deadliest attacks in us history

The deadliest act of terrorism in the US before the 9-11 attacks, the bombing that occurred on April 19, 1995 in the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building, an office complex in Oklahoma claimed the lives of 168 people, 19 of which are children below 6 years old, and left 800 more wounded.

History25 Worst Acts Of Terrorism Ever Committed Posted by Josef, Updated on March 23, 2016Shares415410 5Terrorism has quite a broad definition and people tend to have different views of what actually falls into the category based on their perception of a situation and who they sympathize with. So, realizing the subjective nature of the topic, for this list we try to stick to those events that the majority of the world would condemn as terrorist activity. From the streets of Baghdad to New York City, here are the 25 worst acts of terrorism ever committed.25 Worst Acts Of Terrorism Ever Committed Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 10:01Subscribe to List2525Sicarii Zealots It seems that terrorism goes back to even 2000 years ago when a Jewish extremist group tried to expel the Romans and their sympathizers at the beginning of the 1st century AD with the use of daggers hidden in their cloaks, hence the name “sicarii,” which means “dagger.” In a public gathering, the zealots pulled their daggers to attack not only the Romans and their sympathizers, but all Jewish collaborators including the Herodians and Sadducees.24The Reign of Terror Popularly known as ‘The Terror,’ this was an era of violence that started on September 5, 1793 and ended only on July 28, 1794 during the French Revolution. The conflict between the Girondins and the Jacobins had resulted in mass executions including the death of 16, 594 people under the guillotine. This is also the first time that the word “terrorist” was used by Edmund Burke in 1795.23Felice Orsini Orsini was an Italian revolutionary leader of the “Carbonari” who attempted to assassinate the French Emperor Napoleon III on January 14, 1858 while he and the Empress Eugénie de Montijo were on their way to the theater by throwing three bombs at the royal carriage. The incident resulted in the death of 8 bystanders while injuring 142 more. He was also a conspirator involved in dethroning the pope and attempted to assassinate Napoleon III believing that he was a major impediment to Italian independence. Interestingly enough his terrorist acts inspired the first Russian terrorist groups.22Wall Street Bombing A terrorist attack that was centered in the Financial District of New York, this happened on September 16, 1920 and killed 38 people while injuring 400 more resulting in $2 million in damages. The attack involved a horse-drawn wagon containing 45 kg of dynamite with 230 kg of slugs detonating and instantly killing the brokers, clerks, messengers and stenographers working in the area and destroying the interior of the JP Morgan building. The crime was never solved though it was believed that the group behind it was the Italian anarchist Galleanists who were responsible for a series of bombings that year. It was also tied to labor struggles, postwar social unrest and anti-capitalist aggression.21St. Nedelya Church Assault The assault happened on April 16, 1925 when a group of the Bulgarian Communist Party (BCP) blew up the dome of the St. Nedelya Church during the wake of General Konstantin Georgiev, who was assassinated just two days prior by the same group while heading for an evening mass at the Sofia church. It killed 150 people, a majority of them prominent government and military officials, with 500 people wounded. The attack was carried out by the Military Organization (MO) of the BCP who were tasked to carry out isolated attacks with 25 kg of explosives mounted in a package above one the columns of the main dome at the south entrance of the church set to detonate with a 15-m long cable to allow the attackers a chance to escape.« 1 2 3 4 5 »Lists Going Viral Right Now Sports & Entertainment25 Best Anime Of All Time That You Will Want To See Sports & Entertainment25 Best Movies Ever Made Geography & Travel25 Countries With The Highest Murder Rates In The World People & Politics25 Richest Celebrities With The Highest Net Worth Miscellaneous25 Extremely Easy Ways To Die That Will Make You Appreciate Life Animals25 Most Dangerous Dog Breeds People & Politics25 Of The Most Evil Serial Killers You Have Ever Known Bizarre25 Mind-boggling Examples Of The Mandela Effect Miscellaneous25 Of The Most Difficult Languages To Learn In The World Animals25 Of The World's Largest Dog Breeds20King David Hotel Bombing On July 22, 1946, the rebellious right-wing Zionist group, Irgun, carried out an offensive against the British by bombing the British Administrative Headquarters for Palestine, which was housed at the King David Hotel. This terrorist campaign concluded with the death of 91 people from various nationalities and injured 46 others. This is considered the deadliest terrorist attack to occur during the British Mandate era from 1920 to 1948.19The Cinema Rex Fire The arson, which happened in a cinema in Abadan, Iran on August 19, 1978 cost the lives of 470 individuals, most of them unidentified due to the extent of the burns. When an Iranian newspaper reported that it was started by radical Islamists, it was shut down by the Islamic government, however, it was later found out that anti-Shah militants were behind the fire.18The Grand Mosque Seizure This terrorist act, which occurred from November 20, 1979 to December 5, 1979, was a takeover by the Islamists dissidents of Mecca, the holiest place in Islam. The insurgents’ leader, Mohammed Abdullah al-Qahtani, declared that he is the “Mahdi” or “redeemer” of Islam and all the Muslims should obey him. Hundreds of pilgrims who were present for the annual “hajj” were taken as hostages and a number of them were killed along with the rebels in the crossfire that ensued for the control of the site. The siege ended with the death of 255 pilgrims and militants with 500 injured.17Beirut Barracks Bombing One of the major acts of terrorism in the 1980s, the event happened on October 23, 1983 at the height of the Lebanese Civil War, when two truck bombs exploded near the housing of US and French military forces. The attack against the multinational forces in Lebanon was claimed by the organization Islamic Jihad, the nom de guere for Hezbollah who was receiving help from the Islam Republic of Iran. The explosives, which were equivalent to 5400 kg of TNT, resulted in the deadliest single-day death toll for the US Marine Corps with casualties that included 241 servicemen.16Pan Am Flight 103Also known as the ‘Lockerbie Bombing,’ this event happened on December 21, 1988 in a Pan Am transatlantic flight from London Heathrow Airport on its way to JFK International Airport in New York. The Boeing 747-121, “Clipper Maid of the Seas,” exploded killing all 243 passengers aboard as well as its 16 crewmembers before it crashed in Lockerbie, Scotland killing 11 more on the ground. A three-year joint investigation of the Scottish police and the US FBI resulted in the arrest of 2 Libyan nationals who were handed over by the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. Gaddafi also paid compensation to the victims’ families, though maintaining that he did not personally order the attack which resulted in more conspiracy theories.15Bombay Bombings This tragic terrorist attack involved 13 bomb explosions in Bombay (now Mumbai), India. The assault on March 12, 1993 resulted in the death of 270 civilians with 700 more wounded. Organized by Dawood Ibrahim, the “don” of the crime syndicate D-Company, it was carried out as an act of vengeance against the widespread Muslim massacre from December to January and the destruction of the Babri Masjid.14Oklahoma City Bombing

It also caused damaged to 324 buildings within a 16-block radius, burned 86 cars, shattered the windowpanes of nearby 258 buildings, resulting in $652 million worth of damages. The perpetrator, Timothy Mc Veigh, was put to death by lethal injection in 2001.13Attack in Bentalha, Algeria Also known as the “Bentalha Massacre,” this tragic event happened on September 22 to 23, 1997 when armed guerrillas stormed the village and killed 200 to 400 of its inhabitants. It started with an explosion near the orange groves in the Hai el-Djilali neighborhood at about 11:30 pm followed by assailants armed with machine guns, machetes, and hunting rifles going from house to house and slaughtering men, women, and children. This monstrosity was claimed by the Armed Islamic Group, who was also responsible for other massacres including that of the Hais Rais.12US Embassy Bombings This is a series of terrorist attacks on US Embassies in the East African cities of Nairobi, and Dar es Slaam on August 7, 1998, which was the 8th anniversary of the arrival of US forces in Saudi Arabia. The truck bomb explosions were linked to the local terrorist group of al Qaeda, headed by Osama bin Laden. The trucks, which were laden with 3 to 17 tons of high explosive materials detonated simultaneously, with over 200 dead and thousands wounded as a result. Though it was directed at American facilities, most of the victims were local citizens with only 12 Americans casualties.11Karachi Bombing The Karachi bombing on October 18, 2007 happened on the day former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto was welcomed home after an 8-year self-imposed exile in Dubai and London. The blasts occurred during a motorcade on their way from the airport to the tomb of Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Three police vans bore the impact of the explosions killing 20 policemen instantly and resulting in the death of 139 people, most of whom were members of the Pakistan People’s Party (PPP).10Bali Bombing Considered the deadliest acts of terrorism ever in the history of Indonesia, this tragic event occurred on October 12, 2002 in the tourist district of Kuta. It resulted in the deaths of 202 people, including 38 locals. The attacks on local nightclubs were carried out by some members of the Jemaah Islamiyah, a terrorist Islamist group, with the use of two bombs placed in a backpack carried by suicide bombers and a car bomb while a third bomb exploded in the US Embassy in Denpasar.9Madrid Train Bombings Also known as “11-M” this is considered the most tragic terrorist attack in Europe, occurring on March 11, 2004. The series of synchronized bombings on the Cercania commuter train in Madrid were believed to be headed by an al-Qaeda-inspired terrorist group. The explosions, which were just three days short of the general elections in Spain killed nearly 200 people.8Super Ferry 14 Bombings The world’s deadliest terrorist attack at sea happened on February 27, 2004 and resulted in the sinking of Super Ferry 14, 90 minutes after it sailed from the port of Manila on its way to Cagayan de Oro City. Perpetrated by an Islamist terrorist group, it concluded in the death of 116 people. Believed to be an accident at first, investigations later revealed that a television set with 4 kg of TNT was the cause of the explosion. Though various terrorists groups claimed the tragedy, it was found out that it was the Abu Sayyaf, who was behind this atrocity.7London Transport Bombing On July 7, 2005, a series of 3 explosions was heard aboard the London Underground trains across the city, while the fourth one exploded in a double-decker in Tavistock Square. The attacks, which happened the day after the city was chosen to host the 2012 Summer Olympics, were caused by homemade organic-peroxide-based devices that were packed into backpacks carried by suicide bombers. The 57-minute attack concluded with the death of 52 civilians and 4 suicide bombers, while injuring 700 more.6Sadr City Bombings This November 23, 2006 attack involved a series of car bombs and two mortar attacks. One of the most tragic terrorist attacks in Baghdad at least 215 people perished while 257 others were wounded. Having targeted the Shi’ite Muslim slums in the city, it resulted in a 24-hour curfew and the shutdown of the Baghdad International Airport. The Shi’ite Muslims also retaliated by burning 6 Sunni Arabs alive with kerosene.5Mumbai Train Bombings On July 11, 2006, a series of 7 bomb blasts was heard on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai, which resulted in the death of 209 people and wounded 714 others. The bombs, which were inside pressure cookers to increase the after-burn thermobaric reaction were placed in the first-class compartments and exploded during the afternoon work rush-hour. Carried out by the Lshkar-e-Talba and the Students Islamic Movement of Inida (SIMI), it was in retaliation to the perceived oppression of the Muslim minorities in the regions of Gujarat and Kashmir.4Baghdad Bombings One in the never-ending atrocities in Iraq, this terrorist attacks involved 5 car bombs that exploded across the city of Baghdad on April 18, 2007. This violence, which targeted the civilians in Shia that was still being rebuilt at that time, was reminiscent of the conflicts before the Iraqi capital was secured. With nearly 200 casualties, it came just as the Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki announced that the Iraqi forces would assume control of the country’s security at the end of the year.3The Al Hillah Bombings This terrorist attack was committed against Shia Muslims, who were on their way to a pilgrim in Al Hillah on March 6, 2007. Two suicide bombers donning explosive vests mingled with the crowd who were celebrating a traditional festival. It claimed the lives of nearly 200 people.2Yazidi Communities Bombing The second deadliest attacks ever committed after 9-11, it happened on August 14, 2007 when four corresponding suicide bombs exploded in the towns of Yazidi and Jazeera. The most deadly car bomb assault under major US combat operations, it had estimated casualties of 796 while 1, 562 people were injured. The two tons of explosives that the 3 cars and a fuel tanker carried crumbled buildings, trapping everyone beneath, while others wrecked and flattened entire neighborhoods.19/11On September 11, 2001, a succession of four coordinated assaults was launched by the al-Queda in the New York City and Washington DC areas. Four planes were hijacked by 19 men and two of those planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and United Airlines Flight 175, collided into the north and south towers of the NYC World Trade Center, which collapsed within two hours and led to the destruction of nearby buildings as well. The third plane, American Flight 77, targeted the Pentagon in Virginia while the last one, United Airlines Flight 93 whose aim was the Capitol in DC, crashed into a field in Pennsylvania when the passengers tried to overpower the hijackers. These catastrophic events led to the deaths of 3,000 people. SEE ALSO: 25 Countries With The Highest Murder Rates In The World »NOW WATCH: 25 Of The Weirdest Jobs On Earth25 Of The Weirdest Jobs On Earth Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 5:17Subscribe to List25You Tube 2MShow Us Your Love Join Over 2 Million+ List25 Fans List25 Daily List25 Weekly


who is the ninja turtle with the blue mask

As the oldest brother, Leonardo or Leo, is the natural leader of the Ninja Turtles. He wears a blue mask, which symbolizes one of his main qualities – calmness. Leo is the most serious and disciplined member of the group, and shows essential qualities of a natural-born leader including patience, wisdom, and bravery.

What is the name of the blue ninja turtle?

Out of all the members, Leo has the most experience in battle but sometimes doubts himself as an effective leader. He is at constant odds with his brother, Ralph, who challenges his authority as the leader of the group. Leo’s choice of weapon is two katana blades, which he has mastered beautifully. In terms of skills, Leo is extremely proficient in martial arts and encompasses a good balance of strength, agility, and intelligence. He often compares himself to Captain Ryan, who is the main character of his favorite TV show, Space Heroes. This tends to annoy his three brothers a lot, who sometimes view Leo as having set too high of a standard for himself and everyone around him. While there may be some strain between Leo and his brothers, especially Raphael, they are lost without him. In instances where Leo goes missing or is injured, they rally by his side for support. As the first-born, Leo has a very close relationship with Splinter. He is the first to call Splinter “father” and has great respect and admiration for him. The bond between the two is quite evident in many of the TMNT storylines.


what is the theory that cause continents to move

When the first Continental Drift theory was proposed it was rejected by the scientific community. One of the biggest reasons that the Continental Drift theory was opposed was the question of what force would be great enough to move the vast continents. Actually no one knows what force moves the continents even today but that the continents do move is pretty much universally accepted. The modern plate tectonic theory says that the mid ocean ridges are places where the convection heat currents in the mantle cause up wheeling of heat in the crust.

"What form caused the movement of the continents? Earth Science1 Answer1David Drayer Share Sep 4, 2016Answer: The theory of plate tectonics suggests that it is convection currents in the mantle of the earth that causes the movement of the continental plates. Explanation:not sure if you meant what force caused the movements of the continents.

The ocean can be observed splitting apart and moving in opposite directions at these mid ocean mountains. This is the kind of movement that is seen in convection currents. The subduction zones where ocean plates can be observed diving beneath other ocean and continental plates are like the places where the convection currents move downward. Though no one knows for sure there is good evidence supporting the idea of convection currents carrying heat from the earth's core are responsible for the force that cause the continents to move. Was this helpful? Let the contributor know!Yes Just asked! See more What is the rate of movement per year for the ... Answer17 minutes ago How do you graph f ( x) =x 2 + 3 x + 2− 3 x − 12using ... Answer22 minutes ago What is radius of a circle with circumference ... Answer26 minutes ago Travis has a customer who wants to purchase a ... Answer26 minutes ago Trending questions How can I convert percent concentration to molarity? Che How does crossing over increase genetic diversity? Bio Why do SN2 reactions prefer aprotic solvents? Org Explain how volcanoes change the earth's surface? Ear What is Fick's law of diffusion? Phy What is 3/4 divided by 2? Alg What happened as a result of the Opium War? Wor How do you express log 36 in terms of log 2 and log 3 ? Pre Why did slavery grow rapidly in the South? U. SHow do you prove tan x + cot x = sec x csc x ? Tri How do you insert the filled square ""End of proof"" unicode character [U+220E] in a socratic.org ... Soc Is there a direct relationship between the eccentricity of a planet's orbit and its distance from ... Ast What is the difference between point-source and nonpoint-source water pollution? Env How do you find the integral of 1sin 2 ( x)? Cal What is least common multiple of 3, 4, 6, and 8? Pre In what anatomical position of the body is the heart located? Ana Are ""rice"" and ""wheat"" countable or uncountable nouns? Eng What is the middle layer of the sun's atmosphere? Ast What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Asch conformity study? Psy A study of one thousand teens found that the number of hours they spend on social networking sites ... Sta Find the area of a regular hexagon inscribed in a circle of radius 6 cm ? Geo Impact of this question44 views around the world You can reuse this answer Creative Commons License "


how do you cook turkey necks

In a large stew pot, combine the turkey necks, celery and onions. Cover with water just above the meat and veggies. Bring to hard boil, then cover pot with top and boil at medium for 1 hour. After 1 hour of cooking, add your seasonings. Continue to boil for 1 1/2 hours or until meat is tender. Add water if necessary.

"Home > Recipes > Meat Dishes > Boiled Turkey Necks BOILED TURKEY NECKS1 lb deli cut turkey necks2 cups chopped celery1 whole chopped oniongarlic powderblack pepper Chef Paul's Poultry Seasoningcayenne pepper

Serve over steamed white or brown rice and gravy. Enjoy! !Submitted by: Q. Reliford Share: Comments?« PREVIOUS RECIPE NEXT RECIPE »Recipes related to Boiled Turkey Necks Smoked Shoulder Boiled Dinner Low Country Shrimp Boil Southern Shrimp Boil Shrimp Boil Low Country Boil Dry Boiled Shrimp Hot & Spicey Boiled Crawfish Boiled Meatballs Rating: 4.8 / 5 - Reviews: 10Oct 23, 3:37 PM Sabray (Georgia) says: Wow!!! These turkey necks were awesome. I had never cooked my turkey necks like these before, neither have I cooked them separated from collard greens, but decided to give it a try. Awesome recipe, and I am looking to cook them like this in the near future. What I did was cook the turkey necks the night prior to consuming, so that the seasoning can set in meat overnight. Once again, this was great and I did not make any changes to recipe, except for pouring a little bit of leftover seasoning I had from a few packages of ramen noodles and add to it (did not want to waste it). Other than that I enjoyed the overall flavor!! !May 11, 5:39 AM Tony (Australia) says: Where would one find Chef Paul's Poultry Seasoning? May 11, 11:27 AM Harry (Virgin Islands) says: I've seen ""Paul Prudhomme's"" gumbo seasonings in the spice isle at Walmart. Jun 1, 7:47 AM Q. Reliford (California) says: Hey thanks for trying my recipe Sabray, so glad you enjoyed it... Tony, you can find the seasoning at your local grocery store, I'm not sure of the stores in Australia. However, an alternate could be any poultry seasoning, and add some Sea Salt and Paprika in addition to the other seasonings I have listed. Thanks again!! !Aug 2, 6:37 PM Maria Taylor (Texas) says: Thank you Q. Reliford, this recipe was outstanding. I loved every bit of it. Jan 3, 11:50 PM Dee (Maryland) says: Thanks for the recipe. It was fairly simple but quite tasty. I added smoked paprika and salt to the original recipe. My husband really enjoyed it. Jan 28, 3:13 PM Melaney (Alabama) says: Does this recipe work wth smoked turkey necks too? Jan 6, 7:53 PM Mariuzza (Pennsylvania) says: I've been making delicious turkey soup from necks for years. First I roast the necks with onion garlic celery rosemary thyme sage and fennel seeds till browned IN the soup pot. Then I add salt water and bay leaves and simmer on top of stove for about 2 1/2 hours or until meat falls off the bone. Strain broth into another pot and add diced potatoes and carrots and noodles or pasta of your choice ( orzo is nice) Remove meat from necks and add to soup. Deeeelizeeoso Jul 28, 7:53 PM Chef Fantastic Johnson says: This was by far the best turkey necks I've ever eaten... Thanks!Aug 22, 2:24 PM Che says: My family luv it!!! It was 2 die for lol!! !See more rated recipes » + Review | Replyemail this recipe to: Printer Options: Standard | Word Search Puzzle Recommended for you: Turkey Stir Fry Drunk Beans Apple Brown Betty Cranberry Cherry Pie Company Chicken Chicken Salad Strawberry Salad Senate Bean Soup Stove Top Tuna Casserole Frog's Legs A' La Parisienne Easy Dumplings Gram's Applesauce Cake Spaghetti Sauce Easy Microwave Chicken Casserole Mexican Cornbread Dutch Apple Strudel Pie Macaroons Awesome Chocolate Chip Cookies Italian Style Croutons Cranberry Crunchtop of page "


what county is ridgway pa in

Ridgway is a borough in and the county seat of Elk County, Pennsylvania, United States. Ridgway was founded by Philadelphian shipping merchant Jacob Ridgway and James Gillis. Jacob Ridgway earned substantial wealth both in Philadelphia and abroad in London. He constantly sent sums of money back to be invested in property. In the early 19th century as part of a larger land purchase, Ridgway acquired 40,000 acres (160 km2) that became Elk County.

Ridgway, PA

Ridgway, PANearby Directions

One of Jacob Ridgway's nephews, James Gillis, convinced Ridgway that the area could become a very lucrative spot for a lumber camp due to the proximity of Elk Creek and the Clarion River. Ridgway is 119 miles (191 km) east by south of Erie on the Clarion River. Coal and natural gas abound in the district. In the past, the industrial interests were manufacturing leather, iron, clay, and lumber products, silk goods, railroad snow plows, dynamos, and machine tools. In 1900, the people living here numbered 3,515; in 1910, 5,408; and in 1940, 6,253. The population was 4,591 at the 2000 census. Many historic structures are located within the boundaries of the Ridgway Historic District, added to the National Register of Historic Places in 2003. Jacob Ridgway


what causes hormonal bleeding

] Several combined hormonal contraceptives— the pill, Nuva Ring, and the contraceptive patch —are usually used in a way that causes regular withdrawal bleeding. In a normal cycle, menstruation occurs when estrogen and progesterone levels drop rapidly.

Menstrual cycle

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Menstrual bleeding)navigation search See also: Menstruation and Menstruation (mammal)Figure showing the progression of the menstrual cycle and the different hormones contributing to it. The menstrual cycle is the regular natural change that occurs in the female reproductive system (specifically the uterus and ovaries) that makes pregnancy possible. [1] [2] The cycle is required for the production of ovocytes, and for the preparation of the uterus for pregnancy. [1] Up to 80% of women report having some symptoms during the one to two weeks prior to menstruation. [3] Common symptoms include acne, tender breasts, bloating, feeling tired, irritability and mood changes. [4] These symptoms interfere with normal life and therefore qualify as premenstrual syndrome in 20 to 30% of women. In 3 to 8%, they are severe. [3]The first period usually begins between twelve and fifteen years of age, a point in time known as menarche. [5] They may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal. [6] The average age of the first period is generally later in the developing world and earlier in developed world. The typical length of time between the first day of one period and the first day of the next is 21 to 45 days in young women and 21 to 35 days in adults (an average of 28 days). [6] [7] Menstruation stops occurring after menopause which usually occurs between 45 and 55 years of age. [8] Bleeding usually lasts around 2 to 7 days. [6]The menstrual cycle is governed by hormonal changes. [6] These changes can be altered by using hormonal birth control to prevent pregnancy. [9] Each cycle can be divided into three phases based on events in the ovary (ovarian cycle) or in the uterus (uterine cycle). [1] The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase, ovulation, and luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle is divided into menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. Stimulated by gradually increasing amounts of estrogen in the follicular phase, discharges of blood (menses) flow stop, and the lining of the uterus thickens. Follicles in the ovary begin developing under the influence of a complex interplay of hormones, and after several days one or occasionally two become dominant (non-dominant follicles shrink and die). Approximately mid-cycle, 24–36 hours after the luteinizing hormone (LH) surges, the dominant follicle releases an ovocyte, in an event called ovulation. After ovulation, the ovocyte only lives for 24 hours or less without fertilization while the remains of the dominant follicle in the ovary become a corpus luteum; this body has a primary function of producing large amounts of progesterone. Under the influence of progesterone, the uterine lining changes to prepare for potential implantation of an embryo to establish a pregnancy. If implantation does not occur within approximately two weeks, the corpus luteum will involute, causing a sharp drop in levels of both progesterone and estrogen. The hormone drop causes the uterus to shed its lining in a process termed menstruation. Menstruation also occurs in some other animals including shrews, bats, and other primates such as apes and monkeys. [10]Contents [ hide ]1 Onset and frequency2 Health effects2.1 Fertility2.2 Mood and behavior2.3 Mate choice2.4 Eating behavior2.5 Substance abuse2.6 Menstrual disorders3 Cycles and phases3.1 Ovarian cycle3.2 Uterine cycle4 Ovulation suppression4.1 Birth control4.2 Breastfeeding5 Society and culture5.1 Etymological5.2 The Moon5.3 Work6 See also7 References8 External links Onset and frequency [ edit]Diagram illustrating how the uterus lining builds up and breaks down during the menstrual cycle. The average age of menarche is 12–15. [5] [11] They may occasionally start as early as eight, and this onset may still be normal. [6] This first period often occurs later in the developing world than the developed world. [7]The average age of menarche is approximately 12.5 years in the United States, [12] 12.7 in Canada, [13] 12.9 in the UK [14] and 13.1 years in Iceland. [15] Factors such as genetics, diet and overall health can affect timing. [16]The cessation of menstrual cycles at the end of a woman's reproductive period is termed menopause. The average age of menopause in women is 52 years, with anywhere between 45 and 55 being common. Menopause before age 45 is considered premature in industrialised countries. [17] Like the age of menarche, the age of menopause is largely a result of cultural and biological factors; [18] however, illnesses, certain surgeries, or medical treatments may cause menopause to occur earlier than it might have otherwise. [19]The length of a woman's menstrual cycle typically varies somewhat, with some shorter cycles and some longer cycles. A woman who experiences variations of less than eight days between her longest cycles and shortest cycles is considered to have regular menstrual cycles. It is unusual for a woman to experience cycle length variations of more than four days. Length variation between eight and 20 days is considered as moderately irregular cycles. Variation of 21 days or more between a woman's shortest and longest cycle lengths is considered very irregular. [20]The average menstrual cycle lasts 28 days. The variability of menstrual cycle lengths is highest for women under 25 years of age and is lowest, that is, most regular, for ages 25 to 39. [21] Subsequently, the variability increases slightly for women aged 40 to 44. [21]The luteal phase of the menstrual cycle is about the same length in most individuals (mean 14.13 days, standard deviation 1.41 days) [22] whereas the follicular phase tends to show much more variability (log-normally distributed with 95% of individuals having follicular phases between 10.3 and 16.3 days). [23] The follicular phase also seems to get significantly shorter with age (geometric mean 14.2 days in women aged 18–24 vs. 10.4 days in women aged 40–44). [23]Health effects [ edit]Some women with neurological conditions experience increased activity of their conditions at about the same time during each menstrual cycle. For example, drops in estrogen levels have been known to trigger migraines, [24] especially when the woman who suffers migraines is also taking the birth control pill. Many women with epilepsy have more seizures in a pattern linked to the menstrual cycle; this is called "" catamenial epilepsy "". [25] Different patterns seem to exist (such as seizures coinciding with the time of menstruation, or coinciding with the time of ovulation), and the frequency with which they occur has not been firmly established. Using one particular definition, one group of scientists found that around one-third of women with intractable partial epilepsy has catamenial epilepsy. [25] [26] [27] An effect of hormones has been proposed, in which progesterone declines and estrogen increases would trigger seizures. [28] Recently, studies have shown that high doses of estrogen can cause or worsen seizures, whereas high doses of progesterone can act like an antiepileptic drug. [29] Studies by medical journals have found that women experiencing menses are 1.68 times more likely to commit suicide. [30]Mice have been used as an experimental system to investigate possible mechanisms by which levels of sex steroid hormones might regulate nervous system function. During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when progesterone is highest, the level of nerve-cell GABA receptor subtype delta was high. Since these GABA receptors are inhibitory, nerve cells with more delta receptors are less likely to fire than cells with lower numbers of delta receptors. During the part of the mouse estrous cycle when estrogen levels are higher than progesterone levels, the number of delta receptors decrease, increasing nerve cell activity, in turn increasing anxiety and seizure susceptibility. [31]Estrogen levels may affect thyroid behavior. [32] For example, during the luteal phase (when estrogen levels are lower), the velocity of blood flow in the thyroid is lower than during the follicular phase (when estrogen levels are higher). [33]Among women living closely together, it was once thought that the onsets of menstruation tend to synchronize. This effect was first described in 1971, and possibly explained by the action of pheromones in 1998. [34] Subsequent research has called this hypothesis into question. [35]Research indicates that women have a significantly higher likelihood of anterior cruciate ligament injuries in the pre-ovulatory stage, than post-ovulatory stage. [36]Fertility [ edit]Further information: Fertility testing Chance of fertilization by menstrual cycle day relative to ovulation. [37]The most fertile period (the time with the highest likelihood of pregnancy resulting from sexual intercourse) covers the time from some 5 days before until 1 to 2 days after ovulation. [38] In a 28‑day cycle with a 14‑day luteal phase, this corresponds to the second and the beginning of the third week. A variety of methods have been developed to help individual women estimate the relatively fertile and the relatively infertile days in the cycle; these systems are called fertility awareness. There are many fertility testing methods, including urine test kits that detect the LH surge that occurs 24 to 36 hours before ovulation; these are known as ovulation predictor kits (OPKs). [39] Computerized devices that interpret basal body temperatures, urinary test results, or changes in saliva are called fertility monitors. Fertility awareness methods that rely on cycle length records alone are called calendar-based methods. [40] Methods that require observation of one or more of the three primary fertility signs ( basal body temperature, cervical mucus, and cervical position) [41] are known as symptoms-based methods. [40]A woman's fertility is also affected by her age. [42] As a woman's total egg supply is formed in fetal life, [43] to be ovulated decades later, it has been suggested that this long lifetime may make the chromatin of eggs more vulnerable to division problems, breakage, and mutation than the chromatin of sperm, which are produced continuously during a man's reproductive life. However, despite this hypothesis, a similar paternal age effect has also been observed. As measured on women undergoing in vitro fertilization, a longer menstrual cycle length is associated with higher pregnancy and delivery rates, even after age adjustment. [44] Delivery rates after IVF have been estimated to be almost doubled for women with a menstrual cycle length of more than 34 days compared with women with a menstrual cycle length shorter than 26 days. [44] A longer menstrual cycle length is also significantly associated with better ovarian response to gonadotropin stimulation and embryo quality. [44]Mood and behavior [ edit]The different phases of the menstrual cycle correlate with women's moods. In some cases, hormones released during the menstrual cycle can cause behavioral changes in females; mild to severe mood changes can occur. [45] The menstrual cycle phase and ovarian hormones may contribute to increased empathy in women. The natural shift of hormone levels during the different phases of the menstrual cycle has been studied in conjunction with test scores. When completing empathy exercises, women in the follicular stage of their menstrual cycle performed better than women in their midluteal phase. A significant correlation between progesterone levels and the ability to accurately recognize emotion was found. Performances on emotion recognition tasks were better when women had lower progesterone levels. Women in the follicular stage showed higher emotion recognition accuracy than their midluteal phase counterparts. Women were found to react more to negative stimuli when in midluteal stage over the women in the follicular stage, perhaps indicating more reactivity to social stress during that menstrual cycle phase. [46] Overall, it has been found that women in the follicular phase demonstrated better performance in tasks that contain empathetic traits. Fear response in women during two different points in the menstrual cycle has been examined. When estrogen is highest in the preovulatory stage, women are significantly better at identifying expressions of fear than women who were menstruating, which is when estrogen levels are lowest. The women were equally able to identify happy faces, demonstrating that the fear response was a more powerful response. To summarize, menstrual cycle phase and the estrogen levels correlates with women’s fear processing. [47]However, the examination of daily moods in women with measuring ovarian hormones may indicate a less powerful connection. In comparison to levels of stress or physical health, the ovarian hormones had less of an impact on overall mood. [48] This indicates that while changes of ovarian hormones may influence mood, on a day-to-day level it does not influence mood more than other stressors do. Sexual feelings and behaviors change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having an increased interest in sexual activity. [49] Unlike other animal species, women show interest in sex across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility. [50] It appears that when women are most fertile, they tend to avoid situations that may result in sexual harassment or sexual assault. [51]Mate choice [ edit]Behavior towards potential mating partners changes during different phases of the menstrual cycle. [52] [53] [54] Near ovulation, women may have increased physical attraction and interest in attending social gatherings with men. [51] During the fertile phase of the cycle, women appear to prefer males who are more masculine. [55] The intensity of mate guarding differs across the phases of the cycle, with increased mate guarding occurring when woman are fertile. [54] [56] [57]During the fertile phase, many women experience more attraction, fantasies and sexual interest for extra pair men but not for the primary partner. [51] [54] [58] They also engage in extra-pair flirtations and demonstrate a preference for extra pair copulation. [51] [58]Voice [ edit]Preferences for voice pitch change across the cycle. [58] When seeking a short term mating partner, women may prefer a male with a low voice pitch, particularly during the fertile phase. [58] During the late follicular phase, it is common for women demonstrate a preference for mates with a masculine, deep voice. [59] Research has also been conducted on the attractiveness of the female voice throughout the cycle. [60] During their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle, there is some evidence that female voices are rated as significantly more attractive. [60] This effect is not found with women on the birth control pill. [60]Smell [ edit]Women's preference for male's body odor can change across the menstrual cycle. [61] Males who score highly on dominance have been rated as sexier by females during the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle. Additionally, during their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle, women may show preference for the odor of symmetrical men. [54] This effect is not found for women on the birth control pill. [62] Also, during the late follicular and ovulatory phases, women prefer the scent of masculine men. [58] The scent of androsterone (responsible for testosterone levels) is highly preferred by women during the peak of their fertility in the menstrual cycle. [58] Moreover, women may demonstrate preference for men with a scent that indicates developmental stability. [58]With regard to women's smell across the cycle, some evidence indicates that men use olfactory cues in order to know if a woman is ovulating. [61] Using a rating of women's odors, women who are ovulating have been rated as more attractive by men. [61] Men demonstrate preferences for the scent of fertile women. [61]Body [ edit]Preferences for facial features in mates can also change across the cycle. [58] There has been no difference found in preference for long-term mating partners during the menstrual cycle; however, those seeking a short-term relationship were more likely to choose a partner with more masculine features than usual. [51] [59] This was found to be the case especially during the woman's high conception risk stage and when salivary testosterone was high. [63] However, when women are in the luteal (non-fertile) phase, they tend to prefer men (and females) with more feminine faces. [59] A preference is also shown for self-resembling faces and apparent health in faces during the luteal phase of the cycle. [64] Apparent health preferences were found to be strongest when progesterone levels were high. [64] Additionally, during the fertile phase, many women show a preference for men with darker skin pigmentation. [58] Research on facial symmetry is mixed. [65]Preferences for body features can change during the fertile phase of the cycle. Women seeking a short-term partner demonstrate a preference for taller and muscular males. [58] Women also show preferences of males with masculine bodies at peak fertility. [58] [63] Mixed research has been found regarding body symmetry preferences throughout different phases of the cycle. [58]Personality [ edit]In short term mates, during the fertile phase, women may show more attraction to dominant men who display social presence. [58] For long-term mates, shifts in desired trait preferences do not occur throughout the cycle. [58]Eating behavior [ edit]Females have been found to experience different eating habits at different stages of their menstrual cycle, with food intake being higher during the luteal phase than the follicular phase. [66] [67] Food intake increases by approximately 10% during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase. [67]Various studies have shown that during the luteal phase woman consume more carbohydrates, proteins and fats and that 24-hour energy expenditure shows increases between 2.5-11.5%. [68] The increasing intake during the luteal phase may be related to higher preferences for sweet and fatty foods, which occurs naturally and is enhanced during the luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. [68] This is due to the higher metabolic demand during this phase. [69] In particular, women tend to show a cravings for chocolate, with higher cravings during the luteal phase. [68]Females with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) report changes in appetite across the menstrual cycle more than non-sufferers of PMS, possibly due to their oversensitivity to changes in hormone levels. [67] In women with PMS, food intake is higher in the luteal phase than follicular. [70] The remaining symptoms of PMS, including mood changes and physical symptoms, also occur during the luteal phase. No difference for preference of food types has been found between PMS sufferers and non-sufferers. [66]The different levels of ovarian hormones at different stages of the cycle have been used to explain eating behaviour changes. Progesterone has been shown to promote fat storage, causing a higher intake of fatty foods during the luteal phase when progesterone levels are higher. [67] Additionally, with a high estrogen level dopamine is ineffective in converting to noradrenaline, a hormone which promotes eating, therefore decreasing appetite. [67] In humans, the level of these ovarian hormones during the menstrual cycle have been found to influence binge eating. [71]It is theorized that the use of birth control pills should affect eating behaviour as they minimise or remove the fluctuations in hormone levels. [66] The neurotransmitter serotonin is also thought to play a role in food intake. Serotonin is responsible for inhibiting eating and controlling meal size, [72] among other things, and is modulated in part by ovarian hormones. [73]A number of factors affect whether dieting will affect these menstrual processes: age, weight loss and the diet itself. First, younger women are likely to experience menstrual irregularities due to their diet. Second, menstrual abnormalities are more likely with more weight loss. For example, anovulatory cycles can occur as a result of adopting a restricted diet, as well as engaging in a high amount of exercise. [67] Finally, the cycle is affected more by a vegetarian diet compared to a non-vegetarian diet. [74]Substance abuse [ edit]Studies investigating effects of the menstrual cycle on alcohol consumption have found mixed evidence. [75] However, some evidence suggests that individuals consume more alcohol during the luteal stage, especially if these individuals are heavy drinkers or have a family history of alcohol abuse. [69]The level of substance abuse increases with PMS, mostly with addictive substances such as nicotine, tobacco and cocaine. [69] One theory behind this suggests this higher level of substance abuse is due to decreased self-control as a result of the higher metabolic demands during the luteal phase. [69]Menstrual disorders [ edit]Main article: Menstrual disorder Infrequent or irregular ovulation is called oligoovulation. [76] The absence of ovulation is called anovulation. Normal menstrual flow can occur without ovulation preceding it: an anovulatory cycle. In some cycles, follicular development may start but not be completed; nevertheless, estrogens will be formed and stimulate the uterine lining. Anovulatory flow resulting from a very thick endometrium caused by prolonged, continued high estrogen levels is called estrogen breakthrough bleeding. Anovulatory bleeding triggered by a sudden drop in estrogen levels is called withdrawal bleeding. [77] Anovulatory cycles commonly occur before menopause (perimenopause) and in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. [78]Very little flow (less than 10 ml) is called hypomenorrhea. Regular cycles with intervals of 21 days or fewer are polymenorrhea; frequent but irregular menstruation is known as metrorrhagia. Sudden heavy flows or amounts greater than 80 ml are termed menorrhagia. [79] Heavy menstruation that occurs frequently and irregularly is menometrorrhagia. The term for cycles with intervals exceeding 35 days is oligomenorrhea. [80] Amenorrhea refers to more than three [79] to six [80] months without menses (while not being pregnant) during a woman's reproductive years. Cycles and phases [ edit]Menstrual cycle Flowchart of the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle can be described by the ovarian or uterine cycle. The ovarian cycle describes changes that occur in the follicles of the ovary whereas the uterine cycle describes changes in the endometrial lining of the uterus. Both cycles can be divided into three phases. The ovarian cycle consists of the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase whereas the uterine cycle consists of menstruation, proliferative phase, and secretory phase. [1]Ovarian cycle [ edit]Follicular phase [ edit]Main article: Follicular phase The follicular phase is the first part of the ovarian cycle. During this phase, the ovarian follicles mature and get ready to release an egg. [1] The latter part of this phase overlaps with the proliferative phase of the uterine cycle. Through the influence of a rise in follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) during the first days of the cycle, a few ovarian follicles are stimulated. [81] These follicles, which were present at birth [81] and have been developing for the better part of a year in a process known as folliculogenesis, compete with each other for dominance. Under the influence of several hormones, all but one of these follicles will stop growing, while one dominant follicle in the ovary will continue to maturity. The follicle that reaches maturity is called a tertiary, or Graafian, follicle, and it contains the ovum. [81]Ovulation [ edit]Main article: Ovulation An ovary about to release an egg Ovulation is the second phase of the ovarian cycle in which a mature egg is released from the ovarian follicles into the oviduct. [82] During the follicular phase, estradiol suppresses release of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland. When the egg has nearly matured, levels of estradiol reach a threshold above which this effect is reversed and estrogen stimulates the production of a large amount of LH. This process, known as the LH surge, starts around day 12 of the average cycle and may last 48 hours. [83]The exact mechanism of these opposite responses of LH levels to estradiol is not well understood. [84] In animals, a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (Gn RH) surge has been shown to precede the LH surge, suggesting that estrogen's main effect is on the hypothalamus, which controls Gn RH secretion. [84] This may be enabled by the presence of two different estrogen receptors in the hypothalamus: estrogen receptor alpha, which is responsible for the negative feedback estradiol-LH loop, and estrogen receptor beta, which is responsible for the positive estradiol-LH relationship. [85] However, in humans it has been shown that high levels of estradiol can provoke abrupt increases in LH, even when Gn RH levels and pulse frequencies are held constant, [84] suggesting that estrogen acts directly on the pituitary to provoke the LH surge. The release of LH matures the egg and weakens the wall of the follicle in the ovary, causing the fully developed follicle to release its secondary oocyte. [81] The secondary oocyte promptly matures into an ootid and then becomes a mature ovum. The mature ovum has a diameter of about 0.2 mm. [86]Which of the two ovaries—left or right—ovulates appears essentially random; no known left and right co-ordination exists. [87] Occasionally, both ovaries will release an egg; [87] if both eggs are fertilized, the result is fraternal twins. [88]After being released from the ovary, the egg is swept into the fallopian tube by the fimbria, which is a fringe of tissue at the end of each fallopian tube. After about a day, an unfertilized egg will disintegrate or dissolve in the fallopian tube. [81]Fertilization by a spermatozoon, when it occurs, usually takes place in the ampulla, the widest section of the fallopian tubes. A fertilized egg immediately begins the process of embryogenesis, or development. The developing embryo takes about three days to reach the uterus and another three days to implant into the endometrium. [81] It has usually reached the blastocyst stage at the time of implantation. In some women, ovulation features a characteristic pain called mittelschmerz (German term meaning middle pain ). [89] The sudden change in hormones at the time of ovulation sometimes also causes light mid-cycle blood flow. [90]Luteal phase [ edit]Main article: Luteal phase The luteal phase is the final phase of the ovarian cycle and it corresponds to the secretory phase of the uterine cycle. During the luteal phase, the pituitary hormones FSH and LH cause the remaining parts of the dominant follicle to transform into the corpus luteum, which produces progesterone. The increased progesterone in the adrenals starts to induce the production of estrogen. The hormones produced by the corpus luteum also suppress production of the FSH and LH that the corpus luteum needs to maintain itself. Consequently, the level of FSH and LH fall quickly over time, and the corpus luteum subsequently atrophies. [81] Falling levels of progesterone trigger menstruation and the beginning of the next cycle. From the time of ovulation until progesterone withdrawal has caused menstruation to begin, the process typically takes about two weeks, with 14 days considered normal. For an individual woman, the follicular phase often varies in length from cycle to cycle; by contrast, the length of her luteal phase will be fairly consistent from cycle to cycle. [91]The loss of the corpus luteum is prevented by fertilization of the egg. The syncytiotrophoblast, which is the outer layer of the resulting embryo-containing structure (the blastocyst) and later also becomes the outer layer of the placenta, produces human chorionic gonadotropin (h CG), which is very similar to LH and which preserves the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum can then continue to secrete progesterone to maintain the new pregnancy. Most pregnancy tests look for the presence of h CG. [81]Uterine cycle [ edit]The uterine cycle has three phases: menses, proliferative, secretory. [92]Menstruation [ edit]Main article: Menstruation Menstruation (also called menstrual bleeding, menses, catamenia or a period) is the first phase of the uterine cycle. The flow of menses normally serves as a sign that a woman has not become pregnant. (However, this cannot be taken as certainty, as a number of factors can cause bleeding during pregnancy; some factors are specific to early pregnancy, and some can cause heavy flow .) [93] [94] [95]Levels of estradiol (the main estrogen), progesterone, luteinizing hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone during the menstrual cycle, taking inter-cycle and inter-woman variability into account. Eumenorrhea denotes normal, regular menstruation that lasts for a few days (usually 3 to 5 days, but anywhere from 2 to 7 days is considered normal). [89] [96] The average blood loss during menstruation is 35 milliliters with 10–80 ml considered normal. [97] Women who experience Menorrhagia are more susceptible to iron deficiency than the average person. [98] An enzyme called plasmin inhibits clotting in the menstrual fluid. [99]Painful cramping in the abdomen, back, or upper thighs is common during the first few days of menstruation. Severe uterine pain during menstruation is known as dysmenorrhea, and it is most common among adolescents and younger women (affecting about 67.2% of adolescent females). [100] When menstruation begins, symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (PMS) such as breast tenderness and irritability generally decrease. [89] Many sanitary products are marketed to women for use during their menstruation. Proliferative phase [ edit]The proliferative phase is the second phase of the uterine cycle when estrogen causes the lining of the uterus to grow, or proliferate, during this time. [81] As they mature, the ovarian follicles secrete increasing amounts of estradiol, and estrogen. The estrogens initiate the formation of a new layer of endometrium in the uterus, histologically identified as the proliferative endometrium. The estrogen also stimulates crypts in the cervix to produce fertile cervical mucus, which may be noticed by women practicing fertility awareness. [101]Secretory phase [ edit]The secretory phase is the final phase of the uterine cycle and it corresponds to the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle. During the secretory phase, the corpus luteum produces progesterone, which plays a vital role in making the endometrium receptive to implantation of the blastocyst and supportive of the early pregnancy, by increasing blood flow and uterine secretions and reducing the contractility of the smooth muscle in the uterus; [102] it also has the side effect of raising the woman's basal body temperature. [103]Ovulation suppression [ edit]Birth control [ edit]Main article: Hormonal contraception Half-used blister pack of a combined oral contraceptive. The white pills are placebos, mainly for the purpose of reminding the woman to continue taking the pills. While some forms of birth control do not affect the menstrual cycle, hormonal contraceptives work by disrupting it. Progestogen negative feedback decreases the pulse frequency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (Gn RH) release by the hypothalamus, which decreases the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary. Decreased levels of FSH inhibit follicular development, preventing an increase in estradiol levels. Progestogen negative feedback and the lack of estrogen positive feedback on LH release prevent a mid-cycle LH surge. Inhibition of follicular development and the absence of a LH surge prevent ovulation. [104] [105] [106]The degree of ovulation suppression in progestogen-only contraceptives depends on the progestogen activity and dose. Low dose progestogen-only contraceptives—traditional progestogen only pills, subdermal implants Norplant and Jadelle, and intrauterine system Mirena—inhibit ovulation in about 50% of cycles and rely mainly on other effects, such as thickening of cervical mucus, for their contraceptive effectiveness. [107] Intermediate dose progestogen-only contraceptives—the progestogen-only pill Cerazette and the subdermal implant Nexplanon —allow some follicular development but more consistently inhibit ovulation in 97–99% of cycles. The same cervical mucus changes occur as with very low-dose progestogens. High-dose, progestogen-only contraceptives—the injectables Depo-Provera and Noristerat—completely inhibit follicular development and ovulation. [107]Combined hormonal contraceptives include both an estrogen and a progestogen. Estrogen negative feedback on the anterior pituitary greatly decreases the release of FSH, which makes combined hormonal contraceptives more effective at inhibiting follicular development and preventing ovulation. Estrogen also reduces the incidence of irregular breakthrough bleeding. [104] [105] [106

[103] Temporarily discontinuing use of combined hormonal contraceptives (a placebo week, not using patch or ring for a week) has a similar effect of causing the uterine lining to shed. If withdrawal bleeding is not desired, combined hormonal contraceptives may be taken continuously, although this increases the risk of breakthrough bleeding. Breastfeeding [ edit]Main article: Lactational amenorrhea method Breastfeeding causes negative feedback to occur on pulse secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (Gn RH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Depending on the strength of the negative feedback, breastfeeding women may experience complete suppression of follicular development, but no ovulation, or normal menstrual cycle may resume. [108] Suppression of ovulation is more likely when suckling occurs more frequently. [109] The production of prolactin in response to suckling is important to maintaining lactational amenorrhea. [110] On average, women who are fully breastfeeding whose infants suckle frequently experience a return of menstruation at fourteen and a half months postpartum. There is a wide range of response among individual breastfeeding women, however, with some experiencing return of menstruation at two months and others remaining amenorrheic for up to 42 months postpartum. [111]Society and culture [ edit]See also: Culture and menstruation Etymological [ edit]The word ""menstruation"" is etymologically related to ""moon"". The terms ""menstruation"" and ""menses"" are derived from the Latin mensis (month), which in turn relates to the Greek mene (moon) and to the roots of the English words month and moon. [112]The Moon [ edit]See also: Lunar effect Even though the average length of the human menstrual cycle is similar to that of the lunar cycle, in modern humans there is no relation between the two. [113] The relationship is believed to be a coincidence. [114] [115] Light exposure does not appear to affect the menstrual cycle in humans. [10] A meta-analysis of studies from 1996 showed no correlation between the human menstrual cycle and the lunar cycle. [116] [117] [118]Dogon villagers did not have electric lighting and spent most nights outdoors, talking and sleeping; so they were apparently an ideal population for detecting a lunar influence; none was found. [119]Work [ edit]In a number of countries, mainly in Asia, legislation or corporate practice has introduced formal menstrual leave to provide women with either paid or unpaid leave of absence from their employment while they are menstruating. [120] Countries with policies include Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, and South Korea. [120] The practice is controversial due to concerns that it bolsters the perception of women as weak, inefficient workers, [120] as well as concerns that it is unfair to men. 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New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 266–290. ISBN 9780195340990.^ Gangestad, Steven W.; Thornhill, Randy (1998-05-22). ""Menstrual cycle variation in women's preferences for the scent of symmetrical men"". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 265 (1399): 927–933. doi: 10.1098/rspb.1998.0380. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1689051. PMID 9633114.^ a b De Bruine, Lisa; Jones, Benedict C.; Frederick, David A.; Haselton, Martie G.; Penton-Voak, Ian S.; Perrett, David I. (2010-01-01). ""Evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences for masculinity: a response to Harris (in press) ""Menstrual cycle and facial preferences reconsidered "" "". Evolutionary Psychology: An International Journal of Evolutionary Approaches to Psychology and Behavior. 8 (4): 768–775. doi: 10.1177/147470491000800416. ISSN 1474-7049. PMID 22947833.^ a b Jones, Benedict C.; De Bruine, Lisa M.; Perrett, David I.; Little, Anthony C.; Feinberg, David R.; Smith, Miriam J. 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Psychological Medicine. 38 (12): 1749–1757. doi: 10.1017/S0033291708002997. ISSN 1469-8978. PMC 2885896. PMID 18307829.^ Blundell, J. E. (1984-12-01). ""Serotonin and appetite"". Neuropharmacology. 23 (12, Part 2): 1537–1551. doi: 10.1016/0028-3908 (84)90098-4.^ Bethea, C. L.; Gundlah, C.; Mirkes, S. J. (2000-01-01). ""Ovarian steroid action in the serotonin neural system of macaques"". Novartis Foundation Symposium. 230: 112–130; discussion 130–133. ISSN 1528-2511. PMID 10965505.^ Dye, L.; Blundell, J. E. (1997-06-01). ""Menstrual cycle and appetite control: implications for weight regulation"". Human Reproduction. 12 (6): 1142–1151. doi: 10.1093/humrep/12.6.1142. ISSN 0268-1161. PMID 9221991.^ Carroll, Haley A.; Lustyk, M. Kathleen B.; Larimer, Mary E. (2015-08-21). ""The relationship between alcohol consumption and menstrual cycle: a review of the literature"". Archives of Women's Mental Health. 18 (6): 773–781. doi: 10.1007/s00737-015-0568-2. ISSN 1434-1816. PMC 4859868. PMID 26293593.^ Galan, Nicole (16 April 2008). ""Oligoovulation"". about.com. Retrieved 12 October 2008.^ Weschler (2002), p.107^ Anovulation at e Medicine^ a b Menstruation Disorders at e Medicine^ a b Oriel KA, Schrager S (October 1999). ""Abnormal uterine bleeding"". Am Fam Physician. 60 (5): 1371–80; discussion 1381–2. PMID 10524483.^ a b c d e f g h i Losos, Jonathan B.; Raven, Peter H.; Johnson, George B.; Singer, Susan R. (2002). Biology. New York: Mc Graw-Hill. pp. 1207–09. ISBN 0-07-303120-8.^ Ovulation Test at Duke Fertility Center. Retrieved 2 July 2011^ ""Ovulation Calendar"". Pregnology.^ a b c Lentz, Gretchen M; Lobo, Rogerio A.; Gershenson, David M; Katz, Vern L. (2013). Comprehensive gynecology. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby. ISBN 978-0-323-06986-1. Retrieved 5 April 2012.^ Hu L, Gustofson RL, Feng H, Leung PK, Mores N, Krsmanovic LZ, Catt KJ (October 2008). 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The CCL News. 13 (3): 10. and (January–February 1987) 13 (4): 5.^ Allen, Kevin (2007). The Reluctant Hypothesis: A History of Discourse Surrounding the Lunar Phase Method of Regulating Conception. Lacuna Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-9510974-2-7.^ Vertebrate Endocrinology (5 ed.). Academic Press. 2013. p. 361. ISBN 9780123964656.^ William A. Gutsch (1997). 1001 things everyone should know about the universe (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. p. 57. ISBN 9780385482233.^ Barash, David P.; Lipton, Judith Eve (2009). ""Synchrony and Its Discontents"". How women got their curves and other just-so stories evolutionary enigmas ( [Online-Ausg.]. ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231518390.^ As cited by Adams, Cecil, ""What's the link between the moon and menstruation?"" (accessed 6 June 2006): Abell, George O.; Barry Singer (1983). Science and the Paranormal: Probing the Existence of the Supernatural. Scribner Book Company. ISBN 0-684-17820-6.^ Zimecki M (2006). 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""Should women get paid menstruation leave?"". Salon. Retrieved 2016-03-16.^ ""Menstrual Leave: Delightful or Discriminatory? | Culture | Lip Magazine"". lip magazine. Retrieved 2016-03-16. External links [ edit]Media related to Menstrual cycle at Wikimedia Commons [ show]v t e Human physiology of sexual reproduction [ show]v t e Menstrual cycle [ show]v t e Women's health Categories: Women's health Menstrual cycle Periodic phenomena Midwifery Human female endocrine system "


telephone number for amazon fire stick customer service

They will resolve the issues instantly but in case the problem is complicated it will take 1-2 days minimum to solve for more information contact our amazon fire stick support number-1-844-745-1521

Amazon Fire Stick Support Amazon fire TV is a small entertainment device that is used at a large scale for streaming digital audio / video at a high definition television. However in case of fire stick though it is also a small entertainment device but it has a limited features.http://www.teqguru.com/amazon-fire-tv-stick-not-connecting-help-support-customer-care.html Amazon technical supporters are very friendly and well- mannered. They have different means to connect with them through online chat, emails feedback or by phone. Their clients are spread into every hook and corner of the countries, so calling is a best possible way to reach them within a short term period.as their technicians are highly skilled professional they can easily detect problems causing one’s issue by using amazon fire stick customer service number.


is a procedure considered a medical error

The mere fact that a surgical error has occurred does not mean that anyone is liable for medical malpractice. The medical treatment in question (whether it is a surgical procedure or not) has to adhere to an accepted medical standard of care, and the sub-standard treatment must result in harm to you.

"A look at common causes and types of surgical errors, and key legal issues in these kinds of malpractice cases. Need Professional Help? Talk to an Employment Rights attorney. Please answer a few questions to help us match you with attorneys in your area. The employer is a It is often said that there is no such thing as ""minor"" surgery. Whether you are having your appendix removed, or a quadruple bypass, any surgical procedure is a serious matter. The last thing anyone wants to hear following a surgery is that an error occurred. But does that automatically mean your surgeon committed medical malpractice? Not necessarily. The purpose of this article is to help you determine when a surgical error amounts to medical malpractice. Related Products MORECalifornia Workers' Comp How to Win Your Personal Injury Claim Settling Legal Disputes What is Medical Malpractice?

In other words, if the mistake did not fall below the medical standard of care, or you were not harmed by it, there is no malpractice. A general definition of the standard of care is: The type and level of care an ordinary, prudent, health care professional, with the same training and experience, would provide under similar circumstances in the same community. In most surgical error cases, it is fairly simple to establish that your surgeon’s treatment was below the standard of care (depending on how strictly you define ""error""; more on this in the next section.) If you do establish that a surgical error violated the standard of care, the critical issue becomes whether you were harmed by the error. What is a Surgical Error? Simply defined, a surgical error is a preventable mistake during surgery. All surgeries involve an element of risk. For that reason, it is typical to sign a form before undergoing surgery that states you understand surgery involves certain known risks. This is called “ informed consent .” Surgical errors go beyond the known risks of surgery. Surgical errors are unexpected. Why Do Surgical Errors Occur? No two surgeries are identical. Likewise, every surgical error (and the underlying cause of the error) has the potential to be unique. That said, here are some common reasons for surgical errors: Incompetence – Perhaps your surgeon has not performed the procedure very many times and simply lacks the skill to perform the surgery successfully. It sounds strange to many people this can happen, but it does. Insufficient Preoperative Planning – It is critical that a surgeon be well-prepared for surgery. This can include reviewing, and preparing for, any complications that are likely to occur. It can also include proper preparation by nurses and assistants to ensure all the necessary equipment is ready and available when needed by the surgeon. Improper Work Process – Surgeons may mistakenly determine that certain steps during a surgery are unnecessary. Taking shortcuts can be very costly when it comes to surgery. Poor Communication – Failure to communicate properly can result in a number of critical errors. For example, a surgeon may mark the wrong site for surgery, or fail to make sure all surgical equipment is properly onhand. There can also be miscommunication about proper dosage of a patient’s medication. Any one of these failures can result in serious consequences. Fatigue – This is quite common. Surgeons notoriously work long shifts. This results in fatigue. Tired people are more likely to make mistakes when compared with well-rested people. Drugs/Alcohol – Some surgeons turn to drugs and alcohol to cope with the stress they sometimes face. Many people are shocked to think a surgeon would even consider entering the operating room under the influence of drugs or alcohol. It may be shocking, but it happens. Neglect – Sometimes surgeons are simply not as careful as they should be. This could include failing to ensure their instruments are properly sterilized. It could also include the decision to use surgical equipment known to be defective. Examples of Surgical Errors The types of surgical errors that can occur are wide-ranging as well. Here are some of the most common: Injuring a nerve during surgery Administering too much or too little medication, i.e. anesthesia error Performing an incision at the wrong location Leaving a piece of surgical equipment, e.g. sponges or instruments, inside a patient Operating on the wrong body part Operating on the wrong patient Consider Talking to an Experienced Lawyer Related Ads If you have questions about whether a surgical error amounts to medical malpractice, you should speak with a lawyer who specializes in medical malpractice. These cases can be very complex from a legal and procedural standpoint, and your chances of success increase exponentially if you hire a lawyer who has experience handling medical malpractice claims in your state's court system. "


does adult acne rosacea give you blepharitis

Rosacea is a facial skin condition that can cause adult acne and blepharitis. The same process of blocked oil glands in the lids can affect the skin of the entire face, leading to redness and pustule or pimple formation.

"Share: About Dry Eyes, Blepharitis and Ocular Rosacea What is Blepharitis? Blepharitis is a very common disorder of the eyelids. There are tiny oil glands in the eyelids that have small openings just behind the eyelashes along the edge of our eyelids. These glands are important because they produce oil that moisturizes the eyes and prevents our tears from evaporating too quickly. Sometimes, the oil can be very thick and plug the openings. This can lead to trapping bacteria, which naturally live on our skin, in the glands. This leads to a chronic infection of the eyelids, with redness and crusty discharge especially in the morning. When a gland becomes completely plugged, a pustule or stye can form in it. What is Ocular Rosacea?

Exposure to sunlight, drinking excess alcohol, or caffeinated beverages, eating a lot of greasy foods can all be factors in making this condition worse. These factors should be limited or completely avoided. When rosacea affects the eyes, it is called ocular rosacea. Blepharitis and dryness of the eyes can be very severe with this condition. What are the symptoms of blepharitis? Common symptoms of blepharitis are redness of the eyelids and eyes, crusty discharge along the eyelids and sometimes ""dandruff"" of the eyelids, burning tears and dry eyes. Sometimes the blepharitis can lead to styes along the eyelids, which can come back every so often. Serious blepharitis can occasionally cause ulcers on the part of the eye called the cornea. Symptoms of a corneal ulcer are decreased vision, pain, marked redness of the eye and tearing or mucous discharge. How is blepharitis cured? Unfortunately, it is a chronic condition for which there is no cure. However, early diagnosis and proper regular treatment is key to controlling the symptoms and making sure it does not get any worse. How is blepharitis treated? Regular lid hygiene is the best method of making sure blepharitis is kept under control. You will need to do this for several weeks before you notice a real improvement in your symptoms and prevent it from getting worse. This is how it is done: Apply a warm compress ( a facecloth soaked in warm water) or a warm teabag to both closed eyes for about 5 minutes in the morning and the evening. The warmth of the compress will keep the gland openings open and prevent them from getting plugged. Do this 1-2 times per day. While applying the compress, gently massage the eyelids while the warm compress is over the eyes. This will stimulate the gland to secrete the oils. Shampoo your eyelids with either diluted baby shampoo or other products that are available over the counter at any drug store to clean the eyelids. Apply a few drops of baby shampoo to a wet facecloth, or use the lid products to rub and lather the eyelashes with your eyes closed. Rinse your eyes generously. This may be done after the warm compresses. Do this 2-3 times per week, or daily when your symptoms get worse. If you have adult acne or rosacea, you can try a tea tree oil facial wash, diluted to about 10% concentration with water and use it to clean the eyelids ( as described above) as well as the face. Tea tree oil has anti-bacterial properties that are helpful in treating rosacea and blepharitis. Try a small amount of tea tree oil facial wash on your arm as a test patch before using it on your face. Do not continue to use it if you develop skin irritation or rash. Do not use concentrated Tea tree oil on your eyes as it can be very stingy and irritating. If you use diluted facial wash on your closed eyes, you will feel a tingling sensation on your eyes, however thorough rinsing should get rid of any ongoing irritation. You may also need to use artificial tears 2-4 times per day as needed to help coat the eye so that they do not become dry and irritated. A balanced diet rich in omega-3 fish oil and flax seed, and good hydration can help manage this condition as well. It may be necessary to treat the infection with either topical antibiotic ointment ( eg. Erythromycin or Ciloxan 0.3% ® ointment), or oral antibiotics, if the symptoms are not improving with topical therapy. If you are prescribed ointment, use it after your eyelid cleaning just before going to bed. Apply about 1/2 an inch of the ointment to the inside of the both lower eyelids. How to apply eye ointment . As you sleep, the ointment will spread to the upper lids and cover most of the eyelid glands. The ointment is a bit sticky and greasy, but can be washed off in the morning. You will need to use it for one week or sometimes several weeks depending on how bad your condition is. If you need oral antibiotics, usually, doxycycline 100 mg twice daily or tetracycline 500mg twice daily is used for several weeks months for severe blepharitis or blepharitis associated with ocular rosacea. If you are pregnant, or plan to become pregnant, these medications are not suitable for you as they can cause fetal abnormalities. While on these medications, it is important to use sunscreen, since they will make your skin more sensitive to sun damage. They may not be appropriate if you are on other medications. "


causes of death in the world's history

In 1950 we find the top 10 causes of death were, in order, heart disease, cancer, stroke, accidents, infant death, influenza/pneumonia, tuberculosis, arteriosclerosis, kidney disease, and diabetes.

Historical Leading Causes of Death We’re all fairly familiar with the leading causes of death today: heart disease, cancer, chronic lower respiratory diseases, accidents, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease, influenza/Pneumonia, kidney disease, and septicemia. (As an aside, you can querythe leading causes of death in detail from 1981 to present at CDC’s WONDER database .) But what were the leading causes of death in the last century?

Skipping farther back to 1920 the leading causes are influenza/pneumonia, heart disease, tuberculosis, stroke, kidney disease, cancer, accidents, diarrhea/enteritis, premature birth, and childbirth related conditions.

The earliest data, that from 1900, give influenza/pneumonia, tuberculosis, diarrhea/enteritis, heart disease, stroke, kidney disease, accidents, cancer, senility, and diphtheria as the leading causes of death. The leading causes of death from 1900 through 1998 is located here.

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