what are the tools used to make a relief print

Or, instead of cutting away the background, the relief print can be created by building up the printing surface. The relief is the positive image and represents the printing surface. The most familiar relief-printing materials are wood and linoleum, but many other materials can be used, such as aluminum, magnesium, and plastics. Any metal or plastic plate incised or worked in relief can be first inked in the depressions (intaglio inked) and then surface rolled, thus combining relief and intaglio processes.

Printmaking

Printmaking, an art form consisting of the production of images, usually on paper but occasionally on fabric, parchment, plastic, or other support, by various techniques of multiplication, under the direct supervision of or by the hand of the artist. Such fine prints, as they are known collectively, are considered original works of art, even though they can exist in multiples. To the modern reader, the word print might suggest mechanically mass-produced commercial products, such as books, newspapers, and textiles. In this article, however, the print refers to the original creation of an artist who, instead of the paintbrush or the chisel, has chosen printmaking tools to express himself. The fine print is a multiple original. Originality is generally associated with uniqueness, but a print is considered original because the artist from the outset intended to create an etching, woodcut, or other graphic work and thus conceived his image within the possibilities and limitations of that technique. Without doubt, early printmaking was strongly influenced by a desire for multiple prints. Artists quickly discovered, however, that when a drawing is translated into a woodcut or engraving it takes on totally new characteristics. Each technique has its own distinctive style, imposed by the tools, materials, and printing methods. The metamorphosis that takes place between drawing and print became the strongest attraction for the creative artist. It is important to understand that the artist does not select his printing method arbitrarily but chooses the one in which he can best express himself. Thus, any of the proofs printed from an original plate is considered an original work of art, and, although most fine prints are pulled in limited quantities, the number has no bearing on originality, only on commercial value. What is the difference between a reproduction and an original print? In the very early days of printmaking this was not a serious problem because the print was not looked upon as a precious art object, and prices were low. The question of originality became an issue only in the 18th century, and, in the 19th century, artists started to hand sign their prints. Since then, the signed print has been accepted by most people as the proof of its originality. With regard to the name with which he signed his works, the Japanese artist followed a bewildering custom: he adopted and discarded names at will. If he admired another artist, he simply adopted his name. Thus, in the art history of Japan, it is common to find several unrelated artists bearing the same name and one artist bearing many names; during his long life, Hokusai, for example, used about 50 different names. In fact, a signature by itself means little or nothing. For instance, Pablo Picasso issued many signed reproductions of his paintings; on the other hand, many of his original etchings have been published in split editions, some signed, some not. These unsigned etchings are original, while the signed reproductions are not. The crucial difference is that Picasso made the plate for the original print, while the signed reproduction was photomechanically produced. In 1960 the International Congress of Plastic Arts drafted a resolution intended to regulate contemporary prints. The crucial paragraph reads: The above principles apply to graphic works which can be considered originals, that is to say to prints for which the artist made the original plate, cut the woodblock, worked on the stone or any other material. Works that do not fulfill these conditions must be considered “reproductions.”Although this is a straightforward statement, later developments have proved it to be highly controversial. Since the rise of the Pop and Op movements, a great number of photographically produced prints have been published and sold as signed originals. Because museum curators, art critics, and artists have not taken a firm stand on the question, any print that the artist declares to be original is now accepted as such, regardless of how it was made. Although the art world is divided on the solution, nearly everybody agrees that something should be done to clarify the situation. The state of New York, for example, has passed a law requiring complete disclosure by the dealer of how, and by whom, the print was made. Many artists believe that the answer lies in the giving of honest information. In the 17th and 18th centuries in the West, most prints carried all the relevant information on their margins. The name of the individual was followed by a Latin abbreviation indicating his role in the work. Common examples are del. ( delineavit ): “he drew it”; imp. ( impressit ): “he printed it”; and sculp. ( sculpsit ): “he engraved it.” This type of information, together with the total edition number, should be furnished by the artist or the dealer to the buyer. Clearly, it is impossible to make completely rigid rules to define originality. Probably the most realistic solution is to establish degrees of originality, based on the degree of the artist’s participation in the various steps in the creation of the finished print. There may also be confusion about edition numbering. In contemporary printmaking, an original print in limited edition should carry information about the size of the total edition and the number of the print. A problem can arise because, in addition to the regular edition, there are “artist’s proofs” or the French “H. C.” ( hors de commerce) proofs. These are intended for the artist’s personal use and should be no more than 10 percent of the edition; but, unfortunately, this practice is often abused. All of the prints pulled between working stages are called “trial proofs.” These can be of great interest because they reveal the artist’s working process and of great value because the number of proofs is small. With prints of old masters in the West, originality is a very complex and difficult issue. These artists did not publish their prints in limited editions but printed as many as they could sell and without signing or numbering their works. There are arguments even between experts about the authenticity of many old prints. Important works of the masters are documented in catalogs and, although these must be revised from time to time, they furnish the only firm information available. After the edition is printed, the modern artist usually either destroys the plate or marks (“strikes”) it in a distinctive manner to guarantee that any reprint from the plate is identifiable. The 19th-century U. S. painter and etcher James Mc Neill Whistler was one of the first Western artists to hand sign his prints. Signing is now regulated by a convention. Upon completing the edition, the artist signs and numbers each print. Usually the signature is in the lower right corner; the edition number is on the left. Some artists put the title in the centre. Major techniques of printmaking The techniques of printmaking are divided into three major processes: relief, intaglio, surface. The surface processes are subdivided into two categories: planographic (lithography) and stencil methods. The methods are often combined. Relief processes In relief processes, the negative, or nonprinting part of the block or plate, is either cut or etched away, leaving the design standing in relief.

Relief printing lends itself particularly to a bold conception of design, expressed more in areas than lines. This varies, however, depending on the material used: metal allows more intricate detail than wood, for example. Woodcut Woodcut, which appeared in the 8th century in the East and in the early 15th century in the West, is the earliest known relief-printing method. In this method, the design is first either painted directly onto the wood block or pasted on it. Then the surface of the wood is cut away around the design. For fine details and outlines the knife is used; larger areas are removed with gouges. The depth of the relief depends on the design: open areas must be cut deeper than the fine details so that the roller will not deposit ink in these areas. Although woodcuts are generally conceived in bold lines, or large areas, tonal variations can be achieved with textures, a variety of marks made with gouges, chisels, or knives. In contemporary woodcuts many other methods, such as scraping, scratching, and hammering, are also used to create interesting textures.woodcut; printmaking Examine woodblock prints from the golden age of Chinese printmaking (16th–19th century).© CCTV America Originally, woodcut was a facsimile process; i.e., the cutting was a reproduction of a finished design. With most contemporary woodcuts, however, the artist creates his design in the process of cutting. As wood is a natural material, its structure varies enormously and this exercises a strong influence on the cutting. Wood blocks are cut plankwise. The woods most often used are pear, rose, pine, apple, and beech. The old masters preferred fine-grained hardwoods because they allow finer detail work than softwoods, but modern printmakers value the coarse grain of softwoods and often incorporate it into the design. The printing of woodcuts is a relatively simple process because it does not require great pressure. Although presses are used, even hand rubbing with a wooden spoon can produce a good print. The ink used to print woodcuts must be fairly solid and sticky, so that it lies on the surface without flowing into the hollows. The printing ink can be deposited on the relief either with dabbers or with rollers. Japanese rice or mulberry papers are particularly suitable for woodcuts because they make rich prints without heavy pressure. Colourwoodcut The standard procedure for making a woodcut with two or more colours is to cut a separate block for each colour. If the colour areas are distinctly separated and the block is large, one block can be used for more than one colour. All blocks must be the same size to assure that in the finished print the colours will appear in their proper relation to one another, that is, properly registered. The first, the key block, is generally the one that contains most of the structural or descriptive elements of the design, thus serving as a guide for the disposition of the other colours. After the key block is finished and printed, the print is transferred to the second block. This procedure is repeated until all of the blocks are finished. The registering system depends on the method of printing used. On a press the registering presents no problem: the wood block is locked into position and the uniformly cut paper is automatically fed into the proper position by the press. For hand rubbing, several registering methods can be used. One method uses a mitred corner nailed to a table or special board. A sheet of paper is attached to one side of this corner, after which the wood block is placed securely in position and the print is made. Once the first colour has been printed, the paper is folded back and the first block is replaced with the second, and so on. In woodcut colour printing, the artist must consider whether he can print wet on wet or whether the print should dry before it is overprinted. Usually a second colour can be printed immediately but, if the ink deposit is heavy, the print will have to dry before additional colours can be printed. This problem arises mainly with oil colours, which dry more slowly than water-base colours. When using oil paints, the artist has to understand how variations in viscosity affect the overprinting of colours. Movable small blocks have also come to be used by a number of printmakers. These involve some planning in order to print them in register with the large blocks. The easiest way is to put a light cardboard that is exactly the size of the main block (the key block) in position. Once the small blocks are registered, their location can be marked on the cardboard. Then the small blocks can be glued down to the cardboard in order to avoid the danger of shifting. The conception and technique of the Japanese colour woodcut was totally different from that of the European woodcut. Except for chiaroscuro prints, no real colour woodcut existed in Europe before the 19th century. In the West, the woodcut was primarily a reproductive facsimile process: usually, the artist made a completed drawing that was copied by the cutter. The Japanese print, on the other hand, was the result of intricate, perfectly coordinated effort by the designing artist, the cutter, and the printer. Instead of painting a complete picture to be copied, the artist furnished a separate drawing for each colour. The engraver or cutter pasted each drawing on a wood block and cut away the white (negative) part. In this process the drawing was destroyed. Printing started only after all of the blocks had been cut. As the Japanese used water-base colours, often blending tones, printing itself was a very delicate and crucial operation, requiring perfect coordination and speed. Only after the completion of this process could the artist see the total image. Wood engraving Wood engraving is a variation of woodcut. The main difference is that, for wood engraving, the block—usually pear, apple, cherry, sycamore, or beech—is cut cross-grained rather than plankwise; on the end-grain block the artist can thus cut freely in any direction, allowing him to do much more intricate work with much finer tools. The image is created by fine white lines and textures. On most wood engravings, the whites appear as the positive image against a dominant black. The blocks are usually cut at the same height as printing type so that they can be printed on a press. Invented in the 18th century, wood engraving was primarily used by illustrators. Linoleum cut Since linoleum is easy to cut and does not have a grain, the linoleum cut often is used to introduce children to printmaking. The process was held in low esteem until, in the 1950s, Pablo Picasso made a series of brilliant colour linoleum cuts. The printing of linoleum cuts is similar to the printing of woodcuts or wood engravings. They can be printed by hand rubbing or, properly mounted, can be printed on a press. The colour printing process follows the woodcut principles. Metal cut At times artists have used soft metals, such as lead or zinc, to make prints that are similar to woodcuts or wood engravings. In the 19th century, lead cuts were often used for newspaper illustrations. The distinguished Mexican artist José Guadalupe Posada, for example, used lead frequently for his prints. Lead was used primarily because it was inexpensive and easy to work. Because metal cuts were printed like woodcuts or wood engravings, it is often difficult to tell from the print which material was used. Cardboard (paper) cut Elementary school children are often introduced to printmaking by making cardboard cuts, and sophisticated artists use the same material to print complex abstract images. Cardboard and paper are not only inexpensive, readily available, and workable with simple tools but, when properly prepared, have also proved to be remarkably durable. Cardboard cuts can be made either by building up or cutting out. In the first process, cutout pieces are glued to a support. When the plate is finished, it is coated with a plastic varnish to make sure the surface is tough and nonabsorbent. In the cutting-out method a heavy laminated cardboard is used, and the cutout sections are simply peeled off to the desired depth. When finished, the cut is varnished. The printing of cardboard plates follows the same principle as woodcuts or linoleum cuts. Relief etching When large areas of a metal plate are etched out (see below Etching ), leaving the design in relief to be surface printed, the process is generally called relief etching. Usually the method is used for areas, but it can be also used for lines. The English artist and poet William Blake was the first printmaker to experiment extensively with relief etching. He devised a method of transferring his handwritten poems, together with the illustrations, onto the metal plate to be etched. In contemporary printmaking, relief etching is used extensively for colour printing. The different levels of the plate can be inked with different colours. Relief etching is also a popular method of making inkless intaglio prints (shallow bas-reliefs on paper). Rubbing Simply by placing a fine paper over an incised or carved surface and rubbing the paper with heelball (wax and carbon black) or daubing it with special ink, an artist can use practically any surface for printing—including, as in Japan, the body of a fish. Rubbings were probably the earliest prints made by man. In India rubbings were made of tombstones and temple bas-reliefs, and in China rubbings were used to reproduce calligraphy as early as the 2nd century ad. In addition to fish rubbings, the Japanese made rubbings of metal ornaments. Today many museums sell rubbings of bas-reliefs in their collections. In the United States rubbings often are made of colonial and early 19th-century gravestones, and in Europe they are applied to brass plaques mounted in stone slabs. Dotted print ( criblé)A traditional technique of the goldsmith long before engraving for printing purposes was developed, criblé was also used to make the earliest metal prints on paper. Criblé was a method of dotting the plate with a hand punch; with punch and hammer; with a serrated, flatheaded tool called a matting punch; with various gouges; or, sometimes, with a hollow, circular-headed ring-punch. Criblé plates were relief printed like woodcuts. On most dotted prints, a black background dominates a fine lacelike design. Intaglioprocesses Intaglio printing is the opposite of relief printing, in that the printing is done from ink that is below the surface of the plate. The design is cut, scratched, or etched into the printing surface or plate, which can be copper, zinc, aluminum, magnesium, plastic, or even coated paper. The printing ink is rubbed into the incisions or grooves, and the surface is wiped clean. Unlike surface printing, intaglio printing—which is actually a process of embossing the paper into the incised lines—requires enormous pressure. The major working methods for intaglio printing are engraving, etching, drypoint, and mezzotint. Intaglio processes are probably the most versatile of the printmaking methods, as various techniques can produce a wide range of effects, from the most delicate to the boldest. The intaglio print also produces the richest printed surface, as it is three-dimensional. Engraving In engraving, the design is cut into metal with a graver or burin. The burin is a steel rod with a square or lozenge-shaped section and a slightly bent shank. The cutting is accomplished by pushing the burin into the metal plate. The deeper it penetrates into the metal, the wider the line; variations in depth create the swellingtapering character of the engraved line. After the engraving is finished, the slight burr raised by the graver is cleaned off with a scraper. The engraved line is so sharp and clean that it asserts itself even if cut over a densely etched area. In the print, the engraved line is notable for its precision and intensity. In engraving, the hand does not move freely in any direction but pushes the graver forward in a line; a change of direction is achieved by the manipulation of the plate with the other hand. Although copper, zinc, aluminum, and magnesium plates are used—and in the past soft iron and even steel were used—the best all-around metal is copper. It has the most consistent structure and is neither too soft nor too hard. Drypoint Next to engraving, the drypoint is the most direct of the intaglio techniques. In printing, however, it represents the opposite end of the spectrum. Engraving is precise; drypoint is rugged, warm, and irregular. Drypoint is made by scratching lines into metal plates with steel- or diamond-point needles. In this method the penetration into the plate is negligible; it is the metal burr raised by the point that holds the ink. Because the burr is irregular, it prints as a soft, velvety line. The angle of the needle has much more effect on the width of the line than the pressure does. If the needle is perpendicular to the plate, it throws burr on both sides, which then produces a thin double line; for wide lines the optimum angle is 60 degrees. Many artists use an electric graver to make drypoints. The oscillating point of the tool punches little craters into the plate. Because the line consists of thousands of these small craters, it is richer than the conventional scratched line made by the needle and stands up better to printing. Copper plate is the best for drypoint. The plates are fragile because the burrs are easily flattened down by the printing pressure. Even a too vigorous wiping can damage a plate. Thus, unless the artist is satisfied with a very limited number of proofs (three or four), the plate must be faced with steel, a process in which steel is deposited by electrolytic means on the copper plate. This coating is very thin and, if it is properly done, the burrs are hardened without affecting printing quality. Zinc and aluminum, however, cannot be steel-faced. Mezzotint In mezzotint the metal plate is roughened with fine burrs until it prints a rich, velvety black. The plate is then worked back toward the lighter values with scrapers and burnishers. For this reason, mezzotint is also called manière noire, or the “black manner.”Mezzotint flourished throughout the 18th and 19th centuries and was primarily used for portraits or to reproduce paintings. None of the important printmakers of the past used the technique. After the invention of photoengraving, the technique of mezzotint was nearly forgotten, but a few printmakers have started to work again with this exotic medium. The first step in preparing a mezzotint plate is to rough up the whole plate surface as evenly as possible. The tool used is the rocker, a blade with a curved serrated edge. The rougher the rocker, the heavier is the burr. The rocker is held with its cutting edge at a right angle to the plate, and the curved edge is rocked systematically over the entire surface. If this is properly done, the entire plate is covered with uniform burrs. Then the work with scrapers and burnishers begins. Where lighter tones are desired, the burr is gradually removed, and in the white areas the plate is burnished back to its original finish. As with drypoint, mezzotint plates must be steel faced if a large edition is desired. The printing of mezzotints differs slightly from the printing of etchings or engravings. Since the layer of burr on the mezzotint acts as a blotting paper, the ink must be selected with this fact in mind. The inking and wiping must be done gently with soft rags. Printing pressure should be considerably less than that used for engravings or deeply etched plates. Crayon mannerand stipple engraving Invented in the 18th century, crayon manner was purely a reproduction technique; its aim was the imitation of chalk drawings. The process started with a plate covered with hard ground (see below Etching ). The design was created using a great variety of etching needles (some of them multiple). After the design was etched in, the ground was removed and the design further developed with various tools. Fine corrections and tonal modifications were made with scrapers and burnishers. Finally, engraving was used for additional strengthening of the design. Pastel manner is essentially the same as the crayon manner except that it is usually used to imitate pastel drawings. Stipple engraving, also a reproduction method, is closely related to the crayon manner. The exact date of its invention is not known, but it is reasonably certain that it came after the crayon manner. The first step in stipple engraving was to etch in the outlines of the design with fine dots made either with needles or with a roulette, a small wheel with points. The tonal areas were then gradually developed with tiny flick dots made with the curved stipple graver. For very fine tonal gradations, roulettes were also used. The only artist of any importance to use pure stipple engraving was Giulio Campagnola in the 16th century. Etching Etching is a process in which lines or textures are bitten (etched) into a metal plate with a variety of mordants (acids). The metal plate is first covered with an acid-resistant coating ( ground ). The design is then scratched or pressed into the ground, exposing the metal in these areas. Finally, the plate is submerged in an acid solution until the desired depth and width in the exposed areas is reached. Although the basic principle of etching is very simple, there are many possible variations that have a strong influence on the final result. The materials themselves offer a wide range of possible variations: for example, copper, zinc, aluminum, or magnesium plates can be used; and nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, or ferric chloride can be used for the etching process. Other variations include the strength of the mordants, the biting time, the kinds of grounds and the ways in which they can be worked, and, finally, all the possible methods of printing. Although all of these matters seem purely technical, every tool or material that is used, every step that is followed, is an integral part of the creative process. The biting action of the acid is just as much part of the drawing as is the incising into the ground. The selection of the paper or the method of wiping the plate can completely change the nature of a print. Hard-ground etching Any acid-resistant coating used to make an etching is called a ground. In the past a great variety of different grounds were used, and each master had his own formula. Most of them had wax as a basis, combined with various oils and varnishes. Today, the most commonly used ground consists of two parts Egyptian asphaltum, two parts beeswax, and one part resin. These ingredients are either dissolved and mixed or fused by heat. Ground comes in either lump or liquid form. The plate is cleaned before the ground is applied because grease or dirt can affect the ground’s adhesion, making it peel or crack. If ground in solid form is used, it is melted on low heat and rolled out evenly. Liquid ground is brushed on the plate, and then the ground is heated to make it more even and to evaporate the solvents. In both cases, after the plate cools, the ground should be solid rather than sticky. Normally, a good ground is dark enough to offer sufficient contrast with the plate to see the work. If, however, a black ground is desired, it can be achieved by darkening the ground with the smoke of a candle. In etching the ground, any number of tools and instruments may be employed. The old masters were restricted, but the contemporary printmaker uses a whole arsenal, including electrical drills and gravers. The line produced by the etching needle is threadlike and uniform in thickness. The exception is a line made by the tool called échoppe, developed by Jacques Callot, which may be used to imitate the engraved line. Other instruments are used to introduce a great variety of marks. The character of the etching is further influenced by the choice of the metal and the type of acid used. For controlled, regular bite, it is common to use Dutch mordant (nine parts of water saturated with potassium chlorate to one part of hydrochloric acid) on copper. For a rugged, irregular bite, nitric acid (one part to nine parts of water) is used on zinc. A plate can be etched in stages by covering some of the already etched areas with stop-out varnish (rosin dissolved in alcohol), which resists the acid, and then etching the rest for a longer period. This procedure can be repeated many times. Most artists develop their plates by repeated bites. After the etching is finished, the ground is removed with solvent (such as kerosene or benzene), and the plate is printed. The first print is a state, or trial, proof. If further work is desired, the plate is cleaned and covered again with ground, the previous work remaining visible through the new ground. The whole process is repeated as many times as is necessary. Soft-ground etching Soft-ground etching is basically the same as hard-ground etching except that the ground contains about one-third grease, which keeps it in a semihard, or tacky, condition. Initially, in the 19th century, soft ground was used primarily for offset drawings. The artist placed a paper on the grounded plate and made his drawing on the paper with a sharp pencil or other drawing instrument. Under the pressure, the paper picked up the ground and produced a soft granular line. Then the plate was etched normally with a fairly weak acid. Soft ground has come to be used more often to etch various textures into the plate. Textured materials are placed on the soft ground and the plate run through the press. A thin, even ground picks up the finest textures. The design is controlled by applying a stop-out varnish to areas that should not be etched. The remaining textures are etched into the metal in the same way as in conventional hard-ground etching. This technique lends itself well to collage-type effects on the plate. Relief etching To make a relief etching, the areas not to be removed by acid are protected with liquid ground or varnish. The varnish used has to be tough (asphaltum, or ground) because the relief bite takes a long time, and when large areas are bitten, the plate has a tendency to heat up. If various levels are desired, relief etching can be done in stages, as in regular etching. Aquatint Aquatint is a process used to etch tonal areas on the plate. The first step is to give the plate a porous ground by dusting it with rosin powder and fusing the powder to the plate by means of heat. When the plate is etched, the acid goes through the pores in the ground and bites tiny cavities in the metal. These cavities hold the ink. A variety of tones and textures can be created, depending on the density, width, and depth of the cavities. The aquatint method was invented in the 18th century, and, although a great number of pure aquatint plates were done, the technique was mainly used with line etching. Theoretically, there is no limit to the range of tones that can be etched with aquatint. For the aquatint process, the plate is cleaned, as in hard-ground etching, and then dusted with rosin. Care in this step is crucial, as an incorrectly distributed rosin ground will produce uneven, spotty tones. To achieve even tones, a fine-grain rosin is used. The quantity should cover about 50 percent of the surface, neither too thin nor too thick. The dusting can be done either with a dust box or with dust bags. The dust box is a completely enclosed container with a sliding tray (usually made of steel mesh) that holds the plate in position above the dust tray, which is filled with fine rosin dust. After the plate is placed in the box, the rosin dust is agitated either by a bellows, by an electric fan, or by shaking. Dusting bags are made of various materials; the finer the material, the finer the dust coming through. The dusting bags have the advantage of allowing the artist to visually control the amount of dust deposited and also to use different textures in different areas. After dusting, the plate is placed on the heating plate, and the rosin is fused to the metal. When the plate has cooled, the design is applied with a stop-out varnish. To achieve various tones the plate is bitten in stages, much as in hard-ground etching but with one important difference: aquatint is much more delicate, and the time element is more critical. A biting time of a few seconds can produce a fine gray, but a proportionately longer time is needed as the artist proceeds toward the darker tones. Plastic sprays are also used to make aquatints. These lacquers and enamels are sold in pressurized spray cans and are sufficiently acid resistant to use for moderately long bites. They are easy to control and simpler to use, but they must be used in spray booths or other wellventilated places. Lift-ground etching (sugar-lift aquatint)In lift-ground etching, a positive image is etched on an aquatint plate by drawing with a water-soluble ground. In the conventional aquatint technique, the artist controls the image by stopping out negative areas with varnish, thus working around the positive image. But for lift-ground etching, he uses a viscous liquid (such as India ink, gamboge, or ordinary poster paint mixed with sugar syrup) to paint directly on the plate. After the painting is finished and dried, the whole surface is covered with thin, liquid hard ground. When dry, the plate is placed in lukewarm water that dissolves the painted design, lifting the ground and dislodging it from the places that had been painted, thus exposing the metal surface to be etched. Aquatinting can be handled two ways: either the whole plate can be aquatinted before painting with lift ground or it can be aquatinted after the design is lifted. Lift-ground etching is particularly well-suited to free, spontaneous, calligraphic designs. Acids and the etching process The acid bite of the plate is a critical stage in the making of an etching. The printmaker must be familiar with the characteristics of the materials that are being used. On a zinc plate nitric acid is used. In the process of biting, this acid develops air bubbles over the bitten area. Under the bubbles the acid action is slower, and, therefore, if the bubbles are not constantly moved around by brushing, the etched line will be uneven. Nitric acid also has a tendency to underbite, that is, to bite not only straight down but also sideways. For this reason, areas of dense texture must be watched very closely. Nitric acid also can be used on copper, but, except to bite out large areas, Dutch mordant is much better suited for this metal. The action of hydrochloric acid on copper is much more even and controlled than that of nitric acid. Thus, for a bold, rough bite, nitric acid on zinc is fine; but for delicate, controlled etching, Dutch mordant on copper is preferred. Metal graphic This method was originated by Rolf Nesch, the German-Norwegian printmaker. In all the intaglio methods previously discussed, the artist’s design was created by making incisions in the plate. Nesch’s method is the reverse of this process: the design is built up like a montage, by cutting out metal shapes and soldering them on the plate surface. Instead of the etching needle and the graver, the tools are shears, wire cutters, and a soldering iron. These plates are in deep relief and thus produce a heavily embossed print. Often such plates are combined with conventionally etched or engraved sections. In addition to metal shapes, wood and plastics may be used. Because of the extremely high relief, the printing of the plates requires specially prepared presses. A few contemporary artists work in such a high relief that the ordinary etching press cannot print their work and standard printing papers cannot be used. In some cases the high relief is created by compressing paper pulp into molds with hydraulic presses. The use of embossing is not new. Some Japanese woodcuts have sections that have been decorated with “goufrage” (blind pressing). In contemporary printmaking, embossing has become a major interest, and many artists are exploring the possibilities of the intaglio print by using shallow paper bas-reliefs to exploit the interplay of shadow and light. Printing by intaglio processes The most important piece of equipment in intaglio printing is the etching press, a simple machine whose basic principle has not changed for centuries. Motorization and the use of pressure gauges are the only major improvements. The press consists of a solid steel plate, called the bed, that is driven between two rollers; a screw mechanism on both sides of the top roller adjusts the pressure. Large modern presses are motor driven. The print is made by placing the inked plate face up on the bed. Dampened paper is placed carefully on the plate and covered with several layers of pure wool printing felts. The bed is then driven through the rollers. The felts, which are squeezed between the metal rollers and the plate, push the paper into the crevices of the plate, forcing the paper into contact with the ink and thus transferring the image. A fairly heavy pure rag paper is normally used. It is soaked until its fibres are softened and then, before printing, it is blotted until no surface water is visible. For inking, the plate is placed on a heater and kept warm throughout the inking and wiping steps. Heat makes the ink looser and thus facilitates both of these processes. Wiping is the operation in which the ink is removed from the surface of the plate, while leaving it in the recesses. Usually a carefully folded starched cheesecloth (tarlatan) is used. When a clean, crisp print is desired, the plate is given a final wiping with the palm of the hand. Inks for intaglio printing are especially made for this purpose. The consistency of the ink must be such that it comes off the surface of the plate cleanly during the wiping operation, but at the same time it must have enough body to retain its relief on the paper. The printing ink must also have sufficient viscosity to stick to the damp printing paper to produce a clear and rich image. After the print is pulled, it is dried, either between blotters or taped to a large, stiff board. This choice depends on the size of the print and the type of paper used. Intaglio colour printing The intaglio colour print is made with two or more intaglio plates successively overprinted on the same paper. Each plate represents one colour and its possible gradations. In principle, it is possible to take four plates—the three basic colours, yellow, red, and blue, plus black—and make a print that will have the full range of colours. If the colour areas are distinctly separated, more than one colour can be printed from one plate. This method involves an extremely meticulous inking and wiping process. One of the greatest problems with intaglio colour printing is registering the successive colours in their precise location. If the colours can be printed immediately, wet on wet, then it is relatively simple, but often this is not possible. If the first plate has high relief and is overprinted while wet, the second plate will crush it completely. In this case the first print must be thoroughly dried and then rewetted for the second printing. Because the paper shrinks in the drying process, it is difficult to get it back to the original size when rewetted. Several methods of registering can be used, depending on the particular problem. For wet-on-wet printing the process is simple. After both plates are inked, the first plate is placed on the press bed and its position is marked. Paper is placed over the plate and secured at one end with masking tape, or, if there is enough margin, the paper is run through so that one end remains caught under the printing roller. The print is then folded back and the first plate is replaced with the second. Another method uses mats. The paper to be used in the edition is cut to the same size. A cardboard or metal mat is cut, corresponding to the size of the wet paper. The plate position is either cut out or marked on the mat. Registration consists of lining the paper up with the mat. The most precise registering is with pinholes. Two pinholes are punched in opposite corners of the mat. Corresponding pinholes are punched through all the printing papers. In printing, the paper is picked up with two heavy needles through the punched holes. The needles are then inserted in the corresponding holes on the mat and the paper is released. The holes should be placed close to an edge that will be trimmed after the print is dry. Stencilled colours with an intaglio plate Stencilling is one of the simplest ways to use a number of colours combined with an intaglio plate. This method has advantages and also limitations. The main advantage is that it eliminates the registering problems of intaglio colour printing. On the other hand, it is limited to flat, sharply defined colour areas. One method does not replace the other, but each may be used to solve a particular problem. The procedure itself is very simple. The intaglio plate is inked and wiped normally. The desired colour shape is cut out on a stencil paper. The stencil is placed on the already inked plate and the colour is rolled onto the surface of the plate using a gelatin or soft rubber roller. For surface rolling, regular artist oil colours can be used. The use of stencils allows a great number of colours to be printed with a single run on the press. This is done by surface rolling colours through stencils onto the intaglio inked and wiped plate surface. For more complex colour combinations, it is possible to combine colours stencilled directly on the paper with colours offset from the intaglio plate. For more sophisticated stencilling, silk screen can be used also in combination with the intaglio plate. When intaglio and stencilling are combined, the process is often designated as mixed or combined technique. This is essentially the same procedure as conventional stencilling except that with silk screen more complex designs and textures can also be stencilled on the plate (see below Stencil processes ). Intaglio and surface colour with relief etching In this technique the main colour structure is defined by the plate surface, which is etched to different levels. The linear or textural elements moving from one level to another bind the whole together. The sequence of printing begins with the intaglio inking and wiping of the plate. Next, the first surface colour is rolled on with a soft gelatin roller that penetrates the lower levels of the relief. The high areas are inked with a hard rubber or composition roller. The sequence of rolling can change, according to the demands of the particular colour problem. In addition to plate levels and roller variety, control of colour viscosity is an important factor. The thorough description of this method is so complex that the reader is referred to some of the technical books listed in the Bibliography. Surface-printing processes Surface printing comprises those techniques in which the image is printed from the flat surface of the metal, stone, or other material. The major surface method is lithography, a planographic process. Although many experts place silk screen and stencilling in a separate category, they can be considered surface-printing processes. In lithography, the control of the design is achieved by the chemical treatments of the drawing surface. In stencilling, the design is created by holes in the stencil and the printing ink is either rolled or squeezed through the stencil onto the paper. Silk screen is a special form of stencilling. Lithography Lithography is based on the fact that water and grease do not mix. The image is drawn or painted on the stone or metal plate with greasy litho crayon or a greasy black ink (tusche). Once the drawing is finished, it is fixed with an etch to prevent the spreading of the grease. A heavy, syrupy mixture of gum arabic and a small quantity of nitric acid, the etch is used to protect the drawing from water and to further desensitize the undrawn areas to printing ink. The nitric acid opens the pores of the stone, enabling the gum and the grease to enter easily. The gum arabic surrounds the greasy sections, forming an insoluble surface film that sticks to the negative areas and crevices of the grain. This coating around the image repels the water applied during printing and establishes a grease reservoir. It does not smear, and it prevents seepage that would blur the image. Because of the antipathy of grease and water, the image attracts oily ink but repels water. Thus, when the stone is dampened with a sponge and an ink-charged roller is passed over it, the ink is deposited on the greasy drawing but not on the wet stone. In lithography, the assumption is that the drawing made on the stone or plate will be closely duplicated on the print. While intaglio processes yield prints unlike any drawing technique, lithography is quite reproductive. Although it is a complex method, if lithography is well done, the effect of the print is deceptively simple and direct, making the technique attractive to artists who wish to avoid the more idiosyncratic printmaking methods. A highly skilled technician is needed to produce a good lithograph, and most lithography is done in workshops where well-trained workers are available. The artist usually works on the stone or plate under the guidance of master printers. When the artist finishes a drawing, the master printers etch the stone and do the printing. In the basic technique, the first step is the preparation of the stone or plate. If a stone has been used before, its surface must be reground. The stone is placed in a sink and thoroughly wetted, and carborundum powder is sprinkled over it. Then, either with a levigator (a heavy steel disk with a handle) or by rubbing two stones together, the surface is thoroughly reground. From time to time the surface should be tested with a steel straightedge to make sure it is level; otherwise it will print unevenly. After the stone has dried, it is ready for work. It is very important to keep the stone clean because any dirt, particularly grease, will show up on the print. Smudges and dirt can be cleaned off with erasers and abrasives. Metal plates (zinc or aluminum) can also be used, and these, too, may be reground. Although metal plates are satisfactory, stone is far superior, particularly for producing subtle tones and details. With litho crayons and tusches the artist can work on the stone as he would on paper. A whole arsenal of effects is available, including pen, pencil, splashing, sprinkling, spraying, texture transfers, and scraping. After the drawing is finished and before etching, the image must be protected from the etching solution by rubbing rosin and then talcum powder on the stone. The acid-resistant rosin protects the drawing; the talcum absorbs the excess grease, allowing the adhesion of the gum etch to the edges of the drawing. Next, the whole surface of the stone is coated with undiluted gum arabic, applied with a wide, soft brush. The subsequent etching process is done in stages. The weakest acid solution is usually brushed first on the lightest areas of the drawing. After an appropriate interval, the next strength solution is brushed on, and this continues until the strongest etch has coated the darkest areas. After the allotted time has elapsed, the excess etch solution is blotted with newsprint paper. The surface is then wiped down and buffed with cheesecloth to a smooth, even layer. When properly handled, the stone should appear dry. It should be allowed to stand for two hours before washing out, the next step. The washout is done by pouring a small amount of turpentine or Lithotine over the drawn areas. Gently rubbing the drawn areas with a clean dry rag removes the drawing through the gum-etch coating. The image is preserved by the absorbed grease in the porous limestone. Next, the stone is rubbed with liquid asphaltum or printing ink dissolved in turpentine. This procedure saturates the image and protects it at the same time. After the stone is dry, it is ready to be inked (rolled up). First, it is dampened with a wet sponge. (In between the rollings, the stone should be redampened.) Ink rolling should be carried out according to a set pattern, gradually building up the image. To facilitate the even distribution of ink it is important to use a roller wider than the image. The lithographic press prints with scraping pressure. The press itself consists of a metal frame that accommodates a travelling steel plate (the bed), which passes with the stone under a scraping bar (or yoke). The bed can be lowered (to position the stone) and raised (to print). The pressure on the scraping bar can be adjusted. Lithographs can be printed on either dry or damp paper. The advantage of dampening is that it is possible to use less ink and less pressure, thus minimizing the risk of clogging the image. To print, the printing paper is first placed on the stone, followed by a newsprint paper, and then a blotter. Last comes the tympan, a sheet of smooth, tough material that can withstand great pressure without stretching. After the bed is raised to printing position, grease is spread evenly in front of the scraping bar on the tympan to allow it to slide easily. Then the print is made. The prints of the French artist Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec demonstrate that lithography offers endless possibilities in colour printing (see photograph ). Because the effect of lithography is much more painterly than either woodcut or intaglio printing, it is natural that the strong preoccupation with pure colour in contemporary art has created a revival of interest in this medium. The planning and the principle of colour separation are similar to those for the colour woodcut or intaglio colour. Jane Avril, lithograph poster by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, 1893; in the Toulouse-Lautrec Museum, Albi, France. Super Stock Stencil processes In stencilling, one of the simplest methods of duplication, the design is cut out of paper (or any other suitable thin, strong material) and is then printed by rubbing, rolling, or spraying paint through the cutout areas. Silk screen is a sophisticated stencil process, developed about 1900 and first used mainly for advertising and display work. About 1950, fine artists started to use the process extensively, giving it the name serigraphy. The silk-screen process got its name from the fine mesh silk that, when tacked to a wooden frame, serves as a support for a cut paper stencil. The stencil is glued to the silk. In the basic process, the open mesh of the silk lets the paint through, while the paper stencil blocks it out. A design can also be blocked out on the screen with glue or other suitable substance. A common method of stencil preparation is to cut the stencil with a knife. In this method the artist can use commercially produced screen process printing plates or conventional stencil papers. For fine, accurate work, process plates, which consist of a film on a backing, are preferred. Areas to be printed are cut out of the film and peeled off, leaving the rest of the film on the backing paper. After the plate is attached to the screen, the backing paper is removed; thus, the screen is covered with film except in the printing areas. Process plates are available in different colours to make registering easier, and they are attached to the screen either by heat or by the use of a special solvent. Another method that is quite common is the so-called tusche-and-glue method, which is similar to lift-ground aquatint etching. The design is painted on the screen with tusche and, when dry, the whole screen is covered with glue. When the glue dries, the design is washed out with either kerosene or turpentine. The tusche comes in liquid form for brushing or in solid crayon form. The use of the crayon results in screen prints that deceptively resemble lithographic prints. Stencil plates can also be made photographically. These plates are made by placing a photographic positive on a photosensitized gelatin stencil plate in a vacuum printing frame. Exposure to light hardens the gelatin under the transparent areas but leaves the gelatin soft under the dark areas. In warm water the soft areas wash out. The stencil is attached to the screen in the same manner as other stencils. To make a silk-screen print, the wooden frame holding the screen is hinged to a slightly larger wood board. The printing paper is placed on the board, under the screen. The consistency of the ink is important: it must be liquid enough to pass through the screen but not so liquid that it runs. The ink is pressed through the screen with the squeegee (a rubber blade, usually the same width as the screen, set in a wooden handle). Any number of colours can be used, a separate screen for each colour. Special techniques Monoprint ( monotype)A monoprint is a unique print. The artist paints on a surface such as metal, plastic, or glass and then transfers the wet design to paper, either by rubbing or with an etching press. The primary reason for making a monoprint is that, when the image is offset from the plate to the paper, the print achieves a separate quality and luminosity totally unlike a painting made directly on paper. In the 19th century, Edgar Degas did considerable experimentation with monoprints and produced a great number of superb ones. He often worked over the proofs with paint or pastel. There has been a strong revival of interest in this method. Cliché-verre The method of printing known as cliché-verre was used by a few artists in the 19th century during the period when photography was a new and exciting invention. The cliché-verre method follows the principle of photography but does not have its tonal variations. The print was made by covering a piece of clear glass with an opaque pigment or emulsion; the design was then scratched through with a sharp etching needle or stylus. When the drawing was finished, the glass plate (negative) was placed on a photosensitized paper, exposed to light, and then developed. The result was a (positive) print with strong black-and-white contrasts. Some of the best cliché-verre prints were made by the French landscape painter Camille Corot. The cellocut The cellocut method was named by its originator, U. S. printmaker Boris Margo, one of the first to experiment extensively with plastics. In this method, liquid plastic that has been dissolved in acetone is poured onto a rigid support backing, such as fibreboard or cardboard. The solidified plastic can be textured, raised into relief, and worked with various tools. It can be engraved, scratched, sanded, and filed. The resulting plastic plate can be printed either as a relief or as an intaglio plate, or even both. It can be printed alone or in combination with other techniques. Thin layers of plastics can easily be placed on top of intaglio plates and printed together. Collagraphy Like the metal graphic process, collagraphy is an additive method; the printing surface is built up. It is essentially an intaglio method, but it can be combined with relief printing. The printing surface is created by gluing various materials and textures to a support. Today, with the variety of new material available, the possibilities are limitless. The support (plate) for collagraphy must be thin and strong. A porous material, such as cardboard, must be treated with a sealer. To build up a tough, durable printing surface, a strong adhesive such as polyvinyl acetate must be used. Among the materials that can be used for tonal areas are sawdust, sand, carborundum, sandpaper, and ground walnut shells. For specific textures, materials such as tarlatan, laces, and crushed paper can be glued into the adhesive. After the plate has been constructed, the surface is sealed. The sealer can be either brushed or sprayed on. Plastics are preferred because they are tough and are not dissolved by the solvents generally used to clean the plate. The printing of collagraphs is essentially the same as for intaglio printing. Plaster print Good proofs of an intaglio plate can be made by plaster casting, for fine plaster of paris will pick up the most delicate details. This method will produce a particularly attractive proof if the plate has deeply etched or engraved sections. To make a plaster print, the plate is inked in the same manner as it would be for normal printing. The inked and wiped plate is placed face up on a glass plate, and a precut wood frame is placed around the plate to contain the plaster. After the plaster is poured, it is allowed to cool and set, after which the plate is gently removed. Process prints Process-printing methods are primarily used for commercial reproduction. Today, however, many artists use commercial methods to produce fine art. Silk-screen printing itself began as a commercial process, and today it is one of the most popular techniques in printmaking because its character is well suited for hard-edge geometric images. Photomechanical processes are incorporated in the work of many contemporary printmakers. Linecut The linecut technique is the simplest and least expensive of all the photoreproductive processes. As it cannot register tone, it is used mostly to reproduce black-and-white line drawings. If tones are needed in a linecut, they are achieved with the use of screens consisting of dots (Ben Day screens). The linecut is similar to the woodcut in that both are used in relief printing. Linecuts are usually made on zinc plates coated with an emulsion of albumin or gelatin mixed with potassium bichromate. This emulsion hardens on exposure to light. The light passing through the transparent part of the negative hardens the emulsion. The areas of the emulsion that are protected by the black on the negative remain in their soluble state. The plate is then rolled with greasy ink and soaked in water. The unexposed soft emulsion is washed out by the water. The plate is then dried and dusted with powdered rosin, which adheres to the remaining inked emulsion areas. Heating causes the rosin to melt, forming an acid-resistant coating. The plate can then be etched so that the design stands up in high relief. Halftonecut or plate Halftone is more sophisticated than linecut, since it is capable of reproducing fine tonal variations. The subject is photographed first through a glass plate that has fine lines printed on it at right angles. The result is an image broken up into tiny dots corresponding to the openings in the screen. When printed, these dots create the optical illusion of continuous tones. There are great variations in screens from coarse (50 lines per inch) to very fine (175 lines per inch). The selection of the screen is dictated by the paper to be used for printing. After the photonegative of the image is finished, it is printed on a sensitized copper plate. For halftone work, copper is used because of its ability to record fine details. The procedure of washout and etch is similar to that used with linecuts. Rotogravure To make a gravure plate, a screen is used that is the reverse of the halftone screen, in that the lines are transparent and the areas between the lines are opaque squares. When the sensitized plate is exposed to light through the screen, the emulsion on the plate hardens under the lines but leaves the squares soft. Then the plate is exposed again through a diapositive (a positive transparency) of the subject. This time the soft emulsion squares harden in proportion to the range of grays. In etching, the softest squares are affected by the acid first and the hardest ones last. The result, after the etch, is a plate covered with squares of equal size but varying depth. As the deep squares hold more ink than the shallow ones, the tones in the reproduction are controlled in the same manner as in all intaglio printing methods. The rotogravure plate is inked by an ink-carrying cylinder and wiped by a steel blade that removes all the excess ink from its surface. Although rotogravure is an intaglio printing process, it is printed on dry paper with light pressure and thin ink. Hence, there is hardly any embossing. Offset lithography Offset lithography is the application of lithography to commercial mass production. The plate, instead of being a stone, is of specially treated zinc or aluminum, suitable for mounting on a cylinder. The image is photographed on the sensitized lithoplate through a screen. The offset method involves double printing. The image from the plate is printed on another roller covered with a rubber blanket, and from this roller it is transferred to the paper. Because the image is reversed twice, the final print corresponds to the original plate. Since the litho offset ink is thin, to speed up inking and facilitate transfer, the tonal areas lose some of their richness and tend to print gray. Litho offset is often used for colour printing. The colour separation is made photographically. Contemporary experimentation One of the most crucial changes in the 20th century involved the size of the print. All through its history, with few exceptions, the print was considered an intimate art form, enjoyed by the few. The change started with the Lautrec posters: the print started to grow until it became mural size. As the dimensions of the print changed, so did its character. It became increasingly bolder and more colourful. Today, the print often competes with painting, a situation deplored by many people who feel that in the process the print is losing its particular character and beauty. For a time, major print shows tended to exhibit only a limited number of small, delicate prints, but two more recent developments seem to be balancing that trend. One is the reappearance of the intimate, introspective, black-and-white print. The other is the revival of the long-neglected woodcut, due particularly to the interest of the Postmodernist artists in German Expressionism. Next to the size of the print, the greatest change has been in the technology of colour printing. In this area, techniques have become so varied that practically any effect is possible. This development has contributed to the vitality of printmaking, because it has encouraged the participation of colour-oriented artists. The combining of various media is closely related to the experimentation in colour printing. Each medium has its own capabilities and limitations; combined, the media often complement each other. It is now common to see three or four different techniques combined. Another area of experimentation is in three-dimensional surfaces. The trend started with embossing, and today artists are creating completely three-dimensional printed objects. The shaped print is a printed paper sculpture, made by cutting and folding the printed paper or by assembling precut printed surfaces. Many of these surfaces are metal or plastic objects with printing, usually done by the silk-screen process. Instead of using rectangular painting surfaces, many painters now work on shaped canvases. In the same way, printmakers, instead of using rectangular plates, are using many different shapes. Printing with movable plates, which became particularly popular in intaglio colour printing and with colour woodcuts, is the logical extension of this freedom. In this method small cutout plates are placed on top of larger plates and printed together, or they are assembled on a cardboard support and printed. This procedure facilitates the use of many colours and also offers great freedom in composing. Photography is profoundly affecting printmaking. Photographic methods can be combined with intaglio, lithography, or silk screen to enrich their vocabulary. The possibilities are nearly limitless. Yet photography can be corrupting when it reintroduces reproductive ideas, and, unfortunately, it is often used for this effect. Kinetic (moving) art, such as the mobile, is a major contemporary preoccupation in painting and sculpture. At present there are few attempts in this direction in printmaking, but there will probably be more. The problem in such works is how to combine the print with motion without destroying its very nature. Mounting and care of prints Very few people know how to display prints and how to take care of them properly. It is heartbreaking to see a great master’s print glued to a cheap cardboard or the border of a fine print ruined with tape. Because paper, particularly old paper, is fragile, it should be handled as little as possible and never picked up with one hand since this might put too much stress on the paper and tear it. To protect it, a print should be mounted as soon as possible. The surface of the print, especially an intaglio print, is delicate, and rubbing might permanently injure it. Prints should not be stacked without protective layers of tissue paper between them. Wood-pulp papers should not be used, as the acid content in these can burn the print. A print should not be exposed to intense sunlight; this is true particularly of colour prints, for very few colours are stable enough to withstand long exposure to direct sun. Light can also affect the paper. Because wood-pulp board contains chemicals that in time can burn or discolour the paper, a permanent mat should be constructed out of pure rag board. A properly constructed mat consists of two parts: the backing board to support the print and the covering frame to display it. The width of the mat frame should be related to the print’s dimensions so that the mat does not overpower the image. The window size of the mat should never obscure the printed image itself, or the signature and edition number. Because temperature changes in a damp climate can cause condensation and the print can develop fungi, prints should be kept from direct contact with the glass. The simplest protection is a deep enough pure rag mat. If this is not sufficient, a filler should be inserted into the frame to increase the space between the mat and the glass. The backboard of the frame should be also rag board, or at least faced with rag paper, although the latter is not the perfect solution. The back of the frame should be sealed with tape to prevent the penetrating of dust. In damp climates it is advisable to keep the frame away from the wall by placing corks on its four corners. This facilitates the free circulation of air. Air-conditioning and humidity controls are the best protection. Page 1 of 2Next page History of printmaking


what antihistamines will reduce redness and swelling

Swelling post Fraxel treatments is normal. Intensity of the treatment usually correlates with the downtime and inflammation. Keeping the head or area treated elevated and Icing the first 24 hours can help reduce the swelling as well as antihistamines (Claritin, Benadryl,Zyrtec) and anti-inflammatories (Aleve, Motrin, Advil).

"Can Fraxel Cause an Allergic Reaction, Like Swelling ?madamebotox2000Miami, FLI did fraxel on my face in November 2010, I was really swollen, I went back to the doctor an he gave me an antiallergic injection, I had fraxel 2 days ago,and I am taking anti-allergic pills (benadryl) for the swelling, and I wonder if it could be any allergic reation and that's why I get really swollen after the fraxel procedure. Thanks in advance for your answer.swellingfacefemale Answers ( 7)Swelling after Fraxel1After your Fraxel treatment it is normal to have some swelling. You will have the most swelling around your eyes and it may look like you had an allergic reaction but this is not an allergy. How swollen you are will depend on how strong your treatment is and also how sensitive your skin is. To minimize the swelling, 1) take an anti-histamine like Benadryl, Zyrtec or SHOW MOREJordana S. Gilman, MDWashington Dermatologic Surgeon This question is about Fraxel Laser68% of Real Self users think it's WORTH ITProviders (30)Photos (383)Reviews (983)Cost ($1,625 Average)Questions (2,025)Fraxel Laser What would you like to change about your skin? Tighten Add collagen Remove fat Remove lines Remove scars Other Swelling is normal after a Fraxel treatment1

Grant Stevens, MDLos Angeles Plastic Surgeon183 reviewswww. Marina Plastic Surgery.com Fraxel swelling is not allergy1It is normal to be swollen after Fraxel. The more aggressive the settings, the longer it lasts (1-3 days typical). Allergic reactions would only be seen from the topical anesthetic, and that would more likely present with a rash that is pink, bumpy and very itchy with possible oozing and blisters. Mary P. Lupo, MDNew Orleans Dermatologist You might also like... Related Content*Treatment results may vary Lindsay is amazing64 Year Old Needing Rejuvenated Face African American Male, 25 Fraxel Laser Skin Brighting1 comment View all Fraxel Laser reviews Fraxel Laser cost from Real Self Reviews Average:$1,750Range: $200 - $3,400Chicago, ILSee costs near you Fraxel Reactions1After Fraxel you may experience some redness and swelling and even some itching during the healing phase. It is possible to develop a rash and significant itching, even hiving when ""allergenic"" products are applied soon after the procedure. I generally recommend avoiding natural products such as aloe vera or topical anesthetics such as benadryl creams after any laser procedure to avoid the SHOW MOREUnderstanding the Fraxel re:store Dual Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 4:33Susan Van Dyke, MDParadise Valley Dermatologic Surgeon37 reviews Fraxel and swelling1It is normal to have swelling after a Fraxel treatment. The more aggressive the treatment, the more swelling you will have, but the better the result. You can use cold compresses, an antihistamine and sleep with your head elevated. If you truly have an allergic reaction, it would be caused by the anesthetic cream or a product you used after the treatment. You should see SHOW MOREMartie Gidon, MD, FRCPCToronto Dermatologist Swelling after Fraxel, allergic or physical reaction1Swelling usually after Fraxel is normal but its amount is variable depending on which Fraxel is used, the Restore or Repair, what area (s) of the face are treated and the surface area. Treatment around the eyes or forehead tends to create more swelling than treatment of the midcheeks and lower face. If there is excessive itching after the procedure then there may be a contact SHOW MORERonald Shelton, MDManhattan Dermatologic Surgeon43 reviews Swelling After Fraxel Treatment1Hi Madame Botox,Fraxel laser, like all lasers, traumatizes the skin resulting in swelling. In addition, some patients may be sensitive to the skin care products used after the laser treatment. The use of cold compresses and antihistamines such as Claritin and Benedryl usually help patients to get through those first few days of swell ling. Bromolene also is helpful. Hope SHOW MOREMichael A. Persky, MDEncino Facial Plastic Surgeon43 reviews These answers are for educational purposes and should not be relied upon as a substitute for medical advice you may receive from your physician. If you have a medical emergency, please call 911. These answers do not constitute or initiate a patient/doctor relationship. You Might Also Like... Related Content How can I get rid of the swelling and redness? (photos)2 doctor answers What is the Proper Care After my First Fraxel Treatment?3 doctor answers My Cheeks and Above my Lip Have Gradually Swelled 1 Year After Fraxel2 doctor answers Extreme Facial Swelling After Fraxel Repair2 doctor answers View all Fraxel Laser Q&As Ask a Provider Get personalized answers from board-certified doctors. FOR FREE. Ask your question now "


what is postulate in algebra

Axioms and postulates are essentially the same thing: mathematical truths that are accepted without proof. Their role is very similar to that of undefined terms: they lay a foundation for the study of more complicated geometry. Axioms are generally statements made about real numbers. Sometimes they are called algebraic postulates.

Geometry: Axioms and Postulates

Axioms and Postulates<< Prev Section Next Section >>Two of the most important building blocks of geometric proofs are axioms and postulates. In the following lessons, we'll study some of the most basic ones so that they will be available to you as you attempt geometric proofs.

Often what they say about real numbers holds true for geometric figures, and since real numbers are an important part of geometry when it comes to measuring figures, axioms are very useful. Postulates are generally more geometry-oriented. They are statements about geometric figures and relationships between different geometric figures. We've already studied some, such as the parallel postulate. In the following lessons we'll formally outline some of the most important, but certainly not all, of the axioms and postulates that one can use when writing a geometric proof.<< Prev Section Next Section >>


weather in el valle panama

a What's the best time to go to Valle de Anton in Panama? Here are some annual weather facts we collected from our historical climate data: On average, the temperatures are always high. A lot of rain (rainy season) falls in the months of: April, May, June, July, August, September, October and November. On average, the warmest month is September.

CLIMATE: AVERAGE MONTHLY WEATHER IN Valle de Anton, Panama

Home > Panama > Climate Valle de Anton CLIMATE: AVERAGE MONTHLY WEATHER IN Valle de Anton, Panam

On average, the coolest month is September. October is the wettest month. This month should be avoided if you don't like too much rain. February is the driest month. Do these climate conditions match with when you want to go to Valle de Anton in Panama? Get a great hotel deal here (and this way we get a commission and we are able to keep this website free for everyone). For more information, see the weather forecast and our average climate infomation (by month in graphs) below. * Data from nearest weather station: Tocumen, Panama (97.0 KM). Average minimum and maximum temperature over the year The monthly mean minimum and maximum daily temperature. Show in Fahrenheit »Get the embed code Average monthly hours of sunshine over the year This is the monthly total of sunhours Get the embed code Average water temperature over the year The monthly mean water temperature. Show in Fahrenheit »Get the embed code Average monthly precipitation over the year (rainfall, snow)This is the mean monthly precipitation, including rain, snow, hail etc. Show in Inches »Get the embed code Average monthly rainy days over the year This is the number of days each month with rain, snow, hail etc. Get the embed code Average humidity over the year This is the mean monthly relative humidity Get the embed code Average wind speed over the year This is the mean monthly wind speed (meters per second)Get the embed code


what's the thirteenth letter of the english alphabet

) [1] is the thirteenth letter of the modern English alphabet and the ISO basic Latin alphabet.

M

"From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the letter of the Roman alphabet. For the letter of the Cyrillic script (М, м), see Em (Cyrillic). For other uses, see M (disambiguation). For technical reasons, ""M#"" redirects here. For the programming language, see M Sharp. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)MM m ( See below)Usage Writing system Latin script Type Alphabetic and Logographic Language of origin Latin language Phonetic usage [ m] [ ɱ] [ n] [ n̼] / ɛ m /Unicode value U+004D, U+006DAlphabetical position 13 Numerical value: 1000History DevelopmentΜ μM m Time period ~-700 to present Descendants • ₥ • ™ • ℠ • ᴟ • ꬺ • ꟽ ɯ ɰ • ꟿ • ᛗSisters МӍמ ם م ܡמּﬦⰏࠌVariations ( See below)Other Other letters commonly used with m (x)Associated numbers 1000This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help: IPA. ISO basic Latin alphabet Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zzv t e M ( named em / ɛ m /

Contents [ hide ]1 History2 Use in writing systems3 Other uses4 Related characters4.1 Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet4.2 Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets4.3 Ligatures and abbreviations5 Computing codes6 Other representations7 References8 External links History Egyptian hieroglyph ""n"" Phoenician Mem Etruscan M Greek Mu Roman MThe letter M is derived from the Phoenician Mem, via the Greek Mu (Μ, μ). Semitic Mem is most likely derived from a "" Proto-Sinaitic "" (Bronze Age) adoption of the ""water"" ideogram in Egyptian writing. The Egyptian sign had the acrophonic value /n/, from the Egyptian word for ""water"", nt; the adoption as the Semitic letter for /m/ was presumably also on acrophonic grounds, from the Semitic word for ""water"", *mā (y)-. [2]Use in writing systems The letter ⟨m⟩ represents the bilabial nasal consonant sound [ m] in the orthography of Latin as well as in that of many modern languages, and also in the International Phonetic Alphabet. In English, the Oxford English Dictionary (first edition) says that ⟨m⟩ is sometimes a vowel in words like spasm and in the suffix -ism. In modern terminology, this is described as a syllabic consonant (IPA [m̩] ). Other uses The Roman numeral Ⅿ represents the number 1000, though it was not used in Roman times. There is, however, scant evidence that the letter was later introduced in the early centuries by the Romans. [3]Related characters Descendants and related characters in the Latin alphabet M with diacritics: Ḿ ḿ Ṁ ṁ Ṃ ṃ M̃ m̃ ᵯ [4]IPA -specific symbols related to M: ɱ ɰⱮ : Capital M with hook Uralic Phonetic Alphabet -specific symbols related to M: [5]U+1D0D ᴍ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL MU+1D1F ᴟ LATIN SMALL LETTER SIDEWAYS TURNED MU+1D39 ᴹ MODIFIER LETTER CAPITAL MU+1D50 ᵐ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL MU+1D5A ᵚ MODIFIER LETTER SMALL TURNED MSome symbols related to M were used by the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet prior to its formal standardization in 1902: [6]U+2098 ₘ LATIN SUBSCRIPT SMALL LETTER MU+A7FA ꟺ LATIN LETTER SMALL CAPITAL TURNED MThe Teuthonista phonetic transcription system uses U+AB3A ꬺLATIN SMALL LETTER M WITH CROSSED-TAIL [7]Other variations used for phonetic transcription: [8] ᶆ ᶬ ᶭƜ ɯ : Turned Mꟽ : Inverted M was used in ancient Roman texts to stand for mulier (woman) [9]ꟿ : Archaic M was used in ancient Roman texts to abbreviate the personal name 'Manius' (A regular capital M was used for the more common personal name 'Marcus') [9]ℳ : currency symbol for Mark Ancestors and siblings in other alphabets : Semitic letter Mem, from which the following symbols originally deriveΜ μ : Greek letter Mu, from which M derivesⲘ ⲙ : Coptic letter Me, which derives from Greek MuМ м : Cyrillic letter Em, also derived from Mu : Old Italic M, which derives from Greek Mu, and is the ancestor of modern Latin Mᛗ : Runic letter Mannaz, which derives from old Italic M : Gothic letter manna, which derives from Greek Mu Ligatures and abbreviations₥ : Mill (currency)™ : Trademark symbol℠ : Service mark symbol Computing codes Character M m Unicode name LATIN CAPITAL LETTER M LATIN SMALL LETTER MEncodings decimal hex decimal hex Unicode 77 U+004D 109 U+006DUTF-8 77 4D 109 6DNumeric character reference M M m m EBCDIC family 212 D4 148 94ASCII 1 77 4D 109 6D1 Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings. Other representations NATO phonetic Morse code Mike ––Signal flag Flag semaphore American manual alphabet ( ASLfingerspelling) Brailledots-134References^ ""M"" Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster 's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); ""em,"" op. cit.^ See F. Simons, ""Proto-Sinaitic — Progenitor of the Alphabet"" Rosetta 9 (2011): Figure Two: ""Representative selection of proto-Sinaitic characters with comparison to Egyptian hieroglyphs"", (p. 38) Figure Three: ""Chart of all early proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to proto-Sinaitic signs"" (p. 39), Figure Four: ""Representative selection of later proto-Canaanite letters with comparison to early proto-Canaanite and proto-Sinaitic signs"" (p. 40). See also: Goldwasser (2010), following Albright (1966), ""Schematic Table of Proto-Sinaitic Characters"" ( fig. 1 ).^ Gordon, Arthur E. (1983). Illustrated Introduction to Latin Epigraphy. University of California Press. p. 45. ISBN 9780520038981. Retrieved 3 October 2015.^ Constable, Peter (2003-09-30). ""L2/03-174R2: Proposal to Encode Phonetic Symbols with Middle Tilde in the UCS"" (PDF).^ Everson, Michael; et al. (2002-03-20). ""L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS"" (PDF).^ Ruppel, Klaas; Aalto, Tero; Everson, Michael (2009-01-27). ""L2/09-028: Proposal to encode additional characters for the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet"" (PDF).^ Everson, Michael; Dicklberger, Alois; Pentzlin, Karl; Wandl-Vogt, Eveline (2011-06-02). ""L2/11-202: Revised proposal to encode ""Teuthonista"" phonetic characters in the UCS"" (PDF).^ Constable, Peter (2004-04-19). ""L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS"" (PDF).^ a b Perry, David J. (2006-08-01). ""L2/06-269: Proposal to Add Additional Ancient Roman Characters to UCS"" (PDF). External links Media related to M at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of M at Wiktionary The dictionary definition of m at Wiktionary [ hide]v t e Latin script History Spread Romanization Roman numerals Alphabets ( list)Classical Latin alphabet ISO basic Latin alphabet phonetic alphabets International Phonetic Alphabet X-SAMPASpelling alphabet Letters ( list)Letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Oo Pp Qq Rr Ss Tt Uu Vv Ww Xx Yy Zz Letter M with diacriticsḾḿ M̋m̋ Ṁṁ Ṃṃ M̃m̃ ᵯ ᶆ Ɱɱ ꬺMultigraphs Digraphsch cz dž dz gh ij ll ly nh ny sh sz th Trigraphsdzs eau Tetragraphs ough Pentagraphs tzsch Keyboard layouts ( list)QWERTY QWERTZ AZERTYStandards ISO/IEC 646 Unicode Western Latin character sets Listsprecomposed Latin characters in Unicode letters used in mathematics Diacritics Palaeography Categories: Graphemes ISO basic Latin letters "


upstart meaning

. upstart - a person who has suddenly risen to a higher economic status but hasnot gained social acceptance of others in that classarriviste, nouveau-riche, parvenudisagreeable person, unpleasant person - a person who is not pleasant or agreeable

upstart

"upstart Also found in: Thesaurus, Wikipedia .up·start (ŭp′stärt′)n. A person of humble origin who attains sudden wealth, power, or importance, especially onemade immodest or presumptuous by the change; a parvenu.adj.1. Suddenly raised to a position of consequence.2. Self-important; presumptuous.intr.v. (ŭp-stärt′) up·start·ed, up·start·ing, up·starts To spring or start up suddenly. American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.upstartn1.a. a person, group, etc, that has risen suddenly to a position of power or wealthb. ( as modifier ): an upstart tyrant; an upstart family.2.a. an arrogant or presumptuous personb. ( as modifier ): his upstart ambition.vb ( intr) archaic to start up, as in surprise, etc Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © Harper Collins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014up•start ( n., adj. ˈʌpˌstɑrt; v. ʌpˈstɑrt)n.1. a person who has risen suddenly from a humble position to wealth, power, or importance,esp. one who is presumptuous or arrogant; parvenu.adj.2. being, resembling, or characteristic of an upstart.v.i.3. to spring into existence or into view.4. to start up; spring up, as to one's feet.v.t.5. to cause to start up. [1275–1325]Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.upstart Past participle: upstarted Gerund: upstarting Imperativeupstartupstart Collins English Verb Tables © Harper Collins Publishers 2011Thesaurus Antonyms Related Words Synonyms Legend: Switch to new thesaurus Noun 1. upstart - an arrogant or presumptuous persondisagreeable person, unpleasant person - a person who is not pleasant or agreeablesmart aleck, weisenheimer, wise guy, wiseacre, wisenheimer - an upstart whomakes conceited, sardonic, insolent comments2

social climber, climber - someone seeking social prominence by obsequiousbehaviorjunior - term of address for a disrespectful and annoying male; ""look here, junior, it'snone of your business""3. upstart - a gymnastic exercise performed starting from a position with the legs over theupper body and moving to an erect position by arching the back and swinging the legs outand down while forcing the chest uprightkipgymnastic exercise - (gymnastics) an exercise designed to develop and displaystrength and agility and balance (usually performed with or on some gymnasticapparatus)Adj. 1. upstart - characteristic of someone who has risen economically or socially but lacks the social skills appropriate for this new positionnouveau-riche, parvenu, parvenuepretentious - making claim to or creating an appearance of (often undeserved)importance or distinction; ""a pretentious country house""; ""a pretentious fraud""; ""a pretentious scholarly edition""Based on Word Net 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2012 Princeton University, Farlex Inc.upstartnoun social climber, nobody, nouveau riche (French), parvenu, arriviste, non-person, status seeker an upstart who had come from nowhere Collins Thesaurus of the English Language – Complete and Unabridged 2nd Edition. 2002 © Harper Collins Publishers 1995, 2002Translations Select a language:advenedizo arribistaupstart [ˈʌpstɑːt] ( pej) A. ADJ1. (= socially ambitious) → arribista, advenedizo2. (= arrogant) → presuntuososome upstart youth → un joven presuntuoso B. N1. (= social climber) → arribista mf, advenedizo/a m/f2. (= arrogant person) → presuntuoso/a m/f Collins Spanish Dictionary - Complete and Unabridged 8th Edition 2005 © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1971, 1988 © Harper Collins Publishers 1992, 1993, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2005upstart ( ˈapstaːt) nouna person who has risen quickly to wealth or power but seems to lack dignity or ability. I shall leave the firm if that little upstart becomes manager. advenedizo, arribista, trepa Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary © 2006-2013 K Dictionaries Ltd. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us, add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Facebook Twitter "


what is mastoidectomy

g . Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy Surgery Mastoidectomy Mastoidectomy is the portion of the operation in which the surgeon removes diseased air cells ( cholesteatoma matrix) from the mastoid bone.

Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy

Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy Tympanoplasty and mastoidectomy, together known as a tympanomastoidectomy, are two surgical procedures often performed at the same time on a patient’s ear to control chronic infection and restore hearin

These diseased cells lie behind the honeycombed cavity (mastoid) in the temporal bone located at the sides and base of the skull behind the ear. Mastoidectomy is typically required for patients with middle ear infections (chronic otitis media – COM), a long-standing infection affecting the middle ear and frequently accompanied by cholesteatoma (a destructive, non-cancerous skin cyst) or an unhealed eardrum perforation. This infection, if left untreated, can spread into the skull, as well as cause significant hearing loss, dizziness, and brain erosion. Tympanoplasty T ympanoplasty is the surgical procedure which restores and/or retains hearing. During the tympanoplasty, the surgeon will graft the tympanic membrane (eardrum) and reconstruct the middle ear. A prosthetic device may need to be implanted to replace the ossicles (middle ear bones) that have been damaged by infection. Types of prosthetics used to replace the ossicles may be: T. O. R. P. (Total Ossicular Replacement Prosthesis)P. O. R. P. (Partial Ossicular Replacement Prosthesis)The goal of tympanoplasty is to close any perforation, as well as improve hearing. The Tympanomastoidectomy Procedure Tympanomastoidectomy procedure is performed in a hospital setting under general anesthesia and typically takes several hours. During the tympanomastoidectomy, incisions are made inside and behind the infected ear. The middle ear and mastoid bone are opened and the infected tissue or the cholesteatoma is removed. The eardrum is repaired with muscle lining from behind the ear. After the tympanomastoidectomy is completed, the surgeon will place packing inside the ear to keep tissues in place as they heal. Most tympanomastoidectomy patients can be released after an overnight observation, unless they are experiencing nausea or dizziness. Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy Postoperative Instructions Tympanoplasty and Mastoidectomy recovery typically involves 1-2 weeks off of work or school. An initial follow-up appointment should take place one week after surgery for suture removal, after which most normal activity can resume. Packing will be removed periodically as the ear heals. In some cases, a minor skin grafting procedure ( Thiersch grafting) may need to be performed to assist the healing process and avoid infection. During Thiersch grafting, a layer of skin from the inside of the upper arm is transplanted over the surgical area in the ear. This grafting is usually done 10 days after the patient undergoes the tympanomastoidectomy. It is important to closely follow your doctor’s instructions after the tympanomastoidectomy, including: Do not blow your nose for at least 2 weeks after your procedure. Blowing the nose can cause pressure build-up in the ear and displace the eardrum patch. If you sneeze, keep your mouth open. Do not allow any water to enter the ear. Place Vaseline-coated cotton inside the ear while showering. Any water in the ear can cause infection. Do not fly for 6 weeks after surgery. Air pressure changes could negatively impact your recovery. Apply antibiotic ointment to the ear canal and the incision behind the ear, as instructed. Avoid heavy lifting or being fatigued. Take antibiotic and pain medications as directed. It is normal, after a tympanomastoidectomy, to have a bloody or watery discharge from the ear canal, as well as from behind the ear. You may experience some popping sounds in the ear during the first few months after surgery, as the ear heals. You should not be concerned about your hearing for 6-8 weeks after the tympanomastoidectomy, at which time your hearing will be evaluated. You should contact your doctor if you develop: Fever over 101˚Foul smelling ear drainage Persistent nausea or vomiting Worsening redness or swelling around the incision Leg swelling or pain Persistent drainage from behind the ear after 10 days Possible Complication of Tympanomastoidectomy As with any surgery, there can be complications and risks associated with having a tympanomastoidectomy. Some possible complications include: Dizziness: It is common to experience some unsteadiness for a few days after a tympanomastoidectomy. Sudden head movements may cause dizziness for a few weeks. On rare occasions, prolonged dizziness may occur. Dry mouth and change in taste (often metallic or sour taste): These side effects may occur for a few weeks after surgery and, in approximately 5% of patients, may last longer. Tinnitus: Ringing, hissing, or popping noise in the ear may occur or be more noticeable. Hearing loss: Hearing can worsen after a tympanomastoidectomy if the bones cannot be reconstructed during surgery, but can usually be corrected with a follow-up procedure. Severe hearing loss can occur in approximately 1% of patients. General anesthesia problems: A small percentage of patients may experience complications with general anesthesia, including cardiac arrhythmia or breathing problems. Rare complications can include: Facial weakness: Any paralysis is usually temporary on one side of the face due to swelling or abnormality of a facial nerve. Permanent paralysis is extremely rare. Eye problems: Treatment by a specialist could be necessary. Infection: On the rare occasion that an infection occurs, it could lead to meningitis, which may require lengthy antibiotic treatment, as well as hospitalization. Infection can also be associated with the eardrum failing to heal (approximately 5% of cases). Hematoma: Blood may collect under the skin incision which may require surgical removal or prolonged hospitalization. If you experience any complications following tympanoplasty and mastoidectomy, you should contact our office as soon as possible. Please call our office at 817-332-8848 to set up an appointment or submit an online appointment request.


fastest car in the world motor tr

In the past, the Bugatti Veyron lost the title to SSC Ultimate Aero on March 2007. However, Bugatti challenged the record in Germany on July 10, 2010 with the new Super Sport and reclaimed the title of the fastest car in the world at 268 mph.

Fastest Cars In The World: Top 10 List 2014-2015

"While most of us can only dream of owning the fastest car in the world, some will do whatever it takes to possess one. Here are 10 of the fastest street legal cars available in the market ( production models, as opposed to concept or modified cars) these are tested, measured and verified top speeds ( theoretical speeds do not count ). World's Fastest Cars:1. Hennessey Venom GT: 270 mph ( 435 km/h ), 0-60 mph in 2.5 seconds, has a 7.0 liter LS7 Turbocharged V8 Twin Turbo V8 Engine producing 1244 hp, with a price tag of $1,000,000 and up. The Venom GT is the fastest car in the world when tested again on February 14th, 2014 at NASA runway in Florida. The track was only 3.22 miles long, thus limiting it top speed to 270 mph. Congratulatio

ns!2. Bugatti Veyron Super Sport: 268 mph ( 431 km/h ), 0-60 in 2.4 secs. Aluminum, Narrow Angle 8 Liter W16 Engine with 1200 hp, base price is $2,400,000. After being the fastest car in the world for over 3 years from July 10, 2010, it is now in 2nd place as of February 14, 2014.

The original Bugatti Veyron had a top speed of 253 mph, priced at $1,700,000 with 1001 hp.3. Koenigsegg Agera R: 260 mph ( 418 km/h ), 0-60 mph in 2.9 secs. 5.0-liter V8 Engine with twin turboâ€™s, housing 1099 hp. Base price is $1,600,000. If you're into snow sports, the Agera R can be fitted with a Ski Box as well as winter tires. While the Agera R has a massive theoretical top speed, the current tested top speed is 260 mph. Expect this snow car to be the Bugatti's arch enemy for the next 5 years. There is a tie for #4.4. SSC Ultimate Aero: 257 mph ( 413 km/h ), 0-60 in 2.7 secs. Twin-Turbo V8 Engine with 1183 hp, base price is $654,400. Tested in March 2007 by Guinness World Records, The SSC Ultimate Aero was the fastest car in the world from March 2007 to July 2010. Shelby Super Cars will continue their quest to reclaim the fastest car title, and their new SSC Tuatura might do the job (we'll just have to wait).4. 9ff GT9-R: 257 mph ( 413 km/h ), 0-60 in 2.9 secs. The 4.0 Liter flat-6 Twin-Turbo Engine with 1120 hp, comes with a base price of $695,000. Based on the Porsche 911, the 9ff GT9-R 1120 hp version is limited to 20 units and the exterior may be modified to suit the owner.5. Saleen S7 Twin-Turbo: 248 mph ( 399 km/h ), 0-60 in 2.8 secs. Twin Turbo All Aluminum V8 Engine with 750 hp, base price is $555,000. Smooth and bad-ass. It will make you want to show it off non-stop.6. Koenigsegg CCX: 245 mph ( 394 km/h ), 0-60 in 3.2 secs. 90 Degree V8 Engine 806 hp, base price is $545,568. Made in Sweden, it is the older brother of the Agera R, only losing to 6 other supercars in the world.7. Mc Laren F1: 240 mph ( 386 km/h ), 0-60 in 3.2 secs. BMW S70/2 60 Degree V12 Engine with 627 hp, base price is $970,000. The fastest car in the 20th century with doors that looks like bat wings. Maybe Batman needs to order one and paint it black8. Zenvo ST1: 233 mph ( 374 km/h ), 0-60 in 2.9 secs. Twin-Charged 7.0 liter V8 Engine forging 1,104 hp. Base price: $1,225,000. The first Supercar from Zenvo Automotive, a Danish sports car company in pursuit of speed and perfection. This 100% Danish made supercar is limited to 15 units and the company even promised ""flying doctors"" to keep your baby functioning.9. Pagani Huayra: 230 mph ( 370 km/h ), 0-60 in 3.0 secs. Twin Turbo Charged 6.0 liter V12 Engine from Mercedes AMG. It pumps out 720 horsepower to go with its 738 lb ft of torque. It comes with a seven speed auto-manual transmission. Pagani gives the name after the legendary Incan god of wind, Huayra-tata. The starting price is at Â£849,000, or $1,273,500. Two at 10th place at 225 mph.10. Gumpert Apollo: 225 mph ( 362 km/h ), 0-60 in 3.0 secs, 4.2 liter V8 Engine that houses 650 hp. Base price: $450,000. Gumpert claims that the Apollo was designed such that it could drive upside-down in a tunnel with speeds at 190 mph or above. Of course, no one has tested this yet.10. Noble M600: 225 mph ( 362 km/h ), 0-60 in 3.7 secs. Twin-turbocharged 4.4-liter V8 Engine with 650 hp. Base price is $330,000. The Noble M600 also happens to be a very cool car. Its inconspicuous design sports a slender and contoured body which does not scream out for attention at every second of the day. "