when ventricles in brain are widely spaced and no csp

am. Background Observation of a normal cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) is an important landmark in the second and third trimester prenatal ultrasound evaluation of the fetal brain, and its visualisation provides reassurance of normal central forebrain development.

Insights Imaging. 2013 Jun; 4 (3): 357–367. Published online 2013 Apr 13. doi: 10.1007/s13244-013-0244-x PMCID: PMC3675254Non-visualisation of cavum septi pellucidi: implication in prenatal diagnosis? K. Hosseinzadeh, J. Luo, A. Borhani, and L. Hill Author information ► Article notes ► Copyright and License information ►This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Go to: Abstract Objective This manuscript reviews congenital anomalies and imaging findings associated with non-visualisation of the cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) found on prenatal sonogr

Non-visualisation of the CSP is a prenatal sonographic finding, which in most cases is associated with neuroanatomical anomalies that include agenesis of the corpus callosum, schizencephaly, septo-optic dysplasia, holoprosencephaly, chronic hydrocephalus and acquired fetal brain injury. Isolated septal deficiency, a rare but controversial entity, is considered a variant of normal. Common pitfalls in the sonographic evaluation of CSP include columns of the fornix that mimic CSP, and prominent cavum vergae that can simulate non-visualisation of the CSP. When non-visualisation of the CSP is suspected, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the fetal brain can confirm and evaluate associated anomalies. Conclusion Visualisation of the CSP is an integral component of the prenatal ultrasound and its non-visualisation is associated with other malformations, diagnosis of which is aided by MRI. Teaching points• Cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) is an important landmark in the prenatal ultrasound evaluation of the fetal brain, and is a marker for normal central forebrain development.• Non-visualisation of the CSP is most commonly associated with other neuroanatomical abnormalities.• Examination of the fetal brain by MRI can confirm the sonographic findings and evaluate for associated anomalies. Keywords: Cavum septi pellucidi, Corpus callosum, Sonography, Fetal brain, MRI, Prenatal diagnosis Go to: Introduction The cavum septi pellucidi (CSP) is an important landmark in the evaluation of the fetal neural axis, identified as a fluid-filled space between the leaves of the septum pellucidum. Visualisation of the CSP has become an essential component of a second and third trimester prenatal ultrasound [ 1, 2 ]. Correctly identifying its presence or absence is very important in predicting the course of fetal central forebrain development. CSP non-visualisation is rarely isolated; it is typically associated with malformations of prosencephalic development, which include agenesis/dysgenesis of corpus callosum (CC), schizencephaly, septo-optic dysplasia (SOD) and spectrum of holoprosencephaly (HPE), or non-visualisation of the CSP is secondary to a disruptive process caused by prolonged ischaemia, resulting in necrotic disruption of the septum pellucidum, as can be seen in severe chronic hydrocephalus, and acquired fetal brain injury. Barkovich et al. [ 3] have stressed the importance of absence of the septum pellucidum as a valuable clue in the diagnosis of these central nervous system (CNS) abnormalities. A step-wise algorithm based on post-natal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was described to facilitate the diagnostic process, which would be challenging to apply in prenatal ultrasound given technical and patient related limitations. Nevertheless, this finding should prompt detailed sonographic imaging with the assistance of fetal MRI to overcome the limitations posed by ultrasound. This pictorial essay reviews the technical considerations, embryology, anatomy and spectrum of diseases associated with non-visualisation of the CSP imaged by prenatal sonography and MRI. Prognostic information is briefly addressed for the various diseases. Important sonographic pitfalls in the assessment of the CSP and helpful differentiating features amongst the neuroanatomical abnormalities will also be discussed. Go to: Technical considerations Sonography is the imaging technique of choice for prenatal screening of fetal abnormalities, given its widespread availability, low cost, and real-time evaluation of the fetus. High-frequency transducers, transvaginal sonography, dedicated 3D transducers have increased the ability of ultrasound to demonstrate structures or pathological conditions. Limitations inherent to sonography include operator dependency and skill, limited field of view and visualisation in the setting of maternal obesity, oligohydramnios and fetal head engagement. In particular, sonographic evaluation of the fetal CNS is limited by non-specific appearance of some anomalies, subtle parenchymal and migrational abnormalities that cannot be visualised, and advanced gestational age preventing evaluation of the posterior fossa, brain stem and entire brain. Consequently, sonographic findings may be inconclusive or insufficient to guide management. Fetal MRI has overcome many of the obstacles associated with sonography with the advent of ultrafast T2-weighted imaging, yielding images of high soft-tissue contrast and spatial resolution [ 4 ]. Fetal MRI is not limited by fetal position, an important factor for assessment of intracranial anatomy and maternal obesity. The multiplanar capability of MRI allows direct visualisation of intracranial anatomy in a manner not possible by sonography. Fetal MRI can confirm or exclude anomalies detected by sonography, and can demonstrate migrational and other disorders which may be difficult to appreciate sonographically. The additional information can be used to better counsel patients during pregnancy about the cause of CNS abnormality and outcome of the fetus. Fetal MRI is limited by fetal motion during image acquisition, which will degrade image quality, although patient fasting prior to the study would decrease the motion. Go to: Embryology and normal anatomy Development of the CSP and CC is closely associated because they are both derived from the commissural plate [ 5, 6 ]. At 12 weeks’ gestation, the CC begins development as a bundle of white matter tracts connecting the two cerebral hemispheres. Cavitation of the medial inferior commissural plate during CC formation gives rise to the two septa pellucida. Anatomically, the septa pellucida are thin, parallel vertical membranes that separate the frontal horns of the lateral ventricles. They are walled off by the CC superiorly and the fornix inferiorly. During fetal development, the septa pellucida are separated by a space filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), termed the CSP. Posterior to the foramina of Monro, this space is termed the cavum vergae. Although commonly referred to as simply the CSP, the entire space is properly named the “cavum septi pellucidi et vergae”. The CSP is attached to the undersurface of the CC superiorly, to the anterior part of the fornix inferiorly and posterior to the reflected part of the CC (rostrum) anteriorly. The septa begin to fuse in an anterograde fashion at approximately 24 weeks’ gestation [ 1, 7 ]. In a sonographic study, CSP was seen in 100 % of normal fetuses between 18–37 weeks’ gestation and in 79 % of normal fetuses between 38–41 weeks’ gestation [ 8 ]. By term, complete posterior closure is seen in 97 % of infants so only the CSP is present and the cavum vergae is absent. By 6 months of age, the CSP is completely obliterated in 85 % of infants by the fusion of the septa pellucida to form a single septum pellucidum [ 9 ]. Visualisation of the CSP by 18–20 gestational weeks reassures proper development of the central forebrain [ 7, 8 ]. Routine ultrasound views include occipito-bregmatic and axial view through lateral ventricles and thalami. With cephalic presentation, transvaginal ultrasound assesses the CSP in the coronal plane. The CSP is well-visualised by MRI (Fig. 1) so that if abnormalities are detected, fetal MRI can confirm the finding and to search for associated anomalies which may be too subtle or difficult to identify by prenatal ultrasound. Li et al. [ 10] retrospectively evaluated 23 fetuses with septal leaflet abnormalities, and found that fetal MRI detected septal abnormalities in 23/23 patients and prenatal ultrasound in only 16/23 patients with a mean gestational age of diagnosis at 26 weeks (range 20–38 weeks). Additional central nervous system (CNS) findings were seen on MRI in 52 % of fetuses with better interobserver agreement among MRI readers than ultrasound readers. There is currently no consensus on appropriate timing of fetal MRI following non-visualisation of the CSP by ultrasound, although the majority of cases were detected in the late second trimester. Furthermore, this decision will be multifactorial taking into account diagnostic considerations at the time of prenatal ultrasound, management plan and prenatal counselling. Fig. 1Normal anatomy of CSP in utero. a, b Occipito-bregmatic and coronal transvaginal ultrasound scans at 21 weeks’ gestation demonstrate normal appearance of CSP ( arrow) and CC ( dotted arrow ). CSP should be seen by 18–20 weeks’ ... Go to: Anomalies Absence of a fluid-filled CSP can result from primary prosencephalic maldevelopment or a secondary process with resultant destruction of the septal leaflets. It is associated with a range of disorders: agenesis/dysgenesis of the CC, schizencephaly, SOD, HPE, severe chronic hydrocephalus and acquired fetal brain injury. Rarely, agenesis of the CSP can be isolated. Go to: Agenesis/dysgenesis of the corpus callosum The CC is the largest bundle of white matter fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres and allows for intercommunication. The CC develops between 12 and 18 weeks of gestation from the lamina terminalis. Development of the CC is closely related to that of the CSP, both anatomically and embryologically [ 9 ]. Agenesis of the CC (ACC) is a common CNS anomaly with an incidence of 0.5–7 in 10,000 live births. The widely accepted theory for the embryogenesis of the CC suggests that the genu of the CC develop first, then the anterior body, posterior body, followed by the splenium. The exception to the orderly anterio-posterior callosal development is the rostrum, which forms last, typically by 20 weeks. Dysgenesis of the CC can be described as a partial agenesis of the CC or hypoplasia of the CC. In partial agenesis of the CC, the splenium and rostrum are usually absent and there may be hypoplasia of the remaining CC, and in callosal hypoplasia there is under-development of the entire CC [ 6, 11 – 13 ]. Prenatal imaging findings for ACC in addition to non-visualisation of the CSP include colpocephaly (enlargement of the trigone and occiptal horns of the lateral ventricle), high riding third ventricle, parallel orientation of the lateral ventricles, steer horn configuration of the frontal horns of lateral ventricles, convergence of median sulci towards the third ventricle, interhemispheric cyst, and abnormal course or absence of the pericallosal artery (Fig. 2 ). However, in dysgenesis of the CC, the CSP is typically present but may be shortened. The outcome of prenatally detected ACC is dependent on the presence or absence of associated anomalies. Patients with isolated ACC have the most favourable outcomes, with the majority experiencing relatively normal motor and cognitive development [ 14 ]. However, in a recent study by Fratelli et al. [ 15 ], 70 % of cases with agenesis or dysgenesis of the CC were associated with other fetal structural or chromosomal abnormalities, and 36 % of infants with isolated ACC had postnatal developmental delay. A full assessment therefore includes karyotyping and fetal MRI to search for more subtle features of genetic syndromes. Fig. 2ACC. a, b Axial ultrasound and MRI at 33 and 35 weeks’ gestation respectively demonstrates non-visualisation of the CSP, parallel orientation of lateral ventricles ( arrows ), and colpocephaly ( dotted arrow ). c Coronal T2-weighted MRI through ... Go to: Schizencephaly This is a rare CNS malformation involving the grey matter, characterised by a cleft lined by grey matter extending from the pial surface to the lateral ventricle [ 16 ]. Schizencephaly has an incidence of 1.5 in 100,000 live births [ 17 ]. The aetiology is thought to be a disruption of gray matter migration in early embryogenesis. Non-visualisation of the CSP is an imaging finding in two-thirds of schizencephaly cases and is usually associated with fronto-parietal clefts. Other imaging findings include ACC, polymicrogyria and heterotopia [ 16, 18 ]. There are two types of schizencephaly. Type I is the closed-lip form, in which the edge of the cleft is fused. Type II is the open-lip form, in which the cleft extends from the ventricle to the surface of the brain and the edge of the cleft is not fused (Fig. 3) [ 19 ]. In a recent large survey of a regional register in the United Kingdom, 33 % of antenatally diagnosed cases of schizencephaly were established by fetal MRI only, an important modality in the evaluation of the cleft lining and sulcation pattern. Additionally, the majority of cases were identified after 22 weeks gestational age. Depending on the size and appearance of the cleft, diagnosis of schizencephaly may be difficult during screening ultrasound and, when visualised, may not be confidently differentiated from HPE or porencephaly (intracerebral cavitation secondary to haemorrhage and ischaemia) [ 17 ]. Distinguishing these entities is important given their differing prognosis. Fig. 3Open-lip schizencephaly. a Coronal ultrasound through the atria at 30 weeks’ gestation with non-visualisation of the CSP (not shown) demonstrates a supratentorial cyst ( asterisk ), with a differential diagnosis of porencephaly versus schizencephaly. ... The extent of postnatal impairment depends on the location and extent of the cleft, with cleft bilaterality being the major prognostic factor. Unilateral clefts tend to be associated with hemiparesis, whereas bilateral clefts predict quadriparesis [ 19 ]. Other common sequelae include intellectual disability, hypotonia and seizures. Go to: Septo-optic dysplasia SOD (De Morsier Syndrome) is a congenital malformation syndrome that includes non-visualisation of the CSP, optic nerve/chiasm hypoplasia and hypothalamic pituitary dysfunction. It is a rare disorder, with an incidence of 1 in 50,000 live births [ 20 ]. Optic nerve hypoplasia can result in varying degrees of visual impairment and can be either unilateral or bilateral. Patients with SOD may have deficiencies of anterior pituitary gland hormones, resulting in hyperprolactinemia, hypothyroidism, diabetes insipidus and dwarfism [ 21 ]. Children with SOD should have regular endocrinology follow-up as hormonal insufficiencies may progress over time. Additional prenatal imaging findings associated with SOD include optic nerve hypoplasia, communication between anterior horns of lateral ventricles with separated foremost portions, mild ventriculomegaly and squared shape of anterior horns on coronal image (“batwing” configuration) (Fig. 4 ). However, since optic nerve/chiasm pathologies cannot be adequately evaluated on imaging, diagnosis of SOD cannot be confidently made with imaging alone, often requiring post-natal neuro-opthalmic evaluation for final diagnosis. Fig. 4SOD. a Coronal ultrasound through the frontal horns demonstrates non-visualisation of the CSP and “squared off” morphology of the frontal horns ( asterisk) suggestive of SOD. Columns of fornix are inferior to the CSP ( arrows ). b Coronal ... SOD-plus is a syndrome with SOD and a spectrum of neurological anomalies. Schizencephaly is commonly associated with SOD-plus (Fig. 5 ). SOD is associated with visual impairment, endocrine dysfunction, and developmental and cognitive delay. Focal motor deficits found on clinical evaluation distinguish SOD-plus from isolated SOD [ 20, 22 ]. Fig. 5SOD-plus. Prenatal ultrasound revealed non-visualisation of CSP and large periventricular cyst. a, b Coronal T2-weighted MRI at 27 weeks’ gestation demonstrates open-lip schizencephaly ( asterisk) in the left frontoparietal region. There ... Go to: Holoprosencephaly HPE is a spectrum of anomalies characterised by failure of the prosencephalon to develop into two cerebral hemispheres during the 5th week of gestation; namely, a ventral induction disorder, leading to absence of the CSP. It has an incidence of less than 1 in 10,000 live and still births [ 23 ]. Depending on severity, affected fetuses may die in utero or be born alive with brain developmental defects and mid-facial deformities. The severity of the facial dysmorphism correlates with the degree of cerebral pathology in a majority of cases. HPE is traditionally grouped according to the severity of forebrain non-cleavage into three types: alobar, semi-lobar and lobar. A fourth type of HPE, midline interhemispheric variant or syntelencephaly has recently been described. The classification of HPE by prenatal ultrasound depends on the severity of the malformation, with alobar being conspicuous on ultrasound. A review of 104 children with HPE found that only 22 % of cases were diagnosed by antenatal ultrasound. Moreover, 50 % and 83 % of children with alobar and semilobar HPE, respectively, were not diagnosed until birth. Furthermore, the reported presence of HPE in fetuses diagnosed initially with hydrocephalus by ultrasound ranges from 19 to 30 % [ 24, 25 ]; it is important to differentiate between hydrocephalus and HPE because of differing prognosis, inheritance pattern and prenatal counselling. In alobar HPE, non-visualisation of CSP is eclipsed by the obvious associated sonographic findings; the forebrain fails to separate and there is a complete absence of the falx cerebri, interhemispheric fissure, third ventricle, neurohypophysis, olfactory tract, CSP and CC. The thalami are fused, and there is a crescentic monoventricle (Fig. 6 ). In semilobar HPE, the anterior brain fails to separate with absent frontal horns and CSP. The posterior horns and trigone are present together with the posterior falx and posterior interhemispheric fissure. The thalami may be partially or fully fused with absence of the third ventricle, with presence of a monoventricle. In lobar HPE, a milder form, the cerebral hemispheres are developed and separated with the exception of the rostral aspect of the frontal lobe, as non-visualisation of the CSP is often the only finding by ultrasound. The correct findings in lobar HPE may be more difficult to recognise by ultrasound, with definitive assessment offered by fetal MRI [ 26 ]; the anterior brain non-cleavage is less severe than in the semilobar form, with full development of the third ventricle and posterior half of the CC, variable fusion of the frontal horns and fused fornices [ 27 ]. The central fusion of the frontal horns of the lateral ventricle gives rise to a flat, squared roof, which can mimic SOD. The presence of fused fornices and rudimentary frontal horns helps to distinguish lobar HPE from SOD. Presence of a dorsal cyst is most commonly seen in the alobar type (92 %) compared with the semilobar (28 %) and lobar (9 %) types. Its presence is thought to correlate with the degree of thalamic non-separation [ 27 ]. Fig. 6Alobar HPE. a Coronal ultrasound at 21 weeks’ gestation demonstrates apparent fusion of thalami ( arrow ), and overlying supratentorial CSF-filled cavity without discernible cortex, although significant near-field reverberation artefact ... There is a wide phenotypic variance for infants with HPE. The severe forms are incompatible with life, and genetic counselling for families is recommended. In milder forms of HPE, a medical and genetic workup is recommended as associated conditions are common, including movement disorders, epilepsy and hypopituitarism. Chromosomal analysis is also useful for prognosis. In a population-based case–control study, the survival rate beyond 1 year of age was decreased to 2 % in patients with cytogenetic abnormalities, compared with 30–54 % survival rate among patients without cytogenetic abnormalities [ 28 ]. Go to: Severe chronic hydrocephalus Hydrocephalus results from an imbalance between inflow and outflow of intracranial CSF. It is caused by overproduction, decreased absorption or obstruction of the CSF. The most common aetiologies for severe chronic hydrocephalus are aqueductal stenosis and Chiari malformation. Chronic hydrocephalus and raised intraventricular pressure can result in mechanical necrosis and disruption of the CSP [ 12 ]. Aqueductal stenosis can be primary or acquired. Primary causes include congenital narrowing of the aqueduct of Sylvius that accounts for 10 % of all causes of hydrocephalus (Fig. 7) [ 29 ], aqueductal forking or the presence of a septum within the aqueduct of Sylvius. Some cases may be inherited as an X-linked recessive trait. Acquired stenosis occurs as a sequela of inflammation or haemorrhage due to intrauterine infection, such as rubella, cytomegalovirus and toxoplasmosis. Infections can cause hydrocephalus by causing inflammation of the meninges and the ependymal lining of the ventricle, leading to impaired absorption of CSF or obstruction of the CSF flow through the ventricular system. In Chiari II malformation, downward herniation of the cerebellar hemispheres and/or vermis results when a normal-sized cerebellum develops in an abnormally small posterior fossa with a low tentorial attachment [ 30 ]. It is easily diagnosed by prenatal ultrasound and is often associated with ventriculomegaly, neural tube defects and agenesis/dysgenesis of the CC. It can be difficult to distinguish between severe chronic hydrocephalus, hydranencephaly and alobar HPE on prenatal ultrasound. Alobar HPE shows a monoventricle, complete non-cleavage of the cerebral hemispheres, complete absence of the falx cerebri, CC and CSP, and associated midline facial anomalies. Severe chronic hydrocephalus shows marked ventriculomegaly of the lateral and third ventricles, macrocephaly, normal cerebral cleavage, thinned cerebral cortex, normal falx cerebri and intact CC, but there is disruption of the CSP. Hydranencephaly shows absence of the cerebral cortex, which can be confirmed by fetal MRI and will be discussed in a later section. Fig. 7Severe chronic hydrocephalus: aqueductal stenosis. a Occipito-bregmatic ultrasound view at 23 weeks demonstrates non-visualisation of the CSP and moderate but non-specific bilateral symmetric ventriculomegaly of the lateral ventricles. b Axial ... Chiari malformation presents with a variety of symptoms, including dysphagia, upper extremity weakness, apneic spells and aspiration. Decompressing posterior fossa structures, closing any neural tube defect, and correcting hydrocephalus via shunt placement are the main interventions in post-natal surgical management [ 31 ]. Go to: Acquired fetal brain injury Acquired fetal brain injury occurs when there is destruction of previously formed tissue. However, injury to structures necessary for normal brain development can also occur such that malformative and destructive lesions present simultaneously. Whether non-visualisation of the CSP is an associated finding depends on timing of the insult. There are numerous risk factors: underlying maternal disease, acute maternal disorders, infection, metabolic disease of the fetus, feto-fetal transfusion syndrome, iatrogenic causes and toxic agents. Prenatal ultrasound is an effective screening tool for porencephaly, haemorrhage and ventriculomegaly. However, fetal MRI is superior in showing acute and chronic manifestations of acquired brain lesions [ 32 ]. Hydranencephaly is the most severe form and is characterised by the complete or almost complete absence of cerebral cortex, which is replaced by fluid (Fig. 8 ). Hydranencephaly is a rare congenital anomaly occurring in less than 1 in 10,000 births. Non-visualisation of the CSP is an expected and obvious finding, overshadowed by the gross intracranial findings. It can be differentiated from HPE by identifying dural attachments and separate thalami on prenatal ultrasound [ 33 ]. While the aetiology is variable (infectious, toxic, iatrogenic, genetic, etc. ), the likely pathogenic mechanism of hydranencephaly is early bilateral internal carotid occlusion with sparing of structures supplied by the vertebrobasilar system, including the brainstem, thalami, basal ganglia, cerebellum and portions of the temporal/occipital regions. On ultrasound, the characteristic necrotic brain tissue and blood may be visualised as a large, fluid-filled intracranial cavity with variable echogenicity [ 34 ]. If hydranencephaly occurs early in fetal development, the fetus may have microcephaly. Hydranencephaly can be confidently differentiated from severe chronic hydrocephalus by MRI, which can confirm the absence of cerebral cortex. Polyhydramnios may be present by the end of the second trimester because of poor fetal swallowing, but fetal movement is usually preserved. Prognosis is poor and neonates are neurologically devastated and rarely survive beyond infancy. Fig. 8Hydranencephaly. a Coronal ultrasound at 20 weeks’ gestation demonstrates non-visualisation of CSP, and significant CSF-filled supratentorial cavity ( asterisk ). Anterior falx is faintly present ( arrow ), which excludes alobar HPE. b Axial ... Go to: Isolated agenesis of cavum septi pellucidi Rarely, agenesis of the CSP can be isolated, with overall good prognosis, and although language delay and behavioural disorders with isolated agenesis of CSP have been described, the association has not been established with certainty (Fig. 9) [ 35, 36 ]. The diagnosis of isolated agenesis of CSP cannot be made with prenatal imaging, requiring postnatal neuro-ophthalmic and functional evaluation. Fig. 9Isolated agenesis of CSP. Coronal T2-weighted MRI at 28 weeks’ gestation demonstrates “squared off” configuration and fusion of the anterior horns of the lateral ventricle, thus confirming absence of the CSP. The CC was ... Go to: Pitfalls A common pitfall is mistaking columns of the fornix for the CSP. Columns of the fornix are normal anatomic structures infero-posterior to and attaching to the CSP. It is composed of two bands, joined at the middle and separated at both ends. Although it is anatomically close to the CC and CSP, it is not related to them in embryonic development. Columns of the fornix can simulate the CSP because it is hypoechoic on ultrasound. It is important to distinguish this by identifying a centre line. Columns of the fornix show a linear reflection at their interface, therefore there are three echogenic lines on axial ultrasound view (Fig. 10 ). The CSP, on the other hand, appears as a fluid-filled space without a central line that is either triangular or rectangular in shape. Therefore, there are only two echogenic lines on axial ultrasound view [ 1 ]. Another pitfall occurs when a prominent CSP and cavum vergae displace CSP leaflets laterally. Normally the cavum vergae and CSP are contiguous in a mid-sagittal view. However, in some cases, displacement of the CSP leaflets laterally prohibits its identification sonographically, which can mimic non-visualisation of the CSP (Fig. 11 ). Fig. 10Pseudo-presence of the CSP: columns of the fornix. Axial ultrasound through the fornix at 25 weeks’ gestation demonstrates its tri-linear configuration, which can be mistaken for a normal CSP. The lateral echogenic lines ( solid arrows ... Fig. 11a, b, c Pseudo-absence of CSP: cavum vergae. a Coronal ultrasound through the frontal horns demonstrates non-visualisation of the CSP. The patient was referred for fetal MRI to assess for associated anomalies. b Coronal T2-weighted MRI demonstrates prominent ... Go to: Algorithm Non-visualisation of CSP should prompt a vigorous and detailed anatomical survey of midline structures, and a simplified algorithm is proposed that includes MRI evaluation to enable the radiologist to define and hopefully establish the diagnosis or at least offer a short differential diagnosis (Fig. 12 ). An algorithm initially proposed for postnatal evaluation of absence of the CSP can be adapted for prenatal imaging that encompasses both sonography and fetal MRI [ 3 ]. Fig. 12Simplified algorithm to assist in the diagnosis of intracranial pathology associated with absence of CSP. Adapted from [ 3]Go to: Conclusion The evaluation of the CSP is considered by many current guidelines as an integral part of prenatal sonogram. Visualisation of a normal CSP is a strong indicator of proper development of the forebrain Non-visualisation of the CSP can be a subtle sonographic finding, which in most cases is associated with a variety of anomalies as described in this pictorial essay. If an abnormality is suspected, MRI can confirm the finding and optimise evaluation of intracranial anatomy. Go to: Conflicts of interest None. Go to: References1. Callen PW, Callen AL, Glenn OA, Toi A. Columns of the fornix, not to be mistaken for the cavum septi pellucidi on prenatal sonography. J Ultrasound Med. 2008; 27 :25–31. [ Pub Med]2. 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[ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]14. Moutard ML, Kieffer V, Feingold J, Kieffer F, Lewin F, Adamsbaum C, Gélot A, Campistol I, Plana J, van Bogaert P, André M, Ponsot G. Agenesis of corpus callosum: prenatal diagnosis and prognosis. Childs Nerv Syst. 2003; 19 :471–476. doi: 10.1007/s00381-003-0781-6. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]15. Fratelli N, Papageorghiou AT, Prefumo F, Bakalis S, Homfray T, Thilaganathan B. Outcome of prenatally diagnosed agenesis of the corpus callosum. Prenat Diagn. 2007; 27 :512–517. doi: 10.1002/pd.1719. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]16. Oh KY, Kennedy AM, Frias AE, Jr, Byrne JL. Fetal schizencephaly: pre- and postnatal imaging with a review of the clinical manifestations. Radiographics. 2005; 25 :647–657. doi: 10.1148/rg.253045103. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]17. Howe DT, Rankin J, Draper ES. Schizencephaly prevalence, prenatal diagnosis and clues to etiology: a register-based study. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2012; 39 :75–82. doi: 10.1002/uog.9069. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]18. Fogliarini C, Chaumoitre K, Chapon F, Fernandez C, Lévrier O, Figarella-Branger D, Girard N. Assessment of cortical maturation with prenatal MRI: part II: abnormalities of cortical maturation. Eur Radiol. 2005; 15 :1781–1789. doi: 10.1007/s00330-005-2779-9. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]19. Denis D, Chateil JF, Brun M, Brissaud O, Lacombe D, Fontan D, Flurin V, Pedespan J. Schizencephaly: clinical and imaging features in 30 infantile cases. Brain Dev. 2000; 22 :475–483. doi: 10.1016/S0387-7604 (00)00173-X. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]20. Barkovich AJ, Fram EK, Norman D. Septo-optic dysplasia: MR imaging. Radiology. 1989; 171 :189–192. doi: 10.1148/radiology.171.1.2928524. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]21. Traggiai C, Stanhope R. Endocrinopathies associated with midline cerebral and cranial malformations. J Pediatr. 2002; 140 :252–255. doi: 10.1067/mpd.2002.121822. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]22. Miller SP, Shevell MI, Patenaude Y, Poulin C, O’Gorman AM. Septo-optic dysplasia plus: a spectrum of malformations of cortical development. Neurology. 2000; 54 :1701–1703. doi: 10.1212/WNL.54.8.1701. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]23. Orioli IM, Castilla EE. Epidemiology of holoprosencephaly: prevalence and risk factors. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2010; 154C :13–21. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.c.30233. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]24. Nyberg DA, Mack LA, Bronstein A, Hirsch J, Pagon RA. Holoprosencephaly: prenatal sonographic diagnosis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 1987; 149 :1051–1058. doi: 10.2214/ajr.149.5.1051. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]25. Carrasco CR, Stierman ED, Harnsberger HR, Lee TG. An algorithm for prenatal ultrasound diagnosis of congenital CNS abnormalities. J Ultrasound Med. 1985; 4 :163–168. [ Pub Med]26. Stashinko EE, Clegg NJ, Kammann HA, Sweet VT, Delgado MR, Hahn JS, Levey EB. A retrospective survey of perinatal risk factors of 104 living children with holoprosencephaly. Am J Med Genet A. 2004; 128A :114–119. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.30070. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]27. Hahn JS, Barnes PD. Neuroimaging advances in holoprosencephaly: Refining the spectrum of the midline malformation. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet. 2010; 154C :120–132. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.c.30238. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]28. Croen LA, Shaw GM, Lammer EJ. Risk factors for cytogenetically normal holoprosencephaly in California: a population-based case–control study. Am J Med Genet. 2000; 90 :320–325. doi: 10.1002/ (SICI)1096-8628 (20000214)90:4<320:: AID-AJMG11>3.0. CO;2-8. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]29. Garne E, Loane M, Addor MC, Boyd PA, Barisic I, Dolk H. Congenital hydrocephalus–prevalence, prenatal diagnosis and outcome of pregnancy in four European regions. Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 2010; 14 :150–155. doi: 10.1016/j.ejpn.2009.03.005. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]30. Mc Lone DG, Knepper PA. The cause of Chiari II malformation: a unified theory. Pediatr Neurosci. 1989; 15 :1–12. doi: 10.1159/000120432. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]31. Sarnat HB. Disorders of segmentation of the neural tube: Chiari malformations. Handb Clin Neurol. 2008; 87 :89–103. doi: 10.1016/S0072-9752 (07)87006-0. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]32. Prayer D, Brugger PC, Kasprian G, Witzani L, Helmer H, Dietrich W, Eppel W, Langer M. MRI of fetal acquired brain lesions. Eur J Radiol. 2006; 57 :233–249. doi: 10.1016/j.ejrad.2005.11.023. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]33. Lam YH, Tang MH. Serial sonographic features of a fetus with hydranencephaly from 11 weeks to term. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2000; 16 :77–79. doi: 10.1046/j.1469-0705.2000.00165.x. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]34. Sepulveda W, Cortes-Yepes H, Wong AE, Dezerega V, Corral E, Malinger G. Prenatal sonography in hydranencephaly: findings during the early stages of disease. J Ultrasound Med. 2012; 31 :799–804. [ Pub Med]35. Malinger G, Lev D, Oren M, Lerman-Sagie T. Non-visualization of the cavum septi pellucidi is not synonymous with agenesis of the corpus callosum. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2012; 40 :165–170. doi: 10.1002/uog.11206. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]36. Damaj L, Bruneau B, Ferry M, Moutard ML, Garel C, Odent S, Adamsbaum C, Avni F, Tréguier C, Lazaro L. Pediatric outcome of children with the prenatal diagnosis of isolated septal agenesis. Prenat Diagn. 2010; 30 :1143–1150. doi: 10.1002/pd.2628. [ Pub Med] [ Cross Ref]


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t?kgb answers » Business & Money » Company Details » How much do Gatti Town tokens cost? Gatti Town at Austin, TX 78735 T: (512) 301-7777 Admission prices for the all-you-can-eat buffet: $3 for age 3-5, $4 for 6-10; $5 for 11-14, Senior is $6. Tags: buffet , senior , austin

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How much do Gatti Town tokens cos

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Mt. Vernon Middle School is an above average, public school located in Fortville, IN. It has 842 students in grades 6-8 with a student-teacher ratio of 16 to 1. According to state test scores, 62% of students are at least proficient in math and 69% in reading.

Mt. Vernon Middle School

# 115 in Best Public Middle Schools in Indiana B Overall Niche Grade How are grades calculated? Academics B Diversity B- Teachers A

School District Mount Vernon Community School Corporation View Nearby Homes Address1862 W Sr 234Fortville, IN 46040Telephone (317) 485-3160Website —Indiana Fortville Mt. Vernon Middle School Rankings Niche ranks nearly 100,000 schools and districts based on statistics and millions of opinions from students and parents. Best Public Middle School Teachers in Indiana86 of 392Best Public Middle Schools in Indiana115 of 404See All Mt. Vernon Middle School Rankings Academics Percent Proficient - Reading This is the percentage of students that scored at or above proficiency levels on their state reading/language arts assessment test. Because states implement these tests differently, use caution when comparing this data to data from another state.69%Get In-Home & Online Academic Tutoring Percent Proficient - Math This is the percentage of students that scored at or above proficiency levels on their state math assessment test. Because states implement these tests differently, use caution when comparing this data to data from another state.62%Do You Work at Mt. Vernon Middle School? Claim Your School Today!Claim your free accountto keep your school's data up-to-date and get insights on user activity for your profile. Homes for Salerealtor.com ®Note: School map boundaries may have changed for the current school year so please contact your school district to verify school assignment for your child.12061 Kingfisher Cir Indianapolis, IN$238,0004 Bed 3 Bath Single Family8071 Arvada Pl Indianapolis, IN$189,9994 Bed 3 Bath Single Family421 Hamilton St Fortville, IN$79,9002 Bed 1 Bath Single Family7064 N Mesquite Ct Mccordsville, IN$199,9904 Bed 3 Bath Single Family View Homes Near Mt. Vernon Middle School Students B- Based on racial and economic diversity and survey responses on school culture and diversity from students and parents. Students842Free or Reduced Lunch27%Read More About the Students More opinions are needed! Write a review to add yours. Review Mt. Vernon Middle School Teachers Student-Teacher Ratio16:1National Average Teacher Salary —Teachers in First/Second Year 5.7%More opinions are needed! Write a review to add yours. Review Mt. Vernon Middle School Schools like Mt. Vernon Middle School B Pendleton Heights Middle School South Madison Community School Corporation, IN7-81 review B Eastern Hancock Middle School Eastern Hancock County Community School Corporation, IN6-8B Doe Creek Middle School Southern Hancock County Community School Corporation, IN7-8B+ Lapel Middle School Frankton-Lapel Community Schools, IN6-8More Mt. Vernon Middle School Reviews1 review Excellent0Very Good1Average0Poor0Terrible0I loved how the teachers supported you in all of your decisions. I loved how much you could trust all of the teachers and how much they willingly helped you with any problems you had. I also loved how the teachers always let you know when you did something good or when they were proud of you. The staff there were just amazing people all around. When I went to this school I had just recently moved to Fortville and all of the staff and the majority of the students were very welcoming. Unfortunately, there weren't very many opportunities to get involved in very many extracurricular activities and the few that they did offer weren't very pleasurable. I would like to see that change. One other thing that was very distasteful was that the school was falling apart at its seams. It was very run down and not very up to date. My younger sister is in 7th grade there and I have noticed that they are doing lots of renovations and have greatly improved the building's structure inside and out. Sophomore1 month ago Overall Experience Report Start Your Review of Mt. Vernon Middle School Rate It!Add to List


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How many grams in 1 pint [US, liquid]? The answer is 473.176475. We assume you are converting between gram [water] and pint [US, liquid]. You can view more details on each measurement unit: grams or pint [US, liquid] The SI derived unit for volume is the cubic meter. 1 cubic meter is equal to 1000000 grams, or 2113.3764099325 pint [US, liquid]. Note that rounding errors may occur, so always check the results. Use this page to learn how to convert between grams and pints. Type in your own numbers in the form to convert the units!

Convert grams to pint [US, liquid] - Conversion of Measurement Units

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Want other units? You can do the reverse unit conversion from pint [US, liquid] to grams, or enter any two units below: Enter two units to convert From: To: Metric conversions and more Convert Units.com provides an online conversion calculator for all types of measurement units. You can find metric conversion tables for SI units, as well as English units, currency, and other data. Type in unit symbols, abbreviations, or full names for units of length, area, mass, pressure, and other types. Examples include mm, inch, 100 kg, US fluid ounce, 6'3"", 10 stone 4, cubic cm, metres squared, grams, moles, feet per second, and many more!Convert · Volume · Dates · Salary · Chemistry · Forum · Privacy · Bibliography · Contact © 2018 Convert Units.com "


how big should my boa constrictor be

Adult boas - 4 feet and up - 2 Years and up Should be fed a large to jumbo rat depending on length and girth. I feed adult females and males every two weeks, however the rat size offered to adult males and females differ in size, with females receiving Large/Jumbo rats and males receiving Small/Medium size rats.

"Ultimate Red Tail Boa Care Guide BOA CONSTRICTOR IMPERATORThe following boa care information is intended to be a general, down to earth approach to the things we need to know to properly maintain our boa constrictors. There are many, many other publications that tend to delve very deep in every aspect and attempt to cover every possible situation that may arise. Sometimes to the point of confusion. I will cover what has worked for me as well as other boa keepers. Also PLEASE note that this discussion covers Boa Constrictor Imperator, such as Colombian and Hog Island Welcome to the Ultimate Red Tail Boa Care Guide. Boa Constrictors are unique and amazing animals. It is this fascination with them that has led to this care guide and my entire website. I hope that the information that you find here will help with you day to day husbandry of boa constrictors, and help you in providing excellent care for your boa constrictor. I would like to take this opportunity, up front, to challenge you to find a qualified exotics veterinarian before your boa purchase is made. If you already have your pet boa, then I challenge you to locate one NOW. It is so important that you know of a qualified exotics vet BEFORE you need one. This should go without saying, but care guides are good information, but there is NO substitute for a quality veterinarian. Please do not overlook this basic requirement. PDF Version Available Anatomy Buying a Boa Heating Lighting Caging Substrate Feeding Shedding Resources Donate A Boa Constrictor's Basic Anatomy Lets take a look at the parts of a Boa Constrictor. Body : Boa Constrictors are cold-blooded reptiles, or Ectothermic. Their bodies are not capable of self-producing heat. They MUST get their heat from their surroundings, to ensure good health and digestion. This can come from the sun, rocks, or artificial heat sources such as heat pads, heat lights, or ceramic heat emitters. Lungs: Boa Constrictors have retained both the right and left lung, and both lungs remain functional. This applies to all Boids (Boas and Pythons). Most snake species only retained the right lung. Scales : Boa Constrictors have smooth ""Scales"" that are actually not scales at all, but very tough folds of skin. These ""scales"" allow the boa to grip surfaces as they crawl or climb. Ventral Scales are on the belly. Backbone/Vertebrae: A Boa Constrictor's backbone contains hundreds of vertebrae, each with a pair of attached ribs. Each vertebrae controls one ventral scale. Shown in the picture are the ventral scales. A boa's movement is made by using these ribs. Spurs: Boa Constrictors also have the remnants of a pelvis, where hind limbs used to be attached, and now have only anal or cloacal spurs. These spurs are much larger and more defined on males, and are used extensively during breeding. Male boas have retained amazing control over these spurs. Click for larger pictures Eyes: Boa Constrictor eyes are generally colored to match the color and pattern of the head. You will often see what looks like the stripe on the side of the head continue through the eyes. Boas do NOT have eyelids that can be closed. The eye is protected by a clear eye cap or ocular ""scale"". Ears: Boa Constrictors do not have external ears. Boas are almost completely deaf and do not ""hear"" sounds. They can however sense vibrations and low frequency sounds that are picked up by the remains of an inner ear. For this reason, do not place things that vibrate such as stereo speakers, refridgerators, fans etc on or under the boas enclosure. This constant vibration would cause a stressful environment. Mouth: A Boa Constrictors mouth is adapted to the large prey items that it must swallow. The lower jaw in a Boa Constrictor is not connected to the skull. However the muscles and ligaments of the lower jaw allow it to drop down, and give it the familiar appearance of being dislocated. Using this ability the boa can use the upper and lower jaw to pull the prey item in. Teeth: Boa Constrictors DO have teeth, and although these teeth are smaller than most animals, they can be pin sharp. Boas have two rows of teeth on the top jaw, and a single row of teeth on the bottom jaw. These small needle sharp teeth are curved slightly to help hold the prey item and pull it into the mouth. Although baby boas will not hurt us with a bite, an adult boa bite can be extremely painful. Tongue: The infamous forked tongue of a Boa Constrictor is literally its eyes and ears. The tongue is part of the floor of the mouth in front of the glottis or windpipe. The flicking of the tongue picks up particles in the air and deposits them on the roof of the mouth, on the Jacobson's organ, where these particles are identified. One single flick of the tongue can detect whether an item is prey, danger, or a mate. Glottis/Windpipe: This extremely adaptive windpipe is what allows the snake to swallow prey items much larger than their heads. It allows a boa to continue breathing all the while swallowing their prey. The windpipe is also used to warn enemies when threatened. The boa will inhale a large amount of air, then exhale loudly by forcing the air out the windpipe. This hissing sound should be translated as ""Leave me alone"". Cloaca: Located near the end of the tail, this is the vent area. This is where the boa can be probed to determine the sex. It is also where the boa defecates and deposits urates. It is also the place that babies are delivered during parturition. If you look closely you can see the anal spurs on this male on both sides of the cloaca. Tail: Although it may seem that a boa constrictor is ALL tail, the tail is actually from the cloaca (vent area) to the tip. Unlike lizards, boas cannot ""lose"" their tail and then regenerate it. Boas often wrap their tails around anything they can to ensure a good grip to prevent them from falling. Large boas are extremely strong and use their tails often to secure themselves. Click the image for a high resolution picture. Sex: Knowing the sex of the boa is often the most difficult thing to determine. Without the proper tools or knowledge to accurately test the boa, everything else is a guess. While some people may have good guesses, it is hard to know 100% without the proper testing. This is done by using a metal probe, that is inserted into the cloaca, and in the case of a male, inserted in the hemipene area. In males, this proble will go in very far, often 10 or 11 scale counts. While in females, the probe may only go in 3 or 4 scale counts deep. Probing should only be done by qualified or experienced herpers, because damage can be done if the procedure is done inaccurately. Baby boas can be sexed by ""popping"". By holding the tail upside down and using both thumbs, you can apply light pressure with the front thumb, and by rolling the back thumb toward the cloaca, the hemipene (s) will evert (pop inside out) and actually pop out in clear sight. In babies this will also show a clear blood vein. Again, popping should only be done by qualified or experienced herpers. Live Birth: Boa Constrictors are Ovoviviparous, or ""Live-Bearing"" Snakes. Baby boas are born live. This is in contrast to the majority of all other snakes, which are egg laying. This aspect of husbandry requires even greater care while a female boa is gravid or pregnant. We must ensure proper husbandry during this stressful time for the female. Unfertilized ova will result in an orange, sweet potato looking ""slug"". Some slugs are common during the boa constrictor parturition (birthing process). Return to Top Unfertilized ova will result in an orange, sweet potato looking ""slug"". Some slugs are often common during the boa constrictor parturition (birthing process). Purchasing/Owning a Boa The ""impulse"" buy! ""He is sooooo cute""This is too often the case. And although it is true, they are soooooo cute, we just need to be aware of what we are looking at when we see that cute 18 inch baby. Boa constrictors are not disposable pets, and they will by no means remain 18 inches. That is a typical birth size, but this little guy will quickly grow to 3 feet in the first year, and attain sizes of 7 or 8 feet or more. Also, this cute little guy can live 20 years or longer. So you should be prepared, from the beginning, to provide adequate space for a large boa, and be prepared to properly care for this boa for an extremely long time. Boa constrictors are showing up more and more in adoption agencies and placement services, because owners were unaware of the sheer size or space requirements.. They are truly amazing animals and the BEST possible pet snake, but we need to be aware of their requirements. How large will my red tail boa constrictor become? Red tail boas will generally grow to an average length of 7 or 8 feet and can live to ages of 25 to 30 years in captivity. Your actual size will be directly proportional to the amount of feeding. For example, you could feed your boa a smaller sized rodent every two weeks, and the boa may never grow larger than 4 1/2 to 5 feet. On the other hand, if you were to feed aggressively, then your boa may achieve a size of 10 feet or longer. There have been reports of 12 foot boas weighing 80 pounds!WARNING*** A note on power feeding. This is an unwise method used by some people to achieve rapid growth in their boas. This is done by offering prey items that are too big for the comparible size of the boa, offering several prey items in a row (often helping the boa eat by placing the next food item actually in the boas mouth as it is swallowing the previous, which causes the boa to continue swallowing the next item), and often these boas are fed on a quick turn-around schedule. Let me just say that Power Feeding is NOT recommended because in almost EVERY case it shortens the life of your boa drastically. Boas powerfed from birth generally die very young at 4 or 5 years of age.) Jeff Ronne talks about his early efforts in breeding boas and the fact that EVERY boa he powerfed died before the age of 5 years. What color should my Colombian Red Tail boa be? What makes these snakes so wonderful is their vast coloration and patterns. Typical red tail boa constrictors will appear with a tan/brown body with darker brown/black ""blotches"" or saddles. The tails will range, from blood red ,to the more common copper/rust coloring. With price ranges from $75 to $10,000, the colors and patterns are almost endless. The more popular genetic morphs are Albino, Salmon, Snow, Hypomelanistic, Pastel, Ghost, Narrow Saddled, Jungle, Anerythristic, and Arabesque. What do the different types of genetic morphs really mean? Please see Explaining the Boa Constrictor Morphs located on my website. My boas tail is not red now, will it ever be? Unfortunately not. With common boa constrictors, the color of the boa's tail at birth will determine the general coloration of the tail. Boas do tend to show nicer body and tail colors with each shed while they are young, and any highlights (pink and orange) they exhibit will tend to come out more as the boa gets older, but with few exceptions, boas actually become somewhat darker in coloration as they grow older. With the new selective breeding programs we are starting to see results that shatter some of the common boa conceptions. There are albino, pastel and hypomelanistic traits being selectively bred today that can and do get better and better as the boa matures. Although these traits often do not include coloring of the tail, it does include the overall coloring of the body. Are red tail boa constrictors tame or aggressive? The most impressive characteristic of a Colombian Red Tail Boa Constrictor is that when they are properly maintained, they are perhaps the most docile (tame) and even tempered snake you could have for a pet. Frequent handling early will ensure that your boa will remain docile throughout its life. 10 foot adults can be as docile as an 18 inch baby. As with anything else, we must use common sense. If a boa is opaque (in a pre-shed state), or just fed, then it will not want to be handled, and may display defensive postures. With very few exceptions, a boa that is very defensive or aggressive, will generally have other problems that are causing this behavior. Especially boas that were not purchased as babies, or boas that have been sold and resold. Mistreatment, inadequate housing, wrong temperatures, and feeding problems, could all affect the overall attitude of a boa. That is why I recommend that you purchase a captive born baby boa whenever possible, and purchase from a reliable breeder/retailer. Please keep in mind that this care sheet is for Boa Constrictor Imperator. Other ""True"" Red Tail Boas (Boa Constrictor constrictor), such as the Bolivian, Suriname, Guyanan, tend to be slightly more aggressive and less docile, but if obtained as a baby, can be just as gentle as a BCI. How should I handle the boa constrictor? You should always support the boa's body with both hands. You should avoid quick and fast movements when approaching the boa. Don't approach directly at the head. Remember they sense heat, so I approach at the tail to mid body, and as soon as I move them a little they know it is me and it is safe to get them out. Avoid holding the boa where it restricts it's movement. Use one hand to support the head area and the other hand and arm to support the mid to rear body area. Large boas may become frightened during handling if they feel like they may fall. Boas over 6 feet should not be handled alone. Always make sure that a second person is in the room any time you are holding a large boa. Remember that if you intend to keep your boa as a pet, and for it to remain a docile pet, it will be necessary to handle your boa 2 to 3 times a week. These sessions can be short but should not be overlooked. Can I house more than one boa in the same enclosure? This is one of the most often asked questions that I receive. I will first say that I believe that DIFFERENT species of snakes should NEVER be housed together, such as a boa and a ball python. The chance for disease spread, including IBD, are too risky. It has also been my opinion over the years that ""If you cannot afford a second enclosure, then you cannot afford a second boa"". Although this sounds very harsh it is actually based on a lot of experience and feedback. It has never been a question of ""CAN"" two snakes exist in one enclosure.... It is done all the time. Healthy baby boas can be raised together for a long time, often without incident. BUT it is WHEN something happens that you need the extra enclosure. And IF you are 100% on top of every husbandry issue, these 2 snakes could live 20 years, have 300 babies (if male and female ,) and never have a health related issue. You know... ""And they lived happily ever after""However, in the real world there can and will be many different things happen that will cause them to ""REQUIRE"" separation. Whether this is simple feeding times, sickness, a bite, a burn, a regurgitation, etc etc, there will be times when they must be separated to allow recovery time. Back to the male/female issue. If the female becomes gravid, you will need somewhere for the male to be for 4 or 5 MONTHS. Although people house boas together all the time, I believe boas should only be housed together during breeding cycles. There are too many factors that require individual housing space. I will list some of the most common issues requiring separation here.1. Feeding. This presents a huge problem if you think you can feed both boas at the same time in the same enclosure. NEVER feed 2 boas in the same enclosure! PERIOD. They must be separated into temporary containers for feeding purposes. An attempt to feed both at the same time in the same enclosure could result in a situation where they both attempt to strike and constrict the same prey item, which could result in one of the boa becoming constricted itself. This is not a situation you want to find yourself in, because boas are much stronger than you think and seperating them will not be a simple task. You can not separate anything from a 6 foot or larger boa. They are too strong.2. Sickness, Diseases, Mites, Ticks, etc. It is really simple. If one boa gets one of these, then BOTH boas get it.3. Stress. Most often overlooked, stress related issues can result from competition for the ""best"" basking area, or the ""best"" hideaway. If it is two males housed together, there may be a dominance issue. Stress factors result in lowering the immune system capabilities, therefore allowing sicknesses to be easier to ""catch"".4. Record Keeping. If you intend to track individual records for each boa, housing them together creates a problem. Knowing which one shed, which one pooped, which one regurgitated, etc etc becomes problematic.5. Breeding. If your intent is to breed your boas later in life I believe they should be separated up until the time of breeding introduction. Many people believe that boas that are housed together for life, a male and a female, are much less likely to produce offspring. I know it happens from time to time, in different situations, but the odds go down. After extended periods of separation, it can simply be the introduction of the male into the females enclosure that initiates the breeding cycle.6. Quarantine. When the second boa is brought into your home, it needs to be quarantined. EVERY boa should be separated in a different enclosure and separate room if possible, for a 3 month period. Again, any sickness or mites will spread from boa to boa like wildfire, including IBD. All it takes is one mite from a sick boa biting the other boa and presto, both boas are now sick. Also quarantine would be necessary anyway if one of the boas got sick, or regurgitated, so the need for the second enclosure is already there. If you cannot afford a second enclosure or do not have the additional space for a second enclosure, then you cannot afford another snake. Are red tail boa constrictors messy? Yes! Boa constrictors can be very messy when they defecate/urinate. Although this can be as infrequent as once a month or so, it still can be a chore to clean up. Full size adult boas can defecate as much as a full grown dog!! And boas can deposits huge amounts of urates a couple of times a month. They also tend to deposit urates at one time and then defecate another time. You can spend a lot of time cleaning up after your boas, especially if you have multiple boas. Defecation and Urination. Boa constrictors pass waste through the cloaca at the base of the tail. Defecation, in the form of feces, contain only the parts of the food items that cannot be digested by the acids in the stomach, such as the rodent hair, as well as the normal waste products. These feces should be in the form of solid, dark stools. This type of stool is a sign of good health. However, any sign of bad smelling, running, or off color stools, may be a sign of intestinal problems, and your veterinarian should be contacted. Urination, in the form of urates, appear in the form of a white chalky, sand-like substance are the results of the ability of boas to conserve water. If boa have access to fresh, clean water, then sometimes these urates will be accompanied by a lot of liquid as well. Will my red tail boa strike at my face and hands? We know that anything is possible, but let me say that my experience is that when our boas are climbing around, up our arms, around the neck, in our shirts, etc, that our boas are NOT any threat to strike. My boas are handled a lot, and my kids ""wear"" our boas as hats, ties, etc.. When the boas are like this I have never seen any threat. The situations to avoid should be common sense. If your boa is curled up in your hand or curled up in a corner and you approach it real fast with your other hand, or you bring your arm and boa up towards your face real fast. This may cause a defensive action from him. Guess who's fault this would be... Yep! Yours! The best tip is to slowly approach from under or level with the boa. Not from above. And of course we should NEVER handle our boa when we have just fed them, and still smell like a mouse or rat ourselves. 99% of people that get bit by a boa is because of something they did wrong. The other 1% is just a fluke. Let your boa explore as you hold him. They will get used to this and even love being held. How can I tell the difference between a defensive posture and a ""laid-back"" posture? The easiest way is to look at the pictures below. The pictures of a normal coil in a resting boa are the two on the left. Notice the circle that the boa makes with its body. This is a normal posture for a boa. Now the boas on the Right. These are boas that are in a defensive posture. Notice the double ""S"" position of the neck in these two pictures. Also notice the raised head. Approaching these boas from the front or top could result in a defensive strike. Also boas that want to be left alone will sometime make a loud hissing noise. They will suck in a tremendous amount of air, and then force it out. This sound means if you come near I will bite. This posture may occur if the boa is completely opaque and cannot see out of its eyes, or if the boa has serious health problems. Being aware of these postures will keep us all from accidentally getting bit. Return to Top Heating/Temperature/Humidity What temperature levels should I maintain in my boas enclosure? Please pay very close attention to this section. This is the MOST important requirement for the long term health of your boa. Enclosure temperatures. These are tropical animals and should be maintained within a tropical temperature range of 80 - 92F. My enclosures are maintained at an ambient temperature of 82 ° F. A basking area with temps in the low 90's is also always available. This allows the boa constrictor to thermoregulate, and control it's own body temp. It must have a place where it can go to ""warm"" up and a place to go where it can ""cool"" down. **Important** This seems to be where the majority of confusion comes in to play. People have different meanings or understandings of ambient and basking temperatures. Since I am suggesting that BOTH of these temperature gradients are required to ensure proper thermoregulation, I thought these definitions may help. Also since a lot of this confusion stems from the definition of ambient and basking temperatures, let me produce some definitions that better translate the two words. Here are a couple of dictionary lookups. Ambient (a.) Encompassing on all sides; circumfused; investing. Existing or present on all sides. (b.) Something that surrounds or invests; as, air . . . being a perpetual ambient. (c.) Environmental or surrounding conditions Basking (a.) To lie in warmth; to be exposed to diffusing or productive heat. (b.) To warm by continued exposure to heat; to warm with difussing heat. So with those dictionary explanations in mind, this is MY understanding of these 2 terms and the basis for how this care guide is written, and they are: Ambient. The ambient temperature is AWAY from the heat source. This is the temperature reading of the AIR. It should be taken on the cool side of the enclosure AWAY from the heat source. This ambient temperature of 82 ° F applies to the air inside your enclosure. Basking. The basking area, or the side of the enclosure with the heat sources, will be 90° to 92°. This measurment is taken on or under the physical heating devices, such as a CHE or Heat Mat or Heat Lamp. A temperature gauge should be temporarily positioned in the basking spot in order to obtain this reading. Summary: Unless you are breeding your boas, This temperature range should be maintained YEAR ROUND! Your boa should NOT feel cold when you take it out of its enclosure. However they should not feel hot either. The comparison is that a boa's temperature will be an average of 83 or 84 degrees. Your body temp is 98.6. Therefore holding a boa should be a little cooler than your own temp and never hotter. MOST health problems associated with boas are temperature related. Important! Location of Heat Sources. It is best to have all heat sources on one end of an enclosure. For example, if you use an Under-the-tank Heater (UTH) and an overhead Ceramic Heat Emitter (CHE), then they should be on the same side of the enclosure. This arrangement should provide not only the correct basking temperature, but also create the proper ambient temperature on the other or ""cool"" end of the enclosure. What humidity level should I maintain in my boas enclosure? The humidity level should remain between 50 and 60 % at all times. The difference between 50 and 60 % is actually geographical. Areas like Texas should be around 60%. California should be around 50%. This humidity level is extremely important to the health of our boas. It insures proper shedding and health. Ways to increase your humidity include;1) Misting down the boas periodically. This can be done by placing hot water in a spray bottle and then spraying down the boas with it. The hot water actually becomes just warm when it is sprayed. Test this on your arm. This warm water really helps the boas. This is a great way to help raise humidity and it also helps the boa during shed cycles.2) Placing a water dish closer to the heat source. This will add to the evaporation process and aide in the humidty level. You should also provide another water dish in the cool end.3) Covering all or part of the top of the enclosure. People that use the aquarium style glass enclosures with the standard screen top, often have trouble maintaining heat and humidity. Try covering at least half of the top with a piece of box cardboard with pencil sized holes poked in it. This often helps immediately in raising the temp and humidity.4) Place a moist or wet towel inside the enclosure. People that use the aquarium style glass enclosures with the standard screen top, often have trouble maintaining heat and humidity. Try temporarily placing a wet towel inside the enclosure to help raise the humidity. New products such as Humi Mats, are products that absorb water and slowly evaporate that water over a period of two weeks. These would be a better soultion than a towel. I use a heat lamp with a regular light bulb, does it provide enough heat? The only way to really know is to use thermometers at both ends of your cage. It should provide the temperature range listed above. The danger of only using an incandescent bulb is that it must remain on 24 hours a day to provide heat. Our boas really need 12 hours of light and 12 hours of dark. Constant light will cause stress to our boas. You need to purchase another kind of heat source, such as an under the tank heat mat or a CHE, so that the light can be turned off at night. Important! Do not disregard the fact that boas require a day/night cycle. Make sure you supply the proper heat sources, so that any light source can be turned OFF at night. Should I use a heat rock or a heat cave device? NO! You should never use a heat rock or heat cave because they are very prone to ""hot spots"" and baby snakes will not know when to get off and will be seriously burned. Important! Boas will burn themselves on these devices. Not a matter of if, but when. Return to Top Lighting Options It is my personal belief that boa constrictors do not REQUIRE any artificial light source. Boa constrictors get all the nutrients they need from their prey items. The only light provided to my boa constrictors is the incidental light that comes in through the windows during the day. My boas have no light source of any kind during the night. Providing a light for daytime display purposes so you can show off your beautiful boa is perfectly fine. Just be sure that the light source can be turned off at night. Incandescent-- These regular light bulbs, can provide a good source of heat and adequate light for displaying your boas. Care should be take to ensure the boa can NOT come into contact with the bulb and that the bulb is always OFF during the night time hours. Light bulbs should NEVER be your only source of heat. There are many varieties of bulbs. Heat lamp, red, black, etc etc. Florescent-- Probably the most widely used light source for snakes. These long slender bulbs fit most aquarium type hoods and fit on most enclosures. These bulbs provide the best display light for showing off your boas. Again this light source should be OFF during the night time hours. Return to Top Full Spectrum-- Although full-spectrum lighting is not required for a boa constrictor, it is possible they may benefit to a slight degree from it. Normally in the florescent bulb section, most full-spectrum bulbs fit the regular florescent hoods used on aquariums. Caging/Enclosures What things should I get with a ""Starter Kit"" Setup for my baby boa constrictor? Here are the minimum things you should purchase as part of a starter kit. Glass Cage/Enclosure-- Aquarium style enclosures should be at least 20 Gallon LONG size for a starter kit. You should purchase as large as you can afford to start with because the 20 gallon size can be outgrown by the end of the first year. Also all glass enclosures can be difficult to maintain the proper heat and humidity levels. Many people struggle to get the correct temperatures. Glass enclosures also tend to be harder to clean and large ones can be quite heavy. These should be your LAST option, not your first or second. I do NOT recommend these type enclosures for boa constrictors. Please read my section on Enclosures Screen/Top-- Make sure your screen top can be tightly secured. Boas are escape artists. It should clamp on or slide on and lock. The screen top adds to the difficulty of maintaining the proper environmental conditions because the warm air escapes out of the top. Covering all or part of the screen with cardboard or a towel sometimes helps maintain the proper levels. Custom made enclosures. Plastic or melamine enclosures are more suited for boa constrictor care. Especially units with built in heat. These enclosures are great for keeping the proper temperatures and humidity levels, as well as they are much easier to clean. These type units should be your FIRST option. Plastic enclosures such as the one pictured, from Jeff Ronne, are extremely lightweight and easily transported, moved, and cleaned. Heater-- Under tank heaters are a MUST for these aquarium type enclosures. These flat heaters attach to the bottom of your glass aquarium and will provide much needed warmth to the bottom of the enclosure. Advanced and custom made enclosures can use Flex Watt Heat Tape as well. Again, do NOT use heat caves or heat rocks! They can and will burn small boas. This picture on the bottom left is Flex Watt. Flex Watt brand heat tape, currently made by Calorique, can be purchased from the finer online reptile herp stores. Although this requires some custom installation, it works great and lasts and extremely long time. Top of Enclosure Heat Lamp --Some ""kits"" come with a clamp on heat lamp - I do not like these, but if you use one of these for additional heat and a basking spot, then you should purchase a Ceramic Heat Emitter instead of using a light bulb. Our boas REQUIRE a period of darkness each night, so a light bulb that has to remain in the ON state in order to supply the proper heat levels should not be the only source of heat. Ceramic Heat Emitter (CHE) - These emitters do not have a light source of any kind, yet provide a great heat source. They will provide ambient heat as well as a basking spot. CHE's will cost about 20 to 25 dollars, but last a very long time. If your are currently using a Heat Lamp (bulb) device, then I recommend switching to a CHE instead. Thermometer - You will find out that you really need 2 thermometers for your enclosure. One for end with the heat sources and one for opposite/cooler end. They should be mounted where you can easily view the temperature day or night. Humidity gauges may also be required to determine a proper environment. Water Dish - This water bowl needs to be large enough for the entire boa to soak in. Young boas will do this quite often. This crock style bowl is very thick and very heavy and is hard to dump over. Other ceramic ""dog"" style heavy duty dishes work well also. Larger enclosures should provide 2 separate sources of water, one on the hot end, and one on the cool end. This prevents the boa from having to compromise the level of heat required, when water is needed. Please read the section of Fresh Clean Water Substrate-- Several different types of substrates are available. From plain newspaper to expensive coconut bark, there is a lot of choices. Please see the substrate section of this page for some better explanations and examples. Branch or Hideaway -- Most baby boas will utilize something to climb on or hide under. Grapevine/wood or similar product will work well. There are also several kinds of synthetic caves and logs in many shapes and sizes. The ability to climb or hide gives the boa a certain feeling of security. What size enclosure will I need to keep a juvenile red tail boa constrictor? Probably the most common snake enclosure is the all glass, aquarium type, cage with a sliding screen top. Although these ""starter kits"" are popular, they will be more than likely be outgrown by the end of the first year. I tend to tell people to take the initial cost of their setup and prepare to triple it, because if you start out very small (20 gallon or 20 long size) then you WILL have to purchase newer and larger enclosures. So if an aquarium style is the only style available to you then if possible go ahead and purchase the largest size you can afford at the very beginning, so you should get at least a 55 gallon size. It will last a much longer time. I believe the aquarium style all glass enclosure to be the worst possible choice for snakes. I also believe that these aquarium style enclosures should be the LAST option purchased. Also as I have stated before, I also think the all glass enclosures is a bad investment. The glass makes it hard to control the proper environmental conditions. The number #1 problem on my forums and email is maintaining the proper levels of heat and humidity. 95% of these are from aquarium style enclosures. Manufactured or custom built enclosures are by far the best way to go. If custom building an enclosure avoid unfinished wood and porous surfaces because these surfaces are difficult to clean and disinfect, and the humidity and water spills could damage it. You will need an enclosure that is, at a minimum, 4' X 24"" X 24"" to accommodate the full grown adult. I can promise you this. It will be much cheaper to buy the bigger one now, than to buy 2 or 3 different sizes throughout the span of the boa's growth. Some people may tell you ""wives tales"" about being too large for a boa, but I don't buy into the stress theory from being too large. That sounds like nonsense from someone that could not afford the larger size. The stress syndrome is caused from the opposite. Too Small. If the boa cannot stretch out, or climb around, or get ""away"" into a hideaway, you are causing very much stress on the boa. Custom made manufactured plastic caging is my favorite. Extremely light, easy to clean and most offer built in heat sources. I prefer black, just my favorite color. These are also easily stackable and offer greater use of space. Remember large or proper sized enclosures have ample space to install hideaways, shelves and things for the boas to use if they feel vulnerable. What size enclosure will I need to keep an adult red tail boa? A general guideline is that the enclosure be at least 3/4 as long as the animal's body and width at least a third of the animal's length. If you are only interested in the aquarium type glass enclosures, then you will probably need at least the 100 Gallon size with a latching top. These guys are escape artists, and adults are extremely strong, so ensure that you use the proper style top. Custom built caging, such as plastic cages or melamine caging, offers the best solution for keeping adult boas. They are generally large enough, strong enough, and have built in doors for escape protection. 4' X 24"" X 24"" is probably the minimum size requirement, with a 6' X 24"" X 24""perfect size for the entire boas lifetime. Other than heating devices, what objects should be in the enclosure? FRESH, CLEAN Water You will need a sturdy, heavy water dish with fresh clean water. This water dish should be made of a heavy ceramic, or heavy plastic, to help prevent the snake from tipping the dish over. It should be large enough for the entire boa to fit in. Young boas will often soak their entire bodies in their water dish. You should check the water daily, because boas will often defecate in the water dish. Also another important consideration is that if your enclosure is large enough, you should use more than one water dish. I think the best method is to place the large water dish (Large enough to soak in) in the middle of the enclosure and then place a small water dish in the cool end of the enclosure. This smaller dish should be too small for soaking, and therefore would be used primarily for drinking. **SOAKING** Also a behavior notice. Boas will often soak in the water dish and this is a natural behavior. However, boas will also ""escape"" to the water dish for other health related issues. If your boa is constantly soaking, then you should immediately check for the prescence of mites, and also double check your temperature, because if the boa is too hot it will spend a lot of time in the water. HIDE BOXES You should also provide a hide box. Especially for the juveniles. Hide boxes can be purchased or made from a number of products such as shoe boxes, Tupperware style containers, etc. Another popular form of hide box is a raised shelf. A raised shelf provides a great means of security for boas, and they will often spend the majority of their time on the raised shelf. What should I use to clean my enclosure? You should use a solution of water and 10% household bleach. You MUST remove the boa from the enclosure during the cleaning / disinfecting process. It is extremely important to thoroughly clean the entire enclosure with the water/bleach solution. Then the enclosure MUST be rinsed thoroughly with clean water to remove the bleach residue. Then completely dry before returning the boa to the cage. ***Warning*** Bleach is a very residual product. Be sure to completely rinse after use. There are also new products on the market now that have been created for this purpose. They can be found at on-line herpetology websites. The above cleaning should be done at least once a month, or sooner is warranted. You should spot clean you cage and the water supply DAILY. Return to Top Substrate What should I use for a bedding material in my enclosures? Substrate is one of the most important parts of the boas environment. It should be checked and spot cleaned DAILY. Dirty substrate is another cause of health problems in our boas. There are several kinds of substrate recommended for boa constrictors, and I will cover the most popular here. In the end, you should use the most beneficial one for you. DO NOT let the substrate become or stay completely soaked with water. Misting is fine, but a completely wet substrate is bad for the boa, and can lead to belly rot and other health problems.1. Newspaper: The most economical method of substrate is to use newspaper. Newspaper is readily available and easy to clean and replace. This substrate is probably delivered to your door every day. I still use the newspaper substrate to this day. I have in the past used one modification. I use about 1 inch of 100% plain clay kitty litter (no perfumes, no additives, just plain clay), and about 10 to 15 layers of newspaper on top of the clay. It is extremely effective. The down side is it is NOT visually appealing. I do not currently use this anymore due to number of cages.2. Natural Bark Products: Tree bark, and crushed Coconut shells are becoming popular substrate options, and are becoming readily available at most pet stores. The coconut shell product is not actually tree bark at all but completely crushed coconut shells. It has been proven to be harmless to reptiles. I do not recommend feeding on ANY wood chip or bark product. Bark type substrates can be spot cleaned but not as easy as some other substrates. It tends to resist molding better than corn cob, but is harder to change out when it is time to replace. The down side is the danger that if you feed your boa in its enclosure, it could ingest some of the bark accidentally when eating its food item. This could cause blockage problems. Wood shavings are more visually appealing. The chance for accidental ingestion and possible internal blockage are just not worth it. Do NOT feed on this type substrate.3. Wood Shavings: Shredded Aspen, Cypress Mulch or Pine shavings can also be used as a substrate. CEDAR should NEVER be used. It is toxic to snakes! Shredded Aspen is the preferred choice of herpers everywhere and is one of the most commonly used substrates. I use cypress mulch with my baby boas, it works great and holds humidity well. Although many people use pine shavings, I do not recommend it. Aspen is proven to be more effective and also proven to not be harmful to reptiles. Some people believe the oils and fumes from pine shavings can be damaging to snakes.. Wood type substrates can be spot cleaned but not as easy as other substrates. It tends to resist molding better than corn cob, but is harder to change out when it is time to replace. The down side is the danger that if you feed your boa in its enclosure, it could ingest some of the shavings accidentally when eating its food item. This could cause blockage problems. The chance for accidental ingestion and possible internal blockage are just not worth it. Do NOT feed on this type substrate.4. Corn Cob (Shredded): Corn cob can also be used as a substrate. Corn cob is visually appealing and is easy to spot clean. The biggest problem with corn cob is that is will mold and mildew very fast. Also there is the danger that if you feed your boa in its enclosure, it could ingest some of the corn cob accidentally when eating its food item. Return to Top5. Indoor/Outdoor Carpet: You can cut two or three pieces of indoor/outdoor carpeting to fit the exact size of your enclosure. This provides the availability of a clean spare when it is time to clean. The down side is every time you need to clean, you must replace the entire piece of carpet. Then you must thoroughly clean and dry the soiled piece of carpet to be ready for the next cleaning. Feeding What should I feed my red tail boa? While I believe the ULTIMATE food source for boa constrictors is RATS, the following have been listed as food sources for boa constrictors: Mice, rats, hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs and rabbits. The best feeding rule I can offer is to feed smaller items early. As a guideline, the size of the prey item should not be greater that the girth of the boa at mid body. Don't push the limits on your boa. Newborns should be fed ""fuzzy"" or just weaned mice or ""pinkie"" rats. And then graduate with the growth of the snake. If you feed prey items that are too large, you are asking for the boa to regurgitate! This can lead to many health problems, and even regurgitation syndrome. Larger boas may be better suited if fed rabbits. Some boas would take several large or jumbo rats in order to get enough. In that case one large rabbit would be better. Rabbits can also be order frozen, then thawed the same as rodents. I strongly recommend to feed frozen/thawed rats. Please click Feeding Frozen/Thawed Rats Should I feed Live, Fresh Killed or Frozen/Thawed? I feel strongly that we should feed ONLY Fresh Killed or Freshly Thawed rodents. Although many, many boa owners buy live mice/rats and feed them live, I do not agree with that method. I have many reasons that I detail in another article. Please click Feeding Frozen/Thawed Rats . If you feed live, you are asking for serious bite damage and are opening your boa up to many parasites that live in the live prey. How often should I feed my red tail boa? The following are recommendations for feeding your boa. I recommend ONE Item per feeding. Following these important guidelines will ensure a LONG healthy life for your boas. Boas should NEVER be powerfed, a process where you place a second or third rodent in the boas mouth as it is swallowing the previous rodent, thus forcing the boa to swallow yet another rodent. Powerfeeding has been used to grow boas to lengths of 6 feet by the end of the first year. And although people have successfully ""grown"" boas this fast and some have successfully bred female boas at 18 months of age, it is almost without exception that these boas live less than 5 years. Powerfed or overfed boas are generally easy to identify because their heads appear to be abnormally small in comparison to the body size. Remember healthy and properly fed boas can live 20 years or longer. Follow these guidelines. Pinkie Fuzzy Baby boas - 18 to 22 inches - Newborn to 3 months Should be fed pinkie or fuzzy rats. They can be fed one food item every 4 to 5 days. Weanling Small Juvenile boas - 2 to 3 feet - 3 to 12 months Should be fed Fuzzy or Pre-weanling rats. They can be fed one food item once a week. (7 days)Medium Large Yearling boas - 3 to 4 feet - 1 to 2 Years Should be fed a Weanling/Small/Medium rat every two weeks. You can use the smaller prey items such as a Weaned/Small rodents to maintain a smaller in size adult boa, or the Medium rodent for a larger sized adult boa.. Jumbo

This keeps them compatibly sized. Rabbits may also be a better choice, depending on the size of your adult boa. Rat Photos and Sizes by Jeff Ronne--The Boaphile If you follow these normal feeding guidelines, and that is ONE prey item at a time, your boa will grow to an average of 7 feet. How you change from these normal guidelines will also change the overall size of your boa. I recommend placing the frozen/thawed food item in the feeding enclosure and leave it overnight. If the item is not eaten by morning, then remove and discard the item, and try to feed a fresh item another time. Never handle rodents and then handle a snake; you can be mistaken as another food item. You should develop feeding habits that allows you to prepare the food items without exposure to the snakes, as in another room. Remember the number one cause of bite is because the snake thinks you are a prey item, especially if you still smell like a rodent. Reluctant Feeders may have to be offered a ""live"" prey item, but this should be a last resort. If you find you must feed live, you should closely monitor the situation until the item is completely dead. Many boas prefer to eat at night or with lights off. You may have to try a variety of rodents and sizes. Return to Top Shedding My boas eyes are milky white, what is wrong? Nothing. This is a normal part of the growth cycle and is called Ecdysis or shedding. This will take place throughout the entire life of the boa. Boa constrictors shed their outer skin or epidermis. The milky look is a pre-shed state we call opaque. It is caused by secretions that start loosening the old skin in preparation for the shed cycle. You will also notice that the entire boa seems to be a darker, dull color. This will last several days to a week, before you notice the boa returns to almost its normal color. Then the boa will shed its skin. This is a very stressful time for your boa. No attempts to handle or feed should be attempted during this time. You should mist the boa several times with warm water during this shed cycle. How often will my boa shed? This is strictly determined by the growth rate. Baby boas may shed once a month, while adult boas may only shed 3 or 4 times a year. Also wanted to mention that their are a number of reasons that boa constrictors go into a shed cycle. Although normal time and growth is reason enough for shed cycles, other things cause boas to go into shed cycles as well. Stress related events such as moving or new housing can cause them to go into a shed cycle. Breeding situations often cause very unusually timed sheds. For example, even if a female has just shed, placing her in with a male during breeding season, will likely cause her to enter another shed cycle. Also ovulation in females causes yet another, often extended, shed cycle. This post-ovulation shed is a welcome sign for boa breeders. My boa partially shed, but it was in many pieces and some skin remains on the boa. What do I do? Your boa should shed in 1 continuous piece of skin! However, if it doesn't it is a problem that results from the lack of HUMIDITY in the enclosure. Humidity should be 50 to 60 % at all times. To avoid this problem in the future, you need to mist the snakes with a handheld spray bottle. Fill the spray bottle with HOT water, and by the time you spray the mist will only be lukewarm to the snake. I mist any boas in the pre-shed cycle every day. Spray them down good, and they will shed perfectly, every time. Now for the snake that has remaining skin after a shed. The quickest thing to do is to soak the boa in a tub of lukewarm water for about an hour. This will generally loosen any remaining skin. There are also products available, like Shed-Aide, that you add to the water to help with problem shedding. Return to Top What are the eyecaps everyone talks about? Eyecaps are the clear scales that cover the eyes. These eyecaps should come off with the shed skin every time the snake sheds. It is important to check every shed skin, even if you have to ""unroll"" it to visually check the eyecaps. Failure to shed the eyecaps can cause infections around the eyes. My boa YAWNS a lot, why is this? The yawn is used in two different situations for our boas. 1st, boas will often yawn when they are getting ready to shed. This yawning is actually a ""stretching"" of the skin on the head area, to start the loosening of the skin so they can start the shed.2nd, boas will yawn almost everytime after they have eaten. Some snakes may have problems ""popping"" back into place, but most resolve this problem by yawning. So the next time you see your boa yawning, it is more than likely just re-situating his jaws. I have seen many times where only one side of the jaw will ""snap"" back in place at first until finally the other side will ""snap"" back to return the jaw to normal. This concludes the Ultimate Boa Constrictor Care Guide. I would appreciate any comments, suggestions, corrections, etc etc. Please let me know how I can make this care guide STAY the ULTIMATE CARE GUIDE. This care guide is the copyrighted property of Clay English and Red Tail Boas.com. The PDF can be downloaded from the link provided below. The PDF file cannot be edited or revised in any manner. The logo and credits must remain in place at all times. This online version of the care guide may be printed or used as long as it remains unaltered and is used or printed in it's entirety. Copyright 1998-2008 - Clay English - www.redtailboas.com - cenglish@redtailboas.com Online guide - Version 3.0 Last Update - March 2008Other Resources One of the best resources for information is the Red Tail Boas.com Community Forum. An online interactive way to learn about these amazing animals. Register and join today for FREE and start learning immediately. I also recommend the following books for extended reading. The Boa Constrictor Manual Philippe de Vosjoli / Jeff Ronne Herpetocultural library Boas, A Complete Pet Owners Manual Doug Wagner Barron's The Guide to Owning a Red-Tailed Boa Glen Drewnowski TFH Publications Copyright 1998-2008 Clay English Red Tail Boas.com All rights reserved. [an error occurred while processing this directive] "


how much magnesium in kidney beans

18Kidney Beans A cup of kidney beans contains 70 mg of magnesium and is a great source of protein and fiber. More: How to Bake With Beans

Kidney Beans

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is there a difference in mitosis between animal and plant cells?

Mitosis is a process of cell division in which somatic cells divide, which are genetically similar to their mother cell. With the same number of chromosome as well. The main difference between animal cell mitosis and plant cell mitosis is that in animal cell undergoes cell furrowing while plant cell do not because of the rigid cell wall. The major difference is during the last phase of mitosis , that is telophase.

Difference between Animal and Plant Cell Mitosis

Contents1 Main Difference2 Animal Cell Mitosis3 Plant Cell Mitosis4 Key Differences5 Video Explanation Main Difference

And thus, cytokinesis occurs differently in both the cells. Animal Cell Mitosis In animal cell mitosis the furrowing takes place and the cleavage deepens until it touches the cell membrane. The difference lie in the phase of telophase during the process of mitosis in which no distinctive cell plate is formed in the animal cell. Mitosis occurs in tissues throughout the body and aster formation also takes place in animal cell mitosis. Apart from aster formation, centrioles are also formed. Plant Cell Mitosis In plant cell mitosis, cell plate formation occurs. During the telophase in the process of mitosis, the golgi vesicles line up in the middle of the cell and spindle formation occurs. No furrowing of cytoplasm occurs and it occurs mainly in meristems. Cell plate is formed without aster formation. Moreover, there is absence of centrioles as well. During plant cell mitosis, cytoskeleton element do not have any significant role to play. Key Differences The difference lies in the telophase, during the process of mitosis in both, animal and plant cell. Centrioles are absent in plant cell but present in animal cell. Aster formation is absent in plant cell and present in animal cell. Cell plate is formed during the process of mitosis in a plant cell but not in animal cell. Furrowing of cytoplasm occurs in animal cell during mitosis but not in a plant cell. Centrosome is important for animal cell mitosis but not for plant cell mitosis. Mid body is formed in animal cell mitosis but not in plant cell mitosis. Mitosis in animals occurs throughout the body but only in meristems in case of plants. Video Explanation Mitosis Animal and Plant Cells Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 5:53Tags Animal Cell Mitosis Animal Cell Mitosis vs Plant Cell Mitosis Cell Plate Cleavage Cytoplasm Furrowing Mitosis Plant Cell Mitosis Telophase You may also like Education Difference between Federal and Unitary Government2015-01-21Biology • Education Difference between Cytokinesis in Plant and Animal Cells2015-10-31Education Difference between Ms. Miss and Mrs.2015-05-06Biology • Education Difference between Sperm and Semen2015-11-30Education • People Difference between Loyal and Faithful2015-03-20Education Difference between Formal and Informal Assessment2016-02-07Add Comment Click here to post a comment