define: wrongful prosecution

""Miscarriage of justice"" is sometimes synonymous with wrongful conviction, referring to a conviction reached in an unfair or disputed trial.

Miscarriage of justice

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Wrongful prosecution)navigation search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Criminal procedure Criminal trials and convictions Rights of the accused Fair trial Speedy trial Jury trial Counsel Presumption of innocence Exclusionary rule 1Self-incrimination Double jeopardy 2Verdict Conviction Acquittal Not proven 3Directed verdict Sentencing Mandatory Suspended Custodial Discharge Guidelines Totality 5, 6Dangerous offender 4, 5Capital punishment Execution warrant Cruel and unusual punishment Imprisonment Life imprisonment Indefinite imprisonment Post-sentencing Parole Probation Tariff 6 Life licence 6Miscarriage of justice Exoneration Pardon Sex offender registration Sexually violent predator legislation 1Related areas of law Criminal defenses Criminal law Evidence Civil procedure Portals Law Criminal justice1 US courts 2Not in English/Welsh courts3 Scottish courts 4English/Welsh courts5 Canadian courts 6 UK courtsv t e A miscarriage of justice is primarily the conviction and punishment of a person for a crime they did not commit. The term can also apply to errors in the other direction—"" errors of impunity "", and to civil cases. Most criminal justice systems have some means to overturn, or ""quash"", a wrongful conviction, but this is often difficult to achieve. In some instances a wrongful conviction is not overturned for several decades, or until after the innocent person has been executed, released from custody, or has died.

Wrongful convictions are frequently cited by death penalty opponents as cause to eliminate death penalties to avoid executing innocent persons. In recent years, DNA evidence has been used to clear many people falsely convicted. The Scandinavian languages (viz. Danish, Norwegian and Swedish) have a word, the Swedish variant of which is justitiemord, which literally translates as ""justice murder."" The term exists in several languages and was originally used for cases where the accused was convicted, executed, and later cleared after death. While a miscarriage of justice is a Type I error for falsely identifying culpability, an error of impunity would be a Type II error of failing to find a culpable person guilty. However, the term ""miscarriage of justice"" is often used to describe the latter type as well. With capital punishment decreasing, the expression has acquired an extended meaning, namely any conviction for a crime not committed by the convicted. The retention of the term ""murder"" represents both universal abhorrence against wrongful convictions and awareness of how destructive wrongful convictions are. Some Slavic languages have also the word ( justičná vražda in Slovak, justiční vražda in Czech) which literally translates as ""justice murder"", but it is used for Judicial murder, while miscarriage of justice is ""justiční omyl"" in Czech, implying an error of the justice system, not a deliberate manipulation. The term travesty of justice is sometimes used for a gross, deliberate miscarriage of justice. Show trials (not in the sense of high publicity, but in the sense of lack of regard to the actual legal procedure and fairness), due to their character, often lead to such travesties. The concept of miscarriage of justice has important implications for standard of review, in that an appellate court will often only exercise its discretion to correct plain error when a miscarriage of justice (or ""manifest injustice"") would otherwise occur. Contents [ hide ]1 General issues2 Rate of occurrence2.1 Cultural consequences3 Cases in specific countries3.1 Canada3.2 Italy3.3 The Netherlands3.4 Norway3.5 Spain3.6 United Kingdom3.6.1 England, Wales and Northern Ireland3.6.2 Scotland3.7 United States4 See also5 References6 External links and further reading General issues [ edit]Causes of miscarriages of justice include: [1]Plea bargains that offer incentives for the innocent to plead guilty, sometimes called an innocent prisoner's dilemma Confirmation bias on the part of investigators Withholding or destruction of evidence by police or prosecution Fabrication of evidence or outright perjury by police (see testilying ), or prosecution witnesses (e.g., Charles Randal Smith)Biased editing of evidence Prejudice against the class of people to which the defendant belongs Misidentification of the perpetrator by witnesses and/or victims Overestimation/underestimation of the evidential value of expert testimony Contaminated evidence Faulty forensic tests False confessions due to police pressure or psychological weakness Misdirection of a jury by a judge during trial Perjured evidence by the real guilty party or their accomplices ( frameup)Perjured evidence by the alleged victim or their accomplices Conspiracy between court of appeal judges and prosecutors to uphold conviction of the innocent A risk of miscarriages of justice is one of the main arguments against the death penalty. Where condemned persons are executed promptly after conviction, the most significant effect of a miscarriage of justice is irreversible. Wrongly executed people nevertheless occasionally receive posthumous pardons —which essentially void the conviction—or have their convictions quashed. Many death penalty states hold condemned persons for ten or more years before execution, so that any new evidence that might acquit them (or, at least, provide reasonable doubt) will have had time to surface. Even when a wrongly convicted person is not executed, years in prison can have a substantial, irreversible effect on the person and their family. The risk of miscarriage of justice is therefore also an argument against long sentences, like a life sentence, and cruel prison conditions. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires the victims of miscarriage of justice to be compensated. [2]Rate of occurrence [ edit]Various studies estimate that in the United States, between 2.3 and 5% of all prisoners are innocent. [3] One study estimated that up to 10,000 people may be wrongfully convicted of serious crimes each year. [4]A 2014 study estimated that 4.1% of inmates awaiting execution on death row in the United States are innocent, and that at least 340 innocent people may have been executed since 1973. [5]According to Professor Boaz Sangero of the College of Law and Business in Ramat Gan in Israel, most wrongful convictions are for crimes less serious than major felonies such as rape and murder, as judicial systems are less careful in dealing with those cases. [6]Cultural consequences [ edit]Wrongful convictions appear at first to be ""rightful"" arrests and subsequent convictions, and also include a public statement about a particular crime having occurred, as well as a particular individual or individuals having committed that crime. If the conviction turns out to be a miscarriage of justice, then one or both of these statements is ultimately deemed to be false. [7] During this time between the miscarriage of justice and its correction, the public holds false beliefs about the occurrence of a crime, the perpetrator of a crime, or both. While the public audience of a miscarriage of justice certainly varies, they may in some cases be as large as an entire nation or multitude of nations. In cases where a large-scale audience is unknowingly witness to a miscarriage of justice, the news-consuming public may develop false beliefs about the nature of crime itself. It may also cause the public to falsely believe that certain types of crime exist, or that certain types of people tend to commit these crimes, or that certain crimes are more commonly prevalent than they actually are. Thus, wrongful convictions can ultimately mold a society's popular beliefs about crime. Because our understanding of crime is socially constructed, it has been shaped by many factors other than its actual occurrence. [8]Mass media may also be faulted for distorting the public perception of crime by over-representing certain races and genders as criminals and victims, and for highlighting more sensational and invigorating types of crimes as being more newsworthy. The way a media presents crime-related issues may have an influence not only on a society's fear of crime but also on its beliefs about the causes of criminal behavior and desirability of one or another approach to crime control. [9] Ultimately, this may have a significant impact on critical public beliefs about emerging forms of crime such as cybercrime, global crime, and terrorism. [10]There are unfavorable psychological effects, even in the absence of any public knowledge. In an experiment, participants significantly reduced their pro-social behavior after being wrongfully sanctioned. As a consequence there were negative effects for the entire group. [11] The extent of wrongful sanctions varies between societies. [12]Cases in specific countries [ edit]Main article: List of miscarriage of justice cases Canada [ edit]In 1959, 14-year-old Steven Truscott was convicted of raping and murdering a 12-year-old girl. Originally sentenced to death by hanging, his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. He was released on parole in 1969, and was freed from his parole restrictions in 1974. In 2007, the Ontario Court of Appeal overturned Truscott's conviction, based on a reexamination of forensic evidence. [13] The government of Ontario awarded him $ 6.5 million in compensation. [14]In 1972, Donald Marshall, Jr., a Mi'kmaq man, was wrongly convicted of murder. Marshall spent 11 years in jail before being acquitted in 1983. [15] The case inspired a number of questions about the fairness of the Canadian justice system, especially given that Marshall was an Aboriginal: as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation put it, ""The name Donald Marshall is almost synonymous with 'wrongful conviction' and the fight for native justice in Canada."" [16] Marshall received a lifetime pension of $ 1.5 million in compensation [17] and his conviction resulted in changes to the Canada Evidence Act so that any evidence obtained by the prosecution must be presented to the defence on disclosure. In 1970, David Milgaard was wrongfully convicted for the rape and murder of Gail Miller. [18] He was released in 1992 and compensated $ 10 million by the Saskatchewan government after having spent 23 years in prison. [19] After being tied to it by DNA evidence, serial rapist Larry Fisher (murderer) was convicted of the murder in 1999. [20]In 1992, Guy Paul Morin was convicted of the 1984 rape and murder of an 8-year-old girl and was sentenced to life imprisonment. In 1995, new testing of DNA evidence showed Morin could not have been the murderer, and the Ontario Court of Appeal overturned his conviction. [21] The case has been described as ""a compendium of official error — from inaccurate eyewitness testimony and police tunnel vision, to scientific bungling and the suppression of evidence."" [22] Morin received $ 1.25 million in compensation from the Ontario government. [21]Italy [ edit]Enzo Tortora, a TV host on national RAI television, was accused of being a member of the Camorra and drug trafficking. He was arrested in 1983, and sentenced to ten years in jail in 1985, but acquitted of all charges on appeal in 1986. [23]Raffaele Sollecito and American Amanda Knox were sentenced to 26 years imprisonment for the 2007 Murder of Meredith Kercher. They were released in 2011 after an appeal court found there was no credible evidence against them. Petty burglar Rudy Guede has been convicted of murder and sexual assault in connection with the death of Ms. Kercher. The Netherlands [ edit]The Schiedammerpark murder case, as well as the similarly overturned case of the Putten murder, led to the installation of the ""Posthumus I committee"", which analyzed what had gone wrong in the Schiedammerpark Murder case, and came to the conclusion that confirmation bias led the police to ignore and misinterpret scientific evidence (DNA). Subsequently, the so-called Posthumus II committee investigated whether other such cases might have occurred. The committee received 25 applications from concerned and involved scientists, and decided to consider three of them further: the Lucia de Berk case, the Ina Post case, and the Enschede incest case. In these three cases, independent researchers (professors Wagenaar, van Koppen, Israëls, Crombag, and Derksen) claim confirmation bias and misuse of complex scientific evidence led to miscarriages of justice. Norway [ edit]Norwegian police, courts, and prison authorities have been criticized and convicted on several occasions by the European Court of Human Rights for breaking the principle of innocent until proven guilty. However, the maximum penalty in Norway is normally no longer than 21 years. Thereby, most of the victims have been acquitted after their release from prison. Spain [ edit]The Constitution of Spain guarantees compensation in cases of miscarriage of justice. United Kingdom [ edit]In the United Kingdom a jailed person, whose conviction is quashed, may be paid compensation for the time they were incarcerated. This is currently limited by statute to a maximum sum of £500,000. See also Overturned convictions in the United Kingdom. England, Wales and Northern Ireland [ edit]Until 2005, the parole system assumed all convicted persons were guilty, and poorly handled those who were not. To be paroled, a convicted person had to sign a document in which, among other things, they confessed to the crime for which they were convicted. Someone who refused to sign this declaration spent longer in jail than someone who signed it. Some wrongly convicted people, such as the Birmingham Six, were refused parole for this reason. In 2005 the system changed, and began to parole prisoners who never admitted guilt. English law has no official means of correcting a ""perverse"" verdict (conviction of a defendant on the basis of insufficient evidence). Appeals are based exclusively on new evidence or errors by the judge or prosecution (but not the defence), or jury irregularities. A reversal occurred, however, in the 1930s when William Herbert Wallace was exonerated of the murder of his wife. There is no right to a trial without jury (except during the troubles in Northern Ireland or in the case where there is a significant risk of jury-tampering, such as organised crime cases, when a judge or judges presided without a jury). During the early 1990s, a series of high-profile cases turned out to be miscarriages of justice. Many resulted from police fabricating evidence to convict people they thought were guilty, or simply to get a high conviction rate. The West Midlands Serious Crime Squad became notorious for such practices, and was disbanded in 1989. In 1997 the Criminal Cases Review Commission [24] was established specifically to examine possible miscarriages of justice. However, it still requires either strong new evidence of innocence, or new proof of a legal error by the judge or prosecution. For example, merely insisting you are innocent and the jury made an error, or stating there was not enough evidence to prove guilt, is not enough. It is not possible to question the jury's decision or query on what matters it was based. The waiting list for cases to be considered for review is at least two years on average. [ citation needed]In 2002, the NI Court of Appeal made an exception to who could avail of the right to a fair trial in R v Walsh: ""... if a defendant has been denied a fair trial it will almost be inevitable that the conviction will be regarded unsafe, the present case in our view constitutes an exception to the general rule. ... the conviction is to be regarded as safe, even if a breach of Article 6 (1) were held to have occurred in the present case."" [25] (See Christy Walsh (Case) . )Scotland [ edit]The Criminal Appeal (Scotland) Act 1927 increased the jurisdiction of the Scottish Court of Criminal Appeal following the miscarriage of justice surrounding the Trial of Oscar Slater. Reflecting Scotland's own legal system, which differs from that of the rest of the United Kingdom, the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission (SCCRC) was established in April 1999. All cases accepted by the SCCRC are subjected to a robust and thoroughly impartial review before a decision on whether or not to refer to the High Court of Justiciary is taken. Gravestone of George Johnson who was unjustly hanged by mistake in Arizona. United States [ edit]For a list of exonerations after death sentences, see List of exonerated death row inmates. In June 2012, the National Registry of Exonerations, a joint project of the University of Michigan Law School and Northwestern University Law School, initially reported 873 individual exonerations in the U. S. from January 1989 through February 2012; the report called this number ""tiny"" in a country with 2.3 million people in prisons and jails, but asserted that there are far more false convictions than exonerations. [26] By 2015, the number of individual exonerations was reported as 1,733, with 2015 having the highest annual number of exonerations since 1989. [27]In the case of Joseph Roger O'Dell III, executed in Virginia in 1997 for a rape and murder, a prosecuting attorney bluntly argued in court in 1998 that if posthumous DNA results exonerated O'Dell, ""it would be shouted from the rooftops that ... Virginia executed an innocent man."" The state prevailed, and the evidence was destroyed. [28]In 2013, in Massachusetts, a chemist admitted tampering with evidence and falsifying results regarding over 21,000 drug convictions from 2004 to 2013 by not undertaking tests and stating untested results were positive for illegal drugs. [29]See also [ edit]Specific cases List of exonerated death row inmates List of wrongful convictions in the United States David Bain Deventer murder case Timothy Evans Ryan Ferguson David Camm Debra Milke Chantal Mc Corkle Vincent Simmons Teresa de Simone – The longest case of miscarriage of justice in British law. Christy Walsh (Case)General concepts Error of impunity False accusations False allegation of child sexual abuse False confession Fingerprint Innocent prisoner's dilemma Innocence Project Legal abuse Perverting the course of justice Police misconduct Presumption of guilt References [ edit]^ Sangero, Boaz (2016). Safety from False Convictions. United States: Create Space. ISBN 978-1536823738.^ International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 14, 6^ ""How many innocent people are there in prison? "".^ ""10,000 INNOCENT PEOPLE CONVICTED EACH YEAR, STUDY ESTIMATES"".^ Dina Fine Maron. ""Many Prisoners on Death Row are Wrongfully Convicted"". Scientific American.^ ""How You Could Land in Jail for Committing No Crime"". Haaretz.com.^ Edmond, G. (2002). ""Constructing Miscarriages of Justice: Misunderstanding Scientific Evidence in High Profile Criminal Appeals"". Oxford Journal of Legal Studies. 22 (1): 53–89. doi: 10.1093/ojls/22.1.53.^ Rafter, N. (1990). ""The Social Construction of Crime and Crime Control"". Journal of Research on Crime and Delinquency. 27 (4): 376–389. doi: 10.1177/0022427890027004004.^ Haney, C. (2005). Death by Design: Capital Punishment as a Social Psychological System. Oxford: Oxford University Press.^ Manning, P. K. (2003). Policing Contingencies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.^ Grechenig, Nicklisch & Thoeni, Punishment Despite Reasonable Doubt - A Public Goods Experiment with Sanctions under Uncertainty, Journal of Empirical Legal Studies (JELS) 2010, vol. 7 (4), p. 847-867 (ssrn).^ Herrmann, Benedikt, Christian Thöni, and Simon Gächter. ""Antisocial punishment across societies."" Science 319.5868 (2008): 1362-1367.^ The Associated Press (29 Aug 2007). ""Canadian Court Overturns 1959 Murder Verdict"". The New York Times: 13.^ ""Newsroom : Results"". www.attorneygeneral.jus.gov.on.ca.^ ""Acquitted in killing, Marshall is jubilant"". The Globe and Mail. 11 May 1983.^ Reluctant Hero: The Donald Marshall Story CBC.ca, URL accessed 10 January 2006.^ ""Donald Marshall Jr"". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 26 February 2016.^ ""Archived copy"" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-18. Retrieved 2015-06-17.^ ""Milgaard will get $10 million compensation"". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 26 February 2016.^ ""Killer behind David Milgaard's wrongful conviction dies in prison"".^ a b ""Guy Paul Morin Case"". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 26 February 2016.^ Makin, Kirk. ""Guy Paul Morin Case"". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Historica Canada. Retrieved 23 March 2016.^ Enzo Tortora: When justice miscarries, The Florentine, October 30, 2008^ ""Criminal Cases Review Commission"". Ccrc.gov.uk. Retrieved 2009-03-18.^ ""Appeal Court Judgment"".^ Gross, Samuel R.; Shaffer, Michael (June 22, 2012). ""Exonerations in the United States, 1989 – 2012 / Report by the National Registry of Exonerations"" (PDF). University of Michigan Law School. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 6, 2013.^ The Editorial Board (2016-02-12). ""Prisoners Exonerated, Prosecutors Exposed"". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on October 3, 2017. Retrieved 2017-05-10.^ Lois Romano, "" When DNA Meets Death Row, It's the System That's Tested "", Washington Post, December 12, 2003.^ ""21,000 drug convictions set to be quashed after Massachusetts chemist tampered with evidence"". Sky News. 19 April 2017. External links and further reading [ edit]""Must-See Wrongful Conviction Films and TV Episodes"". Innocence Project. October 28, 2016. www. Innocence Project.org. The Innocence Project – A US-based nonprofit organization dedicated to freeing the wrongly convicted Innocence Network UK (INUK) – An organisation to facilitate casework on alleged wrongful convictions by innocence projects Innocent.org.uk – Website of UK cases of alleged and proven miscarriages of justice Sangero, Boaz (2016). SAFETY FROM FALSE CONVICTIONS. US Citizens Wrongfully Convicted by The Judicial System – Statistics about citizens wrongfully convicted by the judicial system in the USAuthority control NDL: 00959074 [ hide]v t e Miscarriage of justice Types of misconduct Prosecutorial misconduct Police misconduct Selective prosecution Malicious prosecution Selective enforcement Abuse of process Attorney misconduct Abuse of discretion Entrapment False arrest Gaming the system Legal malpractice Kangaroo court Sharp practice Jury tampering Witness tampering Brady disclosure Spoliation of evidence False evidence Forced confession False accusation of rape False allegation of child sexual abuse Police perjury False accusation Mistaken identity Eyewitness memory Misinformation effect Tampering with evidence Wrongful convictions List of wrongful convictions in the United States List of exonerated death row inmates Miscarriage of justice List of miscarriage of justice cases Overturned convictions in the United States Wrongful execution Advocacy Innocence Project National Registry of Exonerations Investigating Innocence Related concepts Legal ethics Exculpatory evidence Right to a fair trial Race in the United States criminal justice system Capital punishment in the United States Innocent prisoner's dilemma Racial profiling Loophole Ineffective assistance of counsel Show trial Actual innocence Cross-race effect Eyewitness memory Eyewitness identification Equal Protection Clause Batson v. Kentucky List of United States death row inmates Prosecutor's fallacy Innocence Protection Act Categories: Legal error Overturned convictions Human rights Abuse of the legal system People wrongfully convicted of murder Wrongful convictions "


what are your upper two teeth called

The four front teeth are called incisors. They form a total of eight teeth on both the upper and the lower jaw.

What Are the Front Teeth Called?

Health Dental Q: What Are the Front Teeth Called? A: Quick Answer

Continue Reading Keep Learning What Is the Function of a Incisor Tooth? What Are Shovel-Shaped Incisors? Do Kids Lose Their Molars? Full Answer The two incisors found at the center of the mouth both on the top and the bottom jaws are usually referred to as central incisors. The other two on each side of the central incisors are called lateral incisors. Incisors are usually broad with narrow edges, and they are necessary for cutting food. They usually have one root, and their crowns are arched. Four canines border the incisors. Young children usually have zero to eight incisors depending on the phase of their tooth development. Learn more about Dental Sources: dentalcare.com simplestepsdental.com wikipedia.org Related Questions Q: What Teeth Are Supposed to Come Out? A: Teeth that fall out include the primary and secondary molars, central and lateral incisors and canine teeth, also called cuspids. As young children grow, t... Full Answer >Filed Under: Dental Q: How May Teeth Are in the Human Mouth? A: An adult human mouth typically contains 32 teeth, including eight premolars, 12 molars, eight incisors, four canines and four wisdom teeth. Children genera... Full Answer >Filed Under: Bones Q: What Are the Four Types of Mammalian Teeth? A: The four types of mammalian teeth are the incisors, the canines, the molars and the premolars. The canine teeth are cone shaped and sharp while the incisor... Full Answer >Filed Under: Zoology Q: How Many Teeth Do Cows Have? A: Adult cows have 8 incisors on the bottom front of the mouth and 6 molars on the top and bottom on each side of the mouth, for a total of 32 teeth. The top ... Full Answer >Filed Under: Barnyard Mammals You May Also Like Q: What Are Some Treatment Options for Toothache? Q: How Do You Find a Dentist Who Takes Delta Dental Insurance? Q: What Are the Major Causes of Toothache? Q: Is It Costly to Get a Dental Implant? Q: What Are Some Benefits of Using Delta Dental for Veterans? Q: What Causes a Gap Between the Teeth?


what language does trinidad speak

ng Although the official language of Trinidad and Tobago is English, the most commonly spoken languages are Trinidadian Creole English and Tobagonian Creole English. Trinidadian usage includes a large number of local words and expressions. Many of these have non-English origins - these derive primarily from French and French Creole, Spanish, various West African languages, and Bhojpuri. Trinidadian speech is characterised by dropped final consonants and a lack of pluralisation.

Trinidadian Slang

"Trinidadian Sla

There is no standard orthography for the written language; written forms which attempt to capture the sound of the language tend to converge. A B C D E F G H J K L M N O P R S T V W YAA A! - Is an exclamation. When you didn't expect something. Usually used like, ""Well, excuse me!"" For example: ""But, A A! ""Ay or Aye - means either hey, or you Allyuh - you all BBabaash - bootleg rum, i.e., moonshine made from fruits. Bacchanal - commotion, a wild party, a fight between neighbours, family or friends. E.g. The wedding reception was 'real' bacchanal cause of the difference in religions between the bride and groom. Badjohn/Baa-John - a bully Bazodee - light-headed or in shock [from Fr. abasourdir - to daze]Baigan - eggplant [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Bap - father [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Barra - a deep fried saffron coloured bread (see doubles) [from Hindi]Beta - son [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Beti - daughter [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Bee Wee - BWIA West Indies Airways, the national airline of Trinidad and Tobago. The acronym for British West Indian Airlines is often colloquially referred to as Better Wait In Airport, Big Wait In Airport, Better Walk If Able, But Will It Arrive, Bankrupt West Indian Airlines, etc. Bhaji - Various green leafy vegetables (especially amaranth or dasheen). Bhandanya - Eryngium foetidum, an aromatic herb used as a spice (also known as Shado beni or Chadon benit). [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Bobbol - illegal activity, usu. in the context of corporate criminality, white-collar crime or political corruption. Bobolee - a figure of Judas beaten at easter or a stupid person Bodi - pole beans [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Bol' face - a brazen or demanding person, a person who speaks or acts using indiscretion Booboolups - overweight or out of shape. Can also be used to romantically or sarcastically describe affection for an overweight female. Bois - (pronounced ""Bwah"") 1. A big heavy stick (or 2x4), used for harming others. 2. To beat someone badly. Eg. ""Move, boy or I go give yuh bois. ""Bone - to have sexual intercourse. May also refer to the male genitals. (Contrast though with the phrase ""Trini to de Bone! "")Bonx - to hit or slam. Also used to indicate a type of greeting where the participants (usu. male) gently touch each other's closed fists. Boof - to rough someone up or insult them or to scold someone. Can also be used to refer to the person who was roughed up or insulted (derived from ""buff""). E.g. Sarah boofed Brian for leaving without her. Brian 'get' boof up for leaving without Sarah. Break Biche - to leave or shirk one's duties in favour of liming, usu. in the context of secondary school or work. E.g. Brian & Ricardo break biche to go to the Arcade. Bredda - brother Breds - brethren Broughtupcy - manners, upbringing Bull - to have sex (whether heterosexual or homosexual in nature)Buller - one who bulls, but usually in the context of, or suggesting, a homosexual act (see Bullerman) (derogatory)Bullerman - one who engages in homosexual activity CChenet - The fruit of Melicoccus bijugatus tropical American tree having small fragrant greenish-white flowers and small fruits with a green leathery rind and a juicy yellowish translucent pulp. Chile - child (pron. ""ch-isle""). Chinkey/choonkey - small Chip - a walking shuffle step done to slower soca tunes Chook - to pierce (or jook), usu. in reference to needles. Can also refer to dancing which involves the thrusting of one's hips forward sharply into the rear of another. May also refer to sexual intercourse. E.g. Riad took a little chook from the girl. Coskel - overdressed; also cosquelle Chune - tune Commesse - confusion or controversy [from French]Congo Pepper - a variety of Capsicum pepper. Cratchy cocoa - Scratching of the male genitals (""cocoa"" is a slang term which refers to the penis). Cunumunu - a stupid naive person, or a really shy person Cut a night - spend a night away from your home, e.g. ""I hear Lesmond went by he girl place, fell sleep and cut a night; he ga get planass for dat! ""Cyah - Can't DDingolay - dance wildly Doubles - a sandwich of sorts made with a saffron coloured bread and curried chick pea filling. There is no singular form of the word. Dal - ground up split peas [from Bhojpuri or Hindi] (alt. spelling, Dhal). Dalpuri - a type of roti with ground up split peas inside [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Dey -there Dhoti - the traditional white clothing of an Indian man [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Doolahin - wife or bride [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Dougla - a person of mixed Afro-Trinidadian and Indo-Trinidadian heritage, more recently this term is used to refer to anyone of mixed (interracial) parentage. [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Dotish - (doltish) stupid Doux doux - sweet, a term of endearment, esp. in the context of romantic love, or caring for a baby or small child. E.g. Leanna doux douxed the crying baby in her arms until it fell asleep. Dress 'round' - means to move over EEh Eh - an expression indicating one's disapproval Eh Heh - translates to ""is that so""Ent? - ""isn't that so?"" , ""right?"" (used at the end of a sentence for emphasis; is similar to Spanish ""¿no? "")FFas - nosy Fête - a party, usually the parties around Carnival time are referred to as fêtes. Flambeau - a lighted torch Flim - film Frontish - a bold demanding person, someone who loves attention or being in the middle of things. GGeeh Dem - means to give someone something i.e., an object or a verbal assault Giddy - dizzy Gobar - talking nonsense Gramoxone - trade name for paraquat dichloride, a weed killer, commonly used to commit suicide. Any poison ingested, will still be called gramoxone, whether or not if it was actually gramoxone. A very popular choice. E.g., ""Yuh hear? She drink gramoxone and dead!"" sometimes called ""Indian Champagne/Tonic"" since at one time it was usually only persons of Indian descent that used this as the method of choice to commit suicide. HHorn - to cheat on someone, to be unfaithful (unkown derivation: Horny)Hornerman - a married man who is having an affair. Hornerwoman - a married woman who is having an affair. JJahji bundle - A big bag containing one's personal items. E.g., ""Dis one always walk wid she jahji bundle everyway she go. ""Jagabat - woman of ill repute (specifically, a female prostitute), also jammet Jammet/Jammette (Djamet) - a woman or questionable morals or a woman who adopts a rather abrasive and aggressive form of communication with the public. Jhanjat - a big fight, trouble or confusion Jock - to masturbate, especially male masturbation (a slang term, but not ordinarily considered derogatory or rude). Contrast with traditional North American defintion of ""Jock"". KKhurma - a traditional Indian sweet that is deep fried and coated with sugar [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Kilkeedey - to fall awkwardly or how you look on the floor after falling awkwardly, usually with arms flailed in some odd sort of fashion. Eg. ""When de defenda' tackle him, Roger fall down kilkeedey on de ground""Kuchela - a hot mango condiment [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]LLagniappe - bonus Lick-up - to smash or annihilate someone or something (also: lick-down). Can also be used to indicate consumption or completion of food or drink, usu. in a greedy or hurried manner. E.g. We lick-up the KFC before we went to the party. Lime/Liming - a party or any get-together/to hang out, or (more recently) to date someone Locho - (pronounced low-cho) a person who ""mooches"" off of someone else MMacafouchette - left over food [from Fr. ma ca fourchette - food stuck between the fork]Maco - a nosy person/peeping Tom (also: Macco, Macocious, Macomere, any-west-indian), or the act of being nosy Maljo - evil eye [from Fr. mal yeux - bad eyes]Malkadee - convulse Mamaguy - to bamboozle someone [from Spanish 'mamar gallo']Mamoo - A maternal uncle. Manicou - An one of five species of opossum, most commonly Didelphis marsupialis Mauvais langue - to malign Mook - a person who is shy, or socially awkward. (also: Mooksie)NNeemakharam - Ingrate, especially in a political context OOh Geed! - an expression used when someone hears or see something that is deemed to be gross Ol' ho - a promiscuous older woman. Obeah - black magic Obzokie - awkward, out of place usu. in a derogatory manner. PPholourie - deep fried flour balls Pommerac - Syzygium malaccense or Otaheite apple, a pear shaped fruit become bright red when ripe, also know as the Malay apple or Wax Jamboo Pommecythere - Spondias cytherea or Golden apple, a fruit with a green skin, which when ripe turns to a gold colour. Pot Hound - Usually refers stray dog that probably is not of a specific breed or a dog that eats anything off the street (also: Pot Hong). May also refer to a person of mixed ethnic background. (This is a racially offensive use of the term)Preshaah! - pressure, to feel pressure due to a situation one is in Pull Bull - To operate an unlicensed taxi, using your private car as a taxi in order to earn extra money. To operate a licensed taxi without a taxi-driver's license. Also referred to as doing 'PH'. May also refer to male masturbation. RRaaff - To snatch something. To steal in a boldface manner SSahina - deep fried dhal with either spinach, pakchoi (bok choy), or dasheen [from Bhojpuri or Hindi]Sometimeish - Describes a moody or unpredictable person. Soucouyant - A female thought to be a vampire, who sheds her skin and flies in the night sky as a ball of fire. This term is also used to describe an evil woman. Steups - the act of sucking air pass one's teeth, creating a sound of disapproval (also: steupse, chups, cheeups)TTabanca - In a love sick state. Describes how someone feels after being cheated on by their loved one. Can also describe unrequited loved. (Taban-truck is the more severe form of Taban-car]. Tatu - Nine-banded Armadillo I wan tuh hail out - I would like to ""shout out/big up""Teef - Thief Tanty - aunt, also a term for any woman older than oneself Throw Waist - to dance, specifically to ""wine""Tootoolbay - In a confused state or in a daze because of love. Similar to Bazodee. E.g. Richie was tootoolbay after he met the girl in the fete. Toe Jam - Foot fungus that smells on unclean feet. Trini to de Bone! - Pride in oneself for being a Trinidadian. Torchlight - A flashlight. Vvikey vike - to act with irresponsibility, or to act without concern for others. Eg. ""De country in termoil because of vikey vike decision making."" Eg. ""My wife acting vikey vike. Everytime my back turn she out de door limin' with she friends""WWajang - a woman who is involved with more than one man in the same day Wuz de scene? - A casual greeting equivalent to what's happening Wham now? - Greeting equivalent to ""what's happening now"". E.g. ""Aye Reeza, wham now?"". Whappen? - What happened? Wine - a seductive form of dance involving circular or semi-circular movement of the hips especially. Can be done alone, with a partner, or many partners. E.g. ""Javed was wining in the party on several women"". Way - Where, for example ""way yuh dey?"" means ""where are you? ""YYampee - the mucus that surrounds one's eye in the morning Yuh - you "


how many words in a dictionary

College-size dictionaries typically include almost 200,000 words (using a formula that counts each separately listed word or word-form); unabridged dictionaries from 300,000 to 600,000 or so. But each of these words is listed not for any intrinsic reason, but because a lexicographer decided it was useful to include.

Word Count

"The Good Word Language and how we use it. April 10 2006 2:16 PMWord Count Are there really 988,968 words in the English language? By Jesse Sheidlower Download an MP3 audio interview with the author here, or sign up for Slate's free daily podcast on i Tunes.

How many words are there in the English language? No one knows. But that hasn't stopped an operation known as the Global Language Monitor from estimating * that—as of this writing—there are exactly 988,968 words in English.

GLM has done a remarkable job suckering even the respectable press into believing that we're on the verge of adding the millionth word to English—at which point we'll presumably see another flurry of articles about GLM. Even so, its claim is a bogus one. Advertisement The problem with trying to number the words in any language is that it's very hard to agree on the basics. For example, what is a word? If run is a verb, is the noun run another word? What about the inflected forms ran, runs, and running? What about words with run as a base, such as runner and runnable and runoff and runway? Are compounds, such as man-bites-dog, man-child, man-eater, manhandle, man-hour, man of God, man's man, and men in black, to be counted once or many times? Another question: What is English? The word veal, borrowed from French in the 14 th century, seems to be English, as does spaghetti, a 19 th -century Italian borrowing. But what about pho, a Vietnamese soup found from the 1930s but only recently common? Or the yet-more-recent banh mi sandwich? What about shurpa, a Bukharian soup, which can apparently be eaten in New York? What about words used by non-native English speakers in Singlish? Even sticking with something that we can agree is English, what about obsolete words? Variant spellings? Regional dialects? What about words that are widespread, but only in a highly limited subgroup, such as bone, ""a pre-1946 Martin guitar made of Brazilian rosewood having herringbone purfling on its top,"" GAS, ""to ardently desire to purchase guitars"" (from 'Guitar Acquisition Syndrome'), or hog ""a guitar having a mahogany top, back, and sides,"" used among collectors of vintage guitars? What about Frizzie, ""student of Ms. Frizzle"" or busigator, ""the Magic School Bus transformed into an alligator,"" in the books I'm reading to my daughter? What about Giant, ""a player on the N. Y. Giants football team ""? The most comprehensive abbreviations-dictionaries include about 500,000 entries, most of which wouldn't be found in standard dictionaries. The American Chemical Society has a registry of over 84 million named chemical substances, and there are about a million named species of insects alone; surely these must count as words? Advertisement What about obvious forms? Dictionaries include great-grandfather but not great-great-great-great-great-great-grandfather, which is real enough to get over 3,500 Google hits. Only the most basic numbers are typically included; Merriam-Webster, for example, includes twenty-one and twenty-two, but not twenty-three or thirty-one.

In fact, if you were to count every number between 0 and 999,999 as a word, you'd have a cool million right there—and still have the rest of the English language to account for.

At the other end of the scale, estimates of the number of words that an average person uses range from a few thousand (the number a person might actively use in a week) to many tens of thousands (the number an educated person might understand) or more.

Twenty-three is just as real a number as twenty-two, but it doesn't have a common bullet caliber associated with it, so it often gets left out. Team names, as a class, generally fail to make the cut. We could always add words to the dictionary if there were no limitations on time or space. So, where does that leave us?

It's probably possible to devise criteria that would allow us to conclude that there are about a million words in English. (The dictionary publisher Merriam-Webster goes for ""roughly 1 million words"" in its discussion of this particular question, although elsewhere, they suggest that the figure could be many millions.) But there's no possible way to count the actual number of words in the language, and the idea of having a running counter, as is found on GLM's home page, is absurd.

So, why have journalists fallen for the claim? I think it's the pseudo-scientific nature of GLM's ""methodology"": The company claims to use an ""algorithm"" called the ""Predictive Quantities Indicator,"" so its figures must be right. According to the company's Web site, though, the PQI's count of English words is based on the entry list of a number of major dictionaries, so from the outset we know we're just getting a summation of lexicographers' judgment calls—including scientific, obsolete, and dialect forms—rather than an accurate, independent analysis of current English. Still, it sounds impressive to some. I recently got a call about GLM from a reporter, and when I explained why the million-word claim is bogus, he practically shouted, ""But they have an algorithm! ""And they'll have a good party this summer, for the credulous among us.

Correction, May 16: This piece originally stated that GLM proclaimed that there are exactly 988,968 words in English. In fact, GLM's site, while giving an exact figure, does state that it is merely an estimate.

Also, the Slate podcast that accompanies this piece originally stated that GLM sent out press releases about its word count; in fact, the company did not do so. ( Return to the corrected sentence. )SINGLE PAGE1 2 NEXT "


can you use merge things together in one table

ord When using Microsoft Word for small business purposes, you may have need to insert tables into your Word document. If you have two or more tables in the same document, Word lets you move the tables around and merge them into one larger table. After merging the tables, you can also merge specific cells within the table. This turns previously separated cells into one larger cell. Word lets you choose between using your cursor to merge tables or using a keyboard shortcut.1. Hover the mouse over the table you're moving.

How to Merge Tables in MS Word

"Related Articles1How to Split a Table in Word2How to Merge Excel Data Into Word Documents3How to Quickly Add Rows in a Microsoft Word Table4How to Make a Table Spread Across Pages in Microsoft W

Highlight the entire table by clicking the small box with the cross in it, located in the upper-left corner of the table.2. Using your cursor, drag the highlighted table to the table you're merging it with. Alternately, you can use the cursor keys; press ""Alt-Shift-Up"" at the same time to move the highlighted table up. Use ""Alt-Shift-Down"" instead to move the table down on the page.3. Navigate to the ""Layout"" tab under ""Table Tools."" Drag your cursor over a selection of cells you want to merge. Click the ""Merge Cells"" button in the ribbon. References (2)About the Author Matt Koble has been writing professionally since 2008. He has been published on websites such as Do It Yourself. Koble mostly writes about technology, electronics and computer topics. Photo Credits Hemera Technologies/Able Stock.com/Getty Images Cite this Article "


who are quakers

Quakers are members of a group with Christian roots that began in England in the 1650s. The formal title of the movement is the Society of Friends or the Religious Society of Friends. There are about 210,000 Quakers across the world.

Quakers

"Quakers Last updated 2009-07-03

The Society of Friends began in England in the 1650s. Quakers believe that there is something of God in everybody. They do not have clergy or rituals and their meetings for worship are often held in silence.

On this page Introduction Beliefs Worship History Holy days Ethics Marriage Funerals Structure and clergy Find out more Print this page Introduction Quakers - the Religious Society of Friends Quaker meeting at Gracechurch Street ©

In Britain there are 17,000 Quakers, and 400 Quaker meetings for worship each week. 9,000 people in Britain regularly take part in Quaker worship without being members of the Religious Society of Friends. The essence of the Quakers Quakers believe that there is something of God in everybody and that each human being is of unique worth. This is why Quakers value all people equally, and oppose anything that may harm or threaten them. Quakers seek religious truth in inner experience, and place great reliance on conscience as the basis of morality. They emphasise direct experience of God rather than ritual and ceremony. They believe that priests and rituals are an unnecessary obstruction between the believer and God. Quakers integrate religion and everyday life. They believe God can be found in the middle of everyday life and human relationships, as much as during a meeting for worship. What Quakers believe Among key Quaker beliefs are: God is lovethe light of God is in every single persona person who lets their life be guided by that light will achieve a full relationship with Godeveryone can have a direct, personal relationship with God without involving a priest or ministerredemption and the Kingdom of Heaven are to be experienced now, in this world Quakers want to make this a better world Quakers work actively to make this a better world. They are particularly concerned with:human rights, based on their belief in equality of all human beingssocial justicepeacefreedom of conscienceenvironmental issues - Quakers seek to live simply so as to reduce the burden on the worldcommunity life Holy Books Quakers do not regard any book as being the actual 'word of God'. Most Quakers regard the Bible as a very great inspirational book but they don't see it as the only one, and so they read other books that can guide their lives. Holy Days Quakers do not celebrate Christian festivals such as Easter and Christmas. Worship Quaker communal worship consists of silent waiting, with participants contributing as the spirit moves them. Are Quakers Christian? Although outsiders usually regard the movement as a Christian denomination, not all Quakers see themselves as Christians; some regard themselves as members of a universal religion that (for historical reasons) has many Christian elements. Tolerance is part of the Quaker approach to life, so Quakers are willing to learn from all other faiths and churches. Where the names come from One story says that the founder, George Fox, once told a magistrate to tremble (quake) at the name of God and the name 'Quakers' stuck. Other people suggest that the name derives from the physical shaking that sometimes went with Quaker religious experiences. The name 'Friends' comes from Jesus' remark ""You are my friends if you do what I command you"" (John 15:14). Top Beliefs Quaker ideas and beliefs Beliefs are not just safe ledges in an uncertain reality, but rather handholds from which further heights can be reached. Eleven Quaker Scientists, 1989Religion is living with God. There is no other kind of religion. Living with a Book, living with or by a Rule, being awfully high-principled are not in themselves religion, although many people think they are and that that is all there is to it. Bernard Canter 1962There is no creed or formal set of beliefs that you have to hold to be a Quaker. This is because: Quakers think that adopting a creed is taking on belief at second hand - they think that faith should be more personal than that and based on a person's inner conviction and on taking part in a shared search for the truth with other Quakers. Quakers believe that faith is something that is always developing and not something frozen at a particular moment in history that can be captured in a fixed code of belief. But it is possible to list many ideas and beliefs that are generally accepted by Quakers. Distinguishing Quaker ideas Quakers believe that there is a direct relationship between God and each believer, every human being contains something of God - this is often called ""the light of God"". So: Quakers regard all human beings as equal and equally worthy of respect Quakers accept that all human beings contain goodness and truth Quakers do not accept value judgements based on race or gender Quakers welcome diversity A written list of beliefs is considered inappropriate. Quakers feel people should follow their 'inner light' rather than external rules. They believe that God grows and changes with his creation and believe that God continues to tell human beings what they should do. They don't believe in sacraments (either as realities or symbols) or formal liturgies or ceremonies and also refuse to take oaths. Quakers don't believe in a clergy, they feel that all believers can minister to one another. They emphasise the importance leading your own life well as an example to others (what a person does can be much clearer than what they say). They also practice worship in silence. They are actively involved in social and political issues and believe in pacifism and non-violence. Beliefs Each person has an inner light (part of God's spirit) inside them - so there is a unity between all human beings Spiritual truth can only be known through direct revelation from God God continues to ""talk"" to people today Conscience gives a guide to conduct The Bible is not regarded as the only guide for conduct and belief Doubt and questioning are valuable tools for spiritual growth All human beings can have a direct experience of God - they don't need priests to help them There is good and evil inside all human beings, and all human beings can choose between them - everyone has the power to choose good over evil if they really want to Christ's life demonstrates the full truth of God Quakers do not agree on what happens after death. Some believe in an afterlife, some don't Customs Quakers do not follow a creed, they acknowledge that words are not up to the job of precisely defining belief for a whole group of people. They believe that individuals should take personal responsibility for their understanding of faith rather than just buying a package and that each individual should try to develop themselves spiritually. Quakers do not separate religious life and secular life and feel that all life should be 'lived in the spirit'. They also feel that religious belief must influence a believer's actions and everything that happens in life can inspire religious insights. Quakers do not have elaborate religious ceremonies and rituals. They regard these as unnecessary; they sometimes call them empty forms. They do not have clergy. Quakers believe that political and other action to improve this world is vitally important. Quakers and sacraments Quakers neither practise baptism nor celebrate the Eucharist. They don't regard some activities as more sacred than others, nor do they believe that any particular ritual is needed to get in touch with God, so they do not believe in the sacraments practised in mainstream Christian churches. Instead of using 'holy' rituals, Quakers attempt to carry the sacred into every part of their lives. So, for example, they say that baptism should not be ""a single act of initiation but a continuing growth in the Holy Spirit and a commitment which must be continually renewed. ""Life and death Quakers have no collective view on what happens after death. They tend to concentrate on making this world better rather than pondering what happens after leaving it. Quakers and theology In the early days Quakers were suspicious of theology... and many Quakers are still not keen on it, believing that experience is a better teacher. Reasons for disliking theology include: Theology distracts people from looking for the 'inner light' and responding to it Theological ideas come from the teachings of churches that had distorted the original Christian teachings Theological teachings are used to control people Theology uses such difficult language that it hides God's truth from ordinary people Theological debate may give people a false idea of their own religious abilities; it would be better to spend time believing and living a good life Top Worship Quaker worship Worship is our response to an awareness of God. We can worship alone, but when we join with others in expectant waiting we may discover a deeper sense of God's presence. Advice and Queries Introduction Quaker meeting for worship ©Quaker worship is designed to let God teach and transform the worshippers. Quakers call worship events meetings for worship rather than services. In a Quaker meeting for worship a group of people sits in a room in silence for an hour. From time to time someone may speak briefly, but sometimes the entire hour may pass without a word being spoken. Quaker meetings for worship are open to everyone. Children are specifically welcomed. No liturgy Quaker worship is very different to the worship of most Christian churches in that it doesn't follow a set liturgy or code of rules - a service has no structure, and no one leads it. Quakers do without a liturgy because they believe that worship happens when two or three people come together to worship - nothing more is needed. This belief comes from Jesus' statement that ""Where two or three are gathered together in my name, there am I in the midst of them"" (Matthew 18:20). Meeting for worship Meeting for worship in Lincoln ©Quaker meetings for worship take place in meeting houses, not churches. These are simple buildings or rooms. A meeting begins when two or more worshipers come together to be in the presence of God. They usually sit facing each other in a square or a circle. This helps them to be aware that they are a group together for worship, and puts everybody in a place of equal status. Everyone waits in shared silence until someone is moved by the Spirit (i.e. has a strong religious feeling) to do something as part of their worship. A person will only speak if they are convinced that they have something that must be shared, and it is rare for a person to speak more than once. The words spoken are usually brief and may include readings (from the Bible or other books), praying, or speaking from personal experience. Each speaking is followed by a period of silence. Quakers believe that God speaks through the contributions made at the meeting. Some people say that there is often a feeling that a divine presence has settled over the group. The words should come from the soul - from the inner light - rather than the mind. Quakers know that even if the words they feel moved to speak have no particular meaning for themselves, they may carry a message from God to other people. There may be no outward response to the contribution from other people, but if there is it will be something that builds positively on the previous contribution. Discussion and argument are not part of the meeting. The meeting ends when the elders shake hands. If pressed to say what they are actually doing in a meeting for worship, many Quakers would probably say that they are waiting - waiting in their utmost hearts for the touch of something beyond their everyday selves. Some would call it 'listening to the quiet voice of God' - without trying to define the word. Others would use more abstract terms: just 'listening' (though no voice is heard), or 'looking inward' (though no visions are seen), or 'pure attention' (though nothing specific is attended to). The word 'inward' tends to recur as one gropes for explanations. Richard Allen Quakers and silence The silence in a meeting for worship isn't something that happens between the actual worship - the silence itself is part of the worship; it provides a space for people to separate themselves from the pressures and events of daily life and to get closer to God and each other. The people who are present try to create an internal silence - a silence inside their head. They do this by stopping everyday thoughts and anxieties. Quakers believe that if they wait silently for God in this way there will be times when God will speak directly to them. Be still and cool in thy own mind and spirit from thy own thoughts George Fox True silence ... is to the spirit what sleep is to the body, nourishment and refreshment. William Penn, 1699A Quaker service is not a time of individual meditation, although the description above may make it sound like that. It is important that the waiting in silence and the listening are done as a group. The people taking part are trying to become something more than just a collection of individuals; they want to become aware of being part of a 'we', rather than just a solitary 'I'. Pastoral or programmed worship Some Quakers have adopted many of the practices of mainstream churches, and have pastors and use hymns in their worship. Their services are usually like Methodist or Baptist services. There is a Quaker hymn book, called Worship in Song, A Quaker Hymnal. Top History Quaker history George Fox ©Like many Christian groups, Quakers never intended to form a new denomination. Their founder, George Fox, was trying to take belief and believers back to the original and pure form of Christianity. Fox was born in July 1624 in Leicestershire, England, and died in 1691, by which time his movement had 50,000 followers. As Fox grew up he was puzzled by the inconsistency between what Christians said they believed and the way they behaved. He became a religious activist at the age of 19, and was imprisoned eight times for preaching views that annoyed the religious and political establishment of his time. Fox and social issues Fox got into political trouble because of his idea that there was something ""of God in every person"". This was a revolutionary attack on all discrimination by social class, wealth, race and gender and it had worrying implications for the social structure of his time. The political establishment did not take this lying down. Quaker refusal to take oaths and to take off their hats before a magistrate, and their insistence on holding banned religious meetings in public, led to 6,000 Quakers being imprisoned between 1662 and 1670. Fox and religious issues Fox's aim was to inspire people to hear and obey the voice of God and become a community ""renewed up again in God's image"" by living the principles of their faith. Fox believed that everyone should try to encounter God directly and to experience the Kingdom of Heaven as a present, living reality. He objected to the hierarchical structure and the rituals of the churches of his time, and rejected the idea that the Bible was always right. But Fox went even further. He argued that God himself did not want churches. Churches were either unnecessary to get to God, or an obstruction (Fox often referred to churches unkindly as ""steeple-houses""). Since believers should have a direct relationship with God, no one (priests, for example) and nothing (like sacraments) should come in between. Not surprisingly, these views infuriated the mainstream churches, and Quakers were persecuted in Britain on a large scale until 1689. USAQuaker missionaries arrived in the USA in 1656. They were persecuted at first, and four were executed. However the movement appealed to many Americans, and it grew in strength, most famously in Pennsylvania which was founded in 1681 by William Penn as a community based on the principles of pacifism and religious tolerance. Quakers and slavery The origins of Christian abolitionism can be traced to the late 17th Century and the Quakers. Several of their founders, including George Fox and Benjamin Lay, encouraged fellow congregants to stop owning slaves. By 1696, Quakers in Pennsylvania officially declared their opposition to the importation of enslaved Africans into North America. Along with the Anglican Granville Sharp, Quakers established the first recognised anti-slavery movement in Britain in 1787. Famous Quakers Chocolate manufacturers Joseph Rowntree and George Cadbury were both Quakers George Fox (1624-1691) - founder of Quakerism William Penn (1621-1670) - friend of George Fox, founder of Pennsylvania John Woolman (1720-1772) - an American Quaker involved in the abolition of slavery John Dalton (1766-1844) - British scientist who invented the atomic theory of matter Edward Pease (1767-1858) - first Quaker member of Parliament Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845) - British prison reformer John Bright (1811-1889) - British politician Joseph Rowntree (1837-1925) - Chocolate manufacturer George Cadbury (1839-1922) - Chocolate manufacturer Arthur Eddington (1882-1944) - physicist Paul Eddington (1927-1995) - actor James Dean (1931-1955) - actor Jocelyn Bell Burnell (born 1943) - astronomer, discoverer of pulsars Bonnie Raitt (born 1949) - popular musician Tom Robinson (born 1950) - popular musician Top Holy days Holy days Quakers do not celebrate Christian festivals such as Easter and Christmas (although Quaker families may mark Christmas as the secular festival it has largely become). They believe the events celebrated at such festivals (e.g. the resurrection and the incarnation) should be kept in mind throughout the year. Although Quaker meetings for worship generally take place on a Sunday, this is purely for convenience and not because Sunday is the Sabbath or a particularly holy day. Top Ethics Quaker ethics Take heed, dear Friends, to the promptings of love and truth in your hearts. Trust them as the leadings of God whose Light shows us our darkness and brings us to new life. Advices and Queries Personal integrity Quakers try to live up to high standards of honesty, as set out in this series of questions: Are you honest and truthful in all you say and do? Do you maintain strict integrity in business transactions and in your dealings with individuals and organisations? Do you use money and information entrusted to you with discretion and responsibility? Advices and Queries Work and business Quakers avoid working for companies that manufacture weapons or other harmful products (nor will they invest in such companies). They prefer to choose work that has positive benefits for the community. They maintain strict integrity in business transactions and in workplace dealings with individuals. Gender issues Quakers have always treated men and women as equals, and were pioneers in the movement for female equality. Animal rights Quakers oppose blood sports, and do not approve of businesses that exploit animals, such as circuses or zoos, or the fur trade. They object to experiments on animals for trivial purposes such as cosmetics, and are divided as to whether animal experimentation should be allowed for medical research....as by his breath the flame of life was kindled in all animal and sensitive creatures, to say we love God ... and at the same time exercise cruelty toward the least creature ... was a contradiction in itself. John Woolman, 1772Gambling Quakers do not gamble. Alcohol and tobacco are not forbidden Alcohol and tobacco Quakers are not forbidden from using alcohol or tobacco (although these substances are banned from Quaker Meeting Houses), but most Quakers avoid them, or consume them moderately. Many Quakers took an active role in the Temperance Movement of Victorian times. Sex Quakers are non-judgemental about sex, which they see as a gift of God. Their attention is focused on the way in which it is used in human relationships. Sexual activity is essentially neither good nor evil; it is a normal biological activity which, like most other human activities, can be indulged in destructively or creatively. Towards a Quaker view of sex, 1963No relationship can be a right one which makes use of another person through selfish desire. Advices, 1964Homosexuality The same thinking applies to the Quaker attitude to homosexuality. An act which (for example) expresses true affection between two individuals and gives pleasure to them both, does not seem to us to be sinful by reason alone of the fact that it is homosexual. Towards a Quaker view of sex, 1963Quakers were one of the first churches to talk openly about sexuality. Since we try to live our lives respecting 'that of God' in everyone we would want to treat all people equally. We feel that the quality and depth of feeling between two people is the most important part of a loving relationship, not their gender or sexual orientation. Britain Yearly Meeting Abortion Quakers don't have a united view on abortion but regard it as a matter of individual conscience. Philosophically there is no Quaker doctrine of when a person becomes a person. The movement has difficulty reconciling the principle of non-violence, which could argue against abortion, and the wish that women should be able to play a full part in society, which might sometimes justify abortion. Contraception Quakers don't have a collective view on the rightness or wrongness of contraception. Many Quakers do use artificial methods of birth control. Euthanasia Quakers don't have a united view on euthanasia. Some Quakers make 'living wills', requesting that if they become ill to the point of being incapable of living without artificial life support systems or inappropriate medical intervention, they be allowed to die naturally and with dignity. Quakers at a peace march ©Justice, politics and society Quakers are active in politics and in working for justice in the world. This comes partly from their belief that there is something of God in every human being, and that they should respect the worth and dignity of each person, and partly from following Christ's own example of social activism. At the centre of Friends' religious experience is the repeatedly and consistently expressed belief in the fundamental equality of all members of the human race. Our common humanity transcends our differences. Meeting for Sufferings' Statement of Intent on Racism, 1988The duty of the Society of Friends is to be the voice of the oppressed but [also] to be conscious that we ourselves are part of that oppression. Quaker Faith and Practice Quakers have played a part in:criminal law reformprison reform - particularly through the work of Elizabeth Fry (1780-1845)reducing povertyending the slave tradeending the opium tradewomen's rightsanti-racismhuman rightsand many other campaigns. Quakers are active in many charities. Oaths Quakers will not swear oaths in court (or elsewhere) but will only affirm. Pacifism and violence Quakers believe that war and conflict are against God's wishes and so they are dedicated to pacifism and non-violence. And from a practical point of view they think that force nearly always creates more problems than it solves. We utterly deny all outward wars and strife and fightings with outward weapons, for any end or under any pretence whatsoever, and this is our testimony to the whole world. Quaker statement to King Charles II, 1660A good end cannot sanctify evil means; nor must we ever do evil, that good may come of it. William Penn, 1693War, in our view, involves the surrender of the Christian ideal and the denial of human brotherhood. London Yearly Meeting, 1916Christ demands of us that we adhere, without swerving, to the methods of love, and therefore, if a seeming conflict should arise between the claims of His service and those of the State, it is to Christ that our supreme loyalty must be given, whatever the consequences. London Yearly Meeting, 1915Many conscientious objectors (those who refuse to join the armed forces) are Quakers, but Quaker pacifism is not simply the refusal to fight: it includes working actively to bring about or preserve peace, by removing the causes of conflict. Quakers, like other pacifists, are sometimes accused of being willing to give in to evil regimes rather than fight against them. They disagree, and say that they fight by non-violent means. All forms of non-violent resistance are certainly much better than appeasement, which has come to mean the avoidance of violence by a surrender to injustice at the expense of the sufferings of others and not of one's self, by the giving away of something that is not ours to give. Kathleen Lonsdale, 1953Quakers are not just opposed to war, but to all forms of violence. George Fox was personally opposed to the use of violence. He refused to defend himself when he was attacked and often, when the violence was over, had kind words or actions for his attackers. Environment Quakers believe in protecting the environment ©Quakers believe that human beings are stewards of the earth, and should care for it to ensure that each generation passes on to the next generation a world as good as or better than it received. Quakers think that the environmental crisis is a spiritual and religious crisis as well as a practical one. Quakers say that environmental issues are also a matter of social justice: they acknowledge that those living in Britain or the USA are largely insulated from the effects of environmental problems and that such issues have a much more serious effect on the world's poor. The produce of the earth is a gift from our gracious creator to the inhabitants, and to impoverish the earth to support outward greatness appears to be an injury to the succeeding age. John Woolman (1720-1772)Try to live simply. A simple lifestyle freely chosen is a source of great strength. Do not be persuaded into buying what you do not need or cannot afford. Do you keep yourself informed about the effect your style of living is having on the global economy and environment? Advices and Queries Richard J Foster set down some principles that Quakers can follow to live simple lives: Buy things for their usefulness rather than their status Reject anything that is producing an addiction in you Develop a habit of giving things away - de-accumulate Refuse to be propagandised by the custodians of modern gadgetry Learn to enjoy things without owning them Develop a deeper appreciation for the creation Look with a healthy scepticism at all 'buy now, pay later' schemes Obey Jesus' injunction about plain, honest speech Reject anything that will breed the oppression of others Shun whatever would distract you from your main goal Top Marriage Quaker marriage Quakers strongly believe in the sanctity of marriage but also recognise the value of non-marital relationships and the single life. Their weddings are very informal compared to those from other traditions and there is no priest or minister to lead the couple as they make their vows. When a Quaker couple decide to marry, they make a commitment to each other in the presence of God, their family and friends. Quakers believe that no one but God can join a couple in matrimony. They see marriage as more than a legal contract - it is a religious commitment. The right joining in marriage is the work of the Lord only, and not the priest's or magistrate's; for it is God's ordinance and not man's...we marry none; it is the Lord's work, and we are but witnesses. George Fox, 1669The couple promise to be loving companions and take each other as lifelong partners in a spirit of freedom and equality. Quaker weddings Quaker weddings do not have to take place in registered buildings but they must be held indoors. Most couples will book their local Quaker meeting house although some may choose to hold their wedding at home or another alternative venue. A Quaker marriage is a community celebration and not just a ceremony for the couple. Therefore the style of worship at the wedding service must be acceptable to the wider community. The wedding ceremony is usually held within a simple meeting for worship. It has no set order of service or sermon. In most cases, the finer details of the ceremony are decided through discussion with the marriage registering officers and community elders. A couple may decide to include readings and even a hymn. But music is, on the whole, rare. If both parties are Quakers or regularly attend monthly meetings, they may marry in a Quaker marriage ceremony. Couples who are registered as 'attenders' but not yet members of the Religious Society of Friends would be expected to have attended meetings for a number of months before making an application for marriage. Where one member of the couple is not a Quaker, or divorced, two adult members of the Society must give written permission before the marriage can take place. Marriage preparation The first step in the official process is a meeting for clearness. (Clearness in this context means helping the couple affirm their decision to marry. )The meeting gives them the chance to discuss their relationship with other members of the community. At least six weeks before the wedding date, the couple must make an application to the registering officer of the monthly meeting where the marriage ceremony is due to be held. The monthly meeting must approve the application before the registering officer, who is recognised by law, makes arrangements for the public notices and other legal requirements. The monthly meeting then holds a Meeting for Worship for the Solemnisation of Marriage to confirm that the wedding can go ahead. Quaker marriages can be held at any time of day. Public notice of the wedding is posted on the door of the venue a week before the wedding. The wedding day Guests are greeted by a door keeper when they arrive for the marriage ceremony. The bride is not usually given away by her father. Neither is it customary to have a best man or bridesmaids. The bride and groom will normally enter the meeting room together with friends and then quietly take their seats. Sometimes they may come in when everyone else is seated. In the past, guests used to stand as the couple entered but these days this rarely happens. The couple will sit next to a table with the Quaker wedding certificate and a pen. Wedding attire Quaker worship and ceremonies are relaxed so the bride, groom and their guests will usually dress smartly but informally. Some brides may choose to wear white but, in most cases, the outfit is kept simple. Guests need to be careful to strike the right balance too. Men, for example, may wear a jacket or tie, but will often dress more informally. Women may choose a skirt or other reasonably smart clothes. The ceremony Like other Quaker meetings, the wedding service is mostly held in silence but anyone who feels moved by the Spirit can speak or pray. Most ceremonies will follow the basic structure below: A volunteer, usually a Quaker elder, will stand to explain how the service will proceed. After an initial period of silence of about 10 to 15 minutes, the couple will rise and exchange their vows. The vows are handed down from the Quaker tradition and can be modified. Holding hands, the couple take it in turns to make declarations based on the following: ""Friends, I take this my friend...to be my wife/husband, promising divine assistance to be unto her/him a loving and faithful husband/wife so long as we both on earth shall live."" It does not matter which order the bride and groom speak. The Registering Officer calls upon the couple to sign the Quaker Marriage Certificate which records their vows. Two witnesses also sign. The Registering Officer reads the certificate aloud. There is a further period of silence. The meeting is terminated by two elders who shake hands, inviting the rest of the congregation to do the same. Members of the congregation sign the Quaker Marriage Certificate as a witness to both their presence and support for the marriage. The certificate, in the form of a scroll or a book, has no legal standing but it reminds the couple of their friends' happiness and hopes for the success of their marriage. After the meeting the couple and the two witnesses sign the civil register. Rings are often exchanged at this point. Divorce and remarriage Divorced people may be allowed to remarry at the discretion of the members of the monthly meeting. Quakers believe that those who are divorced need to be given the chance of a new start. Blessings for same-sex couples The Quakers have welcomed same-sex unions for more than two decades, allowing local groups to celebrate same-sex commitments through special acts of worship. In July 2009, at the Britain Yearly Meeting, Quakers agreed to carry out same-sex marriages on the same basis as marriages for opposite-sex couples....22 years after the prospect was first raised at Meeting for Sufferings we are being led to treat same sex committed relationships in the same way as opposite sex marriages, reaffirming our central insight that marriage is the Lord’s work and we are but witnesses. The question of legal recognition by the state is secondary. Minute 25, Britain Yearly Meeting 31 July 2009They will also formally ask the government to change the law to allow gay people to marry. Top Funerals Quaker funerals A Quaker funeral has two particular aims: to thank God for the life that has been lived, and to help the mourners feel a deep sense of God's presence. Because they are thankful for having known the dead person, Quaker mourners tend not to wear black. The funeral can follow the normal silent pattern of Quaker worship, or it can include programmed elements. At a meeting following the silent pattern the contributions are likely to include memories as well as prayers or readings. A senior person will normally begin the meeting with a brief explanation of Quaker worship if there are many non-Quakers present. In addition to the funeral there can be a ""meeting for worship on the occasion of the death of our Friend"". Quakers can be buried or cremated. Top Structure and clergy Structure of the Quaker movement The Quakers are organised through a series of meetings. While there are actual meetings the word is used here to refer to the groups of people who meet to look after particular functions. The meetings are named after the frequency with which a group meets. The structure is organised at local level (Preparative Meetings), smaller and larger district levels (Monthly and General Meetings) and national level (Yearly Meeting). Most local Quaker communities hold monthly business meetings. The Britain Yearly Meeting is the body that represents the interests of the thirty thousand Quakers in the Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends in Britain. There is no organisation that has worldwide authority over the movement. Meetings for business Individual Quaker Meetings carry out matters of business and administration at ""Meetings for Worship with a Concern for Business"". The whole of such a meeting, even the most nit-pickingly detailed section, is regarded as worship. These meetings begin with silence. When the Clerk judges the time is right, he or she summarises the agenda before the meeting, provides any necessary background information, and lays the first item before the meeting. People stand up to show they wish to speak, and are called by the Clerk. The traditional formula for raising an issue is to begin ""I have a Concern..."" When everything is said the meeting agrees a 'minute' (a paragraph or two) setting out the decision. The decision is not based on a majority or a consensus, but on the ""sense of the meeting"". Once a minute has been drafted and read out members can suggest modifications. Meetings try not to take decisions by a majority vote, or even by reaching a consensus; they wait until ""the right way will open and we shall be led into unity. ""The Clerk records the decisions and helps those taking part discern the will of God in the meeting, but he/she does not chair or lead the meeting. Clergy Our own experience leads us to affirm that the church can be so ordered that the guidance of the Holy Spirit can be known and followed without the need for a separated clergy. London Yearly Meeting, 1986Quakers don't have any clergy. Some members may be appointed as elders because a meeting recognises that they have the ability to serve in a particular way. Appointment as an elder doesn't mean that the person is in any way superior to anyone else. Such appointments are for three years and can be renewed. Top Find out more Christianity and the abolition of slavery Top "


why do jefferson and stanton include these similar excerpts in their documents?

Jefferson and Stanton believe to their causes to acknowledge the difficulty of challenging the status quo. The similar excerpts is a powerful tool to express their struggles and urged people to make an action to end destruction.

College English 6 points Why do Jefferson and Stanton include these similar excerpts in their documents? A .to highlight the physical pain of oppression to establish their personal connections B. to their causes to acknowledge the difficulty of challenging the status quo C. to applaud lawmakers for their efforts to bring about change Ask for details Follow Reportby Julianphelps27 01/12/2018Verified answer What is a Verified Answer? Log in to view the full answer. Unlock Verified Answers and get help from subject experts. Unlock verified answer Answersddestinylleon Ambitious To acknowledge the difficulty of challenging Comments (4) Report5.0 1 vote Thanks 3THXi was taking the same text loltest LOLLog in to add a commentmeerkat18 Ambitious

Indeed, change is difficult especially if the change will affect those who are in the spotlight. Comments Report3.0 2 votes Thanks 1The Brain Helper Not sure about the answer? See next answers Learn more with Brainly!Having trouble with your homework? Get free help!80% of questions are answered in under 10 minutes Answers come with explanations, so that you can learn Answer quality is ensured by our experts I want a free account!


what does duty cycle mean for viair air compressor

Air Compressor Duty cycle refers to the amount of time a compressor can be operated in a given time period at 100 PSI, and a standard ambient temperature of 72° F. If you are running the air compressor in the dead of winter or on a hot summer day, the amount of cool down time will vary.

TruckSpring Times

← Firestone Air Bag Kit 2250 Installation Video New Product Line - LED Lights from Grote Industries →What is Air Compressor Duty Cycle?25. September 2015 Ryan-S Suspension Parts (0)All air compressors are built with a duty cycle rating. This rating is typically given as a percentage of the amount of time that an air compressor can be run in a full cycle, typically one hour, that includes the compressor’s run time and rest time. Some compressors, such as Viair air compressors are built with a thermal protection that will automatically shut them down when they reach a temperature that they can be damaged. Others may not and it is up to the operator to shut them down in the correct amount of time. The compressor must be off and cooling down for the rest of the time they were run to avoid damage.

With duty cycle, It's all about heat dissipation and the rates will vary depending on ambient temperatures and operating conditions. Duty Cycle is almost always expressed in percentage format: Compressor on time ÷ (on time + off time) = Duty Cycle %. The times to duty cycle in an hour is broken down in a chart below. 9% Duty Cycle 5 Minutes On / 55 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 10% Duty Cycle 6 Minutes On / 54 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 15% Duty Cycle 9 Minutes On / 51 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 20% Duty Cycle 12 Minutes On / 48 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 25% Duty Cycle 15 Minutes On / 45 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 30% Duty Cycle 18 Minutes On / 42 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 50% Duty Cycle 30 Minutes On / 30 Minutes Off or Cool-Down time 100% Duty Cycle 1 Hour Run Time or Constant Duty If you want to break it down into 10 minute intervals - if an air compressor has a duty cycle of 50%, the air compressor will be running for 10 minutes, then it should run for a combined maximum of 5 minutes ON and 5 minutes OFF. If the compressor is 60% duty cycle this means the compressor must be off for approximately 4 minutes of every 10 minutes. If your air compressor is maintained and the duty cycle followed they will provide many years of reliable service. Tags : Duty Cycle, Air Compressor, Viair Currently rated 5.0 by 2 people Currently 5.0/5 Stars.1 2 3 4 5Related posts What is Air Compressor Duty Cycle? All air compressors are built with a duty cycle rating. What does air compressor duty cycle mean? Is... Choosing An Air Compressor Kit for Your Air Bags Are you thinking about getting an air compressor system for your air bag kit and feeling a little ov What is the Duty Cycle of an Air Compressor? Many Air Compressors are not built to be run continuously and some need time to rest between uses. Add comment Comment Preview Name *E-mail *Comment *Notify me when new comments are added


what is the purpose of a conceptual model for advanced practice nursing

IONThe conceptual and theoretical nursing models help to provide knowledge to improve practice, guide research and curriculum and identify the goals of nursing practice. Nursing knowledge is the inclusive total of the philosophies, theories, research, and practice wisdom of the discipline. As a professional discipline this knowledge is important for guiding practice. (Smith & Liehr, 2008).

Introduction to Nursing Theories This page was last updated on January 31, 2012INTRODUCTI

ONNursing theory is the term given to the body of knowledge that is used to support nursing practice. Nursing theory is a framework designed to organize knowledge and explain phenomena in nursing, at a more concrete and specific level.

A nursing theory is a set of concepts, definitions, relationships, and assumptions or propositions derived from nursing models or from other disciplines and project a purposive, systematic view of phenomena by designing specific inter-relationships among concepts for the purposes of describing, explaining, predicting, and /or prescribing. Each discipline has a unique focus for knowledge development that directs its inquiry and distinguishes it from other fields of study. (Smith & Liehr, 2008). Theory-guided, evidence-based practice is the hallmark of any professional discipline. Nursing is a professional discipline (Donaldson & Crowley, 197

8). Almost 90% of all Nursing theories are generated in the last 20 years. Nursing models are conceptual models, constructed of theories and concepts A paradigm is a model that explains the linkages of science, philosophy, and theory accepted and applied by the discipline.

METAPARADIGMS IN NURSINGPerson Recipient of care, including physical, spiritual, psychological, and sociocultural components. Individual, family, or community Environment All internal and external conditions, circumstances, and influences affecting the person Health Degree of wellness or illness experienced by the person Nursing Actions, characteristics and attributes of person giving care. COMPONENTS OF A THEORYDEFINITIONSTheorya set of related statements that describes or explains phenomena in a systematic way.the doctrine or the principles underlying an art as distinguished from the practice of that particular art.a formulated hypothesis or, loosely speaking, any hypothesis or opinion not based upon actual knowledge.a provisional statement or set of explanatory propositions that purports to account for or characterize some phenomenon. Concepta mental idea of a phenomenon Concepts are the building blocks (the primary elements) of a theory. Constructa phenomena that cannot be observed and must be inferred Constructs are concepts developed or adopted for use in a particular theory. The key concepts of a given theory are its constructs. Propositiona statement of relationship between concepts Conceptual modelmade up of concepts and propositions They epresent ways of thinking about a problem or ways of representing how complex things work the way that they do. Different Frameworks will emphasize different variables and outcomes and their interrelatedness. ( Bordage, 2009)Models may draw on a number of theories to help understand a particular problem in a certain setting or context. They are not always as specified as theory. Variables Variables are the operational forms of constructs. They define the way a construct is to be measured in a specific situation. Match variables to constructs when identifying what needs to be assessed during evaluation of a theory-driven program. Middle range theorya testable theory that contains a limited number of variables, and is limited in scope as well, yet is of sufficient generality to be useful with a variety of clinical research questions. NURSING PHILOSOPHIESTheory Key Points Florence Nightingale’s Legacy of caring Focuses on nursing and the patient environment relationship. Ernestine Wiedenbach: The helping art of clinical nursing Helping process meets needs through the art of individualizing care. Nurses should identify patients ‘need-for –help’ by: Observation Understanding client behaviour Identifying cause of discomfort Determining if clients can resolve problems or have a need for help Virginia Henderson’s Definition of Nursing Patients require help towards achieving independence. Derived a definition of nursing Identified 14 basic human needs on which nursing care is based. Faye G. Abedellah’s Typology of twenty one Nursing problems Patient’s problems determine nursing care Lydia E. Hall : Care, Cure, Core model Nursing care is person directed towards self love. Jean Watson’s Philosophy and Science of caring Caring is a universal, social phenomenon that is only effective when practiced interpersonally considering humanistic aspects and caring. Caring is central to the essence of nursing. Patricia Benner’s Novice to Expert Described systematically five stages of skill acquisition in nursing practice – novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient and expert. CONCEPTUAL MODELS AND GRAND THEORIESDorothea E. Orem’s Self care deficit theory in nursing Self–care maintains wholeness. Three Theories: Theory of Self-Care Theory of Self-Care Deficit Theory of Nursing Systems Nursing Care: Wholly compensatory (doing for the patient)Partly compensatory (helping the patient do for himself or herself)Supportive- educative (Helping patient to learn self care and emphasizing on the importance of nurses’ role Myra Estrin Levine’s: The conservation model Proposed that the nurses use the principles of conservation of: Client Energy Personal integrity Structural integrity Social integrity A conceptual model with three nursing theories –Conservation Redundancy Therapeutic intention Martha E. Roger’s: Science of unitary human beings Person and environment are energy fields that evolve negentropically Nursing is a basic scientific discipline Nursing is using knowledge for human betterment. The unique focus of nursing is on the unitary or irreducible human being and the environment (both are energy fields) rather than health and illness Dorothy E. Johnson’s Behavioural system model Individuals maintain stability and balance through adjustments and adaptation to the forces that impinges them. Individual as a behavioural system is composed of seven subsystems: the subsystems of attachment, or the affiliative, dependency, achievement, aggressive, ingestive-eliminative and sexual. Disturbances in these causes nursing problems. Sister Callista: Roy‘s Adaptation model Stimuli disrupt an adaptive system The individual is a biopsychosocial adaptive system within an environment. The individual and the environment provide three classes of stimuli-the focal, residual and contextual. Through two adaptive mechanisms, regulator and cognator, an individual demonstrates adaptive responses or ineffective responses requiring nursing interventions Betty Neuman’s : Health care systems model Neuman’s model includes intrapersonal, interpersonal and extrapersonal stressors. Nursing is concerned with the whole person. Nursing actions (Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary levels of prevention) focuses on the variables affecting the client’s response to stressors. Imogene King’s Goal attainment theory Transactions provide a frame of reference toward goal setting. Major concepts (interaction, perception, communication, transaction, role, stress, growth and development)Perceptions, Judgments and actions of the patient and the nurse lead to reaction, interaction, and transaction (process of nursing). Nancy Roper, WW. Logan and A. J. Tierney A model for nursing based on a model of living Individuality in living. A conceptual model of nursing from which theory of goal attainment is derived. Living is an amalgam of activities of living (ALs). Most individuals experience significant life events which can affect ALs causing actual and potential problems. This affects dependence – independence continuum which is bi-directional. Nursing helps to maintain the individuality of person by preventing potential problems, solving actual problems and helping to cope. Hildegard E. Peplau: Psychodynamic Nursing Theory Interpersonal process is maturing force for personality. Stressed the importance of nurses’ ability to understand own behaviour to help others identify perceived difficulties. The four phases of nurse-patient relationships are:1. Orientation2. Identification3. Exploitations4. Resolution The six nursing roles are:1. Stranger2. Resource person3. Teacher4. Leader5. Surrogate6. Counselor Interpersonal process alleviates distress. Ida Jean Orlando’s Nursing Process Theory Nurses must stay connected to patients and assure that patients get what they need, focused on patient’s verbal and non verbal expressions of need and nurse’s reactions to patient’s behaviour to alleviate distress. Elements of nursing situation: Patient Nurse reactions Nursing actions Joyce Travelbee’s Human To Human Relationship Model Therapeutic human relationships. Nursing is accomplished through human to human relationships that began with the original encounter and then progressed through stages of emerging identities. Kathryn E. Barnard’s Parent Child Interaction Model Growth and development of children and mother–infant relationships Individual characteristics of each member influence the parent–infant system and adaptive behaviour modifies those characteristics to meet the needs of the system. Ramona T. Mercer’s : Maternal Role Attainment A complex theory to explain the factors impacting the development of maternal role over time. Katharine Kolcaba’s Theory of comfort Comfort is desirable holistic outcome of care. Health care needs are needs (physical, psycho spiritual, social and environmental needs) for comfort, arising from stressful health care situations that cannot be met by recipients’ traditional support system. Comfort measures include those nursing interventions designed to address the specific comfort needs. Madeleine Leininger’s Transcultural nursing, culture-care theory Caring is universal and varies transculturally. Major concepts include care, caring, culture, cultural values and cultural variations Caring serves to ameliorate or improve human conditions and life base. Care is the essence and the dominant, distinctive and unifying feature of nursing Rosemarie Rizzo Parse’s : Theory of human becoming Indivisible beings and environment co-create health. A theory of nursing derived from Roger’s conceptual model. Clients are open, mutual and in constant interaction with environment. The nurse assists the client in interaction with the environment and co creating health Nola J. Pender’s : The Health promotion; model Promoting optimum health supersedes disease prevention. Identifies cognitive, perceptual factors in clients which are modified by demographical and biological characteristics, interpersonal influences, situational and behavioural factors that help predict in health promoting behaviour CONCLUS

REFERENCESDonaldson, S. K., & Crowley, D. M. (1978). The discipline of nursing. Nursing Outlook, 26, 113–120. Smith, M. J., & Liehr, P. R. (2008). Middle range theory for nursing. New York: Springer Publishing. George B. Julia , Nursing Theories- The base for professional Nursing Practice, 3rd ed. Norwalk, Appleton & Lange. Wills M. Evelyn, Mc Ewen Melanie (2002). Theoretical Basis for Nursing Philadelphia. Lippincott Williams& wilkins. Meleis Ibrahim Afaf (1997) , Theoretical Nursing : Development & Progress 3rd ed. Philadelphia, Lippincott. Taylor Carol,Lillis Carol (2001)The Art & Science Of Nursing Care 4th ed. Philadelphia, Lippincott. Potter A Patricia, Perry G Anne (1992) Fundamentals Of Nursing –Concepts Process & Practice 3rd ed. London Mosby Year Book. Tomey AM, Alligood. MR. Nursing theorists and their work. (5th ed.). Mosby, Philadelphia, 2002Alligood M. R, Tomey. A. M. Nursing theory utilization and application. 2nd Ed. Mosby, Philadelphia, 2002.