concurrent disorders definition

The term co-occurring disorder replaces the terms dual disorder and dual diagnosis when referring to an individual who has a co-existing mental illness and a substance-use disorder. While commonly used to refer to the combination of substance-use and mental disorders, the term also refers to other combinations of disorders (such as mental disorders and intellectual disability).

Co-Occurring Disorders

"Co-Occurring Disorders Formerly known as dual diagnosis or dual disorder, co-occurring disorders describes the presence of both a mental health and a substance-use disorder. For example, a person may be abusing a narcotic and also have bipolar disorder. Definition

Clients with co-occurring disorders (COD) typically have one or more disorders relating to the use of alcohol and/or other drugs as well as one or more mental disorders. A client can be described as having co-occurring disorders when at least one disorder of each type can be established independent of the other and is not simply a cluster of symptoms resulting from another disorder. Common examples of co-occurring disorders include the combinations of major depression with cocaine addiction, alcohol addiction with panic disorder, alcoholism and poly-drug addiction with schizophrenia, and borderline personality disorder with episodic poly-drug abuse. Thus, there is no single combination of co-occurring disorders; in fact, there is great variability among them. The combination of a substance-use disorder and a psychiatric disorder varies along important dimensions, such as severity, chronicity, disability, and degree of impairment in functioning. For example, the two disorders may each be severe or mild, or one may be more severe than the other. Additionally, the severity of both disorders may change over time. Levels of disability and impairment in functioning may also vary. People with co-occurring disorders often experience more severe and chronic medical, social, and emotional problems than people experiencing a mental health condition or substance-use disorder alone. Because they have two disorders, they are vulnerable to both relapse and a worsening of the psychiatric disorder. Further, addiction relapse often leads to psychiatric distress, and worsening of psychiatric problems often leads to addiction relapse. Thus, relapse prevention must be specifically designed for the unique needs of people with co-occurring disorders. Compared to patients who have a single disorder, patients with co-existing conditions often require longer treatment, have more crises, and progress more gradually in treatment. Approximately 7.9 million adults in the United States had co-occurring disorders in 2014. Symptoms The symptoms of co-occurring disorders include those associated with the particular substance-abuse and mental health conditions a person has. Co-occurring disorders can be difficult to diagnose because the symptoms of substance abuse or dependence can mask the symptoms of a mental illness, and vice versa. Substance abuse is a maladaptive pattern of substance use that occurs despite the individual's experiencing significant substance-related problems. Individuals who abuse substances may experience such harmful consequences of substance use as repeated failure to fulfill roles for which they are responsible, legal difficulties, or social and interpersonal problems. It is important to note that the chronic use of an illicit drug still constitutes a significant issue for treatment even when it does not meet the criteria for substance abuse. For individuals with more severe or disabling mental disorders, as well as for those with developmental disabilities and traumatic brain injuries, substance use at lower levels might be more harmful (and therefore defined as abuse) than for individuals without such disorders. People with co-occurring disorders are at high risk for many additional problems such as symptomatic relapses, hospitalizations, financial problems, social isolation, family problems, homelessness, suicide, violence, sexual and physical victimization, incarceration, serious medical illnesses such as HIV and hepatitis B and C, and early death. Any one of these problems complicates the treatment of co-occurring disorders. Causes Mental health and substance-abuse disorders often occur as a result of biological and environmental factors. Mental disorders and addiction are each a dynamic process, with varying degrees of severity, rate of progression, and symptom manifestation. Both types of disorders are greatly influenced by several factors, including genetic susceptibility, environment, and pharmacologic influences. Certain people have a high risk for these disorders (genetic risk); some situations can evoke or help to sustain these disorders (environmental risk); and some drugs are more likely than others to cause psychiatric or substance use disorder problems (pharmacologic risk). People with mental health disorders are more likely than people without mental health disorders to experience an alcohol or substance-use disorder. Mental illness can lead people to use alcohol or drugs to make themselves feel better temporarily. In other cases, a substance-abuse disorder triggers or in some other way leads to severe emotional and mental distress. Treatments To provide appropriate treatment for co-occuring disorders, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) of the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services recommends an integrated treatment approach. Integrated treatment is a means of coordinating substance-abuse and mental health interventions, rather than treating each disorder separately and without consideration for the other. Integrated treatment occurs when a person receives combined treatment for mental illness and substance use from the same clinician or treatment team. It helps people develop hope, knowledge, skills, and the support they need to manage their problems and to pursue meaningful life goals. Integrated treatment may include the following: Help patients think about the role that alcohol and other drugs play in their life. People feel more free to discuss these issues when the discussion is confidential, nonjudgmental, and not tied to legal consequences. Offer patients a chance to learn more about alcohol and drugs —how they interact with mental illnesses and with other medications—and to discuss their own use of alcohol and drugs. Help patients become involved with supportive employment and other services that may help the process of recovery. Help patients identify and develop recovery goals. If a person decides that the use of alcohol or drugs may be a problem, a counselor trained in integrated treatment can help that person identify and develop personalized recovery goals. This process includes learning about steps toward recovery from both illnesses. Provide counseling specifically designed for people with co-occurring disorders. This can be done individually, with a group of peers, with family members, or with a combination of these. Successful strategies with important implications for clients with COD include interventions based on addiction work in contingency management, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), relapse prevention, and motivational interviewing. All substance-abuse treatment programs should have in place appropriate procedures for screening, assessing, and referring clients with CODs. It is the responsibility of each provider to identify clients with both mental and substance-use disorders and to assure them that they have access to the care needed for each disorder. A comprehensive assessment serves as the basis for an individualized treatment plan. Appropriate treatment plans and treatment interventions can be quite complex, depending on what might be discovered in each domain. This leads to another fundamental principle: There is no single, correct intervention or program for individuals with COD's. Rather, the appropriate treatment plan must be matched to individual needs according to these multiple considerations. An onsite addiction treatment psychiatrist can improve treatment retention and decrease substance use among patients. The onsite psychiatrist brings diagnostic, medication, and psychiatric counseling services directly to the location where clients are based for the major part of their treatment. This approach often is the most effective way to overcome barriers presented by offsite referral, including distance and travel limitations, the inconvenience of enrolling in another agency and of the separation of clinical services (more ""red tape""), client fears of being seen as mentally ill (if referred to a mental health agency), cost, and the difficulty of becoming comfortable with different staff. Medication Many clients with COD require medication to control their psychiatric symptoms. Pharmacological advances over the past decade have produced antipsychotic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, and other medications with greater effectiveness and fewer side effects. With the support available from better medication regimens, many people who once would have been too unstable for substance abuse treatment, or institutionalized with a poor prognosis, have been able to lead more functional lives. Psychoeducational Classes Psychoeducational classes on mental and substance-use disorders are important elements in basic COD programs. These classes typically focus on the signs and symptoms of mental disorders, medication, and the effects of mental disorders on substance-abuse problems. Psychoeducational classes of this kind increase client awareness of their specific problems and do so in a safe and positive context. Relapse-prevention education presents strategies designed to help clients become aware of cues or ""triggers"" that make them more likely to abuse substances and help them develop alternative coping responses to those cues. Some providers suggest the use of ""mood logs"" that clients can use to increase their consciousness of the situational factors that underlie the urge to use drugs or drink. Onsite Double Trouble Groups Onsite groups such as ""Double Trouble"" provide a forum for discussion of the interrelated problems of mental disorders and substance abuse, helping participants to identify triggers for relapse. Clients describe their psychiatric symptoms (such as hearing voices) and their urges to use drugs. They are encouraged to discuss, rather than to act on, these impulses. Double Trouble groups also can be used to monitor medication adherence, psychiatric symptoms, substance use, and adherence to scheduled activities. Double Trouble provides a constant framework for assessment, analysis, and planning. Through participation, the individual with COD develops perspective on the interrelated nature of mental disorders and substance abuse and becomes better able to view his or her behavior within this framework. Dual Recovery Mutual Self-Help Groups (Offsite)These offsite self-help groups exist in many communities. Substance-abuse treatment programs can refer clients to dual recovery mutual self-help groups, which are tailored to the special needs of a variety of people with COD. These groups provide a safe forum for discussion about medication, mental health, and substance-abuse issues in an understanding, supportive environment wherein coping skills can be shared. The dual recovery mutual self-help movement is emerging from two cultures: the 12-step fellowship recovery movement and, more recently, the culture of the mental health consumer movement. In keeping with traditional 12-step principles and traditions, dual recovery 12-Step fellowships do not provide specific clinical or counseling interventions, classes on psychiatric symptoms, or any services similar to case management. Dual recovery fellowships maintain the primary purpose of members helping one another achieve and maintain dual recovery, prevent relapse, and carry the message of recovery to others who experience co-occurring disorders. Dual recovery 12-Step members who take turns chairing their meetings are members of their fellowship as a whole. Substance-abuse groups include the 12-step programs of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA), and Cocaine Anonymous (CA). These groups can provide needed support and encouragement for patients in treatment. While self-help programs are not considered treatment per se, they are integral adjuncts to professional treatment services. Outpatient Substance Abuse Treatment Programs for Clients with CODTreatment for substance abuse occurs most frequently in outpatient settings. Some offer several hours of weekly treatment, which can include mental health and other support services as well as individual and group counseling for substance abuse. Others provide minimal services, such as one or two brief sessions to give clients information and refer them elsewhere. Some agencies offer intensive outpatient programs that provide services several hours per day and several days per week. Typically, treatment includes individual and group counseling, with referrals to appropriate community services. Individuals with COD often need a range of services besides substance-abuse treatment and mental health services. Generally, important needs include housing and case management services to establish access to community health and social services. These can be essential to the successful recovery of the person with COD. It is imperative that discharge planning for the client with COD ensures continuity of psychiatric assessment and medication management, without which client stability and recovery will be severely compromised. Relapse-prevention interventions after outpatient treatment need to be modified so that clients can recognize symptoms of psychiatric or substance-abuse relapse on their own and can call on a learned repertoire of symptom management techniques (such as self-monitoring, reporting to a ""buddy,"" and group monitoring). This also includes the ability to access assessment services rapidly, since the return of psychiatric symptoms can often trigger substance-abuse relapse. The Medical System Although not substance-abuse treatment settings per se, acute care and other medical settings are included here because important substance-abuse and mental health interventions do occur in medical units. Acute care refers to short-term care provided by intensive-care units, brief hospital stays, and emergency rooms (ERs). Providers in acute-care settings are not usually concerned with treating substance-use disorders beyond detoxification, stabilization, and/or referral. In other medical settings, such as primary care offices, providers generally lack the resources to provide any kind of extensive substance-abuse treatment, but may be able to provide brief interventions and treatment referrals. Primary health care providers (physicians and nurses) have historically been the largest single point of contact for patients seeking help with co-occurring disorders. Physicians and nurses are uniquely qualified to manage life-threatening crises and to treat medical problems related and unrelated to psychiatric and substance-use disorders. Because they are in contact with such large numbers of patients, they have an exceptional opportunity to screen and identify patients with co-occurring disorders. At that point, the person with COD can be referred for appropriate services in the proper setting. Find a Co-Occurring Disorder Treatment Center here. References American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition Office for Treatment Improvement, Alcohol, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Administration Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. 2014 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH). Center for Substance Abuse Treatment Last reviewed 01/25/2018 "


what can a women take to help with neural tube defects

Screening tests for neural tube defects Screening tests can be done to work out the chance that your baby has a neural tube defect (eg spina bifida).

Neural tube defects

You may be offered these tests, but not all women choose to have them. It is important before you have a test to think about the possible result and what you might do about it. You can discuss this with your doctor or midwife. Contents Neural tube defects Ultrasound scan for neural tube defects Screening blood test What happens if your baby is found to have a neural tube defect? Where can you get more information? Neural tube defects These are abnormalities that occur in the development of the spinal cord and brain of some babies. The most common defects are spina bifida (abnormal development of part of the spine and spinal cord) and anencephaly (severely abnormal development of the brain). Some of these babies will have major physical disabilities, some have only mild disabilities. Some will die soon after birth. For more information Raising Children Network Raising Children website is produced with the help of an extensive network including the Australian Government. http://raisingchildren.net.au/Neural tube defects Spina Bifida Hydrocephalus Queenslandhttp://spinabifida.org/sb-info/Pregnancy, birth and baby Pregnancy, Birth and Baby is a national Australian Government service providing support and information for expecting parents and parents of children, from birth to 5 years of age. http://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/Neural tube defect http://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/neural-tube-defect Ultrasound scan for neural tube defects A detailed ultrasound scan of the baby when you are around 18-20 weeks pregnant can detect almost all babies with a neural tube defect (95%). Women are usually offered an ultrasound scan at this time as part of routine pregnancy care. Most women use this ultrasound scan to screen for neural tube defects rather than have the screening blood test. Ultrasound scans are safe. Screening blood test This blood test can be done between 14 weeks and 20 weeks plus 6 days. If you are having the second trimester blood test for Down syndrome, neural tube defect screening can be done at the same time. If it shows that your baby has an increased chance of having a neural tube defect an ultrasound will be done straight away. What happens if your baby is found to have a neural tube defect? If your baby is found to have a neural tube defect you will be given information about how this might affect your baby and the rest of your pregnancy, as well as the support services that are available. There is information about neural tube defects and support services available on the Raising Children Network website http://raisingchildren.net.au/Neural tube defects What next? You will then need to decide whether to continue your pregnancy or end it early. For more information have a look at the topic Genetic or medical termination of pregnancy. Where can you get more information? Talk to the doctor who is looking after you during your pregnancy. South Australian Maternal Serum Antenatal Screening Program on 08 8161 7285Maternal Fetal Medicine Unit Women's and Children's Hospital Spina Bifida Hydrocephalus Queensland - information http://spinabifida.org/sb-info/Women's and Children's Hospital (South Australia) pamphlet 'Screening tests for Down Syndrome and Neural Tube Defects (Spina Bifida)The information on this site should not be used as an alternative to professional care. If you have a particular problem, see your doctor or midwife.


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Benefit Administrators Group has been recognized as a leader in the insurance industry for over a quarter of a century. Built on years of trust and confidence, Benefit Administrators Group takes pride in the exceptional insurance benefits we have provided to Ohio businesses, families, and individuals. From health and wellness to critical care, we understand how much is at stake when it comes to your insurance investment.

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what county is santa rosa, tx in

Santa Rosa is a town in Cameron County, Texas, United States. The population was 2,833 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Brownsville–Harlingen Metropolitan Statistical Area. Santa Rosa is located at 26°15′24″N 97°49′36″W / 26.25667°N 97.82667°W / 26.25667; -97.82667 (26.256651, -97.826673). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.6 square miles (1.5 km²), all of it land.

Santa Rosa

Santa Rosa Santa Rosa, TXFavorite Share More Nearby Directions Sponsored Topics Santa Rosa Hotels Santa Rosa Restaurants Description


guatemala absolute location

Transcript of The Five Themes of Geography in Central America San Hose,Guatemala Relative Location: The Five Themes of Geography in Central America Guatemala Formal Region: San Hose, Guatemala Absolute location: 15 47' N/ 90 13' W Costa Rica Relative Location: San Hose is bordering the North Pacific Ocean close to the southern tip of Guatemala and is right next to Puerto Quetzal.

Public & reusable Create your own Make a copy Share Embed Like The Five Themes of Geography in Central America No descriptionby Kayla Palmeron 24 February 2011Tweet Comments ( 0)Please log in to add your comment. Report abuse

Panama El Salvador Place: Pacaya Volcano. Pacaya Volcano erupted on May 27, 2010. It's elevation is 2,250 meters. The first time it erupted was proximately 23,000 years ago. Pacaya Volcano relates to a place because it is a Volcano that has been active for 23,000 years. San Lorenzo, Honduras Honduras Absolute Location: 13 24' N/ 87 25' W Relative location: San Lorenzo is located at the north eastern tip of the Gulf of Fonseca. San Lorenzo is located 60 miles south of Tegucigalpa. Place: Caratasca Lagoon Caratasca Lagoon is the largest lagoon. It connects to the Caribbean Sea. Colon, Panama Colon and Panama City are 25 miles apart from each other. Place: The Rio Chagres One of the only wide rivers in Panama. Is a source of Hydroelectric power. Human-Interaction The Panama Canal was built in between 1904 and 1914. The canal was built because they wanted a way to have a way to the Pacific Ocean. The U. S. promised that Panama could have the land to build the canal. They decided that it would be a Lock Canal so that Lake Chagres could form. Place: Lake Arenal In 1979, Lake Arenal was enlarged to three times its orginal size by a hydroelectric dam. The dam produces about 12% of Costa Rica's electrical Energy. The lake gets tons of people visiting it every year. It is considered one of the world's best windsurfing destination. Region: South Pacific Region of Costa Rica The South Pacific Region of Costa Rica is known for its biological diversity. The region has lush rainforests, abundant wildlife, unharmed beaches, and the highest mountians in Costa Rica. Caratasca Lagoon Santa Ana Volcano Absolute Location: 13 51' N/ 89 37' WFull transcript More presentations by Kayla Palmer All About Me Kayla Palmer-Erotomania Kayla Palmer, Go Ask Alice Popular presentations See more popular or the latest prezis


what is an earpod?

ic? The voice coil is supported by a composite diaphragm made of a paper cone and a polymer surround. This is the first iteration of Apple headphones to use paper cones rather than all plastic. The most exciting—and most widely publicized—feature of the Ear Pods is the unique teardrop-esque shape of the cabinet.

Apple EarPods Teardown

"Apple Ear Pods Teardown Published: September 18, 2012Comments: 38 Favorites: 126 Views: 492.1k Teardown Tools Featured in this Teardown Buy these tools Precision Utility Knife$4.99Buyi Fixit Opening Picks set of 6$4.99Buy Metal Spudger$2.99Buy Introduction After three years of research and development, Apple has released the newest version of their popular headphones, now dubbed ""Ear Pods."" Join us as we crack these pods open and take a look at what three years of R & D can accomplish. Love all of these gadget teardowns? Be sure to follow @ifixit and stay up to date on all the latest happenings from our teardown lab. This teardown is not a repair guide. To repair your Apple Ear Pods, use our service manual. Step 1 Apple Ear Pods Teardown What better accessory to accompany the new-and-improved i Phone than a set of new-and-improved headphones?!? Here are some of the hot new features on Apple's freshest auditory accessory: Redesigned case for improved in-ear fitment and sound distribution. Exterior acoustic vents for increased bass. In-line microphone and volume remote. Dual-material speaker diaphragms to cut sound loss and increase output. Standard issue with any new i Phone 5, i Pod Touch 5th Generation, or i Pod Nano 7th Generation. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 2In case you were wondering, the Ear Pods have a model number of MD827LL/A. Apple claims that their new Ear Pods perform at the same level as headphones that cost hundreds of dollars more, but these sweet beat makers will only cost you $29 (plus tax, if applicable ). Call us skeptics if you'd like, but we're not sure how that could be accomplished with a single-driver setup. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 3The first thing we notice (and already knew) is the totally redesigned shape of the Ear Pods. Apple seems to believe that cramming a perfectly round earbud into your ear is no smarter than trying to fit a square peg through a round hole. With the Ear Pods in your ears, it's actually pretty difficult for passersby to tell that your headphones aren't just good ol' Apple Earbuds. If someone can tell, they either have quite an eye for detail, or they're way too close to your face. The next noticeable design feature for the Ear Pods is that the main speaker port faces forward, rather than directly into your ear canal. Is sound that is not pointed directly at your ear drum better to listen to? We don't know, but that's the verdict of Apple's acousticians, and they get paid a lot of money to do what they do. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 4Apple had durability in mind with the new Ear Pods. Notice the new remote design (left), which includes larger cable wrapping near the remote than the previous earbuds (right) to reduce strain on the wires. If you're using your Ear Pods with an i Phone or i Pod, chances are you'll be stuffing them into your pocket or backpack a lot, which can put a lot of stress on the connections. To make the new Ear Pods more resistant to water and sweat damage Apple's designers removed the external microphone grate. As an i Fixit user rightfully pointed out to us, the previous microphone grate was for show only! We confirmed that no hole exists in the plastics. Thanks Todd!Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment We have the right To repair our own stuff Protect your rights Step 5Tools used on this step:i Fixit Opening Picks set of 6 $4.99It's finally time to crack these little guys open; this is a teardown, after all. We prefer to use our guitar picks to shred a pair of Ear Pods instead of shredding a guitar (which would probably sound great through the Ear Pods). Edit3 comments Hello Fix-It Team, could you please describe in detail (!) how to open this remote. I tried it, but had to stop before getting it open, becaus i felt to break any of the hidden plastic snaps?! Is there a „correct“ way to open it so nothing gets damaged? Thanks for your reply Dominik - 11/24/2013 Reply My volume up buttons was not working at all and the volume down button was getting stuck sometimes forcing the volume all the way down. I was able to open the compartment that holds the volume buttons and the mic and I was able to deal out some debris. My volume up now works a little and the volume down button doesn't seem to be getting stuck. This is all with the lid still off. My question is: I can't seem to easily pit the lid back on. Is this a one way trip? How do I put the lid back on? Rafael - 12/14/2014 Reply I have exactly the same problem. I notice that the lid seemed to be held on by the middle part, yet there's no plastic bit in the middle, or anything that would secure it in place there. But there is a little discolored circle both on the inside of the lid and on the metal under it. I think it's glued on or something. Do tell me if you found a way to put the lid back on!oliaudet - 04/29/2015Add a comment Step 6The underside of the remote cover reveals three buttons and a microphone. No surprise here, as the remote has three buttons. With a little more coaxing cutting, we are able to remove the flexible PCB within the Ear Pods' remote. The microphone in the Ear Pods' remote bears the markings 2F17 045. Will this microphone be similar to one of the three microphones inside the i Phone 5? Probably. Will it be the same? All will be revealed in due time three more days. We also uncover another IC with the markings TI25ASGVI 079, which Chipworks believes to be a Texas Instruments ADC, or a device used for volume-control duty. All these components look large when shot in our pictures, but they're quite small in real life. That's how the board looks like when compared to a U. S. dime. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 7As a reference, here's what the insides of the old remote look like: two turntables three buttons and a microphone. The control board in the old earphones isn't nearly as sealed or secured as the new Ear Pods, leading to a common complaint among gym-goers finding that their sweet earphones don't work so well when doused in sweat. The microphone reads: S262 9164. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 8With such a tight fit between the two halves of the Ear Pods, simply pulling them apart wasn't an option. We knew what we needed to do. We don't normally cut open earbuds, but when we do, we prefer X-Acto #11 blades. This isn't something you'd want to try at home. Once these Pods are open, they're not closing back up unless you want to involve glue. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 9While an updated remote is nice, the real innovation in the Ear Pods is in the speakers. Like most speakers, the speakers in the Ear Pods consist of a diaphragm/cone, a voice coil, a permanent magnet, and a cabinet. Paper or Plast

Yet once these guys are open, things start looking quite similar to other earbuds. Apple spent a lot of time analyzing people's ears, so hopefully their external design will pay dividends in the auditory excellence department. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 10For the audiophiles, here are front and back views (top and bottom, respectively) of the separated drivers. Apple's switch to paper-based speaker cones may be the source of their advertised improved low and mid-range response. We also discovered that the speaker basket has a much more refined look than previous models (see comparison in next step), with a fine mesh covering the back and symmetrically-placed vents. The basket is a critical component, as it must be rigid to maintain consistent sound quality while still being open enough to not inhibit movement of air behind the vibrating diaphragm. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment Step 11Hardly peas in a pod, different revisions of Apple earbuds exhibit some drastic changes in internal construction and driver design. From the top, we have: Previous-generation i Phone earbuds First-generation i Pod earbuds New-generation Apple Ear Pods The most notable differences separating the Ear Pods are just what you'd expect—a drastically redesigned housing, and a new material for the speaker cone. Edit One comment This earpods aren't the 12 step Serafim Valmorbida - 06/11/2013 Reply Add a comment Step 12At i Fixit, our bottom line is durability and repairability, and their impact on electronics waste. The new Apple Ear Pods do have significant improvements in durability: The new remote is better sealed against water damage, and features strain relief wrapping to increase the life of the cable. Paper speaker cones are more resistant to tearing than plastic, decreasing the likelihood of blowing out your drivers. But unfortunately, these products are still of the throw-away kind. Sourcing parts is next to impossible, and it would be a tough sell to convince someone to take apart their earbuds instead of buying a new pair. They will never be the same once taken apart. Edit Add a comment Add a comment Add Comment34 Comments Add a comment I'm not sure if my edit worked or not, but Step 4 has some incorrect information:""To make the new Ear Pods more resistant to water and sweat damage, Apple's designers removed the external microphone grate. ""The old microphone grate was actually just for show. There was no hole, just a recessed area and a piece of metal glued to it to indicate that it was a microphone : PTodd Keebs - 09/18/2012 Reply The step was updated with a hat tip your way, Todd! The ""hole"" on the other side was covered by a metal piece. It was evident that no hole existed once we removed that piece, but we didn't think to do it earlier since we just *assumed* it would have a hole :)Miroslav Djuric - 09/18/2012Another little correction on Step 4: The previous design you're showing isn't in fact the previous design, just A previous design. The previous designe (starting ca. i Phone 4S) did already include a larger cable wrapping.foobar - 09/18/2012 Reply I'm surprised to hear that it's ""unfortunate"" that these earpods are the throw-away kind. Does anyone in the world realistically repair their ear buds, especially the $30 kind? It seems like you felt obligated to put an ""unfortunately"" clause in your article. Jonathan - 09/18/2012 Reply It's sometimes easy to forget that $30 for a pair of earbuds isn't exactly chump change. Sometimes all you can afford is just a pair of earbuds. Growing up, if I bought a pair of $30 earbuds, I'd have to hold onto them for a long, long time. There was no ""toss it in the trash because it broke"" fund. If it broke, I either fixed it or didn't have earbuds. I'm willing to bet that a lot of people are in that same predicament today. Now granted, I probably wouldn't buy these particular earbuds with my $30, but that's a different story altogether. It is, however, a shame that they — just like most other earbuds on the market — cannot be fixed if broken. I think that sentiment extends to all other non-fixable earbuds, not just the Ear Pods. Miroslav Djuric - 09/18/2012Really late but I agree, I refurb these earbuds a lot and came here to check which is the ground pad and which is the positive on the lil drivers Ethan Chow - March 12Showing a white color product teardown images on a white background? Just a thought a light grey or any other muted color background might have been looked more clear and convincing. Again, Just my point of view.wat ever - 09/18/2012 Reply Oh, it's a doozy to shoot white on white, but alas it was the only color paper we had... Miroslav Djuric - 09/18/2012Have you guys checked out Iron Buds yet? ( http://www.acousticforge.com/) The entire purpose of the 'phones was to build earbuds that have user replaceable parts. Ian Logsdon - 09/19/2012 Reply Hi everybody. I was using my ear pods for 1 week and the plug fail. Somebody knows what is the pin assignment and the cable distribution?. Thanks, Uber Uber Velez - 12/10/2012 Reply I have a problem Unlike normal earphones and YOUR earpods, my earpods have 4 wires connected, not just 2. I wondered why and my father said that it's because it has 2 stereos in each speaker. 2 wires for one stereo and another 2 for another stereo. That's 4 stereos in every Apple earpod. Well i'm trying to hotwire the earpods so i take the stereo from it and use it on another pair of earphones. Would i have to split the 2 wires of the other earphones to match all 4 sections of the earpod's stereo? Hadi - 05/21/2013 Reply All earpods have 4 wires, more correctly all TRRS headphones have 4 wires T:mic R:ground R:right S:left Ethan Chow - 05/24/2016Ethan Chow's information is reversed, the TRRS plug actually works like this: T- left audio;R- right audio;R - ground;S - microphone;It is arranged in an order to be compatible to older TS or TRS sockets. Cheong Li - 07/12/2016I was surprised at the hidden mic, and the sound channel they provided (seen on the frame to one side of the mic). The gasket between the bottom shell and PCA frame was clearly there to provide isolation and reduce the chamber size (you can see the gasket and it's mic direction in Step 12). The one I am looking at now has kapton tape over the whole PCB with the little spacers on it over the button domes. Most likely to prevent the metal from on the button from shorting the PCB.greystarr - 09/04/2013 Reply So these are in fact dual driver (2 speakers in each earbud)? It looks like this is the case from step 10 but I'm having a hard time accepting this fact due to the price...tr1ph0pp3r - 02/26/2014 Reply I would also like to know if the Ear Pods have dual drivers. William Cody Winter - 10/20/2014It is a single driver. The left piece of top and bottom in step 10 shows the front and back of magnet and circuit board respectively. The right top and bottom is the front and back of the voice coil and diaphragm respectively. The pieces fit as follows: Back outer cover, magnet/circuit bard, voice coil/diaphragm, front outer cover. Ryo Saeba - 10/27/2014Today I managed to repair a broken plug of Earbuds. The speciality is the Microphone cable, which comprises a golden cable which is surrounded by red and green stranded wires. Newton2k1 - 11/30/2014 Reply Everything is worth to be repaired! My son came with his Ear Pods and broken wire at the plug and after googling and finding the right pin-out he was happy that he learned how they can be fixed. It was not all about some saved bucks but having a great hour+ with my son, having fun and learn something useful. Not soldering in particular but co-work of old school and new age :-)Besides that each repair is actively saving energy. Newton2k1 - 12/02/2014 Reply I have the stock buds from an i Phone 5s. The right side has 3 or 4 bundles of wire. How would you separate them? I cut them above the mic so it shouldn't be an issue. I want to solder the wire onto another set of buds which don't have a mic. (etomotic ER-6i)If anyone can help thanks ahead of time.bear90039 - 06/11/2015 Reply I just took my sons apart to clean. They were very tinny sounding and you had to cup your ears to hear them. I thought I had lost the ground to them but alas they were just chuck full of earwax! Q-tip and alcohol didnt cut it so... I seperated the clamshell at the part line and removed the sealing membrane from behind the mesh and soaked the screen halves in alcohol to release the wax. blew out the residue and glued back together and they sound new again, maybe a little more treble with the membrane behind the screen removed. My drivers were clear plastic, not paper as described but I did have the ear-pod duct design. Those cones are very fragile. I touched one with a toothpick to see if the cones were blown and i left a little dent in them that didnt pop out. I recommend cleaning them if they get tinny sounding. you may be able to soak the duct screen in alcohol and toothbrush it without cracking them open. just dont immerse.steve - 08/16/2015 Reply Can you also show a tear down of the other type of earphones by Apple? The one that have silicone tips. Thank you.jef pablo - 02/15/2016 Reply I just got mines yesterday is it okay for me for where ever I go I have to put it in the box so it won't be broke Karnes Nipple - 07/05/2016 Reply Just looking deeper myself - the 3 openings on the housing not described in this teardown are Venting ... and inside the neck is a metal collar that has been insert molded into the shell with the mesh over openings on both sides.greystarr - 07/11/2016 Reply Did you do electrical measurements on the TRRS contacts to reverse-engineer what the schematic is for the control buttons? I have looked all over the Internet and can't find this posted anywhere. Peter CHECKOVICH - 10/04/2016 Reply So which wire of the six hook up to the mic.. Green Red Red&ahold Green&Gold Red&Green????? Gavin G - 10/23/2016 Reply Wondering why this teardown found a silvery diaphragm rather than the hybrid paper cones here?https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u FONo N0z... Did they redesign them?tipoo - 03/07/2017 Reply I've bought an original Apple Ear Pods but its size is different from what was in case of my i Phone 6 Plus. It's a littler smaller. Is it original or it just has a different size? The last ones Jack 3.5 mm got a problem.محمدحسن شیری - 04/05/2017 Reply Hi I would like to use this as a mic for my Motorcycle vlog but I don't need the earbuds. Will they still work if I snip them just above the remote? Thanksjerry - 06/07/2017 Reply Yes they will Ethan Chow - March 12hii have an iphone 4s ..and airpods also ..the problem is i can connecting the airpods to my iphone 4s but i cannot able to change the name and i cannot able to find the options for this..can u pls help meலட்சுமி - 12/06/2017 Replyhii have an iphone4s and airpods ..the problem is i can connecting airpods to my iphone4s and listening songs …but i cannot able to change the name my airpods and i cannot able to find the options for it…can u pls help itலட்சுமி - 12/06/2017 Reply Will the mic work with Microsoft Mixed Reality headsets with jack? My speakers work, but not my mic…or maybe I need to set up my mic in Windows…orrrr…a ring and tip conversion/adaptor needed? Seasons greetings Chas Dingus Mc Gee - 12/06/2017 Reply Do not follow this guide for taking apart the actual ear buds, all you need to do is heat up the earbud (use a heat gun or a hairdryer). I set my heat gun to 350° F and waved it back and forth in the heat for 20 seconds, after the heat loosens up the two halves they will rotate freely. From there simply use your thumbnail to wedge between the two halves while twisting. This method leaves absolutely no damage and afterward the two halves snap right back together easily and stay solidly connected. Don’t just use an xacto knife just because the person who wrote this post wasn’t clever enough to think of a non destructive way to disassemble a pair of $30 headphones, save your money and use heat instead. Uncle Dirt Nap - March 24 Reply Add Comment "


what is a skilled bed in a nursing home

Skilled nursing is a level of hospitalization care for patients who require certain services. Skilled nursing services (Swing Beds) are extremely beneficial when a patient is ready to leave the acute care level of a hospital stay, but is not yet well enough to return home. At HCHS, skilled nursing patients are cared for on the Acute Care floor of the hospital by our staff of health care professionals.

Skilled Nursing (Swing Bed)

Skilled Nursing (Swing Bed)We want to help you get well and return to your home or a home-like setting. Skilled Nursing After an illness, stroke, injury or surgery, you may be getting better but still needs some additional skilled care before returning to a home environment.

If you are a patient coming from another facility, a discharge planner from that facility will assist in transferring you to Hancock County Memorial Hospital (HCMH) for skilled nursing services. In some cases, if you are already a patient at HCMH and need further care, you may stay in the same hospital bed but change your level of care to skilled nursing service. As a skilled nursing patient at HCMH you will receive our high quality of care, with better staff-to-patient ratios than larger facilities or nursing homes. Patients can recover while they are closer to family, friends and loved ones. Services Medicare, Medicaid and private insurance all have their own guidelines regarding skilled nursing care. This makes it important to define your needs to make sure you are receiving the appropriate level of care to qualify for the appropriate coverage. Skilled nursing services may include, but are not limited to: Rehabilitation services such as that following strokes and joint replacements (may include physical, occupational and speech therapies)Frequent laboratory monitoring IV medications or medications requiring monitoring by professional staff Tube feedings and nutritional stabilization Wound management/sterile dressing changes Qualifying bowel and bladder care Respiratory therapy Care of decubitus ulcers Instructions in ostomy or stoma care Terminal care for patients needing pain control or skilled supportive care. Admission Criteria Medicare’s qualifications for admission to skilled nursing include: Three-day (consecutive) acute level of care stay within the past 30 days Physician referral for necessary daily skilled service related to hospitalization Medicare Part A (Hospital) Benefit or available days remaining in current benefit period. Swing Bed Self Pay Swing Bed Self Pay services are available if justification for acute/skilled level of care is not met and you wish to remain within the hospital on a private-pay basis. All private-pay charges will be paid on a seven-day basis to prevent any misunderstanding of long-term accumulated charges. More detailed information regarding Swing Bed Self Pay charges that are most frequently incurred is available upon request. Who Needs Skilled Nursing Services? HCMH has the advantage of offering individualized, convenient care with a personal touch. Patients often choose skilled nursing/ swing bed services at HCMH because they can be closer to home and more convenient for the family and friends involved in their care. Types of patients that are candidates for Skilled Nursing/Swing Bed include, but are not limited to: Joint replacements or other orthopedic surgery patients needing frequent physical therapy. Stroke patients who need to improve their level of functioning with continued therapy. Cardiac patients needing skilled activity programs following a heart attack or acute episode of congestive heart failure. Patients requiring wound management/ sterile dressing changes Patients with long-term illnesses such as cancer or immune deficiency disease. Patients recovering from illnesses requiring continued IV therapy. For more information on Swing Bed, Skilled Nursing, or Self Pay Care, close to home at HCHS, contact us at 641-843-5200.


temperature for home freezer

]Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Food stored at or below −18 °C (0 °F) is safe indefinitely. [8] Most household freezers maintain temperatures from −23 to −18 °C (−9 to 0 °F), although some freezer-only units can achieve −34 °C (−29 °F) and lower.

Refrigerator

"Refrigerator From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Freezer)navigation search For other uses, see Refrigerator (disambiguation). ""Fridge"" and ""Freezer"" redirect here. For other uses, see Fridge (disambiguation) and Freezer (disambiguation). Food in a refrigerator with its door open A side-by-side refrigerator-freezer with an icemaker A refrigerator (colloquially fridge, or fridgefreezer in the UK) is a popular household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic or chemical) that transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Refrigeration is an essential food storage technique in developed countries. The lower temperature lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage. A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F). [1] A similar device that maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator replaced the icebox, which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox in American usage. The first cooling systems for food involved using ice. Artificial refrigeration began in the mid-1750s, and developed in the early 1800s. In 1834, the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system was built. The first commercial ice-making machine was invented in 1854. In 1913, refrigerators for home use were invented. In 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s. Home freezers as separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes) were introduced in 1940. Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer units are used in households and in industry and commerce. Commercial refrigerator and freezer units were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. The freezer-on-top-and-refrigerator-on-bottom style has been the basic style since the 1940s, until modern refrigerators broke the trend. A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers. Newer refrigerators may include automatic defrosting, chilled water, and ice from a dispenser in the door. Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen. The refrigerator allows the modern household to keep food fresh for longer than before. Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, and bulk purchases save money. Contents [ hide ]1 History1.1 Refrigeration technology1.2 Domestic refrigerator2 Freezer3 Commercial and domestic refrigerators4 Styles of refrigerators5 Production by country6 General technical explanation7 Features8 Types of domestic refrigerators9 Energy efficiency9.1 Today10 Effect on lifestyle11 Temperature zones and ratings12 Commercial refrigeration temperatures13 See also14 References15 Further reading16 External links History [ edit]Refrigeration technology [ edit]See also: Refrigeration and Timeline of low-temperature technology Before the invention of the refrigerator, icehouses were used to provide cool storage for most of the year. Placed near freshwater lakes or packed with snow and ice during the winter, they were once very common. Natural means are still used to cool foods today. On mountainsides, runoff from melting snow is a convenient way to cool drinks, and during the winter one can keep milk fresh much longer just by keeping it outdoors. The word ""refrigeratory"" was used at least as early as the 17th century [2]The history of artificial refrigeration began when Scottish professor William Cullen designed a small refrigerating machine in 1755. Cullen used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air. [3] The experiment even created a small amount of ice, but had no practical application at that time. Schematic of Dr. John Gorrie's 1841 mechanical ice machine. In 1805, American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. In 1820, the British scientist Michael Faraday liquefied ammonia and other gases by using high pressures and low temperatures, and in 1834, an American expatriate in Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system. It was a closed-cycle device that could operate continuously. [4] A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, [5] who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether. The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a Scottish Australian. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses, and by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation. Ferdinand Carré 's ice-making device The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as ""aqua ammonia"") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible the use of gases such as ammonia (NH 3 ), sulfur dioxide (SO 2) and methyl chloride (CH 3 Cl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s. Domestic refrigerator [ edit]Mc Cray pre-electric home refrigerator ad (1905). This company, founded in 1887, is still in business. In 1913, refrigerators for home and domestic use were invented by Fred W. Wolf of Fort Wayne, Indiana with models consisting of a unit that was mounted on top of an ice box. [6] In 1914, engineer Nathaniel B. Wales of Detroit, Michigan, introduced an idea for a practical electric refrigeration unit, which later became the basis for the Kelvinator. A self-contained refrigerator, with a compressor on the bottom of the cabinet was invented by Alfred Mellowes in 1916. Mellowes produced this refrigerator commercially but was bought out by William C. Durant in 1918, who started the Frigidaire company to mass-produce refrigerators. In 1918, Kelvinator company introduced the first refrigerator with any type of automatic control. The absorption refrigerator was invented by Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters from Sweden in 1922, while they were still students at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. It became a worldwide success and was commercialized by Electrolux. Other pioneers included Charles Tellier, David Boyle, and Raoul Pictet. Carl von Linde was the first to patent and make a practical and compact refrigerator. These home units usually required the installation of the mechanical parts, motor and compressor, in the basement or an adjacent room while the cold box was located in the kitchen. There was a 1922 model that consisted of a wooden cold box, water-cooled compressor, an ice cube tray and a 9-cubic-foot (0.25 m 3) compartment, and cost $714. (A 1922 Model-T Ford cost about $450.) By 1923, Kelvinator held 80 percent of the market for electric refrigerators. Also in 1923 Frigidaire introduced the first self-contained unit. About this same time porcelain-covered metal cabinets began to appear. Ice cube trays were introduced more and more during the 1920s; up to this time freezing was not an auxiliary function of the modern refrigerator. General Electric ""Monitor-Top"" refrigerator, introduced in 1927. The first refrigerator to see widespread use was the General Electric ""Monitor-Top"" refrigerator introduced in 1927, so-called because of its resemblance to the gun turret on the ironclad warship USS Monitor of the 1860s. The compressor assembly, which emitted a great deal of heat, was placed above the cabinet, and enclosed by a decorative ring. Over a million units were produced. As the refrigerating medium, these refrigerators used either sulfur dioxide, which is corrosive to the eyes and may cause loss of vision, painful skin burns and lesions, or methyl formate, which is highly flammable, harmful to the eyes, and toxic if inhaled or ingested. Many of these units are still functional today, after requiring little more service than a replacement start relay or thermostat if at all. These cooling systems cannot legally be recharged with the hazardous original refrigerants if they leak or break down. The introduction of Freon in the 1920s expanded the refrigerator market during the 1930s and provided a safer, low-toxicity alternative to previously used refrigerants. Separate freezers became common during the 1940s; the popular term at the time for the unit was a deep freeze. These devices, or appliances, did not go into mass production for use in the home until after World War II. [7] The 1950s and 1960s saw technical advances like automatic defrosting and automatic ice making. More efficient refrigerators were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, even though environmental issues led to the banning of very effective (Freon) refrigerants. Early refrigerator models (from 1916) had a cold compartment for ice cube trays. From the late 1920s fresh vegetables were successfully processed through freezing by the Postum Company (the forerunner of General Foods ), which had acquired the technology when it bought the rights to Clarence Birdseye 's successful fresh freezing methods. The first successful application of frozen foods occurred when General Foods heiress Marjorie Merriweather Post (then wife of Joseph E. Davies, United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union) deployed commercial-grade freezers in Spaso House, the US Embassy in Moscow, in advance of the Davies’ arrival. Post, fearful of the USSR's food processing safety standards, fully stocked the freezers with products from General Foods' Birdseye unit. The frozen food stores allowed the Davies to entertain lavishly and serve fresh frozen foods that would otherwise be out of season. Upon returning from Moscow, Post (who resumed her maiden name after divorcing Davies) directed General Foods to market frozen product to upscale restaurants. Home freezers as separate compartments (larger than necessary just for ice cubes), or as separate units, were introduced in the United States in 1940. Frozen foods, previously a luxury item, became commonplace. Freezer [ edit

Refrigerators generally do not achieve lower than −23 °C (−9 °F), since the same coolant loop serves both compartments: Lowering the freezer compartment temperature excessively causes difficulties in maintaining above-freezing temperature in the refrigerator compartment. Domestic freezers can be included as a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Domestic freezers are generally upright units resembling refrigerators or chests (upright units laid on their backs). Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Some upscale models include thermostat displays and controls, and sometimes flatscreen televisions as well. Commercial and domestic refrigerators [ edit]Commercial refrigerator and freezer units, which go by many other names, were in use for almost 40 years prior to the common home models. They used gas systems such as ammonia (R-717) or sulfur dioxide (R-764), which occasionally leaked, making them unsafe for home use. Practical household refrigerators were introduced in 1915 and gained wider acceptance in the United States in the 1930s as prices fell and non-toxic, non-flammable synthetic refrigerants such as Freon-12 (R-12) were introduced. However, R-12 damaged the ozone layer, causing governments to issue a ban on its use in new refrigerators and air-conditioning systems in 1994. The less harmful replacement for R-12, R-134a (tetrafluoroethane), has been in common use since 1990, but R-12 is still found in many old systems today. A common commercial refrigerator is the glass fronted beverage cooler. These type of appliances are typically designed for specific re-load conditions meaning that they generally have a larger cooling system. This ensures that they are able to cope with a large throughput of drinks and frequent door opening. As a result, it is common for these types of commercial refrigerators to have energy consumption of >4 k Wh/day. [9]Styles of refrigerators [ edit]Frigidaire Imperial ""Frost Proof"" model FPI-16BC-63, top refrigerator/bottom freezer with brushed chrome door finish made by General Motors Canada in 1963In the early 1950s most refrigerators were white, but from the mid-1950s through present day designers and manufacturers put color onto refrigerators. In the late-1950s/early-1960s, pastel colors like turquoise and pink became popular, brushed chrome-plating (similar to stainless finish) was available on some models from different brands. In the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, earth tone colors were popular, including Harvest Gold, Avocado Green and almond. In the 1980s, black became fashionable. In the late 1990s stainless steel came into vogue, and in 2009, one manufacturer introduced multi-color designs. Production by country [ edit] [10] [ show] Country Production Year General technical explanation [ edit]See also: Heat pump and refrigeration cycle Basic functioning of a refrigerator Process and components of a conventional refrigerator Vapor compression cycle – A: hot compartment (kitchen), B: cold compartment (refrigerator box), I: insulation, 1: Condenser, 2: Expansion valve, 3: Evaporator unit, 4: Compressor An Embraco compressor and fan-assisted condenser coil A vapor compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators, refrigerator–freezers and freezers. In this cycle, a circulating refrigerant such as R134a enters a compressor as low-pressure vapor at or slightly below the temperature of the refrigerator interior. The vapor is compressed and exits the compressor as high-pressure superheated vapor. The superheated vapor travels under pressure through coils or tubes that make up the condenser; the coils or tubes are passively cooled by exposure to air in the room. The condenser cools the vapor, which liquefies. As the refrigerant leaves the condenser, it is still under pressure but is now only slightly above room temperature. This liquid refrigerant is forced through a metering or throttling device, also known as an expansion valve (essentially a pin-hole sized constriction in the tubing) to an area of much lower pressure. The sudden decrease in pressure results in explosive-like flash evaporation of a portion (typically about half) of the liquid. The latent heat absorbed by this flash evaporation is drawn mostly from adjacent still-liquid refrigerant, a phenomenon known as auto-refrigeration. This cold and partially vaporized refrigerant continues through the coils or tubes of the evaporator unit. A fan blows air from the refrigerator or freezer compartment (""box air"") across these coils or tubes and the refrigerant completely vaporizes, drawing further latent heat from the box air. This cooled air is returned to the refrigerator or freezer compartment, and so keeps the box air cold. Note that the cool air in the refrigerator or freezer is still warmer than the refrigerant in the evaporator. Refrigerant leaves the evaporator, now fully vaporized and slightly heated, and returns to the compressor inlet to continue the cycle. Modern domestic refrigerators are extremely reliable because motor and compressor are integrated within a welded container, ""sealed unit"", with greatly reduced likelihood of leakage or contamination. By comparison, externally-coupled refrigeration compressors, such as those in automobile air conditioning, inevitably leak fluid and lubricant past the shaft seals. This leads to a requirement for periodic recharging and, if ignored, possible compressor failure. An absorption refrigerator works differently from a compressor refrigerator, using a source of heat, such as combustion of liquefied petroleum gas, solar thermal energy or an electric heating element. These heat sources are much quieter than the compressor motor in a typical refrigerator. A fan or pump might be the only mechanical moving parts; reliance on convection is considered impractical. The Peltier effect uses electricity to pump heat directly; refrigerators employing this system are sometimes used for camping, or in situations where noise is not acceptable. They can be totally silent (if a fan for air circulation is not fitted) but are less energy-efficient than other methods. Other uses of an absorption refrigerator (or ""chiller"") include large systems used in office buildings or complexes such as hospitals and universities. These large systems are used to chill a brine solution that is circulated through the building. Many modern refrigerator/freezers have the freezer on top and the refrigerator on the bottom. Most refrigerator-freezers—except for manual defrost models or cheaper units—use what appears to be two thermostats. Only the refrigerator compartment is properly temperature controlled. When the refrigerator gets too warm, the thermostat starts the cooling process and a fan circulates the air around the freezer. During this time, the refrigerator also gets colder. The freezer control knob only controls the amount of air that flows into the refrigerator via a damper system. [11] Changing the refrigerator temperature will inadvertently change the freezer temperature in the opposite direction. Changing the freezer temperature will have no effect on the refrigerator temperature. The freezer control may also be adjusted to compensate for any refrigerator adjustment. This means the refrigerator may become too warm. However, because only enough air is diverted to the refrigerator compartment, the freezer usually re-acquires the set temperature quickly, unless the door is opened. When a door is opened, either in the refrigerator or the freezer, the fan in some units stops immediately to prevent excessive frost build up on the freezer's evaporator coil, because this coil is cooling two areas. When the freezer reaches temperature, the unit cycles off, no matter what the refrigerator temperature is. Modern computerized refrigerators do not use the damper system. The computer manages fan speed for both compartments, although air is still blown from the freezer. A few manufacturers offer dual compressor models. These models have separate freezer and refrigerator compartments that operate independently of each other, sometimes mounted within a single cabinet. Each has its own separate compressor, condenser and evaporator coils, insulation, thermostat, and door. Typically, the compressors and condenser coils are mounted at the top of the cabinet, with a single fan to cool them both. This design, where no air passes between the two compartments, provides for more appropriate humidity levels and much tighter temperature control in each compartment. It also requires much less energy to operate, since each compressor & coolant system can be optimized for a specific temperature range. Further, opening the door of one compartment does not affect the temperature of the air or humidity level in the other compartment. Thus, it avoids many of the disadvantages of the much more common single compressor designs described above, although at a higher initial cost and increased system noise. [ citation needed] Manufacturers of such designs argue that the increased cost is compensated over time due to reduced energy use and less food waste due to reduced spoilage. ""Ultra-cold"" or ""ultra-low temperature (ULT)"" (typically -80 C) freezers, as used for storing biological samples, also generally employ two stages of cooling, but in cascade. The lower temperature stage uses methane, or a similar gas, as a refrigerant, with its condenser kept at around -40 C by a second stage which uses a more conventional refrigerant. Well known brands include Forma and Revco (both now Thermo Scientific) and Thermoline. For much lower temperatures (around -196 C), laboratories usually purchase liquid nitrogen, kept in a Dewar flask, into which the samples are suspended. Alternatives to the vapor-compression cycle not in current use include: Acoustic cooling Air cycle Magnetic cooling Malone engine Pulse tube Stirling cycle Thermoelectric cooling and thermionic cooling Vortex tube Water cycle systems. [12]Features [ edit]The inside of a home refrigerator containing a large variety of everyday food items. Newer refrigerators may include: Automatic defrosting A power failure warning that alerts the user by flashing a temperature display. It may display the maximum temperature reached during the power failure, and whether frozen food has defrosted or may contain harmful bacteria. Chilled water and ice from a dispenser in the door. Water and ice dispensing became available in the 1970s. In some refrigerators, the process of making ice is built-in so the user doesn't have to manually use ice trays. Some refrigerators have water chillers and water filtration systems. Cabinet rollers that lets the refrigerator roll out for easier cleaning Adjustable shelves and trays A status indicator that notifies when it is time to change the water filter An in-door ice caddy, which relocates the ice-maker storage to the freezer door and saves approximately 60 litres (2 cu ft) of usable freezer space. It is also removable, and helps to prevent ice-maker clogging. A cooling zone in the refrigerator door shelves. Air from the freezer section is diverted to the refrigerator door, to cool milk or juice stored in the door shelf. A drop down door built into the refrigerator main door, giving easy access to frequently used items such as milk, thus saving energy by not having to open the main door. A Fast Freeze function to rapidly cool foods by running the compressor for a predetermined amount of time and thus temporarily lowering the freezer temperature below normal operating levels. It is recommended to use this feature several hours before adding more than 1 kg of unfrozen food to the freezer. For freezers without this feature, lowering the temperature setting to the coldest will have the same effect. Early freezer units accumulated ice crystals around the freezing units. This was a result of humidity introduced into the units when the doors to the freezer were opened condensing on the cold parts, then freezing. This frost buildup required periodic thawing (""defrosting"") of the units to maintain their efficiency. Manual Defrost (referred to as Cyclic) units are still available. Advances in automatic defrosting eliminating the thawing task were introduced in the 1950s, but are not universal, due to energy performance and cost. These units used a counter that only defrosted the freezer compartment (Freezer Chest) when a specific number of door openings had been made. The units were just a small timer combined with an electrical heater wire that heated the freezer's walls for a short amount of time to remove all traces of frost/frosting. Also, early units featured freezer compartments located within the larger refrigerator, and accessed by opening the refrigerator door, and then the smaller internal freezer door; units featuring an entirely separate freezer compartment were introduced in the early 1960s, becoming the industry standard by the middle of that decade. These older freezer compartments were the main cooling body of the refrigerator, and only maintained a temperature of around −6 °C (21 °F), which is suitable for keeping food for a week. In the early 1950s, the butter conditioner's patent was filed and published by the inventor Nave Alfred E. This feature was supposed to ""provide a new and improved food storage receptacle for storing butter or the like which may quickly and easily be removed from the refrigerator cabinet for the purpose of cleaning."" [13] Because of the high interest to the invention, companies in UK, New Zealand, and Australia started to include the feature into the mass fridge production and soon it became a symbol of the local culture. However, not long after that it was removed from production as according to the companies this was the only way for them to meet new ecology regulations and they found it inefficient to have a heat generating device inside a fridge. Later advances included automatic ice units and self compartmentalized freezing units. An increasingly important environmental concern is the disposal of old refrigerators— initially because freon coolant damages the ozone layer —but as older generation refrigerators wear out, the destruction of CFC-bearing insulation also causes concern. Modern refrigerators usually use a refrigerant called HFC-134a ( 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane ), which does not deplete the ozone layer, instead of Freon. A R-134a is now becoming very uncommon in Europe. Newer refrigerants are being used instead. The main refrigerant now used is R-600a, or isobutane which has a smaller effect on the atmosphere if released. There have been reports of refrigerators exploding if the refrigerant leaks isobutane in the presence of a spark. If the coolant leaks into the fridge, at times when the door is not being opened (such as overnight) the concentration of coolant in the air within the fridge can build up to form an explosive mixture that can be ignited either by a spark from the thermostat or when the light comes on as the door is opened, resulting in documented cases of serious property damage and injury or even death from the resulting explosion. [14]Disposal of discarded refrigerators is regulated, often mandating the removal of doors; children playing hide-and-seek have been asphyxiated while hiding inside discarded refrigerators, particularly older models with latching doors. Since 2 August 1956, under U. S. federal law, refrigerator doors are no longer permitted to latch so they cannot be opened from the inside. [15] Modern units use a magnetic door gasket that holds the door sealed but allows it to be pushed open from the inside. [16] This gasket was invented, developed and manufactured by Max Baermann (1903-1984) of Bergisch Gladbach /Germany. [17]Types of domestic refrigerators [ edit]Domestic refrigerators and freezers for food storage are made in a range of sizes. Among the smallest is a 4 L Peltier refrigerator advertised as being able to hold 6 cans of beer. A large domestic refrigerator stands as tall as a person and may be about 1 m wide with a capacity of 600 L. Some models for small households fit under kitchen work surfaces, usually about 86 cm high. Refrigerators may be combined with freezers, either stacked with refrigerator or freezer above, below, or side by side. A refrigerator without a frozen food storage compartment may have a small section just to make ice cubes. Freezers may have drawers to store food in, or they may have no divisions (chest freezers). Refrigerators and freezers may be free-standing, or built into a kitchen. Three distinct classes of refrigerator are common: Compressor refrigerators are by far the most common type; they make a noticeable noise, but are most efficient and give greatest cooling effect. Portable compressor refrigerators for recreational vehicle (RV) and camping use are expensive but effective and reliable. Refrigeration units for commercial and industrial applications can be made in various sizes, shapes and styles to fit customer needs. Commercial and industrial refrigerators may have their compressors located away from the cabinet (similar to split system air conditioners) to reduce noise nuisance and reduce the load on air conditioning in hot weather. Absorption refrigerators may be used in caravans and trailers, and dwellings lacking electricity, such as farms or rural cabins, where they have a long history. They may be powered by any heat source: gas (natural or propane) or kerosene being common. Models made for camping and RV use often have the option of running (inefficiently) on 12 volt battery power. Solar refrigerators and Thermal mass refrigerators are designed to reduce electrical consumption. Solar refrigerators have the added advantage that they do not use refrigerants that are harmful to the environment or flammable. Typical solar designs are absorption refrigerators that use ammonia as the working gas, and employ large mirrors to concentrate sufficient sunlight to reach the temperature required to free gaseous ammonia from the solvent. [18] [19] Most thermal mass refrigerators are designed to use electricity intermittently. As these units are heavily insulated, cooling load is limited primarily to heat introduced by new items to be refrigerated, and ambient air transfer when the unit is open. Very little power is therefore required if opened infrequently. Peltier refrigerators are powered by electricity, usually 12 volt DC, but mains-powered wine coolers are available. Peltier refrigerators are inexpensive but inefficient and become progressively more inefficient with increased cooling effect; much of this inefficiency may be related to the temperature differential across the short distance between the ""hot"" and ""cold"" sides of the Peltier cell. Peltier refrigerators generally use heat sinks and fans to lower this differential; the only noise produced comes from the fan. Reversing the polarity of the voltage applied to the Peltier cells results in a heating rather than cooling effect. Other specialised cooling mechanisms may be used for cooling, but have not been applied to domestic or commercial refrigerators. Magnetic refrigerators are refrigerators that work on the magnetocaloric effect. The cooling effect is triggered by placing a metal alloy in a magnetic field. [20]Acoustic refrigerators are refrigerators that use resonant linear reciprocating motors/alternators to generate a sound that is converted to heat and cold using compressed helium gas. The heat is discarded and the cold is routed to the refrigerator. Energy efficiency [ edit]European energy label for a fridge. Modern American-style / side-by-side refrigerators In a house without air-conditioning (space heating and/or cooling) refrigerators consumed more energy than any other home device. [21] In the early 1990s a competition was held among the major manufacturers to encourage energy efficiency. [22] Current US models that are Energy Star qualified use 50% less energy than the average models made in 1974. [23] The most energy-efficient unit made in the US consumes about half a kilowatt-hour per day (equivalent to 20 W continuously). [24] But even ordinary units are quite efficient; some smaller units use less than 0.2 k Wh per day (equivalent to 8 W continuously). Larger units, especially those with large freezers and icemakers, may use as much as 4 k W·h per day (equivalent to 170 W continuously). The European Union uses a letter-based mandatory energy efficiency rating label instead of the Energy Star; thus EU refrigerators at the point of sale are labelled according to how energy-efficient they are. For US refrigerators, the Consortium on Energy Efficiency (CEE) further differentiates between Energy Star qualified refrigerators. Tier 1 refrigerators are those that are 20% to 24.9% more efficient than the Federal minimum standards set by the National Appliance Energy Conservation Act (NAECA). Tier 2 are those that are 25% to 29.9% more efficient. Tier 3 is the highest qualification, for those refrigerators that are at least 30% more efficient than Federal standards. [25] About 82% of the Energy Star qualified refrigerators are Tier 1, with 13% qualifying as Tier 2, and just 5% at Tier 3. [26]Besides the standard style of compressor refrigeration used in normal household refrigerators and freezers, there are technologies such as absorption refrigeration and magnetic refrigeration. Although these designs generally use a much larger amount of energy compared to compressor refrigeration, other qualities such as silent operation or the ability to use gas can favor these refrigeration units in small enclosures, a mobile environment or in environments where unit failure would lead to devastating consequences. Many refrigerators made in the 1930s and 1940s were far more efficient than most that were made later. This is partly attributable to the addition of new features, such as auto-defrost, that reduced efficiency. Additionally, after World War 2, refrigerator style became more important than efficiency. This was especially true in the USA in the 1970s, when side-by-side models (known as American fridgefreezers outside of the US) with ice dispensers and water chillers became popular. However, the reduction in efficiency also arose partly from reduction in the amount of insulation to cut costs. Today [ edit]Because of the introduction of new energy efficiency standards, refrigerators made today are much more efficient than those made in the 1930s; they consume the same amount of energy while being three times as large. [27] [28]The efficiency of older refrigerators can be improved by defrosting (if the unit is manual defrost) and cleaning them regularly, replacing old and worn door seals with new ones, adjusting the thermostat to accommodate the actual contents (a refrigerator needn't be colder than 4 °C (39 °F) to store drinks and non-perishable items) and also replacing insulation, where applicable. Some sites recommend you clean condenser coils every month or so on units with coils on the rear. It has been proven that this does very little for improving efficiency, [ citation needed] however, the unit should be able to ""breathe"" with adequate spaces around the front, back, sides and above the unit. If the refrigerator uses a fan to keep the condenser cool, then this must be cleaned, at the very least, yearly. [ citation needed]Frost-free refrigerators or freezers use electric fans to cool the appropriate compartment. [29] This could be called a ""fan forced"" refrigerator, whereas manual defrost units rely on colder air lying at the bottom, versus the warm air at the top to achieve adequate cooling. The air is drawn in through an inlet duct and passed through the evaporator where it is cooled, the air is then circulated throughout the cabinet via a series of ducts and vents. Because the air passing the evaporator is supposedly warm and moist, frost begins to form on the evaporator (especially on a freezer's evaporator). In cheaper and/or older models, a defrost cycle is controlled via a mechanical timer. This timer is set to shut off the compressor and fan and energize a heating element located near or around the evaporator for about 15 to 30 minutes at every 6 to 12 hours. This melts any frost or ice build up and allows the refrigerator to work normally once more. It is believed that frost free units have a lower tolerance for frost, due to their air-conditioner like evaporator coils. Therefore, if a door is left open accidentally (especially the freezer), the defrost system may not remove all frost, in this case, the freezer (or refrigerator) must be defrosted. [ citation needed]If the defrosting system melts all the ice before the timed defrosting period ends, then a small device (called a defrost limiter) acts like a thermostat and shuts off the heating element to prevent too large a temperature fluctuation, it also prevents hot blasts of air when the system starts again, should it finish defrosting early. On some early frost-free models, the defrost limiter also sends a signal to the defrost timer to start the compressor and fan as soon as it shuts off the heating element before the timed defrost cycle ends. When the defrost cycle is completed, the compressor and fan are allowed to cycle back on. [ citation needed]Frost-free refrigerators, including some early frost free refrigerator/freezers that used a cold plate in their refrigerator section instead of airflow from the freezer section, generally don't shut off their refrigerator fans during defrosting. This allows consumers to leave food in the main refrigerator compartment uncovered, and also helps keep vegetables moist. This method also helps reduce energy consumption, because the refrigerator is above freeze point and can pass the warmer-than-freezing air through the evaporator or cold plate to aid the defrosting cycle. Regarding total life-cycle costs, many governments offer incentives to encourage recycling of old refrigerators. One example is the Phoenix refrigerator program launched in Australia. This government incentive picked up old refrigerators, paying their owners for ""donating"" the refrigerator. The refrigerator was then refurbished, with new door seals, a thorough cleaning and the removal of items, such as the cover that is strapped to the back of many older units. The resulting refrigerators, now over 10% more efficient, were then distributed to low income families. [ citation needed]With the advent of digital inverter compressors, the energy consumption is even further reduced than a single-speed induction motor compressor, and thus contributes far less in the way of greenhouse gases. [30]Effect on lifestyle [ edit]The refrigerator allows the modern family to keep food fresh for longer than before. The most notable improvement is for meat and other highly perishable wares, which needed to be refined to gain anything resembling shelf life. [ citation needed] (On the other hand, refrigerators and freezers can also be stocked with processed, quick-cook foods that are less healthy.) Refrigeration in transit makes it possible to enjoy food from distant places. Dairy products, meats, fish, poultry and vegetables can be kept refrigerated in the same space within the kitchen (although raw meat should be kept separate from other food for reasons of hygiene ). Freezers allow people to buy food in bulk and eat it at leisure, and bulk purchases save money. Ice cream, a popular commodity of the 20th century, could previously only be obtained by traveling to where the product was made and eating it on the spot. Now it is a common food item. Ice on demand not only adds to the enjoyment of cold drinks, but is useful for first-aid, and for cold packs that can be kept frozen for picnics or in case of emergency. Temperature zones and ratings [ edit]Commercial for electric refrigerators in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1926Some refrigerators are now divided into four zones to store different types of food:−18 °C (0 °F) (freezer)0 °C (32 °F) (meat zone)5 °C (41 °F) (cooling zone)10 °C (50 °F) (crisper)The capacity of a refrigerator is measured in either liters or cubic feet. Typically the volume of a combined refrigerator-freezer is split with 1/3rds to 1/4th of the volume allocated to the freezer although these values are highly variable. Temperature settings for refrigerator and freezer compartments are often given arbitrary numbers by manufacturers (for example, 1 through 9, warmest to coldest), but generally 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F) [1] is ideal for the refrigerator compartment and −18 °C (0 °F) for the freezer. Some refrigerators must be within certain external temperature parameters to run properly. This can be an issue when placing units in an unfinished area, such as a garage. European freezers, and refrigerators with a freezer compartment, have a four star rating system to grade freezers. [ citation needed] [∗] : min temperature = −6 °C (21 °F). Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is 1 week [∗∗] : min temperature = −12 °C (10 °F). Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is 1 month [∗∗∗] : min temperature = −18 °C (0 °F). Maximum storage time for (pre-frozen) food is between 3 and 12 months depending on type (meat, vegetables, fish, etc.) [ ∗ ∗∗∗] : min temperature = −18 °C (0 °F). Maximum storage time for pre-frozen or frozen-from-fresh food is between 3 and 12 months Although both the three and four star ratings specify the same storage times and same minimum temperature of −18 °C (0 °F), only a four star freezer is intended for freezing fresh food, and may include a ""fast freeze"" function (runs the compressor continually, down to as low as −26 °C (−15 °F)) to facilitate this. Three (or fewer) stars are used for frozen food compartments that are only suitable for storing frozen food; introducing fresh food into such a compartment is likely to result in unacceptable temperature rises. This difference in categorisation is shown in the design of the 4-star logo, where the ""standard"" three stars are displayed in a box using ""positive"" colours, denoting the same normal operation as a 3-star freezer, and the fourth star showing the additional fresh food/fast freeze function is prefixed to the box in ""negative"" colours or with other distinct formatting. [ citation needed]Most European refrigerators include a moist cold refrigerator section (which does require (automatic) defrosting at irregular intervals) and a (rarely frost free) freezer section. Commercial refrigeration temperatures [ edit] (from warmest to coolest) [31]Refrigerators 35 °F to 38 °F, and not greater than maximum refrigerator temperature at 41 °FFreezer, Reach-in -10 °F to +5 °FFreezer, Walk-in -10 °F to 0 °FFreezer, Ice Cream -20 °F to -10 °FSee also [ edit]Absorption refrigerator Cold chain Energy Star Ice cream maker Ice famine Internet refrigerator List of home appliances Magnetic refrigeration Pot-in-pot refrigerator Refrigerator death Refrigerator magnet Star rating Thermal mass refrigerator Thermoacoustics Thermoelectric cooling Kimchi refrigerator Wine cellar References [ edit]^ a b Keep your fridge-freezer clean and ice-free. BBC. 30 April 2008^ Venetum Britannicum, 1676, London, p. 176 in the 1678 edition.^ Arora, Ramesh Chandra. ""Mechanical vapour compression refrigeration"". Refrigeration and Air Conditioning. New Delhi, India: PHI Learning. p. 3. ISBN 81-203-3915-0.^ Burstall, Aubrey F. (1965). A History of Mechanical Engineering. The MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-52001-X.^ ""Improved process for the artificial production of ice"", U. S. Patent Office, Patent 8080, 1851 Archived 27 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine.^ Dennis R. Heldman (29 August 2003). Encyclopedia of Agricultural, Food, and Biological Engineering (Print). CRC Press. p. 350. ISBN 978-0-8247-0938-9. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016.^ ""The History of Household Wonders: History of the Refrigerator"". History.com. A&E Television Networks. 2006. Archived from the original on March 26, 2008.^ ""Freezing and food safety"". USDA. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 6 August 2013.^ ""Chest Freezer Reviews"". Archived from the original on 12 September 2017.^ Production – household refrigerators — Country and Region Comparisons Archived 29 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine .. Statinfo.biz. Retrieved on 26 August 2013.^ Refrigerator – Adjusting Temperature Controls. geappliances.com^ James, Stephen J. (2003). ""Developments in domestic refrigeration and consumer attitudes"" (PDF). Bulletin of the IIR. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009.^ Butter Conditioner Archived 26 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine .. Google Patents.^ ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 6 February 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2017. Daily Mail February 2016, ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 5 August 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017. Daily Mirror November 2015, ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017. Daily Mail September 2009^ PART 1750—STANDARD FOR DEVICES TO PERMIT THE OPENING OF HOUSEHOLD REFRIGERATOR DOORS FROM THE INSIDE :: PART 1750-STANDARD FOR DEVICES TO PERMIT THE OPENING OF HOUSEHOLD REFRI. Law.justia.com. Retrieved on 26 August 2013.^ Adams, Cecil (2005). ""Is it impossible to open a refrigerator door from the inside?"". Archived from the original on 7 July 2006. Retrieved 31 August 2006.^ ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 28 April 2016. Retrieved 19 December 2015.; ""Archived copy"". Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015.^ The Green V. Your Refrigerator, Thermal Mass Fridges, And Sustainability. /blog.thegreenv.com. 17 July 2007.^ La Monica, Martin (14 September 2007) Hawaiian firm shrinks solar thermal power Archived 23 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine .. News.cnet.com.^ ""Towards the magnetic fridge"" Archived 7 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine .. Physorg. 21 April 2006^ ""Which UK - Saving Energy"". Which UK. Archived from the original on 10 November 2014. Retrieved 10 November 2014.^ Feist, J. W.; Farhang, R.; Erickson, J.; Stergakos, E. (1994). ""Super Efficient Refrigerators: The Golden Carrot from Concept to Reality"" (PDF). Proceedings of the ACEEE. 3: 3.67–3.76. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2013.^ ""Refrigerators & Freezers"". Energy Star. Archived from the original on 7 February 2006.^ Itakura, Kosuke. Sun Frost - The World's Most Efficient Refrigerators. Humboldt.edu^ ""High-efficiency specifications for REFRIGERATORS"" (PDF). Consortium for Energy Efficiency. January 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 January 2013.^ ""Understanding Energy Efficiency Standards"". Fridge Dimensions.com. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012.^ ""Successes of Energy Efficiency: The United States and California National Trust"" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 February 2012.^ Calwell, Chris & Reeder, Travis (2001). ""Out With the Old, In With the New"" (PDF). Natural Resources Defense Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 June 2011.^ Kakaç, Sadik; Avelino, M. R.; Smirnov, H. F. (2012-12-06). Low Temperature and Cryogenic Refrigeration. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789401000994.^ How the Digital Inverter Compressor Has Transformed the Modern Refrigerator^ Northeast Cooling | Category: Commercial Refrigeration Maintenance Tips Archived 22 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Further reading [ edit]Rees, Jonathan. Refrigeration Nation: A History of Ice, Appliances, and Enterprise in America (Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013) 256 pages External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Domestic refrigerators. Look up refrigerator or freezer in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. U. S. Patent 1,126,605 Refrigerating apparatus U. S. Patent 1,222,170 Refrigerating apparatus The History of the Refrigerator and Freezers How Refrigerators Work Article by How Stuff Works Refrigerators, Canada Science and Technology Museum How modern household refrigerators are made (video)Authority control GND: 4133461-9 NDL: 00569362Categories: Home appliances Heat pumps Food storage Cooling technology Food preservation American inventions Australian inventions Scottish inventions Products introduced in 1915 Kitchen "


how are blood borne viruses spread

od. In the workplace, direct exposure can happen through accidental contamination by a sharp instrument, such as a needle or broken glass. Infected blood may also spread through contamination of open wounds, skin abrasions, skin damaged due to a condition such as eczema, or through splashes to the eyes, nose or mouth. Routes of transmission Blood-borne viruses (BBVs) are transmitted by blood, or other body fluids containing virus. This happens when the blood or fluids enter into the body of a susceptible person. The rate of viral transmission varies depending on how the person has been exposed to the virus (the route of transmission), the type of virus, how much of the virus the carrier has in their body and the immune status of the exposed person.

How blood-borne viruses are spread

How blood-borne viruses are spread It is very unlikely that you will become infected through everyday social contact with another worker who has a blood-borne virus (BBV). It is not thought that BBVs can be transmitted via the respiratory route, although this possibility cannot be dismissed entirely when, under laboratory conditions, (such as high titre in vitro cultures), BBVs are present in concentrations far exceeding that found in normal body fluids. BBVs are mainly transmitted sexually or by direct exposure to infected blood or other body fluids contaminated with infected blo

The more common routes of transmission include:sexual intercourse (common for HBV, HIV; inefficient for HCV);sharing injecting equipment;skin puncture by blood-contaminated sharp objects (eg needles, instruments or glass); andchildbirth (ie the mother infects the child either before or during birth, or through breast-feeding). Less common routes of transmission are:contamination of open wounds (eg blood injuries during sporting activities);contamination of skin lesions (eg eczema);splashing of the mucous membranes of the eye, nose or mouth; andhuman bites when blood is drawn (this may be more of a problem in certain occupations, eg prison and police service, where front line workers may be exposed to violent behaviour). There is also a risk of acquiring a BBV infection via blood transfusion. However, in the UK, all blood donations are screened for HBV, HCV and HIV, meaning the risk is remote.


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This year, Presidents Day falls on February 19, but many sales will kick off as early as February 1 and continue for weeks after the official holiday. Not only can you still find great deals on cars, you can score deep discounts on home goods, mattresses, furniture, tires, electronics and more.

Presidents DayDeals & Sales 2018

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Make sure you don’t miss out on a single sale, promotion, or special with the help of our savings tips: Presidents Day Sales Roundup 2018What to Buy (and Not to Buy) on Presidents Day Top Presidents' Day Sales for 2018by Kristin Mc Grath • February 13, 2018