when did microwaves become a common household appliance

The development of the cavity magnetron in the UK made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). American engineer Percy Spencer is generally credited with inventing the modern microwave oven after World War II from radar technology developed during the war. Named the "Radarange", it was first sold in 1946. Raytheon later licensed its patents for a home-use microwave oven that was first introduced by Tappan in 1955, but these units were still too large and expensive for general home use. The countertop microwave oven was first introduced in 1967 by the Amana Corporation, and their use has spread into commercial and residential kitchens around the world. In addition to their use in cooking food, types of microwave ovens are used for heating in many industrial processes.

Microwave oven

A microwave oven (commonly referred to as a microwave) is a kitchen appliance that heats and cooks food by exposing it to electromagnetic radiation in the microwave frequency range. This induces polar molecules in the food to rotate and produce thermal energy in a process known as dielectric heating. Microwave ovens heat foods quickly and efficiently because excitation is fairly uniform in the outer 25–38 mm (1–1.5 inches) of a homogeneous, high water content food item; food is more evenly heated throughout than generally occurs in other cooking techniques.

Microwave ovens are popular for reheating previously cooked foods and cooking a variety of foods. They are also useful for rapid heating of otherwise slowly prepared cooking items, such as hot butter, fats, and chocolate. Unlike conventional ovens, microwave ovens usually do not directly brown or caramelize food, since they rarely attain the necessary temperatures to produce Maillard reactions. Exceptions occur in rare cases where the oven is used to heat frying-oil and other very oily items (such as bacon), which attain far higher temperatures than that of boiling water.

Microwave ovens have a limited role in professional cooking,[1] because the boiling-range temperatures produced in especially hydrous foods impede flavors produced by the higher temperatures of frying, browning, or baking. However, additional heat sources can be added to microwave ovens, or into combination microwave ovens, to produce these other heating effects, and microwave heating may cut the overall time needed to prepare such dishes. Some modern microwave ovens are part of over-the-range units with built-in extractor hoods.

The exploitation of high-frequency radio waves for heating substances was made possible by the development of vacuum tube radio transmitters around 1920. By 1930 the application of short waves to heat human tissue had developed into the medical therapy of diathermy. At the 1933 Chicago World's Fair, Westinghouse demonstrated the cooking of foods between two metal plates attached to a 10 kW, 60 MHz shortwave transmitter.[2] The Westinghouse team, led by I. F. Mouromtseff, found that foods like steaks and potatoes could be cooked in minutes.

The 1937 United States patent application by Bell Laboratories states:[3]

"This invention relates to heating systems for dielectric materials and the object of the invention is to heat such materials uniformly and substantially simultaneously throughout their mass.... It has been proposed therefore to heat such materials simultaneously throughout their mass by means of the dielectric loss produced in them when they are subjected to a high voltage, high frequency field."

However, lower-frequency dielectric heating, as described in the aforementioned patent, is (like induction heating) an electromagnetic heating effect, the result of the so-called near-field effects that exist in an electromagnetic cavity that is small compared with the wavelength of the electromagnetic field. This patent proposed radio frequency heating, at 10 to 20 megahertz (wavelength 15 to 30 meters).[4] Heating from microwaves that have a wavelength that is small relative to the cavity (as in a modern microwave oven) is due to "far-field" effects that are due to classical electromagnetic radiation that describes freely propagating light and microwaves suitably far from their source. Nevertheless, the primary heating effect of all types of electromagnetic fields at both radio and microwave frequencies occurs via the dielectric heating effect, as polarized molecules are affected by a rapidly alternating electric field.

The invention of the cavity magnetron made possible the production of electromagnetic waves of a small enough wavelength (microwaves). The magnetron was originally a crucial component in the development of short wavelength radar during World War II.[5] In 1937â€“1940, a multi-cavity magnetron was built by the British physicist Sir John Turton Randall, FRSE, together with a team of British coworkers, for the British and American military radar installations in World War II.[6] A more high-powered microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths was needed, and in 1940, at the University of Birmingham in England, Randall and Harry Boot produced a working prototype.[7] They invented a valve that could spit out pulses of microwave radio energy on a wavelength of 10cm, an unprecedented discovery.[6]

Sir Henry Tizard travelled to the U.S. in late September 1940 to offer the magnetron in exchange for their financial and industrial help (see Tizard Mission).[6] An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, London, was given to the U.S. government in September 1940. The magnetron was later described by American historian James Phinney Baxter III as "[t]he most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".[8] Contracts were awarded to Raytheon and other companies for mass production of the magnetron.

In 1945, the specific heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a candy bar he had in his pocket. The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters.[9][10] To verify his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.[11]

In 1947, Raytheon built the "Radarange", the first commercially available microwave oven.[12] It was almost 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) tall, weighed 340 kilograms (750 lb) and cost about US$5,000 ($54,000 in 2016 dollars) each. It consumed 3 kilowatts, about three times as much as today's microwave ovens, and was water-cooled. The name was the winning entry in an employee contest.[13] An early Radarange was installed (and remains) in the galley of the nuclear-powered passenger/cargo ship NS Savannah. An early commercial model introduced in 1954 consumed 1.6 kilowatts and sold for US$2,000 to US$3,000 ($18,000 to $27,000 in 2016 dollars). Raytheon licensed its technology to the Tappan Stove company of Mansfield, Ohio in 1952.[14] They tried to market a large 220 volt wall unit as a home microwave oven in 1955 for a price of US$1,295 ($12,000 in 2016 dollars), but it did not sell well. In 1965, Raytheon acquired Amana. In 1967, they introduced the first popular home model, the countertop Radarange, at a price of US$495 ($4,000 in 2016 dollars).

In the 1960s,[specify] Litton bought Studebaker's Franklin Manufacturing assets, which had been manufacturing magnetrons and building and selling microwave ovens similar to the Radarange. Litton then developed a new configuration of the microwave: the short, wide shape that is now common. The magnetron feed was also unique. This resulted in an oven that could survive a no-load condition: an empty microwave oven where there is nothing to absorb the microwaves. The new oven was shown at a trade show in Chicago,[citation needed] and helped begin a rapid growth of the market for home microwave ovens. Sales volume of 40,000 units for the U.S. industry in 1970 grew to one million by 1975. Market penetration was faster in Japan, due to a re-engineered magnetron allowing for less expensive units. Several other companies joined in the market, and for a time most systems were built by defense contractors, who were most familiar with the magnetron. Litton was particularly well known in the restaurant business.

Formerly found only in large industrial applications, microwave ovens increasingly became a standard fixture of residential kitchens in developed countries. By 1986, roughly 25% of households in the U.S. owned a microwave oven, up from only about 1% in 1971;[15] the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that over 90% of American households owned a microwave oven in 1997.[15][16] In Australia, a 2008 market research study found that 95% of kitchens contained a microwave oven and that 83% of them were used daily.[17] In Canada, fewer than 5% of households had a microwave oven in 1979, but more than 88% of households owned one by 1998.[18] In France, 40% of households owned a microwave oven in 1994, but that number had increased to 65% by 2004.[19]

Adoption has been slower in less-developed countries, as households with disposable income concentrate on more important household appliances like refrigerators and ovens. In India, for example, only about 5% of households owned a microwave in 2013, well behind refrigerators at 31% ownership.[20] However, microwave ovens are gaining popularity. In Russia, for example, the number of households with a microwave grew from almost 24% in 2002 to almost 40% in 2008.[21] Almost twice as many households in South Africa owned microwaves in 2008 (38.7%) as in 2002 (19.8%).[21] Microwave ownership in Vietnam was at 16% of households in 2008â€”versus 30% ownership of refrigerators; this rate was up significantly from 6.7% microwave ownership in 2002, with 14% ownership for refrigerators that year.[21]

A microwave oven heats food by passing microwave radiation through it. Microwaves are a form of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation with a frequency higher than ordinary radio waves but lower than infrared light. Microwave ovens use frequencies in one of the ISM (industrial, scientific, medical) bands, which are reserved for this use, so they do not interfere with other vital radio services. Consumer ovens usually use 2.45 gigahertz (GHz)—a wavelength of 12.2 centimetres (4.80 in)—while large industrial/commercial ovens often use 915 megahertz (MHz)—32.8 centimetres (12.9 in).[22] Water, fat, and other substances in the food absorb energy from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating. Many molecules (such as those of water) are electric dipoles, meaning that they have a partial positive charge at one end and a partial negative charge at the other, and therefore rotate as they try to align themselves with the alternating electric field of the microwaves. Rotating molecules hit other molecules and put them into motion, thus dispersing energy. This energy, when dispersed as molecular vibration in solids and liquids (i.e. as both potential energy and kinetic energy of atoms), is heat. Sometimes, microwave heating is explained as a resonance of water molecules, but this is incorrect;[23] such resonances occur only at above 1 terahertz (THz).[24] Rather it is the lag in response of the polar water molecule to the impinging electromagnetic wave. This type of dielectric loss mechanism is referred to as dipole interaction.[citation needed]

Microwave heating is more efficient on liquid water than on frozen water, where the movement of molecules is more restricted. Dielectric heating of liquid water is also temperature-dependent: At 0 Â°C, dielectric loss is greatest at a field frequency of about 10 GHz, and for higher water temperatures at higher field frequencies.[25]

Compared to liquid water, microwave heating is less efficient on fats and sugars (which have a smaller molecular dipole moment).[26] Sugars and triglycerides (fats and oils) absorb microwaves due to the dipole moments of their hydroxyl groups or ester groups. However, due to the lower specific heat capacity of fats and oils and their higher vaporization temperature, they often attain much higher temperatures inside microwave ovens.[25] This can induce temperatures in oil or very fatty foods like bacon far above the boiling point of water, and high enough to induce some browning reactions, much in the manner of conventional broiling (UK: grilling), braising, or deep fat frying. Foods high in water content and with little oil rarely exceed the boiling temperature of water.

Microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaways in some materials with low thermal conductivity which also have dielectric constants that increase with temperature. An example is glass, which can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting if preheated. Additionally, microwaves can melt certain types of rocks, producing small quantities of synthetic lava.[citation needed] Some ceramics can also be melted, and may even become clear upon cooling. Thermal runaway is more typical of electrically conductive liquids such as salty water.

A common misconception is that microwave ovens cook food "from the inside out", meaning from the center of the entire mass of food outwards. This idea arises from heating behavior seen if an absorbent layer of water lies beneath a less absorbent drier layer at the surface of a food; in this case, the deposition of heat energy inside a food can exceed that on its surface. This can also occur if the inner layer has a lower heat capacity than the outer layer causing it to reach a higher temperature, or even if the inner layer is more thermally conductive than the outer layer making it feel hotter despite having a lower temperature. In most cases, however, with uniformly structured or reasonably homogenous food item, microwaves are absorbed in the outer layers of the item at a similar level to that of the inner layers. Depending on water content, the depth of initial heat deposition may be several centimetres or more with microwave ovens, in contrast to broiling/grilling (infrared) or convection heatingâ€”methods which deposit heat thinly at the food surface. Penetration depth of microwaves is dependent on food composition and the frequency, with lower microwave frequencies (longer wavelengths) penetrating further.[citation needed]

A microwave oven converts only part of its electrical input into microwave energy. An average consumer microwave oven consumes 1100 W of electricity in producing 700 W of microwave power[citation needed], an efficiency of 64%. The other 400 W are dissipated as heat, mostly in the magnetron tube. Such wasted heat, along with heat from the product being microwaved, is exhausted as warm air through cooling vents. Additional power is used to operate the lamps, AC power transformer, magnetron cooling fan, food turntable motor and the control circuits, although the power consumed by the electronic control circuits of a modern microwave oven is negligible (< 1% of the input power) during cooking.

For cooking or reheating small amounts of food, the microwave oven may use less energy than a cook stove.[27] Although microwave ovens are touted as the most efficient appliance,[28][not in citation given] the energy savings are largely due to the reduced heat mass of the food's container.[29] The amount of energy used to heat food is generally small compared to total energy usage in typical residences in the United States.[30]

A microwave oven consists of:

Modern microwave ovens use either an analog dial-type timer or a digital control panel for operation. Control panels feature an LED, liquid crystal or vacuum fluorescent display, in the 90s brands such as Panasonic and GE began offering models with a scrolling-text display showing cooking instructions, numeric buttons for entering the cook time, a power level selection feature and other possible functions such as a defrost setting and pre-programmed settings for different food types, such as meat, fish, poultry, vegetables, frozen vegetables, frozen dinners, and popcorn. In most ovens, the magnetron is driven by a linear transformer which can only feasibly be switched completely on or off. As such, the choice of power level does not affect the intensity of the microwave radiation; instead, the magnetron is cycled on and off every few seconds, thus altering the large scale duty cycle. Newer models have inverter power supplies that use pulse-width modulation to provide effectively continuous heating at reduced power, so that foods are heated more evenly at a given power level and can be heated more quickly without being damaged by uneven heating.

The microwave frequencies used in microwave ovens are chosen based on regulatory and cost constraints. The first is that they should be in one of the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands set aside for non-communication purposes. For household purposes, 2.45 GHz has the advantage over 915 MHz in that 915 MHz is only an ISM band in the ITU Region 2 while 2.45 GHz is available worldwide.[citation needed][vague] Three additional ISM bands exist in the microwave frequencies, but are not used for microwave cooking. Two of them are centered on 5.8 GHz and 24.125 GHz, but are not used for microwave cooking because of the very high cost of power generation at these frequencies. The third, centered on 433.92 MHz, is a narrow band that would require expensive equipment to generate sufficient power without creating interference outside the band, and is only available in some countries.

The cooking chamber is similar to a Faraday cage to prevent the waves from coming out of the oven. Even though there is no continuous metal-to-metal contact around the rim of the door, choke connections on the door edges act like metal-to-metal contact, at the frequency of the microwaves, to prevent leakage. The oven door usually has a window for easy viewing, with a layer of conductive mesh some distance from the outer panel to maintain the shielding. Because the size of the perforations in the mesh is much less than the microwaves' wavelength (12.2 cm for the usual 2.45 GHz), microwave radiation cannot pass through the door, while visible light (with its much shorter wavelength) can.

A variant of the conventional microwave is the convection microwave. A convection microwave oven is a combination of a standard microwave and a convection oven. It allows food to be cooked quickly, yet come out browned or crisped, as from a convection oven. Convection microwaves are more expensive than conventional microwave ovens. Some convection microwaves—those with exposed heating elements—can produce smoke and burning odors as food spatter from earlier microwave-only use is burned off the heating elements.

In 2000,[31] some manufacturers began offering high power quartz halogen bulbs to their convection microwave models, marketing them under names such as "Speedcook", "Advantium", "Lightwave" and "Optimawave" to emphasize their ability to cook food rapidly and with good browning. The bulbs heat the food's surface with infrared (IR) radiation, browning surfaces as in a conventional oven. The food browns while also being heated by the microwave radiation and heated through conduction through contact with heated air. The IR energy which is delivered to the outer surface of food by the lamps is sufficient to initiate browning caramelization in foods primarily made up of carbohydrates and Maillard reactions in foods primarily made up of protein. These reactions in food produce a texture and taste similar to that typically expected of conventional oven cooking rather than the bland boiled and steamed taste that microwave-only cooking tends to create.

In order to aid browning, sometimes an accessory browning tray is used, usually composed of glass or porcelain. It makes food crisp by oxidizing the top layer until it turns brown. Ordinary plastic cookware is unsuitable for this purpose because it could melt.

Frozen dinners, pies, and microwave popcorn bags often contain a susceptor made from thin aluminium film in the packaging or included on a small paper tray. The metal film absorbs microwave energy efficiently and consequently becomes extremely hot and radiates in the infrared, concentrating the heating of oil for popcorn or even browning surfaces of frozen foods. Heating packages or trays containing susceptors are designed for a single use and are then discarded as waste.

Some current plastic containers and food wraps are specifically designed to resist radiation from microwaves. Products may use the term "microwave safe", may carry a microwave symbol (three lines of waves, one above the other) or simply provide instructions for proper microwave use. Any of these is an indication that a product is suitable for microwaving when used in accordance with the directions provided.[32]

All microwaves use a timer for the cooking time, at the end of cooking time, the oven switches itself off.

Microwave ovens heat food without getting hot themselves. Taking a pot off a stove, unless it is an induction cooktop, leaves a potentially dangerous heating element or trivet that will stay hot for some time. Likewise, when taking a casserole out of a conventional oven, one's arms are exposed to the very hot walls of the oven. A microwave oven does not pose this problem.

Food and cookware taken out of a microwave oven are rarely much hotter than 100 °C (212 °F). Cookware used in a microwave oven is often much cooler than the food because the cookware is transparent to microwaves; the microwaves heat the food directly and the cookware is indirectly heated by the food. Food and cookware from a conventional oven, on the other hand, are the same temperature as the rest of the oven; a typical cooking temperature is 180 °C (356 °F). That means that conventional stoves and ovens can cause more serious burns.

The lower temperature of cooking (the boiling point of water) is a significant safety benefit compared to baking in the oven or frying, because it eliminates the formation of tars and char, which are carcinogenic.[33] Microwave radiation also penetrates deeper than direct heat, so that the food is heated by its own internal water content. In contrast, direct heat can burn the surface while the inside is still cold. Pre-heating the food in a microwave oven before putting it into the grill or pan reduces the time needed to heat up the food and reduces the formation of carcinogenic char. Unlike frying and baking, microwaving does not produce acrylamide in potatoes,[34] however unlike deep-frying, it is of only limited effectiveness in reducing glycoalkaloid (i.e. solanine) levels.[35] Acrylamide has been found in other microwaved products like popcorn.

Microwave ovens are frequently used for reheating leftover food, and bacterial contamination may not be repressed if the safe temperature is not reached, resulting in foodborne illness, as with all inadequate reheating methods.

Uneven heating in microwaved food can be partly due to the uneven distribution of microwave energy inside the oven, and partly due to the different rates of energy absorption in different parts of the food. The first problem is reduced by a stirrer, a type of fan that reflects microwave energy to different parts of the oven as it rotates, or by a turntable or carousel that turns the food; turntables, however, may still leave spots, such as the center of the oven, which receive uneven energy distribution. The location of dead spots and hot spots in a microwave can be mapped out by placing a damp piece of thermal paper in the oven. When the water saturated paper is subjected to the microwave radiation it becomes hot enough to cause the dye to be released which will provide a visual representation of the microwaves. If multiple layers of paper are constructed in the oven with a sufficient distance between them a three-dimensional map can be created. Many store receipts are printed on thermal paper which allows this to be easily done at home.[36]

The second problem is due to food composition and geometry, and must be addressed by the cook, by arranging the food so that it absorbs energy evenly, and periodically testing and shielding any parts of the food that overheat. In some materials with low thermal conductivity, where dielectric constant increases with temperature, microwave heating can cause localized thermal runaway. Under certain conditions, glass can exhibit thermal runaway in a microwave to the point of melting.[37]

Due to this phenomenon, microwave ovens set at too-high power levels may even start to cook the edges of frozen food while the inside of the food remains frozen. Another case of uneven heating can be observed in baked goods containing berries. In these items, the berries absorb more energy than the drier surrounding bread and cannot dissipate the heat due to the low thermal conductivity of the bread. Often this results in overheating the berries relative to the rest of the food. "Defrost" oven settings use low power levels designed to allow time for heat to be conducted within frozen foods from areas that absorb heat more readily to those which heat more slowly. In turntable-equipped ovens, more even heating will take place by placing food off-centre on the turntable tray instead of exactly in the centre, assuming the food item so placed covers less of the center "dead zone".

There are microwave ovens on the market that allow full-power defrosting. They do this by exploiting the properties of the electromagnetic radiation LSM modes. LSM full-power defrosting may actually achieve more even results than slow defrosting.[38]

Microwave heating can be deliberately uneven by design. Some microwavable packages (notably pies) may include materials that contain ceramic or aluminium flakes, which are designed to absorb microwaves and heat up, which aids in baking or crust preparation by depositing more energy shallowly in these areas. Such ceramic patches affixed to cardboard are positioned next to the food, and are typically smokey blue or gray in colour, usually making them easily identifiable; the cardboard sleeves included with Hot Pockets, which have a silver surface on the inside, are a good example of such packaging. Microwavable cardboard packaging may also contain overhead ceramic patches which function in the same way. The technical term for such a microwave-absorbing patch is a susceptor.[39]

Comparative cooking method studies generally find that, if properly used, microwave cooking does not affect the nutrient content of foods to a larger extent than conventional heating, and that there is a tendency towards greater retention of many micronutrients with microwaving, probably due to the reduced preparation time.[40]

Any form of cooking will destroy some nutrients in food, but the key variables are how much water is used in the cooking, how long the food is cooked, and at what temperature.[41] Nutrients are primarily lost by leaching into cooking water, which tends to make microwave cooking healthier, given the shorter cooking times it requires.[42] Like other heating methods, microwaving converts vitamin B12 from an active to inactive form; the amount of conversion depends on the temperature reached, as well as the cooking time. Boiled food reaches a maximum of 100 °C (212 °F) (the boiling point of water), whereas microwaved food can get locally hotter than this, leading to faster breakdown of vitamin B12. The higher rate of loss is partially offset by the shorter cooking times required.[43]

Spinach retains nearly all its folate when cooked in a microwave; in comparison, it loses about 77% when boiled, leaching out nutrients. Bacon cooked by microwave has significantly lower levels of carcinogenic nitrosamines than conventionally cooked bacon.[41] Steamed vegetables tend to maintain more nutrients when microwaved than when cooked on a stovetop.[41] Microwave blanching is 3â€“4 times more effective than boiled water blanching in the retaining of the water-soluble vitamins folic acid, thiamin and riboflavin, with the exception of ascorbic acid, of which 28.8% is lost (vs. 16% with boiled water blanching).[44]

Microwaving human milk at high temperatures is not recommended as it causes a marked decrease in activity of anti-infective factors.[45]

Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, E. coli and MS2 phages. Bacillus cereus spores were killed at 4 minutes of microwaving.[46]

A 2017 study was less affirmative: about 60% of the germs were killed but the remaining ones quickly re-colonized the sponge.[47]

Water and other homogeneous liquids can superheat[48][49] when heated in a microwave oven in a container with a smooth surface. That is, the liquid reaches a temperature slightly above its normal boiling point without bubbles of vapour forming inside the liquid. The boiling process can start explosively when the liquid is disturbed, such as when the user takes hold of the container to remove it from the oven or while adding solid ingredients such as powdered creamer or sugar. This can result in spontaneous boiling (nucleation) which may be violent enough to eject the boiling liquid from the container and cause severe scalding.[50]

Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.

Products that are heated for too long can catch fire. Though this is inherent to any form of cooking, the rapid cooking and unattended nature of the use of microwave ovens results in additional hazard.

Any metal or conductive object placed into the microwave will act as an antenna to some degree, resulting in an electric current. This causes the object to act as a heating element. This effect varies with the object's shape and composition, and is sometimes utilized for cooking.

Any object containing pointed metal can create an electric arc (sparks) when microwaved. This includes cutlery, crumpled aluminium foil (though some foil used in microwaves are safe, see below), twist-ties containing metal wire, the metal wire carry-handles in paper Chinese take-out food containers, or almost any metal formed into a poorly conductive foil or thin wire; or into a pointed shape.[51] Forks are a good example: the tines of the fork respond to the electric field by producing high concentrations of electric charge at the tips. This has the effect of exceeding the dielectric breakdown of air, about 3 megavolts per meter (3Ã—106 V/m). The air forms a conductive plasma, which is visible as a spark. The plasma and the tines may then form a conductive loop, which may be a more effective antenna, resulting in a longer lived spark. When dielectric breakdown occurs in air, some ozone and nitrogen oxides are formed, both of which are unhealthy in large quantities.

It is possible for metal objects to be microwave-oven compatible, although experimentation by users is not encouraged. Microwaving an individual smooth metal object without pointed ends, for example, a spoon or shallow metal pan, usually does not produce sparking. Thick metal wire racks can be part of the interior design in microwave ovens (see illustration). In a similar way, the interior wall plates with perforating holes which allow light and air into the oven, and allow interior-viewing through the oven door, are all made of conductive metal formed in a safe shape.

The effect of microwaving thin metal films can be seen clearly on a Compact Disc or DVD (particularly the factory pressed type). The microwaves induce electric currents in the metal film, which heats up, melting the plastic in the disc and leaving a visible pattern of concentric and radial scars. Similarly, porcelain with thin metal films can also be destroyed or damaged by microwaving. Aluminium foil is thick enough to be used in microwave ovens as a shield against heating parts of food items, if the foil is not badly warped. When wrinkled, aluminium foil is generally unsafe in microwaves, as manipulation of the foil causes sharp bends and gaps that invite sparking. The USDA recommends that aluminium foil used as a partial food shield in microwave cooking cover no more than one quarter of a food object, and be carefully smoothed to eliminate sparking hazards.[52]

Another hazard is the resonance of the magnetron tube itself. If the microwave is run without an object to absorb the radiation, a standing wave will form. The energy is reflected back and forth between the tube and the cooking chamber. This may cause the tube to overload and burn out. For the same reason, dehydrated food, or food wrapped in metal which does not arc, is problematic for overload reasons, without necessarily being a fire hazard.

Certain foods such as grapes, if properly arranged, can produce an electric arc.[53] Prolonged arcing from food carries similar risks to arcing from other sources as noted above.

Some other objects that may conduct sparks are plastic/holographic print thermoses (such as Starbuck's novelty cups) or cups with metal lining. If any bit of the metal is exposed, all the outer shell will burst off the object or melt.[citation needed]

The high electrical fields generated inside a microwave often can be illustrated by placing a radiometer or neon glow-bulb inside the cooking chamber, creating glowing plasma inside the low-pressure bulb of the device.

Direct microwave exposure is not generally possible, as microwaves emitted by the source in a microwave oven are confined in the oven by the material out of which the oven is constructed. Furthermore, ovens are equipped with redundant safety interlocks, which remove power from the magnetron if the door is opened. This safety mechanism is required by United States federal regulations.[54] Tests have shown confinement of the microwaves in commercially available ovens to be so nearly universal as to make routine testing unnecessary.[55] According to the United States Food and Drug Administration's Center for Devices and Radiological Health, a U.S. Federal Standard limits the amount of microwaves that can leak from an oven throughout its lifetime to 5 milliwatts of microwave radiation per square centimeter at approximately 5 cm (2 in) from the surface of the oven.[56] This is far below the exposure level currently considered to be harmful to human health.[57]

The radiation produced by a microwave oven is non-ionizing. It therefore does not have the cancer risks associated with ionizing radiation such as X-rays and high-energy particles. Long-term rodent studies to assess cancer risk have so far failed to identify any carcinogenicity from 2.45 GHz microwave radiation even with chronic exposure levels (i.e. large fraction of life span) far larger than humans are likely to encounter from any leaking ovens.[58][59] However, with the oven door open, the radiation may cause damage by heating. Every microwave oven sold has a protective interlock so that it cannot be run when the door is open or improperly latched.

Microwaves generated in microwave ovens cease to exist once the electrical power is turned off. They do not remain in the food when the power is turned off, any more than light from an electric lamp remains in the walls and furnishings of a room when the lamp is turned off. They do not make the food or the oven radioactive. Compared to conventional cooking, the nutritional content of some foods may be altered differently, but generally in a positive way by preserving more micronutrients - see above. There is no indication of detrimental health issues associated with microwaved food.[60]

There are, however, a few cases where people have been exposed to direct microwave radiation, either from appliance malfunction or deliberate action.[61][62] The general effect of this exposure will be physical burns to the body, as human tissue, particularly the outer fat and muscle layers, has similar composition to some foods that are typically cooked in microwave ovens and so experiences similar dielectric heating effects when exposed to microwave electromagnetic radiation.

Some magnetrons have ceramic insulators with beryllium oxide (beryllia) added. The beryllium in such oxides is a serious chemical hazard if crushed then inhaled or ingested. In addition, beryllia is listed as a confirmed human carcinogen by the IARC;[citation needed] therefore, broken ceramic insulators or magnetrons should not be handled. This is a danger if the microwave oven becomes physically damaged, if the insulator cracks, or when the magnetron is opened and handled, yet not during normal usage.


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On 11 April 2017, Sheeran shot the POV music video for "Galway Girl" in Galway, Ireland and filmed it himself on a Sony A6500 on body-mounted Ikan gimbal rigged to a Steadicam vest. The video was directed by Jason Koenig who also directed the "Shape of You" music video and director of photography Johnny Valencia. Galway Girl features Irish-American actress Saoirse Ronan.[21] It was uploaded to his official YouTube channel on 3 May 2017.[22]

Galway Girl (Ed Sheeran song)

"Galway Girl" is a song recorded by English singer-songwriter Ed Sheeran. The song is a collaboration between Sheeran and the Irish folk band Beoga, and heavily influenced by Irish traditional music.[4] On Saint Patrick's Day 2017, Sheeran announced the song as the third single from his album รท (2017), accompanied by a lyric video.[5][6]

The song reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart and number 1 on the Irish chart when it became available for download and streaming on the release of the album.

Sheeran wrote and recorded the song together with the Irish band Beoga, and the song incorporates parts of the song "Minute 5" from Beoga's album How to Tune a Fish.[7] They decided to write this song after they had finished another song together at his house, and had some time free.[8] In an interview with Zane Lowe, Sheeran said: "I came up with this song with Foy, and Johnny and Amy. We were recording in Suffolk and we were just sitting in the garden, and we had Beoga, this Irish folk band, come and recording some other songs. And I was kinda like: Beoga would be here for two or three days, it would be a shame to waste them, shall we try and write another song?... They have a song called "Minute 5", which is that riff. So I just said: "Can you try that on it?" And they did, and it sounded brilliant, so we just kept it."[9]

In an interview with The Irish Times, Sheeran said that the opening line of the song, "She played the fiddle in an Irish band", was inspired by Niamh Dunne of Beoga, however, the rest of the song was made up and not about anyone in particular (Dunne is from County Limerick and married an Irishman).[8][10] According to Sheeran, he had to fight his record label to keep the song on his album: "They were really, really against Galway Girl, because apparently folk music isn't cool."[11][12] However, it went on to become the third most streamed song from รท on Spotify.

The song was announced as the third single from the album on Saint Patrick's Day, 17 March, and it was added to BBC Radio 2's playlist on 18 March.[13]

Sheeran was aware that Steve Earle recorded a song with the same title in 2000. In 2008 a cover of the Steve Earle song by Sharon Shannon and Mundy was a number one hit and highest selling single of the year in Ireland. Sheeran said in a BBC interview "I actually tried to find another lyric. [...] none of them worked. But the whole point of folk songs is taking inspiration from the past and making something new â€“ so people will just have to deal with it.".[14] In a 2017 Dublin concert Sheeran played first verse and chorus of the Steve Earle song together with Beoga, followed by his own.[15]

Amy Mulvaney from the Irish Independent gave the song a positive review, calling it "Definitive proof of just how much he (Ed) likes Ireland" and wrote "With mentions of Grafton Street, "Carrickfergus", fiddles, céilis, an Irish band and trad tunes, there's no denying just how much the pop star loves our fair isle, and can see this becoming a sure fire hit over the next few weeks".[16] BBC 6 Music DJ Shaun Keaveny described the song as "Like finding a turd in your slipper", with Labour Party Deputy Leader Tom Watson asking, in reply, "Good for warming your feet on a cold day?"[17]

The song entered the UK chart at number 2 behind "Shape of You" when it became available for download on the album release.[18] As of September 2017, the song has sold 1.2 million combined units in the United Kingdom, with 246,000 in actual sales and 95 million in streams.[19]

In Ireland, it debuted at number one on the singles chart.[18] It also reached number one chart position in Scotland and Slovenia. In the United States, the song peaked at number 53, and has sold 210,813 copies as of October 2017.[20]

His new tattoo filmed in the video is misspelled "Galway Grill".[23]

*sales figures based on certification alone
^shipments figures based on certification alone
sales+streaming figures based on certification alone


who was named king of italy in 1861

Victor Emmanuel II (Vittorio Emanuele Maria Alberto Eugenio Ferdinando Tommaso di Savoia; 14 March 1820 â€“ 9 January 1878) was King of Sardinia from 1849 until 17 March 1861. At that point, he assumed the title of King of Italy and became the first king of a united Italy since the 6th century, a title he held until his death in 1878. The Italians gave him the epithet of Father of the Fatherland (Italian: Padre della Patria).

Victor Emmanuel II of Italy

Italian: Vittorio Emanuele Maria Alberto Eugenio Ferdinando Tommaso

Victor Emmanuel was born as the eldest son of Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano, and Maria Theresa of Austria. His father succeeded a distant cousin as King of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1831. He lived for some years of his youth in Florence and showed an early interest in politics, the military, and sports. In 1842, he married his cousin, Adelaide of Austria. He was styled as the Duke of Savoy prior to becoming King of Sardinia-Piedmont.

He took part in the First Italian War of Independence (1848-1849) under his father, King Charles Albert, fighting in the front line at the battles of Pastrengo, Santa Lucia, Goito and Custoza.[1]

He became King of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1849 when his father abdicated the throne, after a humiliating military defeat by the Austrians at the Battle of Novara. Victor Emmanuel was immediately able to obtain a rather favorable armistice at Vignale by the Austrian imperial army commander, Radetzky. The treaty, however, was not ratified by the Piedmontese lower parliamentary house, the Chamber of Deputies, and Victor Emmanuel retaliated by firing his Prime Minister, Claudio Gabriele de Launay, replacing him with Massimo D'Azeglio. After new elections, the peace with Austria was accepted by the new Chamber of Deputies. In 1849, Victor Emmanuel also fiercely suppressed a revolt in Genoa, defining the rebels as a "vile and infected race of canailles."

In 1852, he appointed Count Camillo Benso of Cavour ("Count Cavour") as Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. This turned out to be a wise choice, since Cavour was a political mastermind and a major player in the Italian unification in his own right. Victor Emmanuel II soon became the symbol of the "Risorgimento", the Italian unification movement of the 1850s and early 60s. [1] He was especially popular in the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont because of his respect for the new constitution and his liberal reforms.

Following Victor Emmanuel's advice, Cavour joined Britain and France in the Crimean War against Russia. Cavour was reluctant to go to war due to the power of Russia at the time and the expense of doing so. Victor Emmanuel, however, was convinced of the rewards to be gained from the alliance created with Britain and, more importantly, France.

After successfully seeking British support and ingratiating himself with France and Napoleon III at the Congress of Paris in 1856 at the end of the war, Count Cavour arranged a secret meeting with the French emperor. In 1858, they met at Plombières-les-Bains (in Lorraine), where they agreed that if the French were to help Piedmont combat Austria, which still occupied the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia in northern Italy, France would be awarded Nice and Savoy.

The Italo-French campaign against Austria in 1859 started successfully. However, sickened by the casualties of the war and worried about the mobilisation of Prussian troops, Napoleon III secretly made a treaty with Franz Joseph of Austria at Villafranca whereby Piedmont would only gain Lombardy. France did not as a result receive the promised Nice and Savoy, but Austria did keep Venetia, a major setback for the Piedmontese, in no small part because the treaty had been prepared without their knowledge. After several quarrels about the outcome of the war, Cavour resigned, and the king had to find other advisors. France indeed only gained Nice and Savoy after the Treaty of Turin was signed in March 1860, after Cavour had been reinstalled as Prime Minister, and a deal with the French was struck for plebiscites to take place in the Central Italian Duchies.

Later that same year, Victor Emmanuel II sent his forces to fight the papal army at Castelfidardo and drove the Pope into Vatican City. His success at these goals led him to be excommunicated from the Catholic Church. Then, Giuseppe Garibaldi conquered Sicily and Naples, and Sardinia-Piedmont grew even larger. On 17 March 1861 the Kingdom of Italy was officially established and Victor Emmanuel II became its king.

Victor Emmanuel supported Giuseppe Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand (1860â€“1861), which resulted in the rapid fall of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in southern Italy. However, the king halted Garibaldi when he appeared ready to attack Rome, still under the Papal States, as it was under French protection. In 1860, through local plebiscites, Tuscany, Modena, Parma and Romagna decided to side with Sardinia-Piedmont. Victor Emmanuel then marched victoriously in the Marche and Umbria after the victorious battle of Castelfidardo (1860) over the Papal forces.

The king subsequently met with Garibaldi at Teano, receiving from him the control of southern Italy. Another series of plebiscites in the occupied lands resulted in the proclamation of Victor Emmanuel as the first King of Italy by the new Parliament of unified Italy, on 17 March 1861. He did not renumber himself after assuming the new royal title, however. Turin became the capital of the new state. Only Rome, Veneto, and Trentino remained to be conquered.

In 1866 Victor Emmanuel allied himself with Prussia in the Third Italian War of Independence. Although not victorious in the Italian theater, he managed anyway to receive Veneto after the Austrian defeat in Germany. In 1870, after two failed attempts by Garibaldi, he also took advantage of the Prussian victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War to capture Rome after the French withdrew. He entered Rome on 20 September 1870 and set up the new capital there on 2 July 1871, after a temporary move to Florence in 1864. The new Royal residence was the Quirinal Palace.

The rest of Victor Emmanuel II’s reign was much quieter. After the Kingdom of Italy was established he decided to continue on as King Victor Emmanuel II instead of Victor Emmanuel I of Italy. This was a terrible move as far as public relations went as it was not indicative of the fresh start that the Italian people wanted and suggested that Sardinia-Piedmont had taken over the Italian Peninsula, rather than unifying it. Despite this mishap, the remainder of Victor Emmanuel II’s reign was consumed by wrapping up loose ends and dealing with economic and cultural issues. His role in day-to-day governing gradually dwindled, as it became increasingly apparent that a king could no longer keep a government in office against the will of Parliament. As a result, while the wording of the Statuto Albertino stipulating that ministers were solely responsible to the crown remained unchanged, in practice they were now responsible to Parliament.

Victor Emmanuel died in Rome in 1878, after meeting with Pope Pius IX's envoys, who had reversed the excommunication, and received last rites. He was buried in the Pantheon. His successor was his son Umberto I.[2]

In 1842 he married his first cousin once removed Adelaide of Austria (1822â€“1855). By her he had eight children:[3]

In 1869 he married morganatically his principal mistress Rosa Vercellana (3 June 1833 â€“ 26 December 1885). Popularly known in Piedmontese as "Bela Rosin", she was born a commoner but made Countess of Mirafiori and Fontanafredda in 1858. Their offspring were:

In addition to his morganatic second wife, Victor Emmanuel II had several other mistresses:

â€”Virginia Oldoini, Countess of Castiglione, who, as the mistress of Napoleon III, pleaded the case for Italian unification.

â€”Laura Bon at Stupinigi, who bore him two children:

â€”Virginia Rho at Turin, mother of two children:

—Unknown mistress at Mondovì, mother of:

â€”Baroness Vittoria Duplessis, who bore him:


who was the first african american coach to win a superbowl

Dungy became the first black head coach to win the Super Bowl when his Colts defeated the Chicago Bears in Super Bowl XLI.[1] Dungy set a new NFL record for consecutive playoff appearances by a head coach in 2008 after securing his tenth straight playoff appearance with a win against the Jacksonville Jaguars.[2][3]

Tony Dungy

Anthony Kevin Dungy (/ˈdʌndʒi/ DUN-jee; born October 6, 1955) is a former professional American football player and coach in the National Football League (NFL). Dungy was head coach of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers from 1996 to 2001, and head coach of the Indianapolis Colts from 2002 to 2008.

Dungy announced his retirement as coach of the Indianapolis Colts on January 12, 2009 following the Colts' loss in the playoffs.[4] The Colts qualified for the playoffs in every season they were coached by Dungy. Since retirement, Dungy has served as an analyst on NBC's Football Night in America. He is also the national spokesman for the fatherhood program All Pro Dad.[5]

Dungy was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame on February 6, 2016.

After playing Quarterback in college for the University of Minnesota, Dungy went undrafted in 1977 and was signed as a free agent by the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League as a safety. He played as a defensive reserve and special teams player for the Steelers in 1977 and the Super Bowl champion 1978 season, leading the team in interceptions in the latter campaign. In 1979, Dungy was traded to the San Francisco 49ers, then finished his career a year later in the training camp of the New York Giants in 1980.

Dungy is the most recent NFL player to intercept a pass and throw an interception in the same game. Dungy was the emergency quarterback for the Pittsburgh Steelers in a 1977 game against the Houston Oilers when both Terry Bradshaw and Mike Kruczek went down with injuries on October 9, 1977.[6] He played safety on defense.

Dungy has one Super Bowl title as a player, as he was a member of the Steelers when they won Super Bowl XIII.

Following his NFL experience as a player, Dungy was invited to become an assistant coach for his alma mater, the University of Minnesota in 1980. After one season in charge of defensive backs, he was asked to return to the NFL, this time as a coach. He was hired as an assistant by Steelers head coach Chuck Noll, his former head coach from his playing days with the team, in 1981. His work under Noll put Dungy in the Sid Gillman coaching cake.

In 1982, he was named defensive backfield coach, and was promoted in 1984 to defensive coordinator. He left the Steelers in 1989 to become the defensive backs coach for the Kansas City Chiefs, and took over the defensive coordinator position for the Minnesota Vikings under Dennis Green in 1992. While at Minnesota, Dungy's defense was ranked first in the NFL.

Dungy became an NFL head coach when he was hired by Rich McKay to reform the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, a team then well known for its lack of success, on January 22, 1996. Dungy installed his version of the Cover 2 defense with defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin with a few new wrinkles. The result was the now-famous Tampa 2, though Dungy openly admitted it was based on concepts he had picked up from his days in Pittsburgh.[7]

Despite finishing with a 6-10 record in 1996, the Buccaneers finished strong and showed signs of developing into a winning team. After a home win versus the Raiders, the Buccaneers fell to a quick 14â€“0 hole to the Chargers in San Diego. Instead of folding, the team fought to a hard win, their first win on the West Coast in 15 years. Many Bucs fans believe that this was where the long-beleaguered franchise finally turned the corner. It turned out to be the only losing season Dungy would suffer as a head coach.

In 1997, the Buccaneers started 5-0, their best start since 1979. They ultimately finished second in the NFC Central division, Tampa Bay's first winning season since 1982. In the last game played at Tampa Stadium, the Bucs defeated the Detroit Lions for only their second playoff win in franchise history. They lost the next game to the defending champion Green Bay Packers.

While the Bucs barely missed the playoffs in 1998, they rebounded strongly in 1999 to win their first division title since 1979, only to lose to the St. Louis Rams in the NFC Championship Game. They went on to reach the playoffs again in 2000 and 2001, only to be defeated in the wild card round each time by the Philadelphia Eagles. The Bucs were hobbled by constant changes to the offensive coordinator position; QB Shaun King had to work with three different coordinators in three years. Dungy was fired on January 14, 2002 due to the club's repeated losses in the playoffs. Additionally, owner Malcolm Glazer felt Dungy's offense was too conservative. Dungy thus became the first coach in Bucs history to leave the team with a winning record.

The following season, the Buccaneers won Super Bowl XXXVII, their first (and only through 2017) appearance in the championship game. Though Dungy was fired the prior season and replaced with Jon Gruden, Dungy has been credited for constructing the team.[8][9][10]

On January 22, 2002, Dungy was hired as head coach of the Indianapolis Colts,[11] a team that at the time was very potent offensively, but very weak defensively. He installed his "Tampa 2" defense immediately and continued to retool the Colts' defense to his liking during his tenure. After joining the Colts, Dungy left the high-powered offense previously installed there by Jim Mora, in both playing style and in personnel, virtually unchanged. Dungy was reunited with Tom Moore, who was retained as offensive coordinator. Moore and Dungy had previously worked together at Minnesota and Pittsburgh.[12]

During his early tenure in Indianapolis, Dungy struggled to fix the Colts' defense and had mixed results in the postseason. In his first season at Indianapolis, the Colts were shut out 41â€“0 by the New York Jets in a first-round playoff game, and the team lost postseason games to the New England Patriots in both 2003 (in the AFC championship game) and 2004 (in the second round of the playoffs). Dungy signed a three-year contract extension in October 2005[13] for US$5 million per year.[14][15]

The Colts focused on defensive improvements during the 2005 offseason, signing five-year defensive tackle Corey Simon. Widely expected to be a Super Bowl contender, the Colts won their first 13 games, prompting much speculation about the possibility of the Colts becoming the NFL's first team to finish the season undefeated since the 1972 Miami Dolphins.[citation needed]

Their thirteenth win guaranteed the Colts home field advantage throughout the playoffs. With nothing to play for except the chance to go unbeaten, the Colts lost their 14th game to the San Diego Chargers. The Colts played their starters sparingly in the last two games. The Colts lost in their first playoff game to the eventual Super Bowl winner Pittsburgh Steelers. This loss made the Colts the first team to ever start a season 13â€“0 and not reach the Super Bowl.

The Colts' 2006 playoff run was characterized by a marked improvement in defensive play, as the Colts defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, holding one of the NFL's best running backs to less than 50 yards, and upset the favored Baltimore Ravens in the divisional round. On January 21, 2007, after trailing 21â€“3, the Colts defeated the New England Patriots to become AFC Champions and advanced to Super Bowl XLI. This was the largest comeback in conference title game history.[16] By a matter of only a few hours, Dungy became the second black coach to lead his team to the Super Bowl. His good friend, Chicago Bears head coach Lovie Smith, had clinched the NFC's bid in the Super Bowl earlier in the day.

On February 4, 2007, Dungy and the Colts won Super Bowl XLI 29â€“17 over the Bears at Dolphin Stadium in Miami.

On December 23, 2007, with a win over the Houston Texans, Dungy won his 72nd game as Colts head coach, passing Don Shula to become the coach with most wins in franchise history.

On January 21, 2008, Dungy announced that he would return at least for the 2008 season.[17]

During the 2008 season, the Colts won 12 regular season games, including their last nine straight, clinching a wildcard berth, but were upset 23–17 in overtime by the San Diego Chargers in the wildcard round of the 2008–09 NFL playoffs.

On January 12, 2009, Jim Caldwell who'd been a long time Colts assistant was chosen as the new head coach for the Indianapolis Colts after being named Dungy's future successor a year earlier. On November 1, 2010, the Colts added Tony Dungy's name to the Indianapolis Colts Ring of Honor located on the middle balcony on the east side of Lucas Oil Stadium.Then came out of retirement for 3 more years.

In June 2009, NBC Sports hired Dungy to serve as a studio color analyst on the network's weekly Sunday Night Football pregame show, Football Night in America.

Dungy's career has included several notable firsts. Among them, Dungy is the first NFL head coach to defeat all 32 NFL teams.[18] He was also the youngest assistant coach at age 25[18] and the youngest coordinator at age 28[18] in NFL history.

Dungy was the first black head coach to win the Super Bowl (with the Colts' victory over the Bears in 2007). He was the third black head coach to win a pro football championship in North America, behind Darren Arbet of the San Jose Sabercats (Arena Football League) who won ArenaBowl XVI in 2002 and Pinball Clemons of the Toronto Argonauts (Canadian Football League) who won the 92nd Grey Cup in 2004.

Dungy also became the sixth man to play in a Super Bowl and be the head coach of a Super Bowl team. He joins Dan Reeves, Sam Wyche, Mike Ditka, Forrest Gregg and Tom Flores. Ron Rivera also accomplished this feat with the Carolina Panthers in 2015. After the win in Super Bowl XLI, Dungy became the third man to win Super Bowls both as a player and a head coach, following Ditka and Flores.

On offense, Tony Dungy's strategy involved a conservative, ball-control offense based primarily around running the ball and short, high-percentage passes when he was at Tampa Bay. At Indianapolis, he inherited and kept the offense designed by offensive coordinator Tom Moore because the offense was in the hands of someone he knew and trusted.[12] In both cases, most of the offensive planning has been handled by his offensive coordinators.

On defense, Dungy used a stifling "Cover 2" style zone defense, which usually was based around a formation of 4 linemen, 3 linebackers, and 4 defensive backs. The "Cover 2" defense Dungy used involved his linemen rushing the passer, the cornerbacks covering the passing flat area, the linebackers covering the middle of the field, and the safeties providing deep coverage on each half of their respective zones. While the Cover 2 defense was not a new concept, Dungy contributed to its greater use by systemizing it into an every-down defense. The personnel and techniques that Dungy used in this defense were very specific, and as a result, his style of defense earned the moniker of the "Tampa 2" around the NFL.[19]

Dungy is mentioned in the book Power of Habit, by Charles Duhigg, in chapter 3: "The Golden Rule of Habit Change." [20] [21]

Dungy is also credited with supporting and fostering the development of defensive-minded coaches, notably during his tenure with the Buccaneers. His contributions have had a great effect on the diversity of the league and helped lead to the institution of the Rooney Rule by Steelers owner Dan Rooney, requiring teams to interview minority coaches. Among those who have gone on to head coaching positions after working with Dungy include:

Moreover, Rod Marinelli, the defensive line coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay, was the head coach of the Detroit Lions from 2006 to 2008. Mike Shula, the offensive coordinator under Dungy at Tampa, was the head coach at the University of Alabama from 2003 to 2006. Herman Edwards, the former head coach for the New York Jets and Kansas City Chiefs was an assistant head coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay. Jim Caldwell, an assistant under Dungy in Indianapolis, was promoted to head coach in 2009, and coached the Colts for three seasons.

Joe Barry, a linebackers coach under Dungy at Tampa Bay, was the defensive coordinator for the Detroit Lions from 2006 to 2008.[24]

Dungy is listed as not only a part of the Bill Walsh coaching tree, but also a part of the Marty Schottenheimer coaching tree. The Dungy tree grew from the roots of the Pittsburgh Steelers' dynasty of the 1970s. He was influenced by the defensive schemes learned under Chuck Noll and Bud Carson.[25] Dungy said that he inherited most of the coaching philosophies from Noll and he is proud to be a protégé of Noll.[26]

Dungy stresses that coaches are essentially teachers[27] who put faith and family ahead of football, do not belittle their players or scream at them, and remain calm when things go badly. They guide instead of goad, and Lovie Smith found that perhaps the most instructive thing of all.

Smith said, "We talked about how to do it, being a teacher instead of screaming and yelling, all that stuff." [28]

Smith also said:

Dungy said:

Dungy also learned from Noll that it takes all 53 of the players on the team to win so that a coach should train the 53rd player on the roster as he would the third player, which has become the spine of Dungy's own coaching philosophy,[31] which is the Next Man Up theory of calm coaching.[32] Dungy stressed that a team should have a thought process, a philosophy, and the conviction to stick with it, even if personnel changes during the games because of injuries.[33] Dungy said:

Dungy put his coaching beliefs on his memoir, Quiet Strength: The Principles, Practices, and Priorities of a Winning Life (ISBNÂ 1-414-31801-4). Cam Cameron, former head coach of the Miami Dolphins, highly recommended the book by buying 1,000 books to give away to football coaches at his preseason coaching clinic in July 2007 in South Florida,[34] and said:

In August 2007, President George W. Bush appointed Dungy a member of the President's Council on Service and Civic Participation.[36] The 25-member council represents leaders from government, business, entertainment, athletics and non-profit organizations committed to growing the spirit of service and civic participation. The two-year appointment requires attendance at two in-person meetings per year and quarterly phone conversations with assigned committees. After receiving the call from President Bush, Dungy remarked "It was something that was really hard to believe. Certainly, when you go into football coaching, youâ€™re not expecting to get presidential appointments to anything."[36]

In March 2009 President Barack Obama invited Dungy to join the Advisory Council on Faith-Based and Neighborhood Partnerships.[37] He declined the invitation to join the council because of scheduling conflicts, as he could make only two of 2009's four council meetings, but agreed to be an informal adviser on fatherhood issues.[38]

He had also turned down offers from National Football League Players' Association to become liaison to the NFL.[39]

Dungy is an evangelical Christian and at one point in his coaching career considered leaving football for the prison ministry.[6] Throughout his career, he has remained involved with community service organizations.[40]

Dungy's tenure in Tampa Bay as the head coach of the Buccaneers brought greater attention to his personal accomplishments outside of sports. He has been active in many community service organizations in the cities in which he has coached. While in Tampa Bay, Dungy worked as a public speaker for the Fellowship of Christian Athletes and Athletes in Action.[18]

He began a mentoring program for young people called Mentors for Life, and provided Buccaneers' tickets for the participants. He also supported other charitable programs in the area such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Boys and Girls Club, the Prison Crusade Ministry, foster parenting organizations, and Family First. He continues to assist Big Brothers/Big Sisters and the Boys and Girls Club in Indianapolis. He also supports the Black Coaches Association National Convention and Indiana Black Expo.[18]

In Indianapolis, Dungy helped launch the Basket of Hope program at the Riley Hospital for Children. Basket of Hope is a national non-profit organization which began in 1995. Tony is the National Spokesperson for Basket of Hope and delivers the baskets filled with age and gender appropriate toys, games and craft items to Riley Hospital for Children. Along with the baskets, he delivers a Hope Tote, which includes Quiet Strength, a journal, Bible, Christian music, and other inspirational materials. Dungy worked with Basket of Hope and Riley Hospital for Children to implement the Super Baskets of Hope project where 7,000 baskets and totes were delivered to the 32 NFL cities and participating hospitals during the weeks surrounding Super Bowl XLVI.

After Michael Sam, an openly gay player, was drafted by the St. Louis Rams in the 2014 NFL Draft, Dungy said he would not have drafted Sam, saying "Not because I don't believe Michael Sam should have a chance to play, but I wouldn't want to deal with all of it." Dungy's viewpoint was shared by many others. The comment drew criticism from some who viewed it as homophobic.[41] Following a backlash, Dungy clarified his remarks, saying that he gave an "honest answer" to a question and that his concern would be with media coverage over Sam if had been the player's coach.[42] Dungy has also expressed opposition to same-sex marriage.[43]

Dungy was born in Jackson, Michigan. His parents were Wilbur Dungy (1926–2004), a science professor at Jackson College, and Cleomae Dungy (1920–2002), who taught Shakespeare at Jackson High School in Michigan. Wilbur served as a pilot during World War II with the famed Tuskegee Airmen.[44]

Dungy is married to Lauren Harris Dungy of Pittsburgh[6] and has two daughters, Tiara and Jade, and five sons: James (died December 22, 2005), Eric, Jordan, Justin, and Jason. James died by suicide at age 18, outside of Tampa.[45] The Dungys still keep their home in the Tampa Bay area. Dungy's son Eric played football at the University of Oregon for three seasons before transferring to the University of South Florida for his final season in 2014.

On September 6, 2007, The Indianapolis Star reported that the Davie-Brown Index (DBI), an independent celebrity rating service for advertisers, places Dungy in the top 15 of the 900 actors, musicians, TV personalities, and sports celebrities it ranks for overall appeal, putting him on a level with actors such as Tom Hanks and Morgan Freeman. Among sports figures, he ranks second to Hank Aaron.[40]

On February 27, 2008, Indiana Wesleyan University honored Dungy in a ceremony where he was inducted into IWU's Society of World Changers.[46] Dungy also received an honorary doctorate of humane letters from the university.[47][48]

On August 5, 2009, Dungy spoke at the 53rd General Council of the Assemblies of God.[citation needed]

Since retirement, Dungy has become an informal mentor to the formerly suspended NFL player Michael Vick, counseling him during his incarceration and, with the help of Donovan McNabb, convincing Eagles owner Jeff Lurie and head coach Andy Reid to consider signing him to the team's roster.[citation needed]

Dungy's memoir, Quiet Strength: The Principles, Practices, and Priorities of a Winning Life, was released on July 10, 2007[49] and reached No. 1 on the hardcover nonfiction section of the New York Times Best Seller list on August 5, 2007[50] and again on September 9, 2007.[51] Tyndale House Publishers said it was the first NFL-related book ever ranked No. 1.[52] When asked why he wrote Quiet Strength, Dungy said,

Dungy said he’d actually gotten "more satisfaction" from the success of Quiet Strength than the Super Bowl win. That's because, he said, "I’ve gotten so many calls and letters from people saying they really got something out of it, something that helped them."[54] On January 10, 2008, Quiet Strength reached 1,000,000 copies in print.[55] Quiet Strength was on the New York Times Best Seller List for 32 weeks, including 27 in the top 10 for hardcover nonfiction.[56]

Dungy also published a 96-page paperback called Quiet Strength: Men's Bible Study on July 18, 2007. Dungy challenged men to answer six questions: What's my game plan? What's my strength? What's success? Where's my security? What's my significance? And, what's my legacy? The book is aimed specifically at men, including those who may not otherwise be interested in spiritual matters.[57]

When asked if Dungy would consider writing a follow-up to Quiet Strength, Dungy said,

Dungy published a 24-page children's picture book called You Can Do It with Little Simon Inspirations, a division of Simon & Schuster on July 8, 2008, reached No. 1 on the children's picture books section of the New York Times Best Seller list on July 27, 2008[59] and stayed on the top 10 for 5 weeks.[60] The book tells the story of Dungy's younger brother Linden who struggles, then figures out his life dream and is encouraged by his family to follow that dream as a dentist.[61][62] Dungy said that his other hopes for You Can Do It were that it would encourage parents to read to their kids and that kids would learn the lesson of pursuing whatever field they were talented in, even if it might be not the popular thing to do.[63]

Dungy has also published Uncommon: Finding Your Path to Significance, a book revealing lessons on achieving significance that Dungy has learned. The book, released on February 17, 2009 with Tyndale House Publishers, particularly focuses on what it means to be a man of significance in a culture that is offering young men few positive role models. Dungy said,

Uncommon reached No. 2 on the hardcover advice section of the New York Times Best Seller list and stayed on the top 10 for 9 weeks.[65]

On August 3, 2010 Dungy released a new book entitled The Mentor Leader, which debuted at No. 2[66] and stayed on the top 10 for 5 weeks on the hardcover advice section of the New York Times Best Seller list.[67]

On January 11, 2011 Dungy and wife Lauren released a new book entitled You Can Be a Friend. Their story teaches children what it means to be a good friend.[68] The book debuted at No. 7[69] and stayed on the top 10 for 1 week on the children's picture books section of the New York Times Best Seller list.

Dungy was on the cover of NFL Head Coach 09 as its "cover coach".[70] The previous head coach on the cover was Bill Cowher. Coincidentally, both coaches would retire the season after their cover issues were published.


one can describe a currency forward contract as

In finance, a forward contract or simply a forward is a non-standardized contract between two parties to buy or to sell an asset at a specified future time at a price agreed upon today, making it a type of derivative instrument.[1][2] The party agreeing to buy the underlying asset in the future assumes a long position, and the party agreeing to sell the asset in the future assumes a short position. The price agreed upon is called the delivery price, which is equal to the forward price at the time the contract is entered into.

Forward contract

The price of the underlying instrument, in whatever form, is paid before control of the instrument changes. This is one of the many forms of buy/sell orders where the time and date of trade is not the same as the value date where the securities themselves are exchanged. Forwards, like other derivative securities, can be used to hedge risk (typically currency or exchange rate risk), as a means of speculation, or to allow a party to take advantage of a quality of the underlying instrument which is time-sensitive.

A closely related contract is a futures contract; they differ in certain respects. Forward contracts are very similar to futures contracts, except they are not exchange-traded, or defined on standardized assets.[3] Forwards also typically have no interim partial settlements or "true-ups" in margin requirements like futures â€“ such that the parties do not exchange additional property securing the party at gain and the entire unrealized gain or loss builds up while the contract is open. However, being traded over the counter (OTC), forward contracts specification can be customized and may include mark-to-market and daily margin calls. Hence, a forward contract arrangement might call for the loss party to pledge collateral or additional collateral to better secure the party at gain.[clarification needed] In other words, the terms of the forward contract will determine the collateral calls based upon certain "trigger" events relevant to a particular counterparty such as among other things, credit ratings, value of assets under management or redemptions over a specific time frame, e.g., quarterly, annually, etc.

The value of a forward position at maturity depends on the relationship between the delivery price (

K

{\displaystyle K}

) and the underlying price (

S

T

{\displaystyle S_{T}}

) at that time.

Since the final value (at maturity) of a forward position depends on the spot price which will then be prevailing, this contract can be viewed, from a purely financial point of view, as "a bet on the future spot price"[4]

Suppose that Bob wants to buy a house a year from now. At the same time, suppose that Andy currently owns a $100,000 house that he wishes to sell a year from now. Both parties could enter into a forward contract with each other. Suppose that they both agree on the sale price in one year's time of $104,000 (more below on why the sale price should be this amount). Andy and Bob have entered into a forward contract. Bob, because he is buying the underlying, is said to have entered a long forward contract. Conversely, Andy will have the short forward contract.

At the end of one year, suppose that the current market valuation of Andy's house is $110,000. Then, because Andy is obliged to sell to Bob for only $104,000, Bob will make a profit of $6,000. To see why this is so, one needs only to recognize that Bob can buy from Andy for $104,000 and immediately sell to the market for $110,000. Bob has made the difference in profit. In contrast, Andy has made a potential loss of $6,000, and an actual profit of $4,000.

The similar situation works among currency forwards, in which one party opens a forward contract to buy or sell a currency (ex. a contract to buy Canadian dollars) to expire/settle at a future date, as they do not wish to be exposed to exchange rate/currency risk over a period of time. As the exchange rate between U.S. dollars and Canadian dollars fluctuates between the trade date and the earlier of the date at which the contract is closed or the expiration date, one party gains and the counterparty loses as one currency strengthens against the other. Sometimes, the buy forward is opened because the investor will actually need Canadian dollars at a future date such as to pay a debt owed that is denominated in Canadian dollars. Other times, the party opening a forward does so, not because they need Canadian dollars nor because they are hedging currency risk, but because they are speculating on the currency, expecting the exchange rate to move favorably to generate a gain on closing the contract.

In a currency forward, the notional amounts of currencies are specified (ex: a contract to buy $100 million Canadian dollars equivalent to, say $75.2 million USD at the current rateâ€”these two amounts are called the notional amount(s)). While the notional amount or reference amount may be a large number, the cost or margin requirement to command or open such a contract is considerably less than that amount, which refers to the leverage created, which is typical in derivative contracts.

Continuing on the example above, suppose now that the initial price of Andy's house is $100,000 and that Bob enters into a forward contract to buy the house one year from today. But since Andy knows that he can immediately sell for $100,000 and place the proceeds in the bank, he wants to be compensated for the delayed sale. Suppose that the risk free rate of return R (the bank rate) for one year is 4%. Then the money in the bank would grow to $104,000, risk free. So Andy would want at least $104,000 one year from now for the contract to be worthwhile for him â€“ the opportunity cost will be covered.

For liquid assets ("tradeables"), spotâ€“forward parity provides the link between the spot market and the forward market. It describes the relationship between the spot and forward price of the underlying asset in a forward contract. While the overall effect can be described as the cost of carry, this effect can be broken down into different components, specifically whether the asset:

For an asset that provides no income, the relationship between the current forward (

F

0

{\displaystyle F_{0}}

) and spot (

S

0

{\displaystyle S_{0}}

) prices is

where

r

{\displaystyle r}

 is the continuously compounded risk free rate of return, and T is the time to maturity. The intuition behind this result is that given you want to own the asset at time T, there should be no difference in a perfect capital market between buying the asset today and holding it and buying the forward contract and taking delivery. Thus, both approaches must cost the same in present value terms. For an arbitrage proof of why this is the case, see Rational pricing below.

For an asset that pays known income, the relationship becomes:

where

I
=

{\displaystyle I=}

 the present value of the discrete income at time

t

0

<
T

{\displaystyle t_{0}<T}

, and

q
%
p
.
a
.

{\displaystyle q\%p.a.}

 is the continuously compounded dividend yield over the life of the contract. The intuition is that when an asset pays income, there is a benefit to holding the asset rather than the forward because you get to receive this income. Hence the income (

I

{\displaystyle I}

 or

q

{\displaystyle q}

) must be subtracted to reflect this benefit. An example of an asset which pays discrete income might be a stock, and an example of an asset which pays a continuous yield might be a foreign currency or a stock index.

For investment assets which are commodities, such as gold and silver, storage costs must also be considered. Storage costs can be treated as 'negative income', and like income can be discrete or continuous. Hence with storage costs, the relationship becomes:

where

U
=

{\displaystyle U=}

 the present value of the discrete storage cost at time

t

0

<
T

{\displaystyle t_{0}<T}

, and

u
%
p
.
a
.

{\displaystyle u\%p.a.}

 is the continuously compounded storage cost where it is proportional to the price of the commodity, and is hence a 'negative yield'. The intuition here is that because storage costs make the final price higher, we have to add them to the spot price.

Consumption assets are typically raw material commodities which are used as a source of energy or in a production process, for example crude oil or iron ore. Users of these consumption commodities may feel that there is a benefit from physically holding the asset in inventory as opposed to holding a forward on the asset. These benefits include the ability to "profit from" (hedge against) temporary shortages and the ability to keep a production process running,[1] and are referred to as the convenience yield. Thus, for consumption assets, the spot-forward relationship is:

where

y
%
p
.
a
.

{\displaystyle y\%p.a.}

 is the convenience yield over the life of the contract. Since the convenience yield provides a benefit to the holder of the asset but not the holder of the forward, it can be modelled as a type of 'dividend yield'. However, it is important to note that the convenience yield is a non cash item, but rather reflects the market's expectations concerning future availability of the commodity. If users have low inventories of the commodity, this implies a greater chance of shortage, which means a higher convenience yield. The opposite is true when high inventories exist.[1]

The relationship between the spot and forward price of an asset reflects the net cost of holding (or carrying) that asset relative to holding the forward. Thus, all of the costs and benefits above can be summarised as the cost of carry,

c

{\displaystyle c}

. Hence,

The market's opinion about what the spot price of an asset will be in the future is the expected future spot price.[1] Hence, a key question is whether or not the current forward price actually predicts the respective spot price in the future. There are a number of different hypotheses which try to explain the relationship between the current forward price,

F

0

{\displaystyle F_{0}}

 and the expected future spot price,

E
(

S

T

)

{\displaystyle E(S_{T})}

.

The economists John Maynard Keynes and John Hicks argued that in general, the natural hedgers of a commodity are those who wish to sell the commodity at a future point in time.[5][6] Thus, hedgers will collectively hold a net short position in the forward market. The other side of these contracts are held by speculators, who must therefore hold a net long position. Hedgers are interested in reducing risk, and thus will accept losing money on their forward contracts. Speculators on the other hand, are interested in making a profit, and will hence only enter the contracts if they expect to make money. Thus, if speculators are holding a net long position, it must be the case that the expected future spot price is greater than the forward price.

In other words, the expected payoff to the speculator at maturity is:

Thus, if the speculators expect to profit,

This market situation, where

E
(

S

T

)
>

F

0

{\displaystyle E(S_{T})>F_{0}}

, is referred to as normal backwardation. Forward/futures prices converge with the spot price at maturity, as can be seen from the previous relationships by letting T go to 0 (see also basis); then normal backwardation implies that futures prices for a certain maturity are increasing over time. The opposite situation, where

E
(

S

T

)
<

F

0

{\displaystyle E(S_{T})<F_{0}}

, is referred to as contango. Likewise, contango implies that futures prices for a certain maturity are falling over time.[7]

If

S

t

{\displaystyle S_{t}}

 is the spot price of an asset at time

t

{\displaystyle t}

, and

r

{\displaystyle r}

 is the continuously compounded rate, then the forward price at a future time

T

{\displaystyle T}

 must satisfy

F

t
,
T

=

S

t

e

r
(
T
−
t
)

{\displaystyle F_{t,T}=S_{t}e^{r(T-t)}}

.

To prove this, suppose not. Then we have two possible cases.

Case 1: Suppose that

F

t
,
T

>

S

t

e

r
(
T
−
t
)

{\displaystyle F_{t,T}>S_{t}e^{r(T-t)}}

. Then an investor can execute the following trades at time

t

{\displaystyle t}

:

The initial cost of the trades at the initial time sum to zero.

At time

T

{\displaystyle T}

 the investor can reverse the trades that were executed at time

t

{\displaystyle t}

. Specifically, and mirroring the trades 1., 2. and 3. the investor

The sum of the inflows in 1.' and 2.' equals

F

t
,
T

−

S

t

e

r
(
T
−
t
)

{\displaystyle F_{t,T}-S_{t}e^{r(T-t)}}

, which by hypothesis, is positive. This is an arbitrage profit. Consequently, and assuming that the non-arbitrage condition holds, we have a contradiction. This is called a cash and carry arbitrage because you "carry" the asset until maturity.

Case 2: Suppose that

F

t
,
T

<

S

t

e

r
(
T
−
t
)

{\displaystyle F_{t,T}<S_{t}e^{r(T-t)}}

. Then an investor can do the reverse of what he has done above in case 1. But if you look at the convenience yield page, you will see that if there are finite assets/inventory, the reverse cash and carry arbitrage is not always possible. It would depend on the elasticity of demand for forward contracts and such like.

Suppose that

F

V

T

(
X
)

{\displaystyle FV_{T}(X)}

 is the time value of cash flows X at the contract expiration time

T

{\displaystyle T}

. The forward price is then given by the formula:

The cash flows can be in the form of dividends from the asset, or costs of maintaining the asset.

If these price relationships do not hold, there is an arbitrage opportunity for a riskless profit similar to that discussed above. One implication of this is that the presence of a forward market will force spot prices to reflect current expectations of future prices. As a result, the forward price for nonperishable commodities, securities or currency is no more a predictor of future price than the spot price is - the relationship between forward and spot prices is driven by interest rates. For perishable commodities, arbitrage does not have this

The above forward pricing formula can also be written as:

Where

I

t

{\displaystyle I_{t}}

 is the time t value of all cash flows over the life of the contract.

For more details about pricing, see forward price.

Allaz and Vila (1993) suggest that there is also a strategic reason (in an imperfect competitive environment) for the existence of forward trading, that is, forward trading can be used even in a world without uncertainty. This is due to firms having Stackelberg incentives to anticipate their production through forward contracts.