1944 presidential campaign, and turned detailed planning over to the State Department, where Sumner Welles and Secretary Cordell Hull worked on the project. The United States, Britain, Soviet Union and China made the major decisions and became permanent members of the all-powerful Security Council. Roosevelt made sure that each (including France) had a veto power, thus avoiding the fatal weakness of the League of Nations, which theoretically could order its members to act in defiance of their own parliaments.[12]

From August to October 1944, representatives of the Republic of China, Britain, the US and the USSR met to elaborate plans at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference in Washington, D.C. Those and later talks produced proposals outlining the purposes of the United Nations organization, its membership and organs, as well as arrangements to maintain international peace and security and international economic and social cooperation. Governments and private citizens worldwide discussed and debated these proposals.[13] Winston Churchill urged Roosevelt to restore France to its status of a major Power after the liberation of Paris in August 1944.

On 25 April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco. In addition to Governments, a number of non-government organizations, including Rotary International and Lions Clubs International received invitations to assist in the drafting of a charter. After working for two months, the fifty nations represented at the conference signed the Charter of the United Nations on 26 June. Poland, which was unable to send a representative to the conference due to political instability, signed the charter on 15 October 1945. The charter stated that before it would come into effect, it must be ratified by the Governments of the Republic of China, France, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and by a majority of the other 46 signatories. This occurred on 24Â October 1945, and the United Nations was officially formed.[15]

The date each founding member state deposited their ratification of the UN Charter is as follows:[16]

The first meeting of the General Assembly was held in Westminster Central Hall, London, on 10 January 1946.[17] The Security Council met for the first time a week later in Church House, Westminster.[18] The League of Nations formally dissolved itself on 18 April 1946 and transferred its mission to the United Nations.

The United Nations has achieved considerable prominence in the social arena, fostering human rights, economic development, decolonization, health and education, for example, and interesting itself in refugees and trade.

The leaders of the UN had high hopes that it would act to prevent conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible. Those hopes have obviously not fully come to pass. From about 1947 until 1991 the division of the world into hostile camps during the Cold War made agreement on peacekeeping matters extremely difficult. Following the end of the Cold War, renewed calls arose for the UN to become the agency for achieving world peace and co-operation, as several dozen active military conflicts continued to rage across the globe. The breakup of the Soviet Union has also left the United States in a unique position of global dominance, creating a variety of new problems for the UN (See the United States and the United Nations).

In December 1945, the US Senate and the US House of Representatives, by unanimous votes, requested that the UN make its headquarters in the United States. The UN accepted this suggestion and, after considering sites in the Black Hills, Flushing Meadows–Corona Park, Navy Island and what would become the World Trade Center site, constructed the United Nations headquarters building in New York City in 1949 and 1950 beside the East River on land purchased with an $8.5 million donation from John D. Rockefeller, Jr. The UN headquarters officially opened on January 9, 1951, although construction was not formally completed until October 9, 1952.[19]

Under special agreement with the United States, the UN enjoys certain diplomatic privileges and immunities, but generally the laws of New York City, New York State, and the United States apply.

While the principal headquarters of the UN remain in New York City, major agencies base themselves in Geneva, The Hague, Vienna, Nairobi and elsewhere.

The basic constitutional makeup of the United Nations has changed little, though vastly increased membership has altered the functioning of some elements. The UN as a whole has generated a rich assortment of non-governmental organizations and special bodies over the years: some with a regional focus, some specific to the various peacekeeping missions, and others of global scope and importance. Other bodies (such as the International Labour Organization) formed prior to the establishment of the United Nations and only subsequently became associated with it.


the paradise of bachelors and the tartarus of maids by herman melville summary

In the first sketch, the London bachelors, all lawyers, scholars, or writers, enjoy a sumptuous meal in a cozy apartment near the Temple Bar. In the second sketch, the New England "maids" are young women working in a paper factory.

"The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids" is a short story written by American writer Herman Melville. It first appeared in the April 1855 edition of Harper's Magazine.[1] A combination of two sketches, one set in the center of London's legal industry and the other in a New England paper factory, this story can be read as an early comment on globalization.

Melville was inspired to write "The Paradise of Bachelors" by a trip to the Inns of Court in December 1849. "The Tartarus of Maids" was inspired by his visit to Carson's Old Red Paper Mill in Dalton, Massachusetts in January, 1851.[2]


who made the first 4 point play in the nba

Sam Smith of the Chicago Bulls completed the first four-point play in NBA history on October 21, 1979, in a game against the Milwaukee Bucks.[3] Dale Ellis was the first player in NBA history to complete two four-point plays in the same game when he did so in a win against the Sacramento Kings on January 26, 1988.[4] On April 29, 2009, James Jones completed two four-point plays in a span of eleven seconds.[5] As of FebruaryÂ 1, 2018[update], Jamal Crawford is the league's career leader in regular-season four-point plays with 51, and 56 when including postseason play.[6][7]

Four-point play

In basketball, a four-point play is the rare occasion when an offensive player shoots and makes a three-point field goal while simultaneously being fouled by a defensive player, resulting in a shooting foul and one free throw attempt, or a two-point field goal and is intentionally or flagrantly fouled on the shot and is awarded two free throws. If the player makes his/her free throws, they will have scored four points on a single possession.[1] The short-lived American Basketball League first introduced the four-point play to the game of basketball, and it was later adopted by the American Basketball Association during its inaugural season.[2] The National Basketball Association (NBA) introduced that rule in 1979; FIBA in 1984; the NCAA in 1986 (men only) and 1987 (women); middle and high schools in 1987; and the WNBA in 1997.


the primary colors of pigment are cyan yellow and magenta true or false

RYB (Red, Yellow, Blue) is the formerly standard set of subtractive primary colors used for mixing pigments. It is used in art and art education, particularly in painting. It predated modern scientific color theory.

Subtractive color

A subtractive color model explains the mixing of a limited set of dyes, inks, paint pigments or natural colorants to create a wider range of colors, each the result of partially or completely subtracting (that is, absorbing) some wavelengths of light and not others. The color that a surface displays depends on which parts of the visible spectrum are not absorbed and therefore remain visible.

Subtractive color systems start with light, presumably white light. Colored inks, paints, or filters between the watchers and the light source or reflective surface subtract wavelengths from the light, giving it color. If the incident light is other than white, our visual mechanisms are able to compensate well, but not perfectly, often giving a flawed impression of the "true" color of the surface.

Conversely, additive color systems start with darkness. Light sources of various wavelengths are added in various proportions to produce a range of colors. Usually, three primary colors are combined to stimulate humansâ€™ trichromatic color vision, sensed by the three types of cone cells in the eye, giving an apparently full range.

Red, yellow, and blue are the primary colors of the standard color "wheel". The secondary colors, violet (or purple), orange, and green (VOG) make up another triad, formed by mixing equal amounts of red and blue, red and yellow, and blue and yellow, respectively.

The RYB primary colors became the foundation of 18th century theories of color vision as the fundamental sensory qualities blended in the perception of all physical colors and equally in the physical mixture of pigments or dyes. These theories were enhanced by 18th-century investigations of a variety of purely psychological color effects, in particular the contrast between "complementary" or opposing hues produced by color afterimages and in the contrasting shadows in colored light. These ideas and many personal color observations were summarized in two founding documents in color theory: the Theory of Colors (1810) by the German poet and government minister Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, and The Law of Simultaneous Color Contrast (1839) by the French industrial chemist Michel-Eugène Chevreul.

In late 19th and early to mid-20th century commercial printing, use of the traditional RYB terminology persisted even though the more versatile CMY (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow) triad had been adopted, with the cyan sometimes referred to as "process blue" and the magenta as "process red".

In color printing, the usual primary colors are cyan, magenta and yellow (CMY). Cyan is the complement of red, meaning that the cyan serves as a filter that absorbs red. The amount of cyan applied to a white sheet of paper controls how much of the red in white light will be reflected back from the paper. Ideally, the cyan is completely transparent to green and blue light and has no effect on those parts of the spectrum. Magenta is the complement of green, and yellow the complement of blue. Combinations of different amounts of the three can produce a wide range of colors with good saturation.

In inkjet color printing and typical mass production photomechanical printing processes, a black ink K (Key) component is included, resulting in the CMYK color model. The black ink serves to cover unwanted tints in dark areas of the printed image, which result from the imperfect transparency of commercially practical CMY inks; to improve image sharpness, which tends to be degraded by imperfect registration of the three color elements; and to reduce or eliminate consumption of the more expensive color inks where only black or gray is required.

Purely photographic color processes almost never include a K component, because in all common processes the CMY dyes used are much more perfectly transparent, there are no registration errors to camouflage, and substituting a black dye for a saturated CMY combination, a trivial prospective cost benefit at best, is technologically impractical in non-electronic analog photography.