what is the most important aspect of all infection control procedures

Independent studies by Ignaz Semmelweis in 1846 in Vienna and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. in 1843 in Boston established a link between the hands of health care workers and the spread of hospital-acquired disease.[3] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) state that “It is well documented that the most important measure for preventing the spread of pathogens is effective handwashing.”[4] In the developed world, hand washing is mandatory in most health care settings and required by many different regulators.[citation needed]

Infection control

Infection control is the discipline concerned with preventing nosocomial or healthcare-associated infection, a practical (rather than academic) sub-discipline of epidemiology. It is an essential, though often underrecognized and undersupported, part of the infrastructure of health care. Infection control and hospital epidemiology are akin to public health practice, practiced within the confines of a particular health-care delivery system rather than directed at society as a whole. Anti-infective agents include antibiotics, antibacterials, antifungals, antivirals and antiprotozoals.[1]

Infection control addresses factors related to the spread of infections within the healthcare setting (whether patient-to-patient, from patients to staff and from staff to patients, or among-staff), including prevention (via hand hygiene/hand washing, cleaning/disinfection/sterilization, vaccination, surveillance), monitoring/investigation of demonstrated or suspected spread of infection within a particular health-care setting (surveillance and outbreak investigation), and management (interruption of outbreaks). It is on this basis that the common title being adopted within health care is "infection prevention and control."

Aseptic technique is a key component of all invasive medical procedures. Similarly, infection control measures are most effective when Standard Precautions (health care) are applied because undiagnosed infection is common.[2]

In the United States, OSHA standards[5] require that employers must provide readily accessible hand washing facilities, and must ensure that employees wash hands and any other skin with soap and water or flush mucous membranes with water as soon as feasible after contact with blood or other potentially infectious materials (OPIM).

In the UK healthcare professionals have adopted the 'Ayliffe Technique', based on the 6 step method developed by Graham Ayliffe, JR Babb and AH Quoraishi.[6]

Drying is an essential part of the hand hygiene process. In November 2008, a non-peer-reviewed[7] study was presented to the European Tissue Symposium by the University of Westminster, London, comparing the bacteria levels present after the use of paper towels, warm air hand dryers, and modern jet-air hand dryers.[8] Of those three methods, only paper towels reduced the total number of bacteria on hands, with "through-air dried" towels the most effective.

The presenters also carried out tests to establish whether there was the potential for cross-contamination of other washroom users and the washroom environment as a result of each type of drying method. They found that:

In 2005, in a study conducted by TUV Produkt und Umwelt, different hand drying methods were evaluated.[9] The following changes in the bacterial count after drying the hands were observed:

Sterilization is a process intended to kill all microorganisms and is the highest level of microbial kill that is possible. Sterilizers may be heat only, steam, or liquid chemical.[10] Effectiveness of the sterilizer (e.g., a steam autoclave) is determined in three ways.[10] First, mechanical indicators and gauges on the machine itself indicate proper operation of the machine. Second heat sensitive indicators or tape on the sterilizing bags change color which indicate proper levels of heat or steam. And, third (most importantly) is biological testing in which a microorganism that is highly heat and chemical resistant (often the bacterial endospore) is selected as the standard challenge. If the process kills this microorganism, the sterilizer is considered to be effective.[10]

Sterilization, if performed properly, is an effective way of preventing bacteria from spreading. It should be used for the cleaning of the medical instruments or gloves, and basically any type of medical item that comes into contact with the blood stream and sterile tissues.

There are four main ways in which such items can be sterilized: autoclave (by using high-pressure steam), dry heat (in an oven), by using chemical sterilants such as glutaraldehydes or formaldehyde solutions or by radiation (with the help of physical agents). The first two are the most used methods of sterilizations mainly because of their accessibility and availability. Steam sterilization is one of the most effective types of sterilizations, if done correctly which is often hard to achieve. Instruments that are used in health care facilities are usually sterilized with this method. The general rule in this case is that in order to perform an effective sterilization, the steam must get into contact with all the surfaces that are meant to be disinfected. On the other hand, dry heat sterilization, which is performed with the help of an oven, is also an accessible type of sterilization, although it can only be used to disinfect instruments that are made of metal or glass. The very high temperatures needed to perform sterilization in this way are able to melt the instruments that are not made of glass or metal.

Steam sterilization is done at a temperature of 121 C (250 F) with a pressure of 209 kPa (15Â lbs/in2). In these conditions, rubber items must be sterilized for 20 minutes, and wrapped items 134 C with pressure of 310 kPa for 7 minutes. The time is counted once the temperature that is needed has been reached. Steam sterilization requires four conditions in order to be efficient: adequate contact, sufficiently high temperature, correct time and sufficient moisture.[11] Sterilization using steam can also be done at a temperature of 132 C (270 F), at a double pressure. Dry heat sterilization is performed at 170 C (340 F) for one hour or two hours at a temperature of 160 C (320 F). Dry heat sterilization can also be performed at 121 C, for at least 16 hours.[12]

Chemical sterilization, also referred to as cold sterilization, can be used to sterilize instruments that cannot normally be disinfected through the other two processes described above. The items sterilized with cold sterilization are usually those that can be damaged by regular sterilization. Commonly, glutaraldehydes and formaldehyde are used in this process, but in different ways. When using the first type of disinfectant, the instruments are soaked in a 2-4% solution for at least 10 hours while a solution of 8% formaldehyde will sterilize the items in 24 hours or more. Chemical sterilization is generally more expensive than steam sterilization and therefore it is used for instruments that cannot be disinfected otherwise. After the instruments have been soaked in the chemical solutions, they are mandatory to be rinsed with sterile water which will remove the residues from the disinfectants. This is the reason why needles and syringes are not sterilized in this way, as the residues left by the chemical solution that has been used to disinfect them cannot be washed off with water and they may interfere with the administered treatment. Although formaldehyde is less expensive than glutaraldehydes, it is also more irritating to the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and is classified as a potential carcinogen.[11]

Other sterilization methods exist, though their efficiency is still controversial. These methods include gas, UV, gas plasma, and chemical sterilization with agents such as peroxyacetic acid or paraformaldehyde.

Infections can be prevented from occurring in homes as well. In order to reduce their chances to contract an infection, individuals are recommended to maintain a good hygiene by washing their hands after every contact with questionable areas or bodily fluids and by disposing of garbage at regular intervals to prevent germs from growing.[13]

Disinfection uses liquid chemicals on surfaces and at room temperature to kill disease causing microorganisms. Ultraviolet light has also been used to disinfect the rooms of patients infected with Clostridium difficile after discharge.[14] Disinfection is less effective than sterilization because it does not kill bacterial endospores.[10]

Personal protective equipment (PPE) is specialized clothing or equipment worn by a worker for protection against a hazard. The hazard in a health care setting is exposure to blood, saliva, or other bodily fluids or aerosols that may carry infectious materials such as Hepatitis C, HIV, or other blood borne or bodily fluid pathogen. PPE prevents contact with a potentially infectious material by creating a physical barrier between the potential infectious material and the healthcare worker.

The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) requires the use of Personal protective equipment (PPE) by workers to guard against blood borne pathogens if there is a reasonably anticipated exposure to blood or other potentially infectious materials.[15]

Components of PPE include gloves, gowns, bonnets, shoe covers, face shields, CPR masks, goggles, surgical masks, and respirators. How many components are used and how the components are used is often determined by regulations or the infection control protocol of the facility in question. Many or most of these items are disposable to avoid carrying infectious materials from one patient to another patient and to avoid difficult or costly disinfection. In the US, OSHA requires the immediate removal and disinfection or disposal of a worker's PPE prior to leaving the work area where exposure to infectious material took place.[16]

Microorganisms are known to survive on non-antimicrobial in animate ‘touch’ surfaces (e.g., bedrails, over-the-bed trays, call buttons, bathroom hardware, etc.) for extended periods of time.[17][18] This can be especially troublesome in hospital environments where patients with immunodeficiencies are at enhanced risk for contracting nosocomial infections.

Products made with antimicrobial copper alloy (brasses, bronzes, cupronickel, copper-nickel-zinc, and others) surfaces destroy a wide range of microorganisms in a short period of time.[19] The United States Environmental Protection Agency has approved the registration of 355 different antimicrobial copper alloys and one synthetic copper-infused hard surface that kill E. coli O157:H7, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Staphylococcus, Enterobacter aerogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in less than 2 hours of contact. Other investigations have demonstrated the efficacy of antimicrobial copper alloys to destroy Clostridium difficile, influenza A virus, adenovirus, and fungi.[19] As a public hygienic measure in addition to regular cleaning, antimicrobial copper alloys are being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K., Ireland, Japan, Korea, France, Denmark, and Brazil. The synthetic hard surface is being installed in the United States as well as in Israel.[20]

Health care workers may be exposed to certain infections in the course of their work. Vaccines are available to provide some protection to workers in a healthcare setting. Depending on regulation, recommendation, the specific work function, or personal preference, healthcare workers or first responders may receive vaccinations for hepatitis B; influenza; measles, mumps and rubella; Tetanus, diphtheria, pertussis; N. meningitidis; and varicella.[21]

In some cases where vaccines do not exist, post-exposure prophylaxis is another method of protecting the health care worker exposed to a life-threatening infectious disease. For example, the viral particles for HIV-AIDS can be precipitated out of the blood through the use of an antibody injection if given within four hours of a significant exposure.[citation needed]

Surveillance is the act of infection investigation using the CDC definitions. Determining the presence of a hospital acquired infection requires an infection control practitioner (ICP) to review a patient's chart and see if the patient had the signs and symptom of an infection. Surveillance definitions exist for infections of the bloodstream, urinary tract, pneumonia,surgical sites and gastroenteritis.

Surveillance traditionally involved significant manual data assessment and entry in order to assess preventative actions such as isolation of patients with an infectious disease. Increasingly, computerized software solutions are becoming available that assess incoming risk messages from microbiology and other online sources. By reducing the need for data entry, software can reduce the data workload of ICPs, freeing them to concentrate on clinical surveillance.

As of 1998, approximately one third of healthcare acquired infections were preventable.[22] Surveillance and preventative activities are increasingly a priority for hospital staff. The Study on the Efficacy of Nosocomial Infection Control (SENIC) project by the U.S. CDC found in the 1970s that hospitals reduced their nosocomial infection rates by approximately 32 per cent by focusing on surveillance activities and prevention efforts.[23]

In the health care context, medical isolation refers to various physical measures taken to interrupt nosocomial spread of contagious diseases. Various forms of isolation exist, and are applied depending on the type of infection and agent involved, to address the likelihood of spread via airborne particles or droplets, by direct skin contact, or via contact with body fluids.

In cases where infection is merely suspected, individuals may be quarantined until the incubation period has passed and the disease manifests itself or the person remains healthy. Groups may undergo quarantine, or in the case of communities, a cordon sanitaire may be imposed to prevent infection from spreading beyond the community, or in the case of protective sequestration, into a community. Public health authorities may implement other forms of social distancing, such as school closings, to control an epidemic.[24]

When an unusual cluster of illness is noted, infection control teams undertake an investigation to determine whether there is a true outbreak, a pseudo-outbreak (a result of contamination within the diagnostic testing process), or just random fluctuation in the frequency of illness. If a true outbreak is discovered, infection control practitioners try to determine what permitted the outbreak to occur, and to rearrange the conditions to prevent ongoing propagation of the infection. Often, breaches in good practice are responsible, although sometimes other factors (such as construction) may be the source of the problem.

Outbreaks investigations have more than a single purpose. These investigations are carried out in order to prevent additional cases in the current outbreak, prevent future outbreaks, learn about a new disease or learn something new about an old disease. Reassuring the public, minimizing the economic and social disruption as well as teaching epidemiology are some other obvious objectives of outbreak investigations.[25]

According to the WHO, outbreak investigations are meant to detect what is causing the outbreak, how the pathogenic agent is transmitted, where it all started from, what is the carrier, what is the population at risk of getting infected and what are the risk factors.

The results of outbreak investigations are always made public in the means of a report in which the findings are communicated to the authorities, media, scientific community and so on. These reports are commonly used as pedagogical tools.

Practitioners can come from several different educational streams. Many begin as nurses, some as medical technologists (particularly in clinical microbiology), and some as physicians (typically infectious disease specialists). Specialized training in infection control and health care epidemiology are offered by the professional organizations described below. Physicians who desire to become infection control practitioners often are trained in the context of an infectious disease fellowship.

In the United States, Certification Board of Infection Control and Epidemiology is a private company that certifies infection control practitioners based on their educational background and professional experience, in conjunction with testing their knowledge base with standardized exams. The credential awarded is CIC, Certification in Infection Control and Epidemiology. It is recommended that one has 2 years of Infection Control experience before applying for the exam. Certification must be renewed every five years.[26]

A course in hospital epidemiology (infection control in the hospital setting) is offered jointly each year by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America.[27]

In 2002, the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners published a revised standard for office-based infection control which covers the sections of managing immunisation, sterilisation and disease surveillance.[28][29] However, the document on the personal hygiene of health workers is only limited to hand hygiene, waste and linen management, which may not be sufficient since some of the pathogens are air-born and could be spread through air flow.[30][31]

Currently, the federal regulation that describes infection control standards is found at 29 CFR Part 1910.1030 Bloodborne pathogens.[32]


what is the difference between shogun and daimyo

Subordinate only to the shōgun, daimyōs were the most powerful feudal rulers from the 10th century to the middle 19th century in Japan. From the Shugo of the Muromachi period through the Sengoku to the daimyōs of the Edo period, the rank had a long and varied history. The backgrounds of daimyō also varied considerably; while some daimyō clans, notably the Mōri, Shimazu and Hosokawa, were cadet branches of the Imperial family or were descended from the kuge, other daimyōs were promoted from the ranks of the samurai, notably during the Edō period.

Daimyō

The daimyō (大名, IPA: [daimʲoː] ( listen)) were powerful Japanese feudal lords[1] who, until their decline in the early Meiji period, ruled most of Japan from their vast, hereditary land holdings. In the term, dai (大) means "large", and myō stands for myōden (名田), meaning private land.[2]

The term daimyō also sometimes refers to the leading figures of such clans, also called "Lord". It was usually, though not exclusively, from these warlords that a shōgun arose or a regent was chosen. Daimyōs often hired samurai to guard their land and they paid the samurai in land or food as relatively few could afford to pay samurai in money. The daimyō era ended soon after the Meiji Restoration with the adoption of the prefecture system in 1871.

The shugo daimyō (守護大名) were the first group of men to hold the title daimyō. They arose from among the shugo during the Muromachi period. The shugo-daimyō held not only military and police powers, but also economic power within a province. They accumulated these powers throughout the first decades of the Muromachi period.

Major shugo-daimyō came from the Shiba, Hatakeyama, and Hosokawa clans, as well as the tozama clans of Yamana, Ōuchi, and Akamatsu. The greatest ruled multiple provinces.

The Ashikaga shogunate required the

The Ōnin War was a major uprising in which shugo-daimyōs fought each other. During this and other wars of the time, kuni ikki, or provincial uprisings, took place as locally powerful warriors sought independence from the shugo-daimyōs. The deputies of the shugo-daimyōs, living in the provinces, seized the opportunity to strengthen their position. At the end of the fifteenth century, those shugo-daimyōs who succeeded remained in power. Those who had failed to exert control over their deputies fell from power and were replaced by a new class, the sengoku-daimyōs, who arose from the ranks of the shugodai and ji-samurai.

Among the sengoku daimyōs (戦国大名) were many who had been shugo-daimyōs, such as the Satake, Imagawa, Takeda, Toki, Rokkaku, Ōuchi, and Shimazu. New to the ranks of the daimyōs were the Asakura, Amago, Nagao, Miyoshi, Chōsokabe, Jimbō, Hatano, Oda, and Matsunaga. These came from the ranks of the shugodai and their deputies. Additional sengoku-daimyōs such as the Mōri, Tamura, and Ryūzōji arose from the ji-samurai. The lower officials of the shogunate and rōnin (Late Hōjō, Saitō), provincial officials (Kitabatake), and kuge (Tosa Ichijō) also gave rise to sengoku-daimyōs.[citation needed]

The Battle of Sekigahara in the year 1600 marked the beginning of the Edo period. Shōgun Tokugawa Ieyasu then reorganized roughly 200 daimyōs and their territories into han, which were assessed by rice production. Those heading han assessed at 10,000 koku (50,000 bushels) or more were considered daimyōs. Ieyasu also categorized the daimyōs according to their relation to the ruling Tokugawa family: the shinpan were related to the Tokugawa; the fudai had been vassals of the Tokugawa or allies in battle; and the tozama had not allied with the Tokugawa before the battle (did not necessarily fight against the Tokugawa).

The shinpan were collaterals of Ieyasu, such as the Matsudaira, or descendants of Ieyasu other than in the main line of succession. Several shinpan, including the Tokugawa of Owari (Nagoya), Kii (Wakayama), and Mito, as well as the Matsudaira of Fukui and Aizu, held large han.

A few fudai daimyōs, such as the Ii of Hikone, held large han, but many were small. The shogunate placed many fudai at strategic locations to guard the trade routes and the approaches to Edo. Also, many fudai daimyōs took positions in the Edo shogunate, some rising to the position of rōjū. The fact that fudai daimyōs could hold government positions while tozama in general, could not was a main difference between the two.

Tozama daimyōs held mostly large fiefs far away from the capital, with e.g. the Kaga han of Ishikawa Prefecture, headed by the Maeda clan, assessed at 1,000,000 koku. Other famous tozama clans included the Mori of Chōshū, the Shimazu of Satsuma, the Date of Sendai, the Uesugi of Yonezawa, and the Hachisuka of Awa. Initially, the Tokugawa regarded them as potentially rebellious, but for most of the Edo period, marriages between the Tokugawa and the tozama, as well as control policies such as sankin-kōtai, resulted in peaceful relations.

Daimyōs were required to maintain residences in Edo as well as their fiefs, and to move periodically between Edo and their fiefs, typically spending alternate years in each place, in a practice called sankin-kōtai.

In 1869, the year after the Meiji Restoration, the daimyōs, together with the kuge, formed a new aristocracy, the kazoku. In 1871, the han were abolished and prefectures were established, thus effectively ending the daimyō era in Japan.[3] In the wake of this change, many daimyōs remained in control of their lands, being appointed as prefectural governors; however, they were soon relieved of this duty and called en masse to Tokyo, thereby cutting off any independent base of power from which to potentially rebel. Despite this, members of former daimyō families remained prominent in government and society, and in some cases continue to remain prominent to the present day. For example, Morihiro Hosokawa, the former prime minister, is a descendant of the daimyō of Kumamoto, but these cases are very few now.


where is the actor who played brian tilsley now

He appeared in Peter Kay's Sit Down for Comic Relief sketch alongside Rustie Lee & Bob Carolgees. In 2016 it was reported that Quinten now works at Stringfellows erotic nightclub in London.[7]

Christopher Quinten

Christopher Quinten (born Christopher Bell; 12 July 1957) is a British actor, best known for his role as Brian Tilsley on Coronation Street, which he played from 1978 to 1989.

Quinten started his career as a dancer in West End productions, including the Victoria Palace with Cilla Black and Jimmy Tarbuck.[1]
He turned to acting and had his first role in the 1978 film International Velvet, starring Tatum O'Neal. This appearance led to small parts in television series like Quatermass and Hazell, and was also noticed by the Coronation Street casting offices, who gave Ivy Tilsley, the oft-seen Baldwin's worker, a son. Quinten was then signed to the programme, for which he worked for over a decade. His pairing with Gail Potter (played by Helen Worth) proved very popular for the serial in the 1980s.

In 1989, Quinten told the casting office that he was going to move to the United States to marry his then-fiancÃ©e, American talk show host Leeza Gibbons. The couple had met in 1988 in New Zealand while appearing on a Telethon,[2] and Quinten had been hoping to stay in Coronation Street as a part-time character, but the producers rejected his offer to stay on part-time, and at the end of 1988 the decision was made to kill the character off. His final episode was aired on 15 February 1989, when Brian Tilsley was stabbed to death by a gang of teenagers outside a nightclub.

Once settled in the United States, Quinten and Gibbons worked together on the film RoboCop 2 (in which he played a reporter), and had one daughter, Lexi Quinten. The couple divorced in 1991. Quinten married Paula Holmes in 1992, but they are now separated.

Quinten returned to Britain and appeared on various chat shows. In 1994, he played Mr. Barraclough in an episode of the ITV comedy series Surgical Spirit.[3]  In 1998, it was reported that he was now touring the country with a one-man comedy rock act, and was also working as an after-dinner speaker.[4] In 2000, he briefly returned to television acting with a guest role in the BBC soap opera Doctors.

Quinten has had a long career in pantomimes. As recently as 2010 he played Abanazar in the Consett Empire's production of Aladdin,[5] and Ramsbottom in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at Oswaldtwistle Civic Theatre in 2011.[6]

In August 2005 Quinten was charged with rape.[8] In June 2006 he was cleared of this charge.

With partner Alison Slater (ex-Stringfellow's dancer), he has a daughter Sydney (b. 2005).[9]


who plays dale on king of the hill

John Michael Hardwick (born December 21, 1958 in Houston, Texas) is an American stand-up comedian, and voice actor. He is best known as the voice of Dale Gribble in the animated American television show King of the Hill. He served as staff writer, story editor, and producer for the show as well.[1] He has four Prime Time Emmy nominations and in 1999 he won an Emmy Award for his work as a producer on King of the Hill.

Johnny Hardwick

A native of Austin, Texas,[1] Hardwick attended Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas. After graduation with a BS degree in Journalism, he worked for a decade as a bartender in live blues bars in Dallas and Austin, Texas including Nick's Uptown, Sixth Street Live, and The Greenville Bar & Grill. Starting in 1990 he then performed stand-up comedy for a number of years, appearing at such venues as the Dallas Improv and the Velveeta Room in Austin, Texas and appearing on shows like Evening at the Improv and Caroline's Comedy Hour. He was the first standup comedian to appear on The Jon Stewart Show. In 1995, Hardwick appeared at the Montreal Comedy Festival, where Brandon Tartikoff saw him and offered him a sitcom for NBC. However, after Hardwick proposed a comedy along the lines of Green Acres and Get a Life the network showed little interest in seriously pursuing the idea.[2]

After Hardwick signed with the Strauss-McGarr agency, he was continually booked doing stand-up comedy in both Austin and all over the United States. He was originally planned to be a regular in MTV's Austin Storiesâ€” but left to help create King of the Hill. While at the Laugh Factory in Los Angeles, Hardwick performed a comedy set about his father in Texas. After the show, he was approached by television writer and producer Greg Daniels and Beavis and Butthead's Mike Judge, who were helping to put together King of the Hill at the time. Daniels and Judge felt Hardwick's Texan humor was just what the show needed and offered him a job writing for the fledgling program. Hardwick moved from Austin to Silverlake, California to work for the show. Hardwick's first day working for King of the Hill was one day after NBC's option on his sitcom development deal expired (thus making it legal for Hardwick to pursue a sitcom with another network).[2]

The role of Dale Gribble was originally offered to Daniel Stern, but producers were unable to agree with Stern on a salary. Instead, Hardwick won the voice role, having no interest whatsoever in how much money was involved. Hardwick performed the role for the entire 13-year run of the successful show and appeared in every episode.


where is maltase found in the digestive system

Maltase (EC 3.2.1.20, alpha-glucosidase, glucoinvertase, glucosidosucrase, maltase-glucoamylase, alpha-glucopyranosidase, glucosidoinvertase, alpha-D-glucosidase, alpha-glucoside hydrolase, alpha-1,4-glucosidase, alpha-D-glucoside glucohydrolase) is an enzyme located in on the brush border of the small intestine that breaks down the disaccharide maltose.[1][2][3][4][5][6] Maltase catalyzes the hydrolysis of maltose to the simple sugar glucose. This enzyme is found in plants, bacteria, and yeast. Acid maltase deficiency is categorized into three separate types based on the age of onset of symptoms in the affected individual.

Maltase

In most cases, it is equivalent to alpha-glucosidase, but the term "maltase" emphasizes the disaccharide nature of the substrate from which glucose is cleaved, and "alpha-glucosidase" emphasizes the bond, whether the substrate is a disaccharide or polysaccharide.[citation needed]

Vampire bats are the only vertebrates known to not exhibit intestinal maltase activity.[7]


is there a season 2 of wits academy

WITS Academy is an American telenovela-formatted teen sitcom that aired on Nickelodeon from October 5, 2015 to October 30, 2015. The show, a spin-off/sequel to Every Witch Way, was announced on February 25, 2015, and was created by Catharina Ledeboer, produced by Viacom International and Cinemat Inc, executive produced by Tatiana Rodriguez and JosÃ© V Scheuren.[2] Daniela Nieves, Julia Antonelli and Todd Allen Durkin reprise their roles as Andi, Jessie and Agamemnon.[3] On December 17, 2015, actor Todd Allen Durkin announced that he would be leaving the show,[4] and on March 24, 2016, actress Daniela Nieves stated that the show was cancelled by RDV Sports, Inc.[5]

WITS Academy

Andi (Emma's best friend) is finally becoming a Guardian, as she is now training and studying at the WITS Academy, the Magic Realm's most esteemed school for witches and wizards-in-training, or WITs. But, as the best friend and unofficial Guardian to the Chosen One, she will have to work hard to prove that she can live up to expectations as the first and only human Guardian. Andi is also in charge of getting two of the Academy's toughest WITs to graduation day: Jessie, Jax's little sister, being one of them, and Ben, a young wizard-in-training, being the other. Andi also meets other Guardians-in-training, like Luke, Lily's cousin, who becomes her love interest, Ruby, who becomes her rival, and Kim, who becomes her best friend. Luke and Andi become a couple, while Ruby gets expelled from the Academy. The show left on a cliff hanger but was sadly canceled; resulting in there not being a season 2.

Andi arrives at the WITS Academy, where she meets a few people, like her roommate Samantha and Samantha's best friend Ruby. Andi then discovers she is the Guardian to Jessie and another young wizard named Ben.

Guest stars: Bianca Matthews as Samantha

After the Spell Performance Test, Samantha gets expelled, but Kim, another Guardian, becomes Andi's new roommate. During the second test, Ben is having a hard time. Jessie will not practice with Andi and runs off, avoiding Andi by making herself super-fast and giving everyone her look.

Andi has ironically run into Emma, who says she is in danger and needs Andi's help; Emma shows Andi magic sparkles on her arm. While the two figure out what this means, Emma disguises as Felicia, a girl from Orlando, so no one will know that the Chosen One is at the Academy, but Jessie recognizes her, and so does Luke. Meanwhile, Ruby plans to cast an exile spell on Andi, asking for Emily's help, while the WITs attend Cam Camp, a camp run by Cameron. Later, after curfew, Agamemnon, Leo, Emma, Andi, Luke, Jessie and Ben use their energy to restore the Dyad Tree, which also makes the sparkles on Emma's arm disappear. Emma leaves afterwards because she must check on her human friends. Ruby and Emily then cast the exile spell, but hit both Leo and Andi, sending them on a drifting raft.

In the series finale, Andi finds Ruby's magic sap in Cameron's room and figures out that it is the source of Ruby's powers. Cameron then sees that the Dyad Tree is dying. Andi finally tells Agamemnon about the sap, and he says that all witches and wizards in the human world are getting the same sparkles Emma had. He then tells Andi to call Emma, while later telling Cameron to watch Ruby. Meanwhile, the teams fight in the Magic Melee. Ruby's team gets Spell Armor, which Cameron gave Ruby, to protect themselves, while attacking Andi's team. After the first round, Andi and Luke's teams are the last ones standing. During intermission, Agamemnon and Cameron check on the Dyad Tree, and Cameron makes sure no one gets near the tree, but Ruby gets more of the tree's magic and gets trapped inside it instead; Cameron tells Agamemnon, and Emily and Ethan follow him. Emily touches the tree and gets trapped inside as well, so Agamemnon tells Ethan to get help. Andi's team eventually wins the Magic Melee, and later, Emma calls her and she says that the magic sparkles on her arm are back, and they are also on Jax, so the Guardians and WITs enter the atrium, with the chances to save Ruby, Emily, the tree and the Magic Realm in their hands.
Andi wants to go inside the tree, so Luke devises a plan to have her do so: The Guardians shield the shots the tree makes as Gracie and Ben cast a distraction spell, and then Andi touches the tree, going inside to free Ruby and Emily. Emily opens a bottle that allows Jessie, Ethan and Ben to free them with a spell cause her powers got strong enough. Luke leads all the WITs Academy students in giving their energy to heal the tree. Andi and Jessie then call Emma and Jax to see if they're okay, and they are.
Agamemnon punishes Ruby for putting the Dyad Tree and all the witches and wizards of the Magic Realm in danger by expelling her from the Academy. Cameron gets sad about this, but Ruby says, "You haven't seen the last of me," and kisses him on the cheek.
To celebrate the Melee's victors (Andi's team), the Academy holds a carnival. At the carnival, however, Agamemnon also thanks Andi, Jessie, Ben, Luke, Sean, Gracie, Ethan, Emily and Kim for saving the Academy and Magic Realm from danger, giving them medals. Later, Andi talks to Luke about what happened on her first day at the Academy, and says that she wants to make changes in the next semester. She then mentions that she is missing something, something she was afraid of doing, and finally, she and Luke kiss for the first time and become a couple.
At the end of the final episode, the caretaker, who Leo and Andi saw in the sixteenth episode, enters the shack and finds Andi's earring, saying, "I will find you, Andi Cruz", although it is unknown how the caretaker came to know Andi.

WITS Academy premiered on Nickelodeon in the UK and Ireland on January 5, 2016.[27] WITS Academy premiered on TeenNick in the U.S. on February 21, 2016. WITS Academy premiered on Nickelodeon in the Netherlands and Belgium on February 29, 2016.


what is the book of lost tales about

The Book of Lost Tales is a collection of early stories by English writer J. R. R. Tolkien, published as the first two volumes of Christopher Tolkien's 12-volume series The History of Middle-earth, in which he presents and analyzes the manuscripts of those stories, which were the earliest form of the complex fictional myths that would eventually comprise The Silmarillion. Each of the Tales is followed by notes and a detailed commentary by Christopher Tolkien.

The Book of Lost Tales

For publication the book was split into two volumes: The Book of Lost Tales 1 (1983) and The Book of Lost Tales 2 (1984), but this is simply an editorial division. Both volumes are separated into several "Lost Tales".

Though they cover a broadly similar history, the Tales are very different from The Silmarillion. Firstly the Tales are more complex and detailed than The Silmarillion: they are written in a less formal but more archaic style and include many obsolete words and phrases. Secondly the interaction between the different elf-races is profoundly different: the exiled Noldoli (or "Gnomes", the Noldor of the later histories) suffer decisive defeat much earlier and become slaves of the enemy they had sought to punish. Thus when Thingol feels disdain for Beren it is because the latter is a gnome (not a mortal human) and therefore a thrall of Melko (an earlier name for Melkor).

While many of the names in the book are identical or close to those in the later versions, some of them bear almost no resemblance to their final forms. Tolkien changed names rather frequently, sometimes with several new variants (rejected in turn) written in a single manuscript. Confusingly, sometimes the name applied to one thing is later used to refer to something quite different, the original use abandoned. For example, the house of Elves called "Teleri" in The Book of Lost Tales is not the same as that of The Silmarillion (see Teleri). The original usage of "Teleri" would eventually change until the name became "Vanyar", while the house of Elves called "Solosimpi" would inherit the name "Teleri".

In the frame story of the book, a mortal Man visits the Elvish Isle of Tol Eressëa where he learns the history of its inhabitants. In the earlier versions this man is named Eriol and is of some vague north European origin. In later versions he becomes Ælfwine, an Englishman of the Middle-ages.

There are more changes visible within the book, and it is not internally consistent, partially because even while still writing it Tolkien began rewriting earlier parts as his ideas about the world changed. The Tales were eventually abandoned, but they were resurrected in part as the "Sketch of the Mythology" which would become the Silmarillion.

There is an inscription in the Fëanorian characters (Tengwar, an alphabet Tolkien has devised for High-Elves) in the first pages of every History of Middle-earth volume, written by Christopher Tolkien and describing the contents of the book. The inscription in Book I reads: "This is the first part of the Book of the Lost Tales of Elfinesse which Eriol the Mariner learned from the Elves of Tol Eressëa, the Lonely Isle in the western ocean, and afterwards wrote in the Golden Book of Tavrobel. Herein are told the Tales of Valinor, from the Music of the Ainur to the Exile of the Noldoli and the Hiding of Valinor.".

The inscription in Book II reads: "This is the second part of the Book of the Lost Tales of Elfinesse which Eriol the Mariner learned from the Elves of Tol Eressëa, the Lonely Isle in the western ocean, and afterwards wrote in the Golden Book of Tavrobel. Herein are told the Tales of Beren and Tinúviel, of the Fall of Gondolin and the Necklace of the Dwarves."


book about a nurse who goes back in time

Outlander (published in the United Kingdom as Cross Stitch) is the first in a series of eight historical multi-genre novels by Diana Gabaldon. Published in 1991, it focuses on the Second World Warâ€“era nurse Claire Randall, who travels through time to 18th century Scotland and finds adventure and romance with the dashing Jamie Fraser.[1] A mix of several genres, the Outlander series has elements of historical fiction, romance, adventure and science fiction/fantasy.[1] Outlander won the Romance Writers of America's RITA Award for Best Romance of 1991.[2] A television adaptation of the Outlander series premiered on Starz in the US on August 9, 2014.[3] As of fall 2017, the series is airing in its third season and has begun pre-production on the fourth.

Outlander (novel)

In 1946, after working apart during the Second World War, British Army nurse Claire Randall and her husband Frank, a history professor, go on a second honeymoon to Inverness, Scotland. Frank conducts research into his family history and Claire goes plant-gathering near standing stones on the hill of Craigh na Dun. She faints when investigating a buzzing noise near the stones; upon waking, she encounters Frank's ancestor, Captain Jack Randall. Before Captain Randall can take her into custody, he is knocked unconscious by a Scottish Gael who takes Claire to his clansmen. As the Gaels inexpertly attend their injured comrade Jamie, Claire uses her medical skill to set Jamie's dislocated shoulder. The men identify themselves as members of Clan MacKenzie, and Claire eventually concludes that she has traveled into the past. She represents herself as an English widow who is traveling to France to see her family. The Gaels do not believe her and take her to Castle Leoch, where Claire searches for a way to return to her own time.

The Gaels of 1743 see Claire as a "Gall" (foreigner), "Sassenach", or "Outlander", ignorant of Gaelic culture. Her medical skills earn their respect; but the clan chieftain, Colum MacKenzie, suspects her of being an English spy. Colum sends her with his brother, Dougal, to collect rents; on the way he also solicits donations for the Jacobites, overseen by Ned Gowan, a lawyer from Edinburgh who is working for the Clan.

When chance again brings her to his attention, Captain Randall tells Dougal to bring Claire to him for questioning. There is suspicion that she is perhaps an English spy. To keep Claire from Randall, Dougal has her wed Jamie, which makes her a Scottish citizen. Torn between her attachment to Jamie and the thought of Frank, Claire tries to return to Craigh na Dun. However, she is captured by Randall's men, requiring Jamie to rescue her. Upon returning to Castle Leoch, Claire continues acting as the official healer, and befriends Geillis Duncan, the wife of a local official, who shares a knowledge of medicine. Eventually Claire and Geillis are charged with witchcraft while Jamie is away, but Jamie returns in time to save Claire. While inprisoned with Geillis, Claire learns that Geillis is part of the plot to restore King James to the Scottish throne along with Dougal and that she is also pregnant with his child. Just before their escape, Claire realizes that Geillis is, like herself, from the future, when she sees a smallpox vaccine scar on her arm. Geillis also sees Claire's scar.

Claire tells Jamie her real story, and he takes her to Craigh na Dun. When he offers her the chance to stay or go, she decides to stay. Jamie takes her to his home of Lallybroch, where they meet Jamie's sister Jenny and her husband, Ian. Though Jamie is still a fugitive from the British, he reclaims his position as Laird of Lallybroch, until one of his tenants betrays him and he is taken to Wentworth Prison. Claire and the MacKenzie clansmen attempt to rescue him, but they fail, and Claire is captured by Randall, who threatens to have her raped. Jamie offers himself in Claire's place, and Randall frees Claire into the woods. Claire tells Randall that she is a witch and tells him the exact day of his death, which she knows from Frank's family history. Thereafter Claire is befriended by Sir Marcus MacRannoch, a former suitor of Jamie's mother. While MacRannoch's men distract Wentworth's guards, the clansmen drive a herd of cattle through the underground halls, trampling a man. They rescue Jamie, who has been assaulted physically and sexually by Randall, and take him to MacRannoch's stronghold, where Claire tends Jamie's wounds. As soon as Jamie is able, they and Jamie's godfather, Murtagh, escape to Saint Anne de Beaupre's monastery in France, where another of Jamie's uncles is abbot. As she and Jamie emerge from a sacred hot spring under the Abbey, Claire reveals that she is pregnant.[4]

Diana Gabaldon planned to write a historical novel "for practice", but did not have a specific setting in mind until she happened to watch The War Games, a classic Doctor Who serial, on PBS.[5] Her eye was caught by the character Jamie McCrimmon, a young Scot from 1745 played by actor Frazer Hines.[5] The image of the young man in the kilt stayed with her, and she decided to set her novel in 18th century Scotland.[5] She named her male protagonist "Jamie" after the Doctor Who character (however, the surname "Fraser" was not taken from actor Frazer Hines, since the PBS station cut off the programme's credits).[5]

Gabaldon's initial plan was to write a "straight historical novel", but as she began to write the character of Claire, she says the character "promptly took over the story and began telling it herself, making smart-ass modern remarks about everything."[6] Gabaldon decided to make the character a modern woman and determine how she came to be in 18th century Scotland later.[6]

Gabaldon acknowledged a date discrepancy between the American version of the novel, the plot of which begins in 1945, and the British version, which begins in 1946.[7] She explained, "Reay Tannahill, a Scot who kindly proofread the novel before it was published in the UK, said that 1946 would have been a more accurate representation of conditions as I described them in Scotland."[7] Gabaldon was able to rework all of the dates for the UK edition, but the American version was too far along in production to change.[7]

Publishers Weekly said of Outlander, "Absorbing and heartwarming, this first novel lavishly evokes the land and lore of Scotland, quickening both with realistic characters and a feisty, likable heroine."[8] The novel won the Romance Writers of America's RITA Award for Best Romance of 1991.[2]

In June 2013, Starz ordered 16 episodes of a television adaptation, and production began in October 2013 in Scotland.[9] The series premiered in the US on August 9, 2014.[3] It was picked up for a second season on August 15, 2014.[10]

In 2010 Gabaldon adapted the first third of Outlander into The Exile: An Outlander Graphic Novel, illustrated by Hoang Nguyen.[11][12][13] The same year, a 14-song cycle based on Outlander was released under the title Outlander: The Musical.[14][15][16]


what is the name of the avengers headquarters

Avengers Mansion is a fictional building appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. It has traditionally been the base of the Avengers. The enormous, city block-sized building is located at 890 Fifth Avenue, Manhattan, New York City.

Avengers Mansion

Avengers Mansion's address is 890 Fifth Avenue in the borough of Manhattan in New York City.[1] According to Stan Lee, who co-created the Avengers:[2][3]

There was a mansion called the Frick Museum that I used to walk past. I sort of modeled it after that. Beautiful, big, so impressive building, right on Fifth Avenue.

Lee later recounted, "I can't tell you how many fan letters I would receive from kids saying, 'We came to New York and we were looking for the Stark mansion and couldn't find it. What address is it?' [laughs] So that made me feel good. I felt we had accomplished our objective. We had made it seem realistic."[4] In real life, 890 Fifth Avenue is 1 East 70th Street, the location of the Henry Clay Frick House, which houses the Frick Collection. The building is, like Avengers Mansion, a city block-sized mansion.

When occupied, the mansion was originally the Stark family manor, until their only son, Tony Stark, inherited their fortune and soon took on the guise of Iron Man. He donated the mansion to the Avengers and had it financed through the charitable Maria Stark Foundation. It was primarily looked after by the Stark family butler, Edwin Jarvis, who not only took care of the mansion but also catered to the needs of the Avengers team. It served as a place to plan and strategize and a home for Avengers members when they needed it.

It had three above-ground floors and three basement floors. The first three floors were open to the public and had twelve rooms to house Avengers who wished to reside in the mansion, as well as Jarvis's quarters. A portion of the mansion's third floor served as a hangar for the Avengers' quinjets, their primary mode of transportation.

The three floors below ground were restricted from the public and had modified rooms for the Avengers' needs. Such rooms below ground were: Howard Stark's "Arsenal" chamber, the Avengers gym, Hawkeye's test-shooting room, the training room (much like the X-Mansion's Danger Room), the cryogenic storage area, a vault to contain Jack of Hearts's power, and the ultra-secure assembly room.

The Fantastic Four took up temporary residence at Avengers Mansion after their headquarters (the original Baxter Building) was destroyed.[5]

The mansion has been destroyed twice. The first time was in Avengers: Under Siege when a huge grouping of Masters of Evil, led by Baron Helmut Zemo, attacked the Avengers and destroyed the Mansion and beat Hercules into a coma among other things before being repulsed.

In the immediate aftermath, the Avengers would relocate to a floating platform called Hydro-Base,[6] while the former Mansion site became known as "Avengers Park", and was unused. Hydro-Base was later destroyed as well.[7]

The Mansion would be featured in a Damage Control story. The reconstruction firm was hired to refit and rebuild the mansion, a task they accomplished easily. Unfortunately they did not manage to move it as easily and it fell into one of New York's rivers.

Later, the Avengers built a new headquarters on the site of the Mansion and resided there until it was destroyed by the Gatherers, a team of alternate universe Avengers. Ute, a Watcher enslaved by the villain Proctor, brought an alternate reality version of the original Avengers Mansion to the site as a dying gift.

This replacement Mansion would survive various assaults until, in the "Avengers Disassembled" storyline, the Scarlet Witch was responsible for its destruction by bringing an undead version of Jack of Hearts that exploded, also killing Scott Lang, the second Ant-Man, and in Avengers Finale (January 2005), Stark decided that with his dwindling assets, he could no longer afford to maintain the building and it was abandoned in its derelict state, left as a memorial to the Avengers who had died. Stark, using his considerable political and social influence, had the grounds declared a landmark by the city of New York. Since then, the Young Avengers have restored much of the statuary on the grounds of the mansion. The Avengers have relocated to Stark Tower, although it is unknown how permanent this move will be, especially in light of the events of Marvel's Civil War storyline, which causes the virtual splitting of the New Avengers down the line between those who were pro-registration and those who were against it.

Even after its destruction, the mansion remains a hub of superhuman activity. The Young Avengers were attacked by, and later defeated, Kang the Conqueror there. They later restored the many statues in the mansion's grounds, adopting the mansion as their meeting place.

During the highest tensions of the Civil War incident, Iron Man and Captain America meet at the ruins in order to talk things out. They tour the grounds and even find abandoned framed photographs of old allies.

Former Avenger Clint Barton has made his way on to the grounds several times since then, most recently following Captain America's death. He meets with Tony Stark to discuss the implications of Steve Rogers' assassination.

After the Skrull invasion, S.H.I.E.L.D.'s replacement agency H.A.M.M.E.R. kept an eye on the mansion in case the Young Avengers, still wanted for refusing to be registered, showed up. The young group did anyway, using the building as a central point for many meetings.[8]

Following the Siege of Asgard and at the start of the Heroic Age, Steve Rogers and Tony Stark sold the mansion to Luke Cage for a dollar allowing him freedom to recruit his own Avengers team and operate from the mansion while the other Avengers team operate from the Infinite Avengers Mansion and Avengers Tower.[9] After an extended period, and severe damage thanks to Daniel Drumm the New Avengers dissolve, and Cage sells the mansion back to Stark for five dollars.[10]

After yet another roster reshuffling, the mansion was refitted as the headquarters for the new Avengers Unity Squad which is funded by Janet Van Dyne. A computerized A.I. system called J.A.R.V.I.S. is installed to replace Edwin Jarvis (who still lives in Avengers Tower with the main team).[11]

Following the reconstruction of the multiverse, the mansion officially became a theme hotel as the Avengers teams move on to other bases, but they were unaware that the Red Skull and Sin are hiding in a secure room under the mansion, carrying out an unspecified plan.[12] After this, the mansion was purchased by Unity Squad member Johnny Storm with the money he had inherited from his apparently dead brother-in-law's patents, who created Avengers Mansion Inc. to run the property on behalf of the Avengers.

The Mansion was surrounded by a wall twelve feet high and one foot thick, as well as an array of high-tech security defenses. A main feature of the defenses were large, restrictive coils. These were sometimes backed up by energy beams that shot out from the ground. Nonetheless, those defenses were often breached by the supervillains faced by the Avengers. Shortly after the Avengers moved into the Mansion, Iron Man and Thor moved the Mansion 35 feet away from the street, increasing the size of the front lawn and giving the Avengers more privacy.

When Tony Stark was the United States' Secretary of Defense, the mansion's security systems were backed up by government forces.

The mansion's grounds featured an array of statues of past and present Avengers, constructed out of adamantium. The statues were destroyed in a battle with the Asgardian god, Loki.[13] One of the trees on the grounds used to hold a miniature lab belonging to Hank Pym. The statues return around the time the 'New Avengers' leave the mansion.

The Infinite Avengers Mansion was created by Hank Pym in the pocket dimension where Thor sent Janet Van Dyne's body at the end of Secret Invasion. It was the headquarters of Hank Pym's Mighty Avengers and was home to the Avengers Academy.


who wrote the passion of ss perpetua and felicitas

The Passion of Saint Perpetua, Saint Felicitas, and their Companions is one of the oldest and most notable early Christian texts. It survives in both Latin and Greek forms, and purports to contain the actual prison diary of the young mother and martyr Perpetua. Scholars generally believe that it is authentic although in the form we have it may have been edited by others. The text also purports to contain, in his own words, the accounts of the visions of Saturus, another Christian martyred with Perpetua. An editor who states he was an eyewitness has added accounts of the martyrs' suffering and deaths. Catalogued by the Bollandists as BHL 6633-6636,[5] BHG 1482 [6]

Roman Catholic Church:

Eastern Orthodox Church:

Perpetua and Felicity (believed to have died in 203 AD) were Christian martyrs of the 3rd century. Vibia Perpetua was a married noblewoman, said to have been 22 years old at the time of her death, and mother of an infant she was nursing. Felicity, a slave imprisoned with her and pregnant at the time, was martyred with her. They were put to death along with others at Carthage in the Roman province of Africa.

According to the passion narrative, a slave named Revocatus, his fellow slave Felicitas, the two free men Saturninus and Secundulus, and Perpetua, who were catechumens, that is, Christians being instructed in the faith but not yet baptized, were arrested and executed at the military games in celebration of the Emperor Septimus Severus's birthday. To this group was added a man named Saturus, who voluntarily went before the magistrate and proclaimed himself a Christian.

The traditional view has been that Perpetua, Felicity and the others were martyred owing to a decree of Roman emperor Septimius Severus (193â€“211). This is based on a reference to a decree he is said to have issued forbidding conversions to Judaism and Christianity but this decree is known only from one source, the Augustan History, an unreliable mix of fact and fiction.[7]:184 Early church historian Eusebius describes Severus as a persecutor, but the Christian apologist Tertullian states that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob.[7]:184 Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in the Roman martyrology as the martyrs of Madaura as well as Perpetua and Felicity in the Roman province of Africa, but these were probably as the result of local persecutions rather than empire wide actions or decrees by Severus.[7]:185

The details of the martyrdoms survive in both Latin and Greek texts (see below). Perpetua's account of events leading to their deaths, apparently historical, is written in the first person. A brief introduction by the editor (chapters i–ii) is followed by the narrative and visions of Perpetua (iii–ix), and the vision of Saturus (xi–xiii). The account of their deaths, written by the editor who claims to be an eyewitness, is included at the end (xiv–xxi).

Perpetuaâ€™s account opens with conflict between her and her father, who wishes her to recant her belief.[8] Perpetua refuses, and is soon baptized before being moved to prison (iii). After the guards are bribed, she is allowed to move to a better portion of the prison, where she nurses her child and gives its charge to her mother and brother (iii), and the child is able to stay in prison with her for the time being (iii).

At the encouragement of her brother, Perpetua asks for and receives a vision, in which she climbs a dangerous ladder to which various weapons are attached (iv). At the foot of a ladder is a serpent, which is faced first by Saturus and later by Perpetua (iv). The serpent does not harm her, and she ascends to a garden (iv). At the conclusion of her dream, Perpetua realizes that the martyrs will suffer (iv).

Perpetua’s father visits her in prison and pleads with her, but Perpetua remains steadfast in her faith (v). She is brought to a hearing before the governor Hilarianus and the martyrs confess their Christian faith (vi). In a second vision, Perpetua sees her brother Dinocrates, who had died unbaptized from cancer at the early age of seven (vii). She prayed for him and later had a vision of him happy and healthy, his facial disfigurement reduced to a scar (viii). Perpetua’s father again visits the prison, and Pudens (the warden) shows the martyrs honor (ix).

The day before her martyrdom, Perpetua envisions herself defeating a savage Egyptian and interprets this to mean that she would have to do battle not merely with wild beasts but with the Devil himself (x).

Saturus, who is also said to have recorded his own vision, sees himself and Perpetua transported eastward by four angels to a beautiful garden, where they meet Jocundus, Saturninus, Hinda, Artaius, and Dennis Quinntus, four other Christians who are burnt alive during the same persecution (xiâ€“xii). He also sees Bishop Optatus of Carthage and the priest Aspasius, who beseech the martyrs to reconcile the conflicts between them (xiii).

As the editor resumes the story, Secundulus is said to have died in prison (xiv). The slave Felicitas gives birth to a daughter despite her initial concern that she would not be permitted to suffer martyrdom with the others, since the law forbade the execution of pregnant women (xv). On the day of the games, the martyrs are led into the amphitheatre (xviii). At the demand of the crowd they were first scourged before a line of gladiators; then a boar, a bear, and a leopard were set on the men, and a wild cow on the women (xix). Wounded by the wild animals, they gave each other the kiss of peace and were then put to the sword (xix). The text describes Perpetuaâ€™s death as follows; "But Perpetua, that she might have some taste of pain, was pierced between the bones and shrieked out; and when the swordsman's hand wandered still (for he was a novice), herself set it upon her own neck. Perchance so great a woman could not else have been slain (being feared of the unclean spirit) had she not herself so willed it" (xix). The text ends as the editor extols the acts of the martyrs.

Scholars generally believe that the Passio SS Perpetuae et Felicitatis narrative was in fact, written by Perpetua.[9] If this is true, the text is important because Perpetua is one of the first Christian female writers before the fourth century whose works have survived.[10] The personal account of a female martyr is also rare, as the stories of other female martyrs were recorded collectively.[9] Perpetua’s style is described as “emotional”, “personal”, “fragmented” and “colloquial”, which is fitting with the circumstances under which she would have been writing. It should still be acknowledged that the style could have been crafted to give the impression of a female martyr’s diary.[11]

Although some have suggested that the editor of the text is Tertullian, the editorâ€™s identity remains uncertain.[12] The writing style and content of the edited material do seem to suggest that the editor is male.[13]

Many scholars have examined the male modification and transmission of a female martyrdom story that challenged power dynamics and gender hierarchies within the organized church.[14] This issue of gender may have influenced the redaction tendencies of the editor. Brent Shaw argues that the editor of the story rewrites Perpetuaâ€™s experience in such a way that affirms the technical value of her martyrdom while simultaneously presenting her actions as unnatural.[15] Furthermore, the dream vision of Saturus is considered to be the result of editorial activity, unlikely to have been written by Saturus himself because of its distinctive construction and impersonal bent.[16] If the editor is male, he may have been seeking to show that men and women, rather than women alone, are responsible for the dreams and visions received in the narrative. Others argue that Felicity may have been the initial source for the dream, an attribution changed by the editor in order to circumvent the problematic implications of a female slave who can receive visions.

The date of their martyrdom is traditionally given as 203 AD. The association of the martyrdom with a birthday festival of the Emperor Geta, however, might seem to place it after 209, when Geta was made "Augustus" (having held the junior title Caesar since 198 when his elder brother had been made "Augustus"), though before 211, when he was assassinated. The Acta notes that the martyrdom occurred in the year when Minucius Timinianus was proconsul in the Roman province of Africa, but Timinianus is not otherwise attested in history. Werner Eck notes that the Greek version of the Acta calls the proconsul Μινούκιος Ὀππιανός, or Minucius Opimianus, who is recorded as proconsul for 202/203.[17] The Golden Legend, however, places the martyrdom in 256, under the emperors Valerian and Gallienus.[18]

In the Passion, Christian faith motivates the martyrs to reject family loyalties and acknowledge a higher authority.[19] In the text, Perpetua’s relationship with her father is the most prominently featured of all her familial ties, and she directly interacts with him four times (iii, v, vi, and ix).[20] Perpetua herself may have deemed this relationship to be her most important, given what is known about its importance within Roman society.[21] Fathers expected that their daughters would care for them, honor them, and enhance their family reputation through marriage. In becoming a martyr, Perpetua failed to conform to society’s expectations.[22] Perpetua and Felicity also defer their roles as mothers to remain loyal to Christ, leaving behind young children at the time of their death.[15]

Although the narrator does describe Perpetua as “honorably married”, no husband appears in the text.[23] Possible explanations include that her husband was attempting to distance himself from the proceedings as a non-Christian, that he was away on business, or that her mention of him was edited out; because Perpetua was called the bride of Christ, omission of her husband may have been intended to reduce any sexual implications (xviii).[24] Regardless, the absence of a husband in the text leads Perpetua to assume new family loyalties and a new identity in relation to Christ.[21]

Perpetua belonged to an aristocratic family with Roman citizenship, as indicated by her name Vibia Perpetua.[25] Perpetua’s execution alongside slaves demonstrated Christianity’s ability to transcend social distinctions, in contrast to the inequality that pervaded Roman religion and society.[26] As Perpetua and Felicity were equal in martyrdom despite differences in class, they made the dramatic statement that Christianity transcended social structure.[27]

Most scholars believe that The Passion of Saints Perpetua and Felicity present a Montanist theology.[28][29] Montanism was a doctrine of early Christianity[30] that arose in Phrygia, modern Turkey. The movement was founded by Montanus; a recent convert to Christianity, said by early church father Saint Jerome to have been previously a priest of Cybele,[30] who had shared his heretical ideas with followers. The group emphasized a belief in the continuing presence of the Holy Spirit visible in the prophetic words of Christians.[31]

Perpetua and Saturus had received new dreams and prophesies within the text in accordance with the beliefs and tenets of Montanism.[32] Further evidence for Montanism is that Perpetua and Felicity may have separated themselves from their partners in accordance with Montanist teachings, which allowed and sometimes even encouraged women to leave non-Christian husbands in favor of celibate lives devoted to preaching the Gospel.[33] However, nothing in the text is explicitly Montanist. Opponents of the new prophecy accused its members of having avoided martyrdom, which makes the identification of the Passion text as Montanist less likely.[34]

The editor’s additions may be an attempt to validate Montanist beliefs, praising prophecy and visionary gifts from the spirit.[35] In the introduction for example, the editor includes a biblical reference to the sons and daughters who shall prophesy in the last days (i). The editor also asserts the importance of acknowledging and honoring both “new prophecies” and “new visions” (i).

In Carthage a magnificent basilica was afterwards erected over the tomb of the martyrs, the Basilica Maiorum, where an ancient inscription bearing the names of Perpetua and Felicitas has been found.

Saints Felicitas and Perpetua (mentioned in that order) are two of seven women commemorated by name in the second part of the Canon of the Mass. The Blessed Virgin Mary is commemorated in the first part.

The feast day of Saints Perpetua and Felicitas, 7 March, was celebrated even outside Africa, and is entered in the Philocalian Calendar, the 4th-century calendar of martyrs venerated publicly at Rome. When Saint Thomas Aquinas's feast was inserted into the Roman calendar, for celebration on the same day, the two African saints were thenceforth only commemorated. This was the situation in the Tridentine Calendar established by Pope Pius V, and remained so until the year 1908, when Pope Pius X brought the date for celebrating them forward to 6 March.[36] In the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar the feast of Saint Thomas Aquinas was moved, and that of Saints Perpetua and Felicity was restored to their traditional 7 March date.[37]

Other Churches, including the Lutheran Church and the Episcopal Church, commemorate these two martyrs on 7 March, never having altered the date to 6 March. The Anglican Church of Canada, however, historically commemorated them on 6 March (The Book of Common Prayer, 1962), but have since changed to the traditional 7 March date (Book of Alternative Services, 1985).

In the Eastern Orthodox Church the feast day of Saints Perpetua of Carthage and the catechumens Saturus, Revocatus, Saturninus, Secundulus, and Felicitas is February 1.[2][3]

The account of Saint Perpetua comforting her dead brother has been a point of controversy. The text specifically says that the child had not been baptized. Renatus used this account to bolster his claim that unbaptized infants could attain paradise, if not the kingdom of heaven. Augustine in turn proposed an explanation for how Dinocrates could have been baptized but later estranged from Christ by his pagan father.[38]

The once-flowering rambling rose "Félicité et Perpétue" (R. sempervirens x 'Old Blush'[39]) with palest pinks buds opening nearly white, was introduced by Robert Jacques[40] in 1828.[41]

A new translation by Walter H. Shewring in 1929 of The Passion of Perpetua and Felicity was printed in a new typeface by Eric Gill given the name Perpetua.

Two historical fiction novels have been written from the point of view of Perpetua. Amy Peterson's Perpetua: A Bride, A Martyr, A Passion (ISBN 978-0972927642) was published in 2004, and Malcolm Lyon's The Bronze Ladder (ISBN 978-1905237517) in 2006.

National Geographic documentary entitled Jesus Rise to Power featured the story of Perpetua in its 2nd episode (Martyrs) which was aired in 2013.[42][43][44]

BBC's documentary series and book[45] Andrew Marr's History of the World recreates the death of Perpetua[46] in Episode 3[47]


indefinite leave to remain uk how long can i be out of the country

Indefinite leave is not a permanent status. It can lapse where the holder has stayed outside the United Kingdom for a continuous period of more than two years.[1]

Indefinite leave to remain

Indefinite leave to remain (ILR) or permanent residency (PR) is an immigration status granted to a person who does not hold the right of abode in the United Kingdom (UK), but who has been admitted to the UK without any time limit on his or her stay and who is free to take up employment or study. When indefinite leave is granted to persons outside the United Kingdom it is known as indefinite leave to enter (ILE).

A person who has indefinite leave to remain, the right of abode or Irish citizenship has settled status if resident in the United Kingdom (all full British citizens have the right of abode).

Settled status is central to British nationality law, as the most usual route to naturalisation or registration as a British citizen requires that the applicant be settled in the UK. Settled status is also important where a child of non-British citizen parents is born in the UK, as unless at least one parent has settled status the child will not automatically be a British citizen.

Holders of ILR may apply for British citizenship if they have held ILR for twelve months or longer, are over 18 and have been living in the United Kingdom for the last five years.

There are seven requirements for naturalisation. The applicant:-

There are several residential requirements. The applicant must:-

See "Standard Requirements", April 2010.

Alternatively, there is a simpler procedure for holders of ILR applying for British citizenship if they are married to a British citizen. The residential requirements for those falling into this category need only hold ILR on the day they apply for British citizenship, but must also:-

See "Spouse or Civil Partner of citizen", April 2010.

Other people aged over 18, who hold another form of British nationality and employees (and their husband, wife or civil partner) of the crown, civil service or designated service outside the United Kingdom may instead apply for registration, which is a simpler process than naturalisation.

A  child born in the United Kingdom after 1983 to persons who are not British citizens will not automatically be a British citizen.

Prior to 1 July 2006, only a legitimate child (born to parents who are married to each other) could automatically derive British citizenship from the father, if the father was a British citizen or "settled" in the United Kingdom. However, if the parents are not married when the child is born in the United Kingdom, but then get married, and the marriage legitimates the child, then if the father was a British citizen or "settled" in the UK when the child was born, the child would become a British citizen and would be regarded as having been one from the date of marriage.  This affects only children where the mother is neither a British citizen nor "settled" in the UK.

For children born on or after 1 July 2006, an unmarried father has broadly equivalent rights (compared with a married father) to pass on British citizenship to a child.

Where a child would be a British citizen but for the fact that the parents are not married, the Home Office will usually register the child as a British citizen under section 3(1) of the British Nationality Act provided that the child is still under 18.

If ILR is acquired after the child's birth, the child will not automatically be a British citizen. However the child can be registered as a British citizen under s1(3) of the British Nationality Act 1981 provided application is made before the age of 18.  Alternatively, if the child lives in the UK until age 10, it will have a lifetime entitlement to registration as a British citizen under s1(4) of the Act.

Children born in the United Kingdom before 1983 are British citizens regardless of the immigration status of their parents (unless the father was at the time of the child's birth a diplomat accredited to the United Kingdom).

Unlike people with Limited Leave to Remain (LTR) in the UK, ILR holders have access to public funds. "No recourse to public funds" is not written in ILR holders' visas. As a result, they are able to claim job seekers' allowances and other benefits that are usually available only to British, EU, and EEA citizens.

ILR holders pay home student rates (i.e. the same rate as British, EU, EEA and Swiss citizens) for study at higher education institutions in the UK. That is, they are not charged as international students, unlike LTR visa holders, if they want to study courses in any UK institutions.

Commonwealth citizens who have ILR and are resident in the UK have the right to vote and stand as candidates in all elections.[2]

ILR can be acquired in a number of ways.

A child (including an adopted child) aged under 18 who holds leave to enter or remain with a view to settlement with a parent, parents or a relative who is a settled person and resident in the UK can apply for ILR using Form SET(F).

A parent, grandparent or other dependant relative aged 18 or over of a person who is a settled person and resident in the UK can apply for ILR using Form SET(F).

People satisfying all of the below criteria can apply for ILR using Form SET(DV):

A person who has lived in the UK for 2 years with temporary permission to remain in the UK as the husband, wife, civil partner or unmarried/same-sex partner of a British citizen or a settled person and who intends to continue living together (and are still married or in a civil partnership, if applicable) can apply for ILR using Form SET(M), as long as he/she arrived in the UK or applied for permission to stay in the UK on or before 8 July 2012.

Note that a person living in the UK as the husband, wife, civil partner or unmarried/same-sex partner of a British citizen or a settled person who either arrives in the UK or applies for permission to stay in the UK on or after 9 July 2012 must live in the UK for 5 years (and not 2 years) to obtain ILR (see below).

A person who has lived in the UK for 5 years with a visa issued in one of the following categories can apply for ILR using Form SET(O):

A person who has lived in the UK for 5 years with a visa issued in one of the following categories can apply for ILR using Form SET(BUS):

A person who has been granted humanitarian protection since 30 August 2005 and whose current 5-year permission to stay is due to expire can apply for ILR using Form SET (Protection Route).

A person who has lived in the UK for 5 years under the Gateway Protection Programme can apply for ILR using Form HPDL.

A person who has lived in the UK for 5 years with temporary permission to remain in the UK as the husband, wife, civil partner or unmarried/same-sex partner of a British citizen or a settled person and who intends to continue living together (and are still married or in a civil partnership, if applicable) can apply for ILR, as long as he/she arrived in the UK or applied for permission to stay in the UK on or after 9 July 2012. For those who arrived in the UK or applied for permission to stay in the UK on or before 8 July 2012, a 2-year period of residence (instead of 5 years) applies (see above).

A person who has lived in the UK for 6 years with Discretionary Leave can apply for ILR using SET(O). Form HPDL was used as an alternative depending on circumstance but this practice has now ceased.

A person who has lived in the UK for 10 years continuously can apply for ILR on the ground of 'long residence' using Form SET(LR) as long as all time spent in the UK during the 10 years has been lawful, and he/she has not left the UK for more than 540 calendar days in total (18 months), or more than 180 calendar days (6 months) at one time.[4][5] In 'compelling or compassionate circumstances', the Home Office can exercise discretion over any excess absences over the threshold.[6] If the person has gaps in lawful residence during the 10-year period, ILR can still be granted as long as each gap did not exceed 28 days and ended before 24 November 2016, or in 'exceptional circumstances' where the gap exceeded 28 days, or where there was a 'good reason beyond the control of the applicant or their representative' if the gap did not exceed 14 days and ended on or after 24 November 2016.[6]

A person aged under 18 who has lived in the UK for 7 years continuously (lawfully or unlawfully, but discounting any period of imprisonment) can apply for leave to remain on the grounds of private life using Form FLR(FP) if it would not be reasonable to expect the applicant to leave the UK. During the 7-year period of continuous residence, the person must not have left the UK for more than 540 calendar days in total (18 months), or more than 180 calendar days (6 months) at one time.[4] After living in the UK for 10 years continuously (holding leave to remain on the grounds of private life during this period), he/she can apply for ILR.[7][8]

A person aged between 18 and 25 who has lived in the UK for at least half of his/her life (lawfully or unlawfully, but discounting any period of imprisonment) can apply for leave to remain on the grounds of private life using Form FLR(FP). During the period of continuous residence, the person must not have not left the UK for more than 540 calendar days in total (18 months), or more than 180 calendar days (6 months) at one time.[4] After living in the UK for 10 years continuously (holding leave to remain on the grounds of private life during this period), he/she can apply for ILR.[7][8]

A person who has lived in the UK for 20 years continuously (lawfully or unlawfully, but discounting any period of imprisonment) can apply for leave to remain on the grounds of private life using Form FLR(FP). During the 20-year period of continuous residence, the person must not have not left the UK for more than 540 calendar days in total (18 months), or more than 180 calendar days (6 months) at one time.[4] After living in the UK for a further 10 years continuously (holding leave to remain on the grounds of private life during this period), he/she can apply for ILR.[7][8]

Alternatively, a person who has lived in the UK for less than 20 years continuously (lawfully or unlawfully, but discounting any period of imprisonment), but faces very significant obstacles to integrating into the country to which he/she would have to go if required to leave the UK, can apply for leave to remain on the grounds of private life using Form FLR(FP). During the period of continuous residence, the person must not have not left the UK for more than 540 calendar days in total (18 months), or more than 180 calendar days (6 months) at one time.[4] After living in the UK for a further 10 years continuously (holding leave to remain on the grounds of private life during this period), he/she can apply for ILR.[7][8]

UK Visas and Immigration has discretion to grant ILR outside the Immigration Rules either where someone qualifies under one of the immigration policy concessions or for reasons that are particularly compelling in circumstance and it is almost certain that there will be no change in circumstances within five years.[9]

Prior to 2003, Indefinite Leave to Remain in the UK was free. However, since 2003, fees have been introduced and have risen each year in April. ILR Fees were introduced at £155[10] in 2003. Following record immigration in 2004–05, mainly from Eastern Europe,[11] for the main applicant the fee was raised in 2005 to £335,[12] in 2007 to £750, and in 2009 to £820.

In 2009 the Government introduced a £70m Migrants Impact Fund. Economic migrants and students coming to the UK from outside the EU are charged a £50.00 levy in addition to their normal visa application fee. The fund is used to support the communities in which they live.[13] A fee was also introduced for dependent applicants, at £50.00 each. In 2009 Premium Applications with an in-person appointment at a regional office were introduced at a cost to the applicant of £1020.[14]

In 2010/11 the application fee was raised to £840 (£1095 premium) including the Migrants Impact Levy.[15] The dependents fee was also increased to £129.00 each.

In August 2010, the new government scrapped the Migrants Impact Fund.[16]  However, the levy is still charged; the extra income "will now contribute to the cost of the visa and will mitigate increases that the Government would otherwise have had to make."[17]

On 6 April 2011, the application fee was raised to £972 (£1,350 premium) including the Migrants Impact Levy.[18] The dependents fee was also increased to £486 (£675 premium) each.

From 6 April 2012, the application fee was raised to £991 (£1,377 premium) including the Migrants Impact Levy.[19] The dependents fee was also increased to £496 (£689 premium) each.

From 6 April 2015, the application fee was raised to £1,500 (£1,900 premium).

From 6 April 2016, the application fee was raised to £1,875 (£2,375 premium) per person (dependants also pay the same fees).[20]

From 6 April 2017, the application fee was raised to £2,297 (£2,848 premium) per person (dependants also pay the same fees).[21]

From 6 April 2018, the application fee was raised slightly to £2,389 (£2,999 premium) per person (dependants also pay the same fees).[22]

Citizens of countries in the European Economic Area (other than British and Irish citizens) and Swiss citizens obtain permanent residence status automatically after five years' residence in the United Kingdom exercising Treaty rights[23]  rather than ILR.  The rights of EEA citizens are not governed by UK Immigration Regulations[10] but rather the EEA Regulations.

Under the law as it existed between 2 October 2000 and 29 April 2006, a citizen of an EEA state or Switzerland could be granted permanent residence on application after four years' residence in the United Kingdom exercising Treaty rights (five years from 3 April 2006). Prior to 2 October 2000, citizens of EEA states were deemed to be permanent residents immediately upon taking up residence in the UK to exercise Treaty rights.

The change in the law in 2000 was retroactive. Hence, for example, a French citizen who arrived to work in the UK on 1 July 1986 would have been treated as a permanent resident between that date and 1 October 2000.  From 2 October 2000, the status would revert to that of a temporary resident if an application for ILR was not made. On 30 April 2006, with five years' residence exercising Treaty rights accrued, that person regained permanent resident status.

With effect from 3 April 2006, the period of time required to obtain Indefinite Leave to Remain increases to five years. These changes were debated in House of Commons Standing Committee on 20 June 2006. All Labour MPs voted for preserving the retroactive aspect of the changes, while all other MPs voted that the Government should bring in transitional arrangements to allow those already in the UK before the rule change to qualify under the previous four-year rule. These changes were protested in demonstrations and rallies in London on 16 June and 23 July 2006.

The changes were retroactive in the sense that people on a four-year visas must apply for a one-year extension before they can apply for ILR, but they did not affect people who had already been granted ILR after four years.

As from 2 April 2007, a new condition has been added that "the applicant has sufficient knowledge of the English language and sufficient knowledge about life in the United Kingdom, unless he is under the age of 18 or aged 65 or over at the time he makes his application."[24]

There are two ways the applicant can meet this condition:[25]

On 9 July 2012, the 14-year rule (paragraph 276B(i)(b)) (which provided a route to settlement on the grounds of long residence, lawful or unlawful) was withdrawn. Instead, the new Immigration Rules provided that at least 20 years' continuous residence, lawful or unlawful, would, subject to criminality and other criteria, normally be necessary to establish a claim to remain in the UK on the basis of the Article 8 right to respect for private life. (The 10-year rule (paragraph 276B(i)(a)), which provides a route to settlement on the grounds of continuous lawful residence in the UK of at least 10 years, was unaffected and remains in place).[26]

ILR may also be curtailed by the Home Secretary for reasons of national security or if the holder of the ILR commits an offence that could lead to their deportation from the United Kingdom.

A person may also lose ILR by leaving the United Kingdom for more than two years. However, in some circumstances, such a person may reapply for indefinite leave to enter the UK.

British Overseas citizens, British subjects and British protected persons do not lose ILR no matter how long they stay outside the UK.


when did the french huguenots arrived in south africa

On 31 December 1687 a group of Huguenots set sail from France as the first of the large scale emigration of Huguenots to the Cape of Good Hope, which took place during 1688 and 1689. In total some 180 Huguenots from France, and 18 Walloons from the present-day Belgium, eventually settled at the Cape of Good Hope. A notable example of this is the emigration of Huguenots from La Motte d'Aigues in Provence, France. After this large scale emigration, individual Huguenot immigrant families arrived at the Cape of Good Hope as late as the first quarter of the 18th century, and the state-subsidised emigration of Huguenots was stopped in 1706.

Huguenots in South Africa

A large number of people of European heritage in South Africa are descended from Huguenots. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but were absorbed into the Afrikaner and Afrikaans population, because they had religious similarities to the Dutch colonists.

Even before the large-scale arrival of the Huguenots at the Cape of Good Hope in the 17th century, a small number of individual Huguenot refugees settled there. They included Francois Villion, later known as Viljoen, and the Du Toit brothers. In fact, the first Huguenot to arrive at the Cape of Good Hope was Maria de la Quellerie, the wife of governor Jan van Riebeeck, who started the settlement at the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 on behalf of the Dutch East India Company; however, she and her husband left for Batavia after ten years. After a commissioner was sent out from the Cape Colony in 1685 to attract more settlers, a more dedicated group of immigrants began to arrive. A larger number of French refugees began to arrive in the Cape after leaving their country as a result of the Edict of Fontainebleau (1685), which revoked the Edict of Nantes (1598) that had granted religious toleration to Protestants.

This small body of immigrants had a marked influence on the character of the Dutch settlers. They were purposely spread out and given farms amongst the Dutch farmers. Owing to the policy instituted in 1701 of the Dutch East India Company which dictated that schools should teach exclusively in Dutch, that all official correspondence had to be done in Dutch, and strict laws of assembly, the Huguenots ceased by the middle of the 18th century to maintain a distinct identity, and the knowledge of French diminished and eventually disappeared as a home language.[1] This assimilation into the colonial population was also due to the fact that many Huguenot descendants married individuals from the Dutch population.

Many of these settlers were allocated farms in an area later called Franschhoek, Dutch for "French corner", in the present-day Western Cape province of South Africa. The valley was originally known as Olifantshoek ("Elephant's Corner"), so named because of the vast herds of elephants that roamed the area. The name of the area soon changed to le Coin Français ("the French Corner"), and later to Franschhoek, with many of the settlers naming their new farms after the areas in France from which they came. La Motte, La Cotte, Cabriere, Provence, Chamonix, Dieu Donne and La Dauphine were among some of the first established farms-—most of which still retain their original farm houses today.

A large monument to commemorate the arrival of the Huguenots in South Africa was inaugurated on 17 April 1948 at Franschhoek. A museum dedicated to the Huguenot history in South Africa is located adjacent to the monument.

A smaller monument commemorating the 300th anniversary of the arrival of the Huguenots is located in the Johannesburg Botanical Garden.

French Huguenot descendants were also included in the exodus of frontier farmers that was called the Great Trek.[2]

Voortrekker surnames who were of French Huguenot ancestry include:[3]-

(Original french spelling in brackets)

There are many families, today mostly Afrikaans speaking, whose surnames bear witness to their Huguenot ancestry. A comprehensive list of these surnames can be seen on the Huguenot Memorial in the Johannesburg Botanical Garden. Examples of the more common names are Blignaut (Blignault), Cronje (Cronier), de Klerk (Le Clercq), Visagie (Visage), de Villiers, du Preez, du Plessis, du Toit, Fourie, Fouche, Giliomee (Guilliaume), Gous / Gouws (Gauch), Hugo, Joubert, Jordaan (Jourdan), Labuschagne (la Buscagne), Lange, le Roux, Leonard, Lombard, Malan, Michel, Malherbe, Marais, Nel, Nortje (Nourtier), Pienaar, Retief, Rossouw, Roux,[4] Terreblanche, Taljard, Theron and Viljoen (Villion).[5][6][7]

Some of the descendants of these original Huguenot families became prominent figures in South African society, most notably F.W. de Klerk, the last State President of apartheid-era South Africa.[8][9]

Some of the original forms of the surnames have been put in brackets.

Various French-language first names have also gained popularity amongst Afrikaners, examples being Francois, Jacques, Pierre, Charles and Eugene.

Some Afrikaans writers have Huguenot surnames, and were involved in setting up the Society of Real Afrikaners.[citation needed]

The wine industry in South Africa was greatly influenced by the Huguenots,[11] many of whose families had owned vineyards in France.[citation needed] Many of the farms in the Western Cape province in South Africa still bear French names, such as Haute Cabrière, La Petite Provence, La Bourgogne, La Motte, La Bri, La Borie, La Chataigne and La Roche.