the separation of homologous chromosomes during meiosis is called

In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell.[1] The two meiotic divisions are known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Before meiosis begins, during S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as "premeiotic S-phase" or "meiotic S-phase". Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase. During this time, homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA is cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information. A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi (X)) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links are essential to direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during Meiosis I, resulting in two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. During Meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis. In some cases all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores, or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to produce an ovum.

Meiosis

Meiosis (from Greek μειώσεις, meiosis, which means lessening) /maɪˈoʊsɪs/ ( listen) is a specialized type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, creating four haploid cells, each genetically distinct from the parent cell that gave rise to them.[1] This process occurs in all sexually reproducing single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including animals, plants, and fungi.[2][3][4][5] Errors in meiosis resulting in aneuploidy are the leading known cause of miscarriage and the most frequent genetic cause of developmental disabilities.[6]

Because the number of chromosomes is halved during meiosis, gametes can fuse (i.e. fertilization) to form a diploid zygote that contains two copies of each chromosome, one from each parent. Thus, alternating cycles of meiosis and fertilization enable sexual reproduction, with successive generations maintaining the same number of chromosomes. For example, diploid human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes including 1 pair of sex chromosomes (46 total), half of maternal origin and half of paternal origin. Meiosis produces haploid gametes (ova or sperm) that contain one set of 23 chromosomes. When two gametes (an egg and a sperm) fuse, the resulting zygote is once again diploid, with the mother and father each contributing 23 chromosomes. This same pattern, but not the same number of chromosomes, occurs in all organisms that utilize meiosis.

Although the process of meiosis is related to the more general cell division process of mitosis, it differs in two important respects:

usually occurs between identical sister chromatids and does not result in genetic changes

Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed homologs. First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange DNA by homologous recombination leading to physical connections (crossovers) between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the spindle apparatus. The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and two small polar bodies. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal DNA, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent. Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which natural selection can act.

Meiosis uses many of the same mechanisms as mitosis, the type of cell division used by eukaryotes to divide one cell into two identical daughter cells. In some plants, fungi, and protists meiosis results in the formation of spores: haploid cells that can divide vegetatively without undergoing fertilization. Some eukaryotes, like bdelloid rotifers, do not have the ability to carry out meiosis and have acquired the ability to reproduce by parthenogenesis.

Meiosis does not occur in archaea or bacteria, which generally reproduce asexually via binary fission. However, a "sexual" process known as horizontal gene transfer involves the transfer of DNA from one bacterium or archaeon to another and recombination of these DNA molecules of different parental origin.

Meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in 1876 by the German biologist Oscar Hertwig. It was described again in 1883, at the level of chromosomes, by the Belgian zoologist Edouard Van Beneden, in Ascaris roundworm eggs. The significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance, however, was described only in 1890 by German biologist August Weismann, who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained. In 1911 the American geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan detected crossovers in meiosis in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, which helped to establish that genetic traits are transmitted on chromosomes.

The term meiosis (originally spelled "maiosis") was introduced to biology by J.B. Farmer and J.E.S. Moore in 1905:

We propose to apply the terms Maiosis or Maiotic phase to cover the whole series of nuclear changes included in the two divisions that were designated as Heterotype and Homotype by Flemming.[7]

It is derived from the Greek word μείωσις, meaning 'lessening'.

Meiosis occurs in eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction, consisting of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization. This takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division. In multicellular organisms, there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows. At certain stages of the life cycle, germ cells produce gametes. Somatic cells make up the body of the organism and are not involved in gamete production.

Cycling meiosis and fertilization events produces a series of transitions back and forth between alternating haploid and diploid states. The organism phase of the life cycle can occur either during the diploid state (gametic or diploid life cycle), during the haploid state (zygotic or haploid life cycle), or both (sporic or haplodiploid life cycle, in which there are two distinct organism phases, one during the haploid state and the other during the diploid state). In this sense there are three types of life cycles that utilize sexual reproduction, differentiated by the location of the organism phase(s).[citation needed]

In the gametic life cycle or " diplontic life cycle", of which humans are a part, the organism is diploid, grown from a diploid cell called the zygote. The organism's diploid germ-line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes (the spermatozoa for males and ova for females), which fertilize to form the zygote. The diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism.

In the zygotic life cycle the organism is haploid instead, spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete. Two organisms of opposing sex contribute their haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. The zygote undergoes meiosis immediately, creating four haploid cells. These cells undergo mitosis to create the organism. Many fungi and many protozoa utilize the zygotic life cycle.[citation needed]

Finally, in the sporic life cycle, the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states. Consequently, this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations. The diploid organism's germ-line cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. The spores proliferate by mitosis, growing into a haploid organism. The haploid organism's gamete then combines with another haploid organism's gamete, creating the zygote. The zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become a diploid organism again. The sporic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the gametic and zygotic life cycles.[8][citation needed]

The preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to interphase of the mitotic cell cycle[9].

Interphase is divided into three phases:

Interphase is followed by meiosis I and then meiosis II. Meiosis I separates homologous chromosomes, each still made up of two sister chromatids, into two daughter cells, thus reducing the chromosome number by half. During meiosis II, sister chromatids decouple and the resultant daughter chromosomes are segregated into four daughter cells. For diploid organisms, the daughter cells resulting from meiosis are haploid and contain only one copy of each chromosome. In some species, cells enter a resting phase known as interkinesis between meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis I and II are each divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase stages, similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle. Therefore, meiosis includes the stages of meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II).

Meiosis generates gamete genetic diversity in two ways: (1) Law of Independent Assortment. The independent orientation of homologous chromosome pairs along the metaphase plate during metaphase I & orientation of sister chromatids in metaphase II, this is the subsequent separation of homologs and sister chromatids during anaphase I & II, it allows a random and independent distribution of chromosomes to each daughter cell (and ultimately to gametes);[10] and (2) Crossing Over. The physical exchange of homologous chromosomal regions by homologous recombination during prophase I results in new combinations of DNA within chromosomes.[11]

During meiosis, specific genes are more highly transcribed.[12] In addition to strong meiotic stage-specific expression of mRNA, there are also pervasive translational controls (e.g. selective usage of preformed mRNA), regulating the ultimate meiotic stage-specific protein expression of genes during meiosis.[13] Thus, both transcriptional and translational controls determine the broad restructuring of meiotic cells needed to carry out meiosis.

Meiosis is divided into meiosis I and meiosis II which are further divided into Karyokinesis I and Cytokinesis I and Karyokinesis II and Cytokinesis II respectively.

Meiosis I segregates homologous chromosomes, which are joined as tetrads (2n, 4c), producing two haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) which each contain chromatid pairs (1n, 2c). Because the ploidy is reduced from diploid to haploid, meiosis I is referred to as a reductional division. Meiosis II is an equational division analogous to mitosis, in which the sister chromatids are segregated, creating four haploid daughter cells (1n, 1c).[14]

Prophase I is typically the longest phase of meiosis. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes pair and exchange DNA (homologous recombination). This often results in chromosomal crossover. This process is critical for pairing between homologous chromosomes and hence for accurate segregation of the chromosomes at the first meiosis division. The new combinations of DNA created during crossover are a significant source of genetic variation, and result in new combinations of alleles, which may be beneficial. The paired and replicated chromosomes are called bivalents or tetrads, which have two chromosomes and four chromatids, with one chromosome coming from each parent. The process of pairing the homologous chromosomes is called synapsis. At this stage, non-sister chromatids may cross-over at points called chiasmata (plural; singular chiasma).[15] Prophase I has historically been divided into a series of substages which are named according to the appearance of chromosomes.

The first stage of prophase I is the leptotene stage, also known as leptonema, from Greek words meaning "thin threads".[16]:27In this stage of prophase I, individual chromosomes—each consisting of two sister chromatids—become "individualized" to form visible strands within the nucleus.[16]:27[17]:353 The two sister chromatids closely associate and are visually indistinguishable from one another. During leptotene, lateral elements of the synaptonemal complex assemble. Leptotene is of very short duration and progressive condensation and coiling of chromosome fibers takes place.

The zygotene stage, also known as zygonema, from Greek words meaning "paired threads",[16]:27 occurs as the chromosomes approximately line up with each other into homologous chromosome pairs. In some organisms, this is called the bouquet stage because of the way the telomeres cluster at one end of the nucleus. At this stage, the synapsis (pairing/coming together) of homologous chromosomes takes place, facilitated by assembly of central element of the synaptonemal complex. Pairing is brought about in a zipper-like fashion and may start at the centromere (procentric), at the chromosome ends (proterminal), or at any other portion (intermediate). Individuals of a pair are equal in length and in position of the centromere. Thus pairing is highly specific and exact. The paired chromosomes are called bivalent or tetrad chromosomes.

The pachytene (pronounced /ˈpækɪtiːn/ PAK-ə-teen) stage, also known as pachynema, from Greek words meaning "thick threads",.[16]:27 At this point a tetrad of the chromosomes has formed known as a bivalent. This is the stage when homologous recombination, including chromosomal crossover (crossing over), occurs. Nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes may exchange segments over regions of homology. Sex chromosomes, however, are not wholly identical, and only exchange information over a small region of homology. At the sites where exchange happens, chiasmata form. The exchange of information between the non-sister chromatids results in a recombination of information; each chromosome has the complete set of information it had before, and there are no gaps formed as a result of the process. Because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex, the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope, and chiasmata are not visible until the next stage.

During the diplotene stage, also known as diplonema, from Greek words meaning "two threads",[16]:30 the synaptonemal complex degrades and homologous chromosomes separate from one another a little. The chromosomes themselves uncoil a bit, allowing some transcription of DNA. However, the homologous chromosomes of each bivalent remain tightly bound at chiasmata, the regions where crossing-over occurred. The chiasmata remain on the chromosomes until they are severed at the transition to anaphase I.

In human fetal oogenesis, all developing oocytes develop to this stage and are arrested in prophase I before birth.[18] This suspended state is referred to as the dictyotene stage or dictyate. It lasts until meiosis is resumed to prepare the oocyte for ovulation, which happens at puberty or even later.

Chromosomes condense further during the diakinesis stage, from Greek words meaning "moving through".[16]:30 This is the first point in meiosis where the four parts of the tetrads are actually visible. Sites of crossing over entangle together, effectively overlapping, making chiasmata clearly visible. Other than this observation, the rest of the stage closely resembles prometaphase of mitosis; the nucleoli disappear, the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles, and the meiotic spindle begins to form.

During these stages, two centrosomes, containing a pair of centrioles in animal cells, migrate to the two poles of the cell. These centrosomes, which were duplicated during S-phase, function as microtubule organizing centers nucleating microtubules, which are essentially cellular ropes and poles. The microtubules invade the nuclear region after the nuclear envelope disintegrates, attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore. The kinetochore functions as a motor, pulling the chromosome along the attached microtubule toward the originating centrosome, like a train on a track. There are four kinetochores on each tetrad, but the pair of kinetochores on each sister chromatid fuses and functions as a unit during meiosis I.[19][20]

Microtubules that attach to the kinetochores are known as kinetochore microtubules. Other microtubules will interact with microtubules from the opposite centrosome: these are called nonkinetochore microtubules or polar microtubules. A third type of microtubules, the aster microtubules, radiates from the centrosome into the cytoplasm or contacts components of the membrane skeleton.[citation needed]

Homologous pairs move together along the metaphase plate: As kinetochore microtubules from both centrosomes attach to their respective kinetochores, the paired homologous chromosomes align along an equatorial plane that bisects the spindle, due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted on the bivalents by the microtubules emanating from the two kinetochores of homologous chromosomes. This attachment is referred to as a bipolar attachment. The physical basis of the independent assortment of chromosomes is the random orientation of each bivalent along the metaphase plate, with respect to the orientation of the other bivalents along the same equatorial line.[15] The protein complex cohesin holds sister chromatids together from the time of their replication until anaphase. In mitosis, the force of kinetochore microtubules pulling in opposite directions creates tension. The cell senses this tension and does not progress with anaphase until all the chromosomes are properly bi-oriented. In meiosis, establishing tension requires at least one crossover per chromosome pair in addition to cohesin between sister chromatids.

Kinetochore microtubules shorten, pulling homologous chromosomes (which consist of a pair of sister chromatids) to opposite poles. Nonkinetochore microtubules lengthen, pushing the centrosomes farther apart. The cell elongates in preparation for division down the center.[15] Unlike in mitosis, only the cohesin from the chromosome arms is degraded while the cohesin surrounding the centromere remains protected. This allows the sister chromatids to remain together while homologs are segregated.

The first meiotic division effectively ends when the chromosomes arrive at the poles. Each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids. The microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear, and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set. The chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin. Cytokinesis, the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells, occurs, completing the creation of two daughter cells. Sister chromatids remain attached during telophase I.

Cells may enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase II. No DNA replication occurs during this stage.

Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids. Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The end result is production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.

In prophase II we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids. Centrosomes move to the polar regions and arrange spindle fibers for the second meiotic division.

In metaphase II, the centromeres contain two kinetochores that attach to spindle fibers from the centrosomes at opposite poles. The new equatorial metaphase plate is rotated by 90 degrees when compared to meiosis I, perpendicular to the previous plate.{{[21]}}

This is followed by anaphase II, in which the remaining centromeric cohesin is cleaved allowing the sister chromatids to segregate. The sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes as they move toward opposing poles.

The process ends with telophase II, which is similar to telophase I, and is marked by decondensation and lengthening of the chromosomes and the disassembly of the spindle. Nuclear envelopes reform and cleavage or cell plate formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Meiosis is now complete and ends up with four new daughter cells.

The origin and function of meiosis are fundamental to understanding the evolution of sexual reproduction in eukaryotes. There is no current consensus among biologists on the questions of how sex in Eukaryotes arose in evolution, what basic function sexual reproduction serves, and why it is maintained, given the basic two-fold cost of sex. It is clear that it evolved over 1.2 billion years ago, and that almost all species which are descendants of the original sexually reproducing species are still sexual reproducers, including plants, fungi, and animals.

Meiosis is a key event of the sexual cycle in Eukaryotes. It is the stage of the life cycle when a cell gives rise to two haploid cells (gametes) each having half as many chromosomes. Two such haploid gametes, arising from different individual organisms, fuse by the process of fertilization, thus completing the sexual cycle.

Meiosis is ubiquitous among eukaryotes. It occurs in single-celled organisms such as yeast, as well as in multicellular organisms, such as humans. Eukaryotes arose from prokaryotes more than 2.2 billion years ago[22] and the earliest eukaryotes were likely single-celled organisms. To understand sex in eukaryotes, it is necessary to understand (1) how meiosis arose in single celled eukaryotes, and (2) the function of meiosis.

The normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis I or sister chromatids in meiosis II is termed disjunction. When the segregation is not normal, it is called nondisjunction. This results in the production of gametes which have either too many or too few of a particular chromosome, and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy. Nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis I or meiosis II, phases of cellular reproduction, or during mitosis.

Most monosomic and trisomic human embryos are not viable, but some aneuploidies can be tolerated, such as trisomy for the smallest chromosome, chromosome 21. Phenotypes of these aneuploidies range from severe developmental disorders to asymptomatic. Medical conditions include but are not limited to:

The probability of nondisjunction in human oocytes increases with increasing maternal age,[23] presumably due to loss of cohesin over time.[24]

Meiosis occurs in all animals and plants. The end result, the production of gametes with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell, is the same, but the detailed process is different. In animals, meiosis produces gametes directly. In land plants and some algae, there is an alternation of generations such that meiosis in the diploid sporophyte generation produces haploid spores. These spores multiply by mitosis, developing into the haploid gametophyte generation, which then gives rise to gametes directly (i.e. without further meiosis). In both animals and plants, the final stage is for the gametes to fuse, restoring the original number of chromosomes.[25]

In females, meiosis occurs in cells known as oocytes (singular: oocyte). Each primary oocyte divides twice in meiosis, unequally in each case. The first division produces a daughter cell, and a much smaller polar body which may or may not undergo a second division. In meiosis II, division of the daughter cell produces a second polar body, and a single haploid cell, which enlarges to become an ovum. Therefore, in females each primary oocyte that undergoes meiosis results in one mature ovum and one or two polar bodies.

Note that there are pauses during meiosis in females. Maturing oocytes are arrested in prophase I of meiosis I and lie dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle. At the beginning of each menstrual cycle, FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary stimulates a few follicles to mature in a process known as folliculogenesis. During this process, the maturing oocytes resume meiosis and continue until metaphase II of meiosis II, where they are again arrested just before ovulation. If these oocytes are fertilized by sperm, they will resume and complete meiosis. During folliculogenesis in humans, usually one follicle becomes dominant while the others undergo atresia. The process of meiosis in females occurs during oogenesis, and differs from the typical meiosis in that it features a long period of meiotic arrest known as the dictyate stage and lacks the assistance of centrosomes.[26][27]

In males, meiosis occurs during spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles. Meiosis during spermatogenesis is specific to a type of cell called spermatocytes, which will later mature to become spermatozoa. Meiosis of primordial germ cells happens at the time of puberty, much later than in females. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, a stimulator of meiosis. This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid. Sensitivity to retinoic acid is also adjusted by proteins called nanos and DAZL.

In female mammals, meiosis begins immediately after primordial germ cells migrate to the ovary in the embryo. It is retinoic acid, derived from the primitive kidney (mesonephros) that stimulates meiosis in ovarian oogonia. Tissues of the male testis suppress meiosis by degrading retinoic acid, a stimulator of meiosis. This is overcome at puberty when cells within seminiferous tubules called Sertoli cells start making their own retinoic acid.[28][29]

In order to understand meiosis, a comparison to mitosis is helpful. The table below shows the differences between meiosis and mitosis.[30]


who played commander shelby in star trek the next generation

Elizabeth Hannah Dennehy (born October 1, 1960) is an American television and film actress, best known for her role as Commander Shelby in the Star Trek: The Next Generation two-part episode "The Best of Both Worlds". She has also appeared in such television series as Guiding Light, Seinfeld, Charmed, and Without a Trace, and films such as Clear and Present Danger, Gattaca, Soldier, Red Dragon, and True Blood.

Elizabeth Dennehy

In September 1994, when Geneviève Bujold quit Star Trek: Voyager after three days of filming, Dennehy was reported as one of the replacement candidates for the role of Captain Janeway.[1]

Dennehy is the daughter of actor Brian Dennehy.


who plays liz in shaun of the dead

Kate Ashfield (born 28 May 1972) is an English actress, best known for her award-winning roles as Jody in the Anglo-German film Late Night Shopping, as Sadie MacGregor in the British film This Little Life and as Liz in the 2004 film, Shaun of the Dead.

Kate Ashfield

Ashfield was born in Birmingham, England. She was educated at the King Edward VI Camp Hill School for Girls, in Birmingham, and was one of the first girls to join the sixth form of King Edward VI Five Ways. She appeared in As You Like It and was involved in a number of local youth theatre groups. She trained at Rose Bruford College.

She has since appeared in many films, television and theatre productions. Her first film role came in 1994 as Ella in John Wells' film Princess Caraboo. One of Ashfield's first stage appearances was in the 1995 Royal Court Theatre production of Blasted by Sarah Kane and in 1996 controversially appeared topless in Mark Ravenhill's Shopping and Fucking.[1]

She has since performed in numerous plays associated with the In-yer-face theatre movement [clarification needed], and was invited to speak on the subject at the University of the West of England's 2002 In-Yer-Face?: British Drama in the 1990s conference.[2]

In 2009 she appeared in a short film "War School", raising awareness on the use of child soldiers. The film won the CTRL.ALT.SHIFT film competition, where the public were able to 'Take action' and buy a football, in which all proceeds went to the Coalition to Stop the use of Child Soldiers. She has featured in The Diary of Anne Frank and Collision, and will next work on the thriller Hush.[citation needed]

In April 2011, she appeared as the then Manchester United club secretary Alma George in the BBC TV drama United, which was centred on the Munich air disaster in 1958.[3]


what was built by the inmates of changi prison camp

Allied POWs, mainly Australians, built a chapel at the prison in 1944 using simple tools and found materials. Stanley Warren of the 15th Regiment, Royal Regiment of Artillery painted a series of murals at the chapel. Another British POW, Sgt. Harry Stodgen built a Christian cross out of a used artillery shell. After the war, the chapel was dismantled and shipped to Australia, while the cross was sent to the UK. The chapel was reconstructed in 1988, and is now located at the Royal Military College, Duntroon, Canberra.

Changi Prison

Changi Prison Complex (Chinese: 樟宜监狱; Malay: Penjara Changi; Tamil: சாங்கி சிறைச்சாலை), often simply known as Changi Prison, is a prison located in Changi in the eastern part of Singapore.

Changi Prison was constructed by the British administration of the Straits Settlements as a civilian prison, in 1936.

During World War II, following the Fall of Singapore in February 1942, the Japanese military detained about 3,000 civilians in Changi Prison, which was built to house only 600 prisoners. The Japanese used the British Army's Selarang Barracks, near the prison, as a prisoner of war camp, holding some 50,000 Allied soldiers, predominantly British and Australian; and from 1943, Dutch civilians brought over by the Japanese from the islands in the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).[1] POWs were in fact rarely, if ever, held in the civilian prison. Nevertheless, in the UK, Australia, The Netherlands and elsewhere, the name "Changi" became synonymous with the infamous POW camp nearby.

About 850 POWs died during their internment in Changi during the Japanese occupation of Singapore,[2] a relatively low rate compared to the overall death rate of 27% for POWs in Japanese camps.[3] However, many more prisoners died after being transferred from Changi to various labour camps outside Singapore, including the Burma Railway and the Sandakan airfield.

After the war, the prison was used to hold former Japanese staff officers, Kempeitai, police, and guards from concentration camps. Executions were conducted in the inner yard where three gallows were erected. British soldiers were stationed there as prison guards. On 17 October 1945, all 260 German seamen of the former U-Boats were moved from Pasir Panjang to the prison. On 26 June 1946, all German soldiers and civilians were notified they would be shipped back to England on a passenger liner, the Empress of Australia.[4]:245â€“252

The prison also contained the headquarters of the Kempeitai, the Japanese military police. The Kempeitai tortured prisoners there, who they suspected were spies.[citation needed]

In 1988, Singapore built a replica chapel (which was built by the POWs) and museum next to the Changi Prison. When Changi Prison was expanded in 2001, the chapel and museum were relocated to a new site 1Â km away and the Changi chapel and museum were officially established 15 February 2001.

In 2000, the old prison was demolished and its inmates were relocated to a new consolidated prison complex in a neighbouring site. In view of its historical significance, the Preservation of Monuments Board worked with the Singapore Prison Service and the Urban Redevelopment Authority to allow the front gates of the old prison to be preserved and moved to the new prison. In 1994 Changi Women's Prison and Drug Rehabilitation Centre was opened.

Presently, the new Changi Prison houses the most serious criminal offenders in the country, including criminal offenders who are serving long sentences and those who have been sentenced to death. It serves as the detention site for death row inmates at Changi, before they are executed by hanging, traditionally on a Friday morning.

Changi Prison is also one of the main places (though not the only one) where judicial corporal punishment by caning is carried out. Caning sessions at Changi are held twice per week. A former employee of the prison has been quoted as saying: "They are flogging more and more these days. Before they were doing maybe 60 on Tuesdays and Fridays, now they're doing a hundred".[5]

On 15 February 2016, the remaining structures of the original prison â€“ the entrance gate, wall and turrets were designated as the country's 72nd national monument.[6][7]


what is meant by the concept collective existence

A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together to achieve a common objective.[citation needed] Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an economic benefit or saving, but can be that as well.

Collective

The term "collective" is sometimes used to describe a species as a wholeâ€”for example, the human collective.

For political purposes, a collective is defined by decentralized, or "majority-rules" decision making styles.

Collectives are sometimes characterised by attempts to share and exercise political and social power and to make decisions on a consensus-driven and egalitarian basis.

A commune or intentional community, which may also be known as a "collective household", is a group of people who live together in some kind of dwelling or residence, or in some other arrangement (e.g. sharing land). Collective households may be organized for a specific purpose (e.g. relating to business, parenting, or some other shared interest).

Artist collectives, including musical collectives, are typically a collection of individuals with similar interests in producing and documenting art as a group. These groups can range in size from a few people to thousands of members.[citation needed] The style of art produced can have vast differences. Motivations can be for a common cause or individually motivated purposes. Some collectives are simply people who enjoy painting with someone else and have no other goals or motivations for forming their collective.[citation needed]

A Worker cooperative is a type of horizontal collectivism wherein a business functions as a partnership of individual professionals, recognizing them as equals and rewarding them for their expertise. The working collective aims to reduce costs to clients while maintaining healthy rewards for participating partners. This is accomplished by eliminating the operating costs that are needed to support levels of management.[1]


nile blue can be used to test for the presence of

It may also be used in conjunction with fluorescence microscopy to stain for the presence of polyhydroxybutyrate granules in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. Boiling a solution of Nile blue with sulfuric acid produces Nile red (Nile blue oxazone).

Nile blue

Nile blue (or Nile blue A) is a stain used in biology and histology. It may be used with live or fixed cells, and imparts a blue colour to cell nuclei.

Nile blue is a fluorescent dye. The fluorescence shows especially in nonpolar solvents with a high quantum yield.[1]

The absorption and emission maxima of Nile blue are strongly dependent on pH and the solvents used:[1]

The duration of Nile blue fluorescence in ethanol was measured as 1.42 ns. This is shorter than the corresponding value of Nile red with 3.65 ns. The fluorescence duration is independent on dilution in the range 10−3–10−8 mol/L.[1]

Nile blue is used for histological staining of biological preparations. It highlights the distinction between neutral lipids (triglycerides, cholesteryl esters, steroids) which are stained pink and acids (fatty acids, chromolipids, phospholipids) which are stained blue.[2]

The Nile blue staining, according to Kleeberg, uses the following chemicals:

The sample or frozen sections is/are fixated in formaldehyde, then immersed for 20 minutes in the Nile blue solution and rinsed with water. For better differentiation, it is dipped in 1% acetic acid for 10–20 minutes until the colors are pure. This might take only 1–2 minutes. Then the sample is thoroughly rinsed in water (for one to two hours). Afterwards, the stained specimen is taken on a microscope slide and excess water is removed. The sample can be embedded in glycerol or glycerol gelatin.

Unsaturated glycerides are pink, nuclei and elastins(?) dark, fatty acids and various fatty substances and fat mixtures are purple blue.[3]

The PHB granules in the cells of Pseudomonas solanacearum can be visualized by Nile blue A staining. The PHB granules in the stained smears are observed with an epifluorescence microscope under oil immersion, at a 1000 times magnification; under 450Â nm excitation wavelength they show a strong orange fluorescence.[4]

Nile blue is also apparently used in a variety of commercial DNA staining formulations used for DNA electrophoresis.[5] As it does not require UV trans-illumination in order to be visualised in an agarose gel as with ethidium bromide, it can be used to observe DNA as it is separated and also as a dye to aid in gel-extraction of DNA fragments without incurring damage by UV-irradiation.

Derivatives of Nile blue are potential photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy of malignant tumors. These dyes aggregate in the tumor cells, especially in the lipid membranes, and/or are sequestered and concentrated in subcellular organelles.[6]

With the Nile blue derivative N-Ethyl-Nile Blue (EtNBA), normal and premalignant tissues in animal experiments can be distinguished by fluorescence spectroscopy in fluorescence imaging. EtNBA shows no phototoxic effects.[7]

Nile Blue and related naphthoxazinium dyes can be prepared by acid-catalyzed condensation of either 5-(dialkylamino)-2-nitrosophenols with 1-naphthylamine, 3-(dialkylamino)phenols with N-alkylated 4-nitroso-1-naphtylamines, or N,N-dialkyl-1,4-phenylenediamines with 4-(dialkylamino)-1,2-naphthoquinones. Alternatively, the product of an acid-catalyzed condensation of 4-nitroso-N,N-dialkylaniline with 2-naphthol (a salt of 9-(dialkylamino)benzo[a]phenoxazin-7-ium) can be oxidized in the presence of an amine, installing a second amino substituent in 5-position of the benzo[a]phenoxazinium system.[8] The following scheme illustrates the first of these four approaches, leading to Nile Blue perchlorate:


who played chloe on how i met your mother

The guys go to a coffee shop, where Ted points out that Chloe (Morena Baccarin), the girl working there, has drawn a heart next to Marshall's name on his cup. Ted insists that Chloe has a crush on Marshall because she always laughs at his lame joke about how they fit a pumpkin into a pumpkin-flavored latte. As Marshall leaves, his name is called for (an unordered) pumpkin latte on which Chloe has written her number. Later, when Marshall introduces Chloe to Ted and Barney at the bar, they tell him that she has the "Crazy Eyes", an indicator of future mental instability. Both Ted and Barney give Marshall examples of their experiences with this malady; Barney's crazy-eyed date wanted a threesome with a teddy bear, while Ted's crazy-eyed date picked up a long metal rod and repeatedly hit a car that nearly hit them as they were about to cross the street. Marshall shrugs it off. The next day, as Marshall is taking a test, he receives a call from Chloe who says that she is being followed by a hunchback with a limp. Later, Marshall takes Chloe back to his apartment and suspects that she broke a picture of him and Lily that was sitting on the end table. However, it turns out that Lily has been hiding in the apartment, and pops out (much to Marshall and Chloe's surprise). Lily introduces herself, and leaves the apartment dejected and crying. Marshall follows her out to the steps, leaving Chloe sitting on the sofa.

Swarley

"Swarley" is the seventh episode in the second season of the television series How I Met Your Mother. It originally aired on November 6, 2006.

The name "Swarley" is taken from an in-episode joke. A coffee shop barista mistakenly hears Barney's name as "Swarley" and writes it on his cup. This leads to a running gag in which everyone mercilessly refers to Barney as "Swarley" despite his protests. This culminates to the point of the entire bar shouting ""Swarley" when he enters, as a callback to the sitcom Cheers.

Lily confides in Robin that she is scared by the idea of Marshall going out on a date with another woman. Despite hearing that Ted believes she has crazy eyes, Lily wants to see what Chloe looks like. It turns out that Lily was the hunchback following Chloeâ€”she was carrying a book bag, then covered herself with a coat to shield herself from the rain (the hump), and limped because she hit her knee while concentrating on seeing the face of Chloe. Lily, while visiting Ted and Robin in the apartment, realized that Marshall had moved the picture of the two of them. She sneaked into the apartment before Marshall brings Chloe home to put it in a more conspicuous place, and it broke. While hiding from Marshall and Chloe, she got upset and jumped out.

Marshall realizes that he should get back together with Lily even though he says that Lily has the craziest eyes he's ever seen. Six months after Ted came back to the apartment and found Marshall alone and upset after the engagement ended, he returns to find Marshall and Lily happy and back together. The gang first goes to McLaren's for a drink and then returns upstairs to the apartment, finding it has been ransacked by Chloe who has been "searching" for her "lost" keys which are in fact sitting in plain sight on the coffee table in front of where she had been sitting. Marshall points out the keys and Chloe departs, leaving a nonplussed gang and apparently proving the "Crazy Eyes" theory.

Meanwhile, Chloe writes Barney's name as "Swarley", prompting everyone to call him the name for the duration of the episode. Barney protests, but variations on the nickname become a running gag throughout the episode. Just prior to leaving the apartment, Chloe calls Robin "Roland", and Barney tries to use it as an opportunity to stop everyone from calling him "Swarley". In the final scene, however, Barney walks into the bar, everyone shouts "Swarley", and he turns and walks out dejectedly as Carl the bartender plays the Cheers theme: "Where Everybody Knows Your Name." The credits are then presented in the same font used on the show Cheers.

Staci Krause of IGN said "the whole Swarley joke had gotten very old" by the end of the episode, although "it was funny for the first ten or so times" and "the homage paid to Cheers was well appreciated". Krause said the animated effects used for the women with 'crazy eyes' was "rather stupid", but that the story came to a "great conclusion" as Lily crying was "one of the best emotional moments this show has ever given us".[1]

Both Digital Spy and Radio Times listed "Swarley" as one of the ten best How I Met Your Mother episodes, with the latter describing it as "one of the most ridiculous episodes of How I Met Your Mother", but claiming "that's exactly why it works".[2][3]


who played mr bingley in pride and prejudice

Simon Woods (born 1980) is an English actor best known for his role as Octavian in Season 2 of the British-American television series Rome and the 2005 Pride & Prejudice as Charles Bingley. He also starred as Dr Harrison in the BBC1 costume drama series Cranford, whose arrival in the village "sets female hearts racing."

Simon Woods

He attended Eton College, then read English at Magdalen College, Oxford.[1] After graduating from Oxford, Woods worked briefly at The Guardian before becoming an actor.[2]

While at Oxford in 2000, he was in a relationship with Rosamund Pike that lasted two years.[3] The two later played lovers Jane Bennet and Charles Bingley in Pride & Prejudice.

Since 2009, Woods has been in a relationship with Christopher Bailey, the chief executive of the British fashion house, Burberry.[4][5] They married in 2012.[6]


what season does dexter's sister find out he's a killer

In the season premiere, Debra witnesses Dexter murder Travis Marshall. Dexter claims that he went to collect evidence, and was surprised by Marshall; he then says that he "snapped" and killed him on impulse. Debra reluctantly helps him burn down the abandoned church where he killed Marshall, destroying the evidence of the crime. Later, Dexter comes home to Debra, who is surrounded by Dexter's victim's blood slides, a pack of knives, and other tools that Dexter uses to kill. Debra reluctantly asks Dexter if he is a serial killer. Dexter, taken aback, replies yes. Horrified, Debra recoils from Dexter as he admits that he is the "Bay Harbor Butcher", and that Harry taught him how to get away with murder.[17]

Debra Morgan

Debra Morgan (spelled Deborah in the novels) is a fictional character created by Jeff Lindsay for his Dexter book series. She also appears in the television series, based on Lindsay's books, portrayed by Jennifer Carpenter. In Lindsay's novels, she first appeared in Darkly Dreaming Dexter, and was featured in every novel in the series.

Debra was born to Doris (Kathrin Lautner Middleton) and Harry Morgan (James Remar) on December 7, 1979.[1] She later became foster sister to Dexter Morgan (Michael C. Hall). A tough, foul-mouthed tomboy, she craved her father's attention and envied Dexter for the amount of time Harry spent with him, unaware that Harry was training him to be a vigilante serial killer.

At the age of 16, her mother died of cancer. From then on, she decided to become a detective, like her father. Debra learned to shoot taking her father's gun. Dexter found out and told Harry, who punished her. Hurt, Debra told Dexter that she wished that Harry had never brought him home. She was immediately remorseful for saying it, however, and apologized.

She was distraught at her father's death and, inspired by his career, joined the Miami-Metro Police Department. She spent three years in patrol and then another two years in vice before being promoted by Captain Tom Matthews (Geoff Pierson) (a friend of her father), becoming a Homicide officer at the start of the first season.

Debra is characterized as smart and capable, yet unsure of herself, and so she relies upon Dexter's seemingly limitless expertise on murderers to solve difficult cases. Initially assigned to Vice, she is desperate to be transferred to Homicide. After Matthews promotes her, she starts to grow self-confident, relying less on Dexter's abilities and more on her own.

Newly promoted to the homicide department, Debra's first case is a series of murders committed by "The Ice Truck Killer", who preys on prostitutes and leaves their dismembered bodies in refrigerated trucks. She works hard on the case, but her progress is hampered by her own insecurity and her antagonistic relationship with Lieutenant Maria LaGuerta (Lauren Vélez).

She starts dating, and eventually falls in love with, Rudy Cooper (Christian Camargo); unbeknownst to her, he is actually the Ice Truck Killer, and is only dating her in order to get close to Dexter. At the end of the season, Rudy proposes to her and she accepts. Rudy — who is actually Brian Moser, Dexter's biological brother — then kidnaps her to reveal himself to Dexter. He binds her to a table in the same manner that Dexter kills his victims, while Dexter and Brian discuss her fate. Dexter ultimately saves her life, and reluctantly kills Brian to keep her safe.[2]

Debra is frail at the start of season two, still recovering from her ordeal with the Ice Truck Killer; she feels that she is not a good detective because she didn't spot that her fiancÃ© was a serial killer. However, FBI agent Frank Lundy (Keith Carradine) reassures her otherwise and they, mid-season, develop a romantic relationship, which ends when he is called away from Miami.[3] She stays in Dexter's house while she deals with the trauma.

Debra is appalled when she finds out that Dexter is cheating on his girlfriend, Rita Bennett (Julie Benz), with his Narcotics Anonymous sponsor, Lila Tournay (Jaime Murray), of whom she is immediately suspicious. Debra eventually threatens to have Lila deported upon finding out that she murdered her ex-boyfriend.[4] In the season finale, "The British Invasion", she helps Dexter rescue Rita's two children from a fire that Lila had started. [5]

By the end of the season, she has regained her confidence, and she is more determined than ever to improve her career and get a detective shield.

As season three begins, Debra has had her hair cut to shoulder length, and has "sworn off men, liquor and smokes". She is working with a new partner, Detective Joey Quinn (Desmond Harrington), but has been approached by Internal Affairs officer Yuki Amado (Liza Lapira), who tells her that her partner is being investigated for corruption. She refuses to assist in the investigation, however.[6]

She is originally part of the team investigating the murder of Miguel Prado's (Jimmy Smits) brother Oscar (Nick Hermz), but because of her lack of tact and people skills she is removed from the case by the newly promoted Angel Batista (David Zayas). The case she has been assigned to, the murder of a young woman, is eventually found to have been connected to the ongoing case of a serial killer called "The Skinner" (Jesse Borrego), which she solves with the help of confidential informant Anton Briggs (David Ramsey). The two begin a relationship after she saves his life. Because of her success on the Skinner case, Debra receives her detective shield at the end of the season.[7]

At the beginning of the season, Dexter tells Debra that Harry slept with one of his confidential informants. She investigates the files on Harry's informants and interviews them, hoping to find the one Harry slept with. One of the files is shown to be Laura Moser (Sage Kirkpatrick). Her relationship with Anton begins to suffer at this point, especially when Lundy returns to Miami to hunt the Trinity Killer (John Lithgow). They sleep together and renew their relationship, but the very same night they are both shot — Lundy fatally — by an unknown assailant.[8] Debra blames herself, and laments to Dexter that she is "broken".[9] She puts aside her grief when she comes to suspect that the Trinity Killer was the shooter, and opens an investigation.[10]

After consulting with forensics technician Vince Masuka (C. S. Lee), however, Debra deduces that Trinity could not have been the shooter. During a Thanksgiving dinner with Dexter's family, Debra remembers a conversation she had with reporter Christine Hill (Courtney Ford), and realizes Hill has knowledge of the shooting that no one outside the police department knew about, and concludes that she was the shooter.[11] This is proven true in a later episode revealing that Hill is Trinity's daughter. Hill confesses to Debra that she killed Lundy, moments before she commits suicide.[12] Debra then renews her search for Harry's mistress, and finds out about Laura Moser, and the fact that Dexter and the Ice Truck Killer are brothers. She tells Dexter the news (which he already knew), and then tells him that he is "the one consistently good thing" in her life.[13]

Debra begins an intimate relationship with Quinn while trying to support Dexter following Rita's murder (portrayed in the season four finale, "The Getaway"). She and Quinn are assigned to the "Barrel Girls" case, in which 13 women were raped, tortured and murdered by a group of men, and left in barrels in a swamp. The police find DVDs the killers recorded of the crimes, and Debra is assigned to study them. She figures out that Jordan Chase (Jonny Lee Miller), a prominent public speaker, is involved with the group of men killing the girls, but cannot prove her suspicion because he never appears on the DVDs. However, she is able to track him down by the end of the season, and finds his body, moments after Dexter and Lumen Pierce (Julia Stiles) - one of the Barrel Girl killers' surviving victims and Dexter's lover and "protegÃ©"- have killed him. She sees them at the crime scene through a wall of plastic sheeting, and tells them that she needs to call in the crime scene. She gives them an hour head start because she sympathizes with Lumen, but she never finds out that Dexter was involved.[14]

In the middle of the season, Debra finds out that Quinn, who believes that Dexter was involved in Rita's murder, has been investigating Dexter behind her back. Debra is very upset at Quinn and confronts him. Quinn decides that his relationship with Debra is more important than his (supposedly) unfounded suspicions about Dexter, and stops his investigation. At the end of the season, they have reconciled, and attend Dexter's son Harrison's birthday party together.[14]

At the start of the season, Quinn proposes to Debra, but she rejects him and ends their relationship.[15] The ensuing awkwardness is made worse when she is promoted to Lieutenant, thanks in part to LaGuerta's political machinations.[15] Debra earns the respect of the office, but struggles with the idea of some people not feeling 'open' to her anymore because of her new job. The job is also very stressful in itself, and she comes to doubt whether she can handle the responsibility. Her work and personal troubles weighing down on her, she begins to attend therapy. Matthews attempts to make a deal with her about covering up his involvement in the death of a prostitute, but before she can take any action, LaGuerta tells Matthews' superiors about his indiscretion and lets Debra take the fall for it. At the end of the season, her therapist helps her realize that she has been in love with Dexter all along. She finally makes peace with the idea â€” on the same day that she catches Dexter in the act of murdering "Doomsday Killer" Travis Marshall (Colin Hanks).[16]

After reading Lundy's files on serial killers, Debra says she wants to help Dexter, and make sure he doesn't kill again. Dexter agrees, even though he doesn't really have a choice, as Debra (probably) would have arrested him.[18] Dexter slips away from Debra long enough to dispose of Ray Speltzer (Matt Gerald), a serial killer she had tried and failed to send to prison. Debra admits that she understands why Dexter takes the law into his own hands, and tells him that she will not stop him as long as he does not tell her about it or interfere with Miami Metro investigations.[19] She even compromises her own professional ethics by falsifying evidence to mislead LaGuerta, who is trying to reopen the Bay Harbor Butcher case.[20]

Their truce is threatened when Dexter begins dating Hannah McKay (Yvonne Strahovski), a serial poisoner who Debra is intent on arresting for the murder of Sal Price (Santiago Cabrera), a writer she had feelings for.[21] Debra eventually confesses her feelings for Dexter in a moment of frustration.[22] Debra gets into a near-fatal car accident after a confrontation with Hannah. She is convinced Hannah poisoned her, and Dexter is suspicious enough to order a toxicology screen on a bottle of water in Debra's car. The results prove that Hannah did indeed poison Debra, leaving Dexter with no choice but to give Debra evidence proving that Hannah killed Price. Debra is on hand to arrest Hannah, as a heartbroken Dexter looks on.[23]

In the season finale, Debra rushes to Dexter's side when LaGuerta has him arrested for the Bay Harbor Butcher murders, and angrily confronts LaGuerta before being told to recuse herself. Dexter is released, however, thanks to the evidence that Debra tampered with. The next day, LaGuerta calls her into her office under the pretext of apologizing â€” and confronts her with circumstantial evidence that she was near the church at the time it was destroyed. Debra talks her way out of immediate danger, but fears that LaGuerta will soon have definitive proof of what she and Dexter had done. Later, at Batista's New Year's Eve party, she learns that LaGuerta has gone in pursuit of Dexter, who she fears is in the act of killing Hector Estrada (Nestor Serrano), the man who ordered his mother's murder. She goes to the scene, where she finds Dexter poised to shoot an unconscious LaGuerta. As she pleads with Dexter not to do it, LaGuerta regains consciousness and urges Debra to kill her brother. Resigned, Dexter tells her to "do what you gotta do". Desperate to save Dexter, Debra shoots and kills LaGuerta, and breaks down in tears over her body.[24]

Six months after LaGuerta's death, Debra's life has gone into a tailspin: She has quit her job, started abusing drugs and alcohol, and cut off all contact with Dexter. Now working as a private investigator, she is chasing after — and sleeping with — drug dealer Andrew Briggs (Rhys Coiro). Dexter shows up at her hotel and tells her that an assassin named El Sapo (Nick Gomez) is coming to kill her and Briggs; Debra responds that she doesn't care. When Briggs tries to scare Dexter off, Dexter kills him, and pleads with Debra to leave with him. Debra refuses, however.[25] El Sapo finds Debra as she searches for Briggs' stolen merchandise and beats her up. In a state of shock, she shoots him dead. When Dexter finds out what Debra has done, she asks him to cover up the crime, which he does.[26]

Debra is arrested for drunk driving, and calls Quinn to bail her out. Quinn tells Dexter what happened, and Dexter insists on taking Debra to dinner to talk to her. At dinner, he shows Debra footage of her saving a man's life and tells her that she is still a good person. A few days later, Debra walks into Miami Metro, blind drunk, and confesses to Quinn that she killed LaGuerta. Thinking she doesn't know what she's saying, Quinn calls Dexter for help. Dexter arrives with Dr. Evelyn Vogel (Charlotte Rampling), an old friend of Harry's who knows that Dexter is a serial killer. Just as Debra is about to tell Quinn the truth about LaGuerta's death, Dexter renders her unconscious with the same tranquilizer he uses on his victims, and takes her back to his apartment. There, he asks Vogel to help her.[27]

Vogel tells Debra that she had no other choice but to protect Dexter, and shows her recorded interviews with Harry expressing his guilt over training Dexter to kill; in these interviews, Debra learns the truth about her father's death. She reaches out to Dexter, asking him to take a drive with her so they can talk. Once on the road, Debra seizes the steering wheel and plunges the car into the bay, intent on killing herself and her brother. She is rescued, however, and saves Dexter's life by swimming to the car and pulling him out.[28] Debra goes to a resentful Dexter for help when Vogel is kidnapped. While the two of them track Vogel down, Debra tells Dexter that she had saved his life because she couldn't imagine hers without him in it. They find Vogel at the mercy of one of her former patients, serial killer A.J. Yates (Aaron McCusker); Dexter kills him to protect Debra. Dexter and Debra admit they need each other, and they reconcile.[29]

Debra and Dexter are both non-lethally poisoned by Hannah, who has escaped from prison.[30] Debra demands that Dexter get her out of their lives, and starts surveilling her. When Dexter appears reluctant, Debra goes to her boss Jacob Elway (Sean Patrick Flanery) and offers to apprehend Hannah for a substantial reward. She tries to capture Hannah, who says the only reason she spared her life was because she didn't want to hurt Dexter. Debra reluctantly drops the case, and even allows Hannah to hide from the police in her apartment.[31]

Debra stops by her old precinct, and Batista offers to reinstate her as a detective. She wants the job, but she knows that she cannot do it while harboring a fugitive and turning a blind eye to Dexter's crimes. To further complicate the situation, she and Quinn, who is now in a relationship with Batista's sister Jamie (Aimee Garcia), share a kiss.[32] Dexter tells her that he, Hannah and Harrison are going to move to Argentina. Debra is saddened, but gives him her blessing when she sees how happy he is with his new family. The following day, she takes the job at Miami Metro, and renews her relationship with Quinn.[33]

In her first case, Debra helps Dexter catch Oliver Saxon (Darri Ingolfson), a serial killer known as "the Brain Surgeon". Dexter ultimately decides not to kill him, however, and asks her to arrest Saxon. Debra arrives just as Saxon is killing Deputy U.S. Marshall Cooper (Kenny Johnson), and draws her weapon. Saxon gets the drop on her, however, and shoots her in the abdomen.[34] In the series' final episode, "Remember the Monsters?", Debra is taken to the hospital, where she tells Quinn she loves him and wishes Dexter a happy life. Moments later, however, she suffers a massive stroke that leaves her in a persistent vegetative state. After killing Saxon, Dexter goes to see her in the hospital as it is being evacuated in the midst of a hurricane. He tearfully removes her life support, carries her body to his boat, and buries her at sea.[35]

Debra is known to have very bad relationships with men. Her first boyfriend on the series is a mechanic named Sean who turns out to be married.[36] She then has a relationship with Rudy Cooper, who ends up kidnapping her and trying to kill her twice.

In Season two, she starts going out with a man named Gabriel whom she met at the gym, and whom she suspects (incorrectly) of trying to use her notoriety following the Ice Truck Killer case to jumpstart his writing career.[37] After that ends, she goes out with Frank Lundy, a man 25 years her senior who has to leave Miami at the end of season two, although she resumes her relationship with him in season four. She then starts a relationship with her Confidential Informant Anton Briggs. She breaks up with him to resume her relationship with Lundy, who is murdered. In the season five premiere she sleeps with her partner, Joey Quinn, who tries unsuccessfully to move the relationship into something more than purely sexual. By the end of season 6, she comes to believe that she is in love with her adoptive brother, Dexter â€” only to find out that he is a serial killer. In season 7, she has feelings for true crime writer Sal Price, but he is murdered as well.

In the books, the character's name is spelled "Deborah", and she is described as "voluptuous" in contrast to her slim appearance on the TV show. In the novel Darkly Dreaming Dexter, Deborah finds out that Dexter is a serial killer, and appears to accept it, although she is sometimes torn between her love for her brother and her duty as a cop. In the TV series, Debra remains unaware of Dexter's "hobby" until the final episode of season six, when she witnesses Dexter killing Travis Marshall.

At the conclusion of Dexter is Delicious, Deborah is pregnant by her boyfriend, Kyle Chutsky, and in Double Dexter we learn that she gave birth to a son, Nicholas, and raises him alone.

In Dexter's Final Cut, Deborah disowns Dexter after he cheats on Rita and unintentionally allows pedophile Robert Chase to kill Rita and kidnap Astor. In Dexter is Dead, Deborah takes custody of Cody, Astor and Dexter's daughter Lily Ann after Dexter is imprisoned for Rita's murder; she knows that Dexter is innocent of that particular crime, but believes that he belongs in prison. After Dexter is freed thanks to his brother Brian's machinations, she refuses to let him see the children and communicates with him only to get him to sign the paperwork to finalize the adoption. However, she is forced to rely on him when Cody, Astor and Nicholas are kidnapped by a Mexican drug lord who is out to get Brian. The three of them team up to infiltrate the drug lord's yacht and rescue the children, and Deborah and Dexter repair their relationship. Deborah saves Dexter's life by killing the drug lord just as he has her wounded brother at his mercy. Moments later, however, Dexter is killed when the yacht explodes; in his final moments, he sees Deborah trying to save him.

Jennifer Carpenter's portrayal of Debra Morgan has received critical praise. Australian journalist Jack Marx describing her portrayal of "cool and clumsy" Debra as "so perfect that many viewers appear to have mistaken the character's flaws for the actor's."

For her portrayal of the character, she has been nominated for seven Saturn Awards for Best Supporting Actress on Television, in 2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013, winning in 2009 for her performance in season three. She has also been nominated four times as part of the ensemble cast for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2009, 2010, 2011, and 2012.


what is the structure of the saudi government

The politics of Saudi Arabia takes place in the context of a totalitarian[1][2][3] absolute monarchy with some Islamic lines, where the King is both the head of state and government. Decisions are, to a large extent, made on the basis of consultation among the senior princes of the royal family and the religious establishment. The Qur'an is declared to be the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Shari'a). The Allegiance Council is responsible to determine the new King and the new Crown Prince. All citizens of full age have a right to attend, meet, and petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[4]

Politics of Saudi Arabia

Government is dominated by the vast royal family, the Al Saud, which has often been divided by internal disputes and into factions. The members of the family are the principal political actors allowed by the government. Political participation outside the royal family is limited. Saudi Arabia is one of only two countries (the other being Vatican City) that does not have a separate legislative body.

Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy,[5] although, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (that is, Islamic law) and the Quran. The Quran and the Sunnah are declared to be the country's constitution.[6] There is no legally binding written constitution and the Quran and the Sunna remain subject to interpretation. This is carried out by the ulama, the Saudi religious establishment.[7]

The government of Saudi Arabia is led by the monarch, King Salman, who acceded to the throne on 23 January 2015. No political parties or national elections are permitted[4] and according to The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, the Saudi government was the seventh most authoritarian regime from among the 167 countries rated.[8] Government is dominated by the royal family.[9]

The Basic Law specifies that the king must be chosen from among the sons of the first king, Abdul Aziz Al Saud, and their male descendants[10] subject to the subsequent approval of religious leaders (the ulama).[5] In 2007, an "Allegiance Council" was created, comprising King Abdulaziz's surviving sons plus a son of each his deceased sons, to determine who will be the heir apparent (the Crown Prince) after the previous heir apparent dies or accedes to the throne.[11] Prince Mohammad bin Salman is the current Crown Prince, and is widely regarded as the country's de facto ruler.[12][13][14][15]

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions[16] and royal decrees form the basis of the country's legislation.[17] The king is also the prime minister, and presides over the Council of Ministers (Majlis al-Wuzarāʾ), which comprises the first and second deputy prime ministers (usually the first and second in line to the throne respectively) and 23 ministers with portfolio and five ministers of state.[18] The king makes appointments to and dismissals from the Council, which is responsible for such executive and administrative matters as foreign and domestic policy, defense, finance, health, and education, administered through numerous separate agencies.[16] There is also a 150-member Consultative Assembly, appointed by the King,[19] which can propose legislation to the King but has no legislative powers itself,[20] including no role in budget formation. The government budget itself is not fully disclosed to the public. "Fully 40%"... is labeled 'Other sectors' (including defense, security, intelligence, direct investment of the kingdom's revenues outside the country, and how much goes to directly to the royal family).[21][22]

Although, in theory, the country is an absolute monarchy, in practice major policy decisions are made outside these formal governmental structures and not solely by the king. Decisions are made by establishing a consensus within the royal family (comprising the numerous descendants of the kingdom's founder, King Abdulaziz). In addition, the views of important members of Saudi society, including the ulama (religious scholars), leading tribal sheikhs, and heads of prominent commercial families are considered.[16]

As an absolute monarchy, the personality and capabilities of the reigning monarch influence the politics and national policies of the country. King Saud (1953–1964) was considered incompetent and extravagant and his reign led to an economic and political crisis that resulted in his forced abdication.[23] King Faisal (1964–1975) was a "modernist" who favored economic, technological and governmental progress but was also politically and religiously conservative. He directed the country's rapid economic and bureaucratic development of the early 1970s, but also made concessions to the religious establishment, and abandoned plans to broaden political participation.[24] King Khalid (1975–1982) left government largely to his Crown Prince, Fahd,[25] who succeeded him as King (1982–2005). Prince Fahd was a talented administrator who initiated significant industrial development in the Kingdom. He was regarded by many as the "father of the country's modernization".[26] However, during the last 10 years of his reign, ill-health prevented him from fully functioning. In the absence of a king who could provide strong central leadership, the state structure began to fragment[27] and the country stagnated.[28] King Abdullah, who came to the throne in 2005, was seen as a reformer[29] and has introduced economic reforms (limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization) and made modernizing changes to the judiciary and government ministries.[30]

The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allow it to hold most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government.[9]
The number of princes is estimated to be anything from 7,000 upwards, with the most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of King Abdulaziz.[31]
The key ministries have historically been reserved for the royal family,[5] as are the thirteen regional governorships.[32] With the large number of family members seeking well paying jobs, critics complain that even "middle management" jobs in the Kingdom are out of reach for non-royal Saudis, limiting upward mobility and incentive for commoners to excel.[33]

The one exception to this rule was Khaled al-Tuwaijri, Secretary General of the Court and King Abdullah's éminence grise. He was a commoner and immensely powerful, which meant he was despised by most royals, especially the Suderis, who sacked him as soon as the old king died.

Long term political and government appointments result in the creation of "power fiefdoms" for senior princes.[34]
Examples include: King Abdullah, who was the Commander of the National Guard from 1963 until 2010, when he then appointed his son to replace him;[35]
Crown Prince Sultan, was Minister of Defense and Aviation from 1962 to 2011; Prince Nayef  was the Minister of Interior from 1975 until his death in 2012; Prince Saud had been Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1975 to just before his death in 2015;[36]
and King Salman, was the Governor of the Riyadh Region from 1962 to 2011.[37]

In the absence of national elections and political parties,[5] politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.[38] The royal family is politically divided by factions based on clan loyalties, personal ambitions and ideological differences.[38] The most powerful clan faction is known as the 'Sudairi Seven', comprising the late King Fahd and his full brothers and their descendants.[11] Ideological divisions include issues over the speed and direction of reform,[39] and whether the role of the ulama should be increased or reduced. There were also divisions within the family over who should succeed Crown Prince Sultan.[11][40]

Leading figures in the royal family with differing ideological orientations included Prince Nayef, the late Interior Minister, and Prince Saud Al-Faisal, the Foreign Minister. Prince Nayef was personally committed to maintaining Saudi Arabia's conservative Wahhabi values. Of the senior princes, he was probably the least comfortable with King Abdullah's desire for reform. Following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, perpetrated mostly by Saudi nationals, Prince Nayef was strongly criticized by the U.S. for his reaction. It also took pressure from within the royal family for him to launch a hunt for Islamist militants who had attacked Western targets in Saudi Arabia. By contrast, Prince Saud Al Faisal is one of the strongest supporters of political and social reform.[41] For example, he (as well as King Abdullah) has spoken in favor of women having the right to vote, to follow the career path they wish and to be able to drive a car. Women would be able to vote in municipal elections beginning in 2012.BBC[42]

The significance of the ulama (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) is derived from the central role of religion in Saudi society. It has been said that Islam is more than a religion, it is a way of life in Saudi Arabia, and, as a result, the influence of the ulama is pervasive.[43] Saudi Arabia is almost unique in giving the ulama a direct role in government,[44] the only other example being Iran.[45] Prior to 1971, a council of senior ulama advising the king was headed by the Grand Mufti and met informally.  In that year, the council was formalized in a Council of Senior Scholars, appointed by the king and with salaries paid by the government.[46]

Not only is royal succession subject to the approval of the ulama,[5] so are all new laws (royal decrees).[44] The ulama have also influenced major executive decisions, for example the imposition of the oil embargo in 1973 and the invitation of foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990.[47] It plays a major role in the judicial and education systems[48] and has a monopoly of authority in the sphere of religious and social morals.[49]

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization of the country initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were under way and the power of the ulama was in decline.[50] However, this changed following the seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.[51] The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulama's powers and increasing their financial support:[52] in particular, they were given greater control over the education system[51] and allowed to enforce stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.[52] Following his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to rein back the powers of the ulama, for instance transferring their control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.[53]

The ulama have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh,[54] the country's leading religious family.[49] The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia.[55] The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)[56] with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"[57] and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.[47] The pact, which persists to this day,[57] is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority [58] thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule.[59] Although the Al ash Sheikh's domination of the ulama has diminished in recent decades,[60] they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.[49]

Corruption is widespread in Saudi Arabia, most prevalent in the form of nepotism, the use of middlemen, ‘wasta’, to do business as well as patronage systems.[61]
The Saudi government and the royal family have often, and over many years, been accused of corruption.[62] In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named after it,[63] the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.[31] The corruption has been described as systemic[64] and endemic,[65] and its existence was acknowledged[66] and defended[67] by Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family)[68] in an interview in 2001.[69]

Although corruption allegations have often been limited to broad undocumented accusations,[70] specific allegations were made in 2007, when it was claimed that the British defence contractor BAE Systems had paid Prince Bandar US$2 billion in bribes relating to the Al-Yamamah arms deal.[71] Prince Bandar denied the allegations.[72] Investigations by both US and UK authorities resulted, in 2010, in plea bargain agreements with the company, by which it paid $447 million in fines but did not admit to bribery.[73] Transparency International in its annual Corruption Perceptions Index for 2012 gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.4 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").[74]

In 5 November 2017 Saudi Arabian anti-corruption arrests, 11 princes and dozens of former ministers were detained in a new anti-corruption probe in Saudi Arabia. Among those detained include prominent billionaire investor Prince Al-Waleed bin Talal, National Guard Minister Miteb bin Abdullah and Economy and Planning Minister Adel Fakeih. The official line is that the purge was in response to corrupt practices by the accused and that the anti-corruption committee has the right to issue arrest warrants, impose travel restrictions and freeze bank accounts. It is also empowered to investigate financials and freeze assets until cases are decided on. The Royal proclamation further said "due to the propensity of some people for abuse, putting their personal interest above public interest, and stealing public funds."[75]

Since the 9/11 attacks in 2001, there has been mounting pressure to reform and modernize the royal family's rule, an agenda championed by King Abdullah both before and after his accession in 2005. The creation of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s did not satisfy demands for political participation, and, in 2003, an annual National Dialogue Forum was announced that would allow selected professionals and intellectuals to publicly debate current national issues, within certain prescribed parameters. In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession.[76] In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post.[77] However, the changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic,[78] and the royal family is reportedly divided on the speed and direction of reform.[39]

In 2011, Abdullah announced that women will be able to be nominated to the Shura Council.[79]

Politics in Saudi Arabia, outside the royal family, can be examined in three contexts: the extent to which the royal family allows political participation by the wider Saudi society, opposition to the regime, and Islamist terrorism.

Outside the House of Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulama, tribal sheikhs and members of important commercial families on major decisions.[16] This process is not reported by the Saudi media.[80]  In theory, all males of the age of majority have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the majlis.[81] In many ways, the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong and, outside the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.[16] In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation, such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.[76]

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism, liberal critics, including an underground green party, the Shia minority â€“ particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and regional particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz).[82] Of these, the Islamic activists have been the most prominent threat to the regime and have in recent years perpetrated a number of violent or terrorist acts in the country.[83]  However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in the city of Jeddah in a rare display of protest against the city's poor infrastructure after deadly floods swept through the city, killing eleven people.[84] Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.[85]

In March 2018, crown prince Mohammed bin Salman faced severe criticism from British opposition figures during his visit to the United Kingdom. Salman was accused of funding extremism in the UK, committing human rights abuses domestically, and breaching international humanitarian law in Yemen with the on-going war, where millions are on the verge of famine.[86]

Osama bin Laden and 15 out of the 19 9/11 hijackers were Saudi nationals or used to be Saudi nationals [87] and former CIA director James Woolsey described Saudi Arabian Wahhabism as "the soil in which Al-Qaeda and its sister terrorist organizations are flourishing."[88]

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own Arab Spring protests.[89] In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.[90][91][92] No political reforms were announced as part of the package, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.[93] On 18 March the same year, King Abdullah announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating 60,000 new security jobs.[94][94][95]

The lack of critical thought in the education system has been cited by some as the reason why fewer protests occurred in the Kingdom.[96]

The kingdom is divided into 13 regions (manāṭiq), which in turn are divided into numerous districts. Regional governors are appointed, usually from the royal family, and preside over one or more municipal councils, half of whose members are appointed and half elected. The governors are responsible for such functions as finance, health, education, agriculture, and municipalities. The consultative principle operates at all levels of government, including the government of villages and tribes.[16] The governors act as regional "mini-kings", sitting in majlises, hearing grievances and settling disputes.[97]

In February 2005, the first elections in Saudi Arabian history were held. The elections for "virtually powerless" municipal councils were for half the seats (the half of each council's seats were appointed). Women were not allowed to stand for office or to vote.[98]

In Riyadh, the number of registered voters did not exceed 18% of those eligible to vote, representing only 2% of the city's population. There was evidence of much greater interest in the Shia community of the Eastern Province.[99] Women will be allowed to vote beginning in 2012, as King Abdullah announced in the opening speech of the new term of the Shura Council.[100]

In 2005, candidates tended to be local businessmen, activists and professionals. Although political parties were not permitted, it was possible to identify candidates as having an Islamist orientation, a liberal agenda or reliant on tribal status. The Islamist candidates tended to be backed by public figures and the religious establishment and won most of the seats in the Saudi cities such as Riyadh, Jeddah, Medina, Tabuk and Taif. Candidates with "Western sympathies or any suspicion of secularism" lost out heavily to "hardline conservatives who were endorsed by the local religious establishment."  This demonstrated to some that rather than being a conservative force holding back the country, the royal family was more progressive than the Saudi population as a whole.[101]

In 2007, a Saudi commentator noted that the municipal councils were proving to be powerless. Nevertheless, the elections represented an important step in modernizing the regime.[99]

Although male-only municipal elections were held again on 29 September 2011,[102][103] Abdullah announced that women will be able to vote and be elected in the 2015 municipal elections.[79]

In March 1992, King Fahd issued several decrees outlining the basic statutes of government and codifying royal succession for the first time. The King's political reform program also provided for the establishment of a national Consultative Council, with appointed members having advisory powers to review and give advice on issues of public interest. It also outlined a framework for councils at the provincial or emirate level.

In September 1993, King Fahd issued additional reform decrees, appointing the members of the national Consultative Council and spelling out procedures for the new council's operations. He announced reforms to the Council of Ministers, including term limitations of 4 years and regulations to prohibit conflict of interest for ministers and other high-level officials. The members of 13 provincial councils and the councils' operating regulations were also announced.

The membership of the Consultative Council was expanded from 60 to 90 members in July 1997, to 120 in May 2001, and to 150 members in 2005. Membership has changed significantly during each expansion of the council, as many members have not been reappointed. The role of the council is gradually expanding as it gains experience.

Saudi Municipal elections took place in 2005 and some journalists saw this as a first tentative step towards the introduction of democratic processes in the Kingdom, including the legalization of political parties. Other analysts of the Saudi political scene were more skeptical.[104] Islamist candidates, often businessmen, did well, but in practice had little real power.[105] In 2009, promised new elections and hopes for female suffrage in them were postponed for at least two years.[106]

On 15 February 2009, in a reshuffle King Abdullah removed Sheikh Ibrahim Bin Abdullah Al-Ghaith from his position as President of the Commission for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice. He also removed Sheikh Saleh al-Luhaidan as head of the Supreme Judicial Council and appointed the first female minister.[107][108][109]

In his first act as King, Salman removed Khaled al-Tuwaijri, Abdullah's de facto Prime Minister and éminence grise, replacing him with a Prince of the Blood.